Earth Processes

UNIT 3 EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Surface Processes
3.2.1 Erosional Agents
3.2.2 Weathering
3.2.3 Transportation
3.2.4 Deposition
3.2.5 Burial
3.2.6 Diagenesis
3.3 Depositional Features Formed by Rivers, Winds, Glaciers, and Coastal
Processes
3.3.1 Stream Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Keywords
3.6 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 INTRODUCTION
External natural agencies like rivers, wind, sea waves, glaciers are operational on
earth since geologic past. These processes are responsible for the continuous changing
landforms on earth’s surface. The present unit deals with an important topic where you
will learn about the role of rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves in the weathering of
rocks, formation of sediments, sediment transportation and finally sediment deposition.
All these natural agents help to shape the dynamic face of earth. After going through
the unit, you will understand how these natural agencies led to destruction and
construction of landforms over millions of years.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the geological features and geological processes taking place on the earth;
• Comprehend that rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves, which are natural agencies,
are important in shaping the face of the earth; and
• Describe the depositional features formed by rivers, winds, glaciers, and coastal
processes and;
• Interpret that the play of these natural processes will keep on changing the face of
44 earth in future and it has done in the past.
 Earth Surface
3.2 SURFACE PROCESSES Processes

3.2.1 Erosional Agents

Erosion is defined as a geological process in which the worn-out earth materials are
transported by natural agencies such as wind, rivers, rains etc. The natural forces such
as wind, water (sea waves, river, waterfall etc.) and ice. These natural agents/agencies
come into play individually or together and erode and transport material from one
place to another depending on many factors such as energy of the eroding agency to
carry/transport the worn out earth material. Erosional agents are responsible for changing
landscapes. The mountain peaks can get flattened as a result of erosion over millions
of years depending at the rate of erosion. Similarly, low lying areas can accumulate the
eroded material and can transform into the new landscape!

3.2.2 Weathering
How do we define weathering? Weathering is breaking of surface rocks into sediments
by any natural process. How many of you recall having seen sediments? Sediments
result from weathering of a preexisting rock by either mechanical / physical or chemical
weathering. The physical weathering involves breaking of rocks and no change in
composition of rocks. Physical weathering implies breakdown of rock because of
extreme temperature change, widening of cracks and crevices of rocks, exfoliation.
The chemical weathering involves a reaction between the rock and the environment,
rainwater, river water, sea water. Both physical and chemical weathering generates
sediments. The weathering of rocks can result by thawing and freezing of water in
cracks and crevices in rocks in cold area, by splitting of rocks because of deeply
penetrating roots of trees, continuously passing of a stream/river over a rocky terrane,
moving glacier over rocks, etc. Once the rock gets weathered it is eroded by different
natural agents such as rivers, winds, glaciers and finally deposited in viable places such
as seas, basins, lakes, depressions on land. It may take millions of years for weathering
processes to produce sediments, and it depends on the climatic conditions and the
nature of the rock. For example, hot humid tropical climates promote sediment formation
whereas in cold climates it takes longer to weather rocks to sediments.
Erosion of the weathered sediments by wind, water and glaciers which act as
transporting agents play an important role in shaping the face of the earth. The earth
has pockets / sinks where these weathered and eroded sediments finally rest and pile
in form of layers. The piled layers finally get lithified and form sedimentary rocks.
Laying off sediments in the basins/sinks is also referred to as sedimentation.

3.2.3 Transportation
The sediments formed by weathering are eroded by rivers, wind, and glaciers to
sedimentary basins. The journey of the sediments may take long to reach the destination.
For example, the load of sediments accumulated by rivers may rest finally in the deltas
formed at the mouth of the river. The accumulation of sediments at the base of a hillock
is another example of transportation of sediments because of gravity. The moving of
boulders by a glacier is an example of transportation by the moving ice. The high
velocity winds can carry on fine sediments to far-off places and drop them when the
winds get milder in terms of velocity (when their energy weakens) and thus can cause
formation of heaps of sand or even sand dunes in desert areas.
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Earth Processes Oceans are the greatest repositories of all kinds of sediments brought in by rivers and
wind. The currents in the rivers and wind are responsible for the transportation of
sediments. The river-borne sediments contribute annually around 25 billion tons to the
oceans (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2014).
The strength of the water or wind current, which depends primarily on the velocity,
dictates how far they can carry the sediments of different sizes. The strong currents
can carry the large sediments to far off distance, whereas the weak currents will drop
the sediments nearby. The currents are also responsible for segregation of sediments.
For example, the strong currents (velocity around 50 cm/s) which are most prevalent
in the mountainous regions or the regions where a river starts its journey downwards
with gushing waters can carry boulders, pebbles and cobbles along with finer materials.
Whereas, moderate and weak currents will not be as impactful in terms of erosion and
transportation as strong currents are and thus will promote deposition instead. For
example, point bars formed in a meandering river (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Meandering river with point bars

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)

3.3.4 Deposition
It is the process which is the outcome of water / wind currents or mass wasting putting
the sediments to rest. The powerful water or wind currents may deposit heavy sediments
like gravels closer to the source, but they can carry on with the lighter sediments such
as sand and clays to far-off places. On the weakening of river and wind currents, they
will deposit the load of sand and clays. The changing intensity of the currents also
helps in sorting of the sediments with the heaviest deposited close to the source and
the lightest carried far away from the source. The mass wasting allows the deposition
of sediments at the base of a slope.

3.3.5 Burial
Deposition is a process where sediments halt and if they keep halting in a same place,
then the older sediments subsequently get buried beneath the newer ones giving rise to
46 what we call burial process. With passaging time a tremendous mass of sediments gets
buried in depressions, basins or sinks on earth viz. Lakes, ponds, continental margin, Earth Surface
and shelf areas, etc. During burial, the older sediments at the bottom get a load of Processes
overlying sediments. The load of the overlying sediments causes compaction of the
sediments in the due course of time. The accumulated sediments remain there unless
some other geological process like exhumation or subduction moves them and again
put them back in rock cycle.
3.3.6 Diagenesis
It is a sedimentary phenomenon where the sediments undergo physical and chemical
changes mainly triggered by pressure. Fluids trapped in sediments are expelled and
heat and chemical reactions cause lithification and formation of a sedimentary rock.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define natural processes and why are they important.
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2. Write brief notes on transportation of sediments.
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3. How do sediments get buried and converted to a sedimentary rock?
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3.3 DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES FORMED BY

RIVERS, WINDS, GLACIERS AND COASTAL
PROCESSES
3.3.1 Stream Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
Stream water is one of the widely acknowledged natural agencies which contribute to
erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments. The important erosional and
depositional features created by running water of streams are prominent features of
earth (V-shaped valleys, deltas, sand bars, point bars, flood plains etc.), which ultimately
shape the earth’s face. Running stream/river water reinforced by mass wasting controls
the landscape of earth (Plummer et al., 2016).
The streams mostly originate in mountains and are in the youthful stage. The headward
waters of the youthful stream leads to formation of V-shaped valley by cutting deeper 47
Earth Processes across the bottom and sideways solid rock. The V shape valley forms by erosion and
eroded material is carried by the stream causing further degradation of the bedrock.
The load varies from bigger blocks called boulders to pebbles to sand-sized grains
and fine clayey materials. These bigger blocks further weather the bedrock and create
potholes. Through the process called attrition, the boulders rub against each other and
the bedrock, reducing in size. In the middle stages, the river becomes sluggish and
deposits the load and result in a meandering river. The different stages of the rivers
such as middle and old stage lead to several depositional features like bars, braided
streams, meandering streams, point bars, flood plains, deltas, alluvial fans. Most of the
sediments get temporarily deposited along the stream course in form of bars, floodplain
deposits. The continuous repeated flow of water in streams may carry these temporarily
deposited sediments to the final resting destinations such as alluvial fans and deltas
where the river ends into a sea or an ocean (Plummer et al. 2016). Let us describe a
few of these depositional features.
Sand and gravel bars (wall of sediments) commonly known as ‘bars’, are formed by
deposition of gravels and sands in the river center or on the sides of the river. The slow
velocity of the water during the middle stages of the river and receding waters after the
floods causes the formation of sand and gravel bars in the middle and at the banks of
the river. The lowering of the water level during recession of flood waters makes the
bars visible. The next cycle of flood may again wash the bars formed and redeposit
again newer brought up sediments.
A flood plain develops when river channel has ample water and sediment load i.e. it is
full of water and suspended sediment load (silt and clay) and it spills the sediments on
either side of the river channel forming a wide strip of sediments. As the water in the
river channel recedes, these sediment deposits become visible and form flood plains
on either side of the river channel. The subsequent cycles of flooding and receding of
water post floods on either side of the river form flood plains.
The destination of a river is a sea or an enormous lake. The final termination of river
with sediment load into calm water commonly forms a delta. It forms delta of sediments
brought by the river at its mouth. The reason it forms a delta is the considerable
reduced velocity of the river water. It splits the water of the river when it deposits load
into distributaries. Example of stream dominated delta is the bird-foot delta of
Mississippi.

3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

Let us first define a glacier. It is a moving mass of ice which is formed on land by
compaction and recrystallisation of snow. In this unit we will study about valley glacier
which like a river flows from higher to lower altitude under the control of gravity. The
rate at which a glacier moves can be variable from less than a few mm to 15 m a day.
The glaciers move fast if the slope is steep. A U-shaped valley forms by glacial erosion
in contrast to a V-shaped valley by river erosion.
The glaciers have power to erode the bedrock over which it creeps. The rock under
the glacier is easily abraded when the meltwater enters the cracks in the bedrock and
freezes. The continuous percolation of meltwater through cracks and its freezing leads
to breaking of the bedrock. The loose bedrock fragments are plucked by the base of
the moving glacier. This process of eroding the bedrock is known as plucking. The
48 thick glacier’s movement over the bedrock also leads to grinding and crushing of the
rock. The grinding of rock leads to formation of rock flour, fine powder resembling Earth Surface
flour. It comprises silt and clay-sized particles. The boulders trapped in the glaciers Processes
also get faceted during the movement of the glaciers.
The rock fragments plucked from the bedrock and scraped from valley walls make up
the glacier’s load. The glacier’s load comprises angular large sized rock fragments,
boulders, particles of all sizes, it is basically an unsorted mix. We term this unsorted
debris carried by the glacier a till. Moraines also form as a depositional feature of
glaciers. The accumulation of till left behind a glacier is called Moraine. Moraines can
be varied. The moraines which form along the sides of a valley glacier are known as
lateral moraines. Like river tributaries, the tributary glaciers can come together and
feed the main glacier. The adjacent lateral moraines of the tributary glaciers join and
form medial moraine. The end moraine forms where a glacier ends. Some end moraines
formed by valley glaciers are crescent or horseshoe shaped. Drumlins are inverted
spoon shaped bodies which resulted by accumulation of till by a past glacial activity.
The drumlins can help determine the direction of ice movement in the past glaciers.
The outwash is another depositional feature formed by meltwaters of glaciers. It is
sorted unlike till deposits and can be easily distinguished from till. Esker is an elongated
meltwater deposited on sinuous ridge associated with huge valley glaciers.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define role of river in erosion of sediments.
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2. What are the common depositional features formed by river waters.
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3. How are valley glaciers involved in erosion and deposition?
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3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

Wind is an important natural agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition. The
loose, dry, and dispersed finer sediments (sand, clay and soil) can be easily removed
and carried by wind and can cause deflation. The deflation in some areas is commonly
known as a blowout. The wind velocity dictates the erosion and transportation of
sediments. The high velocity winds can move sediments easily and to a greater distance. 49
Earth Processes The sand which is heavier compared to silt and clay is carried by wind close to the
land surface. Sand moves by saltation created by the wind currents. Sandstorms can
result because of top speed winds. The suspended sand in the wind near the land
surface can sandblast surfaces on hard rocks in its way. Ventifacts (rocks sculptured
flat) are commonly formed by windblown sediments.
The windblown deposits can form amazing landforms, i.e. loess and sand dunes. Loess
deposits comprise angular grains of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals bounded by calcite
cement. Sand dunes on the contrary contain rounded sand grains, mostly comprising
quartz mineral. Sand dunes are typical of a desert terrain where heaps of loose,
windblown sand accumulate and form mounds of distinct shapes. The sand found in
sand dunes is well sorted and almost devoid of silt and clay.

3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

A sea wave is an important natural agent which can shape up the coastal areas or
areas adjoining a sea. It is a powerful agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
The sea waves can erode, whether the coastal areas or build up the coastal areas.
Before going further, let us define a sea wave and how it is driven. The moving wind
over the vast open expanse of oceans and seas creates a wave in the oceans and seas.
The wind created waves have the energy to erode the coastal rocks. The sea waves
have the energy to transport and deposit the sediments in the coastal areas.
Erosional features sculpted by the sea waves are remarkably interesting and quite
unique. The waves can erode rocky coasts. The coastal rocks can undergo physical
and chemical weathering caused by the wave energy and the reactive nature of seawater,
respectively. Both the physical and chemical weathering depends on the coastal rocks.
Granulite, a hard rock, is difficult to physically and chemically weather, whereas
limestone, a soft rock, can be easily physically and chemically weathered. Headlands
in between the bays along the irregular coastlines can be straightened by wave action
i.e. weathering of headland and erosion of the weathered material. Similarly, rocky
cliffs can result from wave erosion on the headlands. The eroded material can get
deposited in the bay areas and result in broader beaches and straightened coastlines.
Most of the time weathering of headland leads to development of sea cliff. Sea caves
form at the base of the sea cliff because of eroding power of sea waves. Sea stacks
are formed by erosive sea waves when the remnant of headland is left behind. Sea
arches form when erosive waves cut headland in the shape of an arch or bridge.
A beach is a depositional feature formed by an accumulation of sand and gravel. The
exposure of sand deposits on beaches is controlled by rising and falling tides. Beach is
part of the coast. Coast is extensive, comprising beach and a band of land inland from
it. Coasts can vary from wide, gently sloping plains to rocky terrains with cliffs (Plummer
et al. 2016).
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define role of wind in transportation of sediments.
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Processes
2. What are the common depositional features formed by wind.
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3. How are sea waves involved in sculpturing the coastal areas?
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3.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have touched upon basics of weathering, transportation, deposition,
burial, and diagenesis. The unit discusses the external natural agencies such as rivers,
wind, glaciers, and sea waves which have helped to shape the face of earth to a great
extent. These natural agencies have the prowess to weather the rocks, transport the
weathered material of varied sizes, and deposit the weathered material at viable places.
The erosion of material can lead to sculpturing of earth’s surface affected by such
activities. Similarly, the eroded materials are carried to different spots and laid off
depending on the transporting ability of the natural agency. The final resting of the
transported material further affects the face of the earth.

3.5 KEYWORDS
Earth processes : They are natural processes such as magmatism,
volcanism, blowing wind, flowing water, moving
ice (glaciers) that occur within and on the earth
and are largely responsible for shaping the earth.
Pothole : It is a depression formed in the riverbed by the
abrasive nature of boulders, gravels, sands (river
load).
Distributary : The main river water is distributed into small,
shifting channels when it deposits sediment load
at the mouth of the river during a delta formation.
Birdfoot delta : Stream sedimentation that forms the fingerlike
distributaries resembling a bird’s foot, thus the
name bird-foot delta.
Headland : A thin piece of land that ventures from a coastline
into the sea
Mass wasting : A process by which soil, sand, regolith,
and rock move downslope under the influence of
gravity.
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Earth Processes Point bar : A depositional feature characteristic of a
meandering river. The inside bend of the
meandering river commonly accumulates
sediments giving rise to point bars.
Rock Cycle : Changeover from one key rock type to another
viz., igneous sedimentary and metamorphic
through geological processes and geological time.
Saltation : The transport of hard particles over an uneven
surface by air or water.

3.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014. Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
company, New York. 672p.
Plummer, C.C., Carlson D.H. and Hammersley D 2016. Physical Geology.
McGraw Hill Education. New York. 673p.
https://sciencing.com/four-types-physical-weathering-6456598.html
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CirqueMadeleine.jpg/
1024px-CirqueMadeleine.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_bar#/media/File:Point_bar_and_cut_bank.jpg

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Your answers should include the following points.
1. After reading the above text, you can visualize how earth is governed by internal
and external processes. Think of geological features such as beaches, sand dunes
and deltas. How do you think they came into existence? Explain that in your own
words.
2. How do you assess role of wind during a dust storm? Do you think dust and
sediments are carried during dust storms? If ever you are caught in a dust storm
have you felt the fine dust particles causing irritation to your eyes? Think of other
geological agencies which can transfer sediments besides wind.
3. You must have seen a sedimentary rock like sandstone. Think of the red fort of
Delhi, it is made of red sandstone. How a rock is formed from sediments. Try to
explain by reading the section on diagenesis.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Your answers should include the following points.
1. Think of a river starting its journey from a higher altitude. What types of material a
river in different stages i.e. young, middle, and old stages can bring along? Try to
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 think about the eroding capacity of a river at different times during flow of the Earth Surface
river. Think of the flood time in a river when it has excess water in its channel. Processes

2. Important depositional features of rivers: read the section on rivers and try to
answer this question. How the river load gets deposited into varied features such
as bars, point bars, flood plains and deltas?
3. Valley glaciers can form many sorted and unsorted deposit. Read the section on
glaciers and write about how till, moraines, eskers etc form.
Answers to Check Your Progress 3
Your answers should include the following points.
1. Wind is a powerful agency which can transport the sediments of varied sizes
depending on its velocity. It can carry the lighter load as far as 15 kms. Think
about dust and sandstorms.
2. You may describe the loess and sand dunes in this question. Search for literature
on types of sand dunes.
3. You may visualize the sea waves hitting the rocks exposed in the coastal areas.
Think of the features developed because of an erosive power of the sea waves.

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