Digital Addiction 1

CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIOR
Volume 12, Number 2, 2009

© Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cpb.2008.0102
Rapid Communication
Internet Addiction: Metasynthesis of 1996–2006

Quantitative Research
Sookeun Byun, Ph.D.,1 Celestino Ruffini, B.Sc.,2 Juline E. Mills, Ph.D.,3 Alecia C. Douglas, Ph.D.,4
Mamadou Niang, M.Sc.,5 Svetlana Stepchenkova, M.Sc.,2 Seul Ki Lee, B.Sc.,2 Jihad Loutfi, B.Sc.,2
Jung-Kook Lee, Ph.D.,6 Mikhail Atallah, Ph.D.,7 and Marina Blanton, Ph.D.8
Downloaded by 86.122.17.55 from www.liebertpub.com at 01/03/22. For personal use only.
Abstract
This study reports the results of a meta-analysis of empirical studies on Internet addiction published in acad-
emic journals for the period 1996–2006. The analysis showed that previous studies have utilized inconsistent
criteria to define Internet addicts, applied recruiting methods that may cause serious sampling bias, and ex-
amined data using primarily exploratory rather than confirmatory data analysis techniques to investigate the
degree of association rather than causal relationships among variables. Recommendations are provided on how
researchers can strengthen this growing field of research.
Introduction ternet addiction phenomenon have been investigated by aca-

demic researchers? Given the sensitive nature of the topic,
T HE INTERNET HAS EMERGED as an essential media channel

for personal communications, academic research, infor-
mation exchange, and entertainment.1 While the positive as-
how have survey respondents been selected? and What are
the predominant methods of data analysis in Internet ad-
diction studies? In exploring these questions, various chal-
pects are renowned, concerns continue to mount regarding lenges to academic researchers are also presented.
problematic Internet usage behaviors.2 It is currently esti-
mated that approximately 9 million Americans could be la-
Defining Internet Addiction
beled as pathological computer users addicted to the Inter-
net to the detriment of work, study, and social life.3,4 Among The capacity of the Internet for socialization is a primary
all behavioral addictive traits, the Internet stands out for its reason for the excessive amount of time people spend hav-
relevance to the future and its promise of potentially deliv- ing real-time interactions using e-mail, discussion forums,
ering harmful results to millions as access to the Internet rises chat rooms, and online games.5 User participation at sites
globally. such as Blogger.com, MySpace.com, and Wikipedia.org in-
To better understand Internet addicted behaviors, re- creased by 525%, 318%, and 275% respectively.6 However,
searchers have explored its symptoms, attempted to con- the networking capabilities of the Internet can cause social
cretize the characteristics of addicts, conceptualized its an- isolation and functional impairment of daily activities.7 In
tecedents and consequences, and developed corresponding the workplace, Internet addictive behavior symptoms in-
measurement items. This study provides directions for fu- clude a decline in work performance and a withdrawal from
ture research through reflections on empirical research on coworkers, leading to reduced job satisfaction and decreased
Internet addiction over the 10-year period 1996–2006. Specif- efficiency.8
ically, this study addresses the following questions: How has Broadly speaking, addiction is defined as a “compulsive,
Internet addiction been measured? What aspects of the In- uncontrollable dependence on a substance, habit, or practice
1College of Business Administration, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, South Korea.

2Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
3College of Business, University of New Haven, Connecticut.
4Hotel and Restaurant Management, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
5Department of Industrial Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
6Division of Business, Indiana University–Purdue University at Columbus, Indiana.
7College of Computer Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
8College of Computer Science, University of Notre Dame, Indiana.
203
204 BYUN ET AL.
to such a degree that cessation causes severe emotional, men- DSM-IV and providing several diagnostic criteria, including
tal, or physiological reactions.”9 A perusal of the literature two commonly used statements often seen in Internet ad-
revealed various names for Internet addiction, including cy- diction research: “hoping to increase time on the network”
berspace addiction, Internet addiction disorder, online ad- and “dreaming about the network.” Brenner22 developed the
diction, Net addiction, Internet addicted disorder, patholog- Internet-Related Addictive Behavior Inventory (IRABI) with
ical Internet use, high Internet dependency, and others.1,10 32 true-or-false questions, and Morahan-Martin and Schu-
Among these terms, Internet addiction is most popular.4,11 macher23 constructed the Pathological Internet Use (PIU)
However, while Internet addiction has received attention scale with 13 yes/no questions by adapting the DSM-IV. In
from studies in various fields,12 no clear definition currently a bid to simplify the measurement process, Young24 devel-
exists. Some researchers have adapted substance use disorder, oped the 8-question Internet addiction Diagnostic Question-
while others reference pathological gambling,13 resulting in an naire (DQ) based on the DSM-IV. Young claimed that ex-
inconsistent definition of Internet addiction.7,14,15 Many re- cessive use of the Internet is another type of behavioral
searchers, due to the complex nature of the topic, do not pro- impulse-control disorder, and as such, if a respondent an-
vide a clear definition of Internet addiction.2,16,17 swered yes to more than 5 of the 8 questions, the respondent
For the purposes of this study, we define Internet addic- could be defined as an Internet dependent user.24 The cut-
tion following Beard’s holistic approach wherein “an indi- off score of 5 was consistent with that of the criteria for patho-
vidual is addicted when an individual’s psychological state, logical gambling. While Young’s instrument has the advan-
which includes both mental and emotional states, as well as tage of simplicity and ease of use,12 it in no way covers all
their scholastic, occupational and social interactions, is im- the antecedents of Internet addictive behavior, nor does it
paired by the overuse of the medium.”18 While this defini- provide a clearer understanding of the topic.
tion is used as a guide, it must be noted that it does not to- Realizing the need for a stricter and more conservative
tally encompass the underlying structure of the term. A judgment, Chou and Hsiao12 utilized both the IRABI and the
standardized definition will become increasingly important DQ and defined Internet addicts only when respondents
as fascination with the topic grows. As such, we propose meet both criteria simultaneously. They found 50% fewer In-
Challenge 1 to researchers: Develop a complete definition of ternet addicts than when the other methods alone were used.
Internet addiction that is not only conclusive but decisive, This lack of consensus has motivated other researchers to de-
covering all ages, gender, and educational levels. velop new measures of Internet addiction rather than rely
heavily on the DSM-IV criteria (e.g., Widyanto and McMur-
Methodology ran2 Internet Addicted test [IAT] and Shapira et al.26 Struc-
tured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Man-
We employed a meta-analysis approach19 to appraise the
ual of Mental Disorders-IV [SCID-IV]). Attempts have also
cumulative outcome of empirical research on Internet ad-
been made to define Internet addicts by a single
diction. A study was considered empirical if it used human
question,e.g.,11,27 primarily the amount of time spent online.
participants and a quantitative instrument to measure Inter-
While the length of time is the most frequently reported pre-
net addiction. To ensure quality and completeness, only full-
dictor,4 it has severe limitations in that it is only one symp-
length articles in peer-reviewed journals or conference pro-
tom of Internet addicted behavior rather than a parsimo-
ceedings were considered. Searches of academic databases
nious item of diagnosis.
and of Google and Yahoo! using keywords Internet addiction,
The challenge of measurement is also compounded by re-
Internet addicted, problematic Internet usage, and computer ad-
searchers’ reworking scales to suit their specific circum-
diction resulted in 120 articles spanning the period 1996–2006
stances. For example, Chou and Hsiao12 categorized 5.9% of
(see www.netaddict.org/IA120.xls). A total of 61 articles
their college student sample in Taiwan as Internet addicts
were found to have implemented quantitative analysis ap-
by utilizing the Chinese Internet-Related Addictive Behav-
proaches using empirically based surveys and human par-
ior Inventory version II (C-IRABI-II)22,28 and Young’s24 cri-
ticipants. Further, 22 articles were excluded because they fo-
teria. While such changes are important from a cultural per-
cused more on the social and economic costs of Internet
spective, these scales have not been standardized for efficient
addiction, treatment problems, or employee termination due
cross-study comparisons. Thus we propose Challenge 2 to re-
to excessive Internet use. A list of the final 39 articles is avail-
searchers: Previous studies on Internet addiction have used
able at www.netaddict.org/IA39.xls.
inconsistent criteria, making any comparison across study
findings meaningless.13,16 Future researchers should con-
Results
sider using prior works to develop a major study leading to
Reflection 1: How has Internet addiction been measured a standardized instrument for measuring Internet addiction
over the period 1996–2006? across cultural perspectives.
Most of the studies on Internet addiction adapted their cri-
Reflection 2: What aspects of Internet addiction
teria for analysis from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
phenomenon have been investigated?
Mental Disorders (DSM) handbook,20 the most frequently
used manual for the diagnosis of mental disorders. While In- Primary antecedents of Internet addiction explored by re-
ternet addiction is not currently recognized in the DSM, it searchers were based on participants’ personality, low in-
does describe the criteria for diagnosing pathological gam- terpersonal skills, and high levels of intelligence. Ko et al.29
bling (DSM-IV 312.31), a type of behavioral impulse-control assess Internet addiction through five dimensions: compul-
disorder.16 Goldberg,21 a pioneer in the field, developed the sive use, withdrawal, tolerance, interpersonal and health
Internet Addictive Disorder (IAD) scale by adapting the problems, and time management problems. Hur10 measured
INTERNET ADDICTION 205
the degree of self-control, Internet dependency, psychologi- are more accepting of technology tools. While this might be
cal distress, and abnormal behavior in which the four con- one explanation of why previous studies mainly examined
structs are viewed as the actual causes of Internet addiction Internet addiction focusing on the younger generation, it is
disorder rather than its underlying dimensions. In addition, important to note that very rarely do these studies raise red
Caplan30–32 developed a theory-based measure of problem- flags on Internet addiction levels among teenage and college
atic Internet use and assessed its association with such psy- populations that are purportedly prone to Internet addictive
chological variables as depression, self-esteem, loneliness, behavior. We are left to ponder: Have we targeted the wrong
and shyness. Research focused on predicting Internet ad- population for analysis? Have mainstream stereotypes af-
diction also included sensation seeking and poor self-esteem fected research in the area where we have become short-
as predictors of excessive Internet use;33 shyness, locus of sighted to the perils of the real populations that suffer from
control, and online experience as predictors of Internet ad- Internet addiction, such as online gamblers?
diction;34 and attitudes toward computer networks and In- Recognizing this deficiency, several researchers have at-
ternet addiction.35 Most researchers focused on the associa- tempted to recruit samples outside of schools; however, most
tions among constructs, such as the relationship between of these sample recruitment methods suffer from sampling
Internet usage and interpersonal skills, personality, and in- bias.2,33 For example, participants in Armstrong et al.’s33
telligence;36 between attention-deficit/hyperactivity/impul- study were recruited by using a convenience sampling
sivity symptoms and Internet addiction;37 and between In- method: (a) survey invitation message posted on an Internet
ternet addiction and depression and suicidal ideation.38 Few addiction forum Web site and (b) survey e-mails sent to ac-
studies questioned the existence of Internet addiction as a quaintances asking them to forward the e-mail to others.
separate form of addiction and investigated whether or not These recruiting methods seem to bring significantly biased
the condition should be placed under other, previously iden- respondents because the surveys were completed by self-se-
tified disorders.39–44 These studies did not find significantly lected Internet users. Such errors are also noted when re-
different overarching theories concluding that in general, In- searchers utilized additional media to recruit samples, such
ternet addicts tend to be lonely, have deviant values, and to as through nationally and internationally dispersed news-
some extent lack emotional and social skills.36 A number of paper advertisements.11,24 While this extends the diversity
studies10,11,23,34,45–49 profiled Internet addicts using demo- of media in recruiting, the sample selection criteria are still
graphic characteristics and examined features common to far from the randomization principle and raise questions re-
participants that made them more vulnerable to developing garding sample coverage errors. For example, the character-
an addiction, including psychiatric symptomatology and istics of people who are aware of and visit a related forum
personality characteristics among excessive Internet users.45 Web site may differ from those who are Internet addicts but
While the number of studies are increasing, work is do not visit any of these sites. Thus, Challenge 4 to researchers:
needed to provide more stable evidence to support the find- Begin to examine sample selection and its effect on study
ings of prior research. In sum, these authors found that while outcomes. Use sound sampling techniques that result in
use of the Internet was associated with loneliness, no link- fewer problems in generalizing the findings of the study to
age was found between personality and Internet use. Most its population. Use samples that are not convenient or “safe-
concluded that more work is needed to distinguish between haven” student samples and that are more reflective of the
predisposition to excessive Internet usage and its actual con- entire population of Internet users. Current statistics reveal
sequences. Challenge 3 to researchers: Develop a seminal text that the over-50 age group is a growing population of Inter-
in the field that encompasses the cyberpsychological aspects, net users; researchers should begin to examine these popu-
provide concrete signs of identification, and identify proven lations and their development of Internet addictive behav-
short- and long-term treatment strategies for Internet ad- iors.
dicts.
Reflection 4: What are the predominant methods of data
Reflection 3: Given the sensitive nature of the topic, how analyses in Internet addiction studies?
have survey respondents been selected?
Our meta-analysis found that prior studies on Internet ad-
Studies on Internet addiction most often appropriately em- diction have focused on “proving” the existence of Internet
ploy Internet survey methods. In an analysis of the challenges addiction or identify the characteristics of Internet addicts.
associated with Internet surveying, Couper50 concludes that The analysis methods employed were thus exploratory
if a survey targets Internet users only, it is a good decision rather than confirmatory. Ko et al.29 and Soule et al.11 tested
to employ the Internet survey mode. With a few excep- the personal characteristics of Internet addicts using
tions,e.g.,13,29 most of the studies used Internet-based survey ANOVA. Through t tests between Internet addicts and non-
formats as well as used high school and university student addicts, Chou and Hsiao12 found that addicts spent signifi-
samples.10,17,25,51 Our meta-analysis revealed that the differ- cantly more hours online and perceive the Internet as more
ent sample selection criteria across the studies have brought entertaining, interactive, and satisfactory than do nonad-
varying conclusions on the prevalence of Internet addiction. dicts. Regression is the most common form of inferential sta-
When more representative samples were selected, the per- tistics used in Internet addiction studies.12,33 Using stepwise
centage of Internet addicts tend to be lower than in studies regression analysis, Chou and Hsiao12 found that self-re-
with on-campus college student samplese.g.,10,13,16,34,39 It is ported communication pleasure experience, hours spent on
understood that adolescents are at a point in their life cycle bulletin board services (BBS), gender, satisfaction score, and
where they are very vulnerable to harmful addictive agents13 hourly e-mail usage are the best predictors of Internet ad-
and can be easily persuaded to change their behaviors as they diction.
206 BYUN ET AL.
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CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIOR

Volume 12, Number 2, 2009

Internet Addiction: Metasynthesis of 1996–2006

Introduction ternet addiction phenomenon have been investigated by aca-

T HE INTERNET HAS EMERGED as an essential media channel

1College of Business Administration, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, South Korea.

Few studies have applied cause-and-effect techniques, References

Challenge 5 to researchers: While the findings of studies that

equation modelling approach. Public Health 129:9, 1224-1236. [Crossref]

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