DOCUMENT 

– is any material which contains marks, signs, symbols, which are

visible partially visible or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning
or message to someone. 
- It is a written statement by which a right to established or an obligation extinguished.
(People vs. Moreno. C.A 38, O.G, 119)
- Came from Latin word ‘documentum’ which means ‘lesson’
- A document becomes a questioned document when its being questioned as to
its originality, authenticity, authorship, source, and genuineness and when it is
places under scrutiny to determine whether or not it is disputed. 
Important aspects of documents: 
1. Paper – originally word from the Egyptian word ‘papyrus’early form of writing from
the grasses old reatts later on became ‘paper’ the 1  paper form came
st

from china, 2000 yrs. ago came from Bart of malmery tree as time goes by was

made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis Robert as time goes by with a
great improvement by the paper milling it was developed by Silly Fordringer,
1803and bearing their names in the 1  paper was made by vegetables, silk, linin and
st

later on cotton or wool pulp.

2. Ink – man discovered the use of ink as paper was also discovered. The Asian
writing ink where a compound of lamb black or carbon suit and a gum or glue mix
with water called Indian ink. Pencil then ballpen was developed
by John Lawt then Fountain pen was developed by Lewis Watermen as time goes
by it became Fiber Pen.
Question document examiner: 
- The one who analyze the documents. 
1. Handwriting identification – to find out who is the author of the writing 
2. Criminalistic examination – detection of forgeries, alteration (erasures), obliterations
(over writing) 
2 categories of Document: 
1. Standard Documents (Original Documents)
- Origin is known, can be proven and can legally be used as sample to compare with
other things is questioned. 
• 2 types of standard documents: 
a. Collected or Procured Standard – these are executed in the ordinary course of
man’s activities be it social, business, official, or personal affairs. 
b. Requested – given or made upon request; also referred to Dictated Standard; from
the Latin word Post Litem Motam Standard. 
2. Questioned Document 
- The focal point of the examination and to which the document examiner relies as to the
extent of the problem. (disputed document) 
- Document in which an issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny. 
- Disputed Document is considered questioned document but not all document is
disputed.
- Document that suggest controversy or argument over another document. 
 
Basic Points that should be considered in obtaining standards: 
A. Collected/Procured standards
1. Similarity of subject
- Standard should be always conformed with the nature of the questioned or disputed
material. Never even the same in their generic appearance. 
2. Amount of writing standard
- There is no hard or fast rule as to the fixed number of standards necessary to constitute
sufficiency or adequacy of standards. 
- The more the similarities the greater the possibility of conclusion
3. Relative dates of the questioned and standard document
- Standards for comparison should relatively contemporary in dates. 
4. Writing instrument and paper used
- Writing instrument and paper used in the preparation of a document may somehow
influence in certain degree the quality of the writing. 
5. Writing condition
- Conditions both of the writer and the relative condition under which the writing was
prepared also affect the quality of writing.
- 
B. Requested/Dictated Document
1. Text must be carefully be selected
2. Dictate the text to the writer and never allow the subject to see the questioned
document
3. Dictation must be repeated for at least 3 times. 
4. Dictation must be interrupted at an interval
5. Utilized the same writing instrument and paper
6. Normal writing condition should be arranged.
Classes of Questioned Documents: 
1. Document with questioned signature (most common)
2. Document containing fraudulent alteration (any form of changes either an addition or
deletion to the contents of a documents)
3. Holograph Document – a document that is completely written and signed by one
person
4. Document questioned as to the material used in their production
5. Document questioned as to their age or date
6. Documents involving typewriting
7. Document which may identify a person through handwriting
8. Genuine document erroneously or fraudulently attacked or disputed
9. Documents containing printing or type prints
 
 
 
 
Miscellaneous Document Problem 
1. Detection of Alteration 
- Refers to ant form of a changes either addition or deletion to the original content of the
document which is not part of its original preparation 
2. Decipherment of Erased Writings
i. Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or any part of a document either by
mechanical or chemical process; it can leave spots and black patches too pronounced
to escape detection by the alert examiner. 
ii. Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive method through rubbing or
scrapping; involves the use of some abrasive objects like Indian rubber eraser, knives,
razor blades and other sharp instrument
iii. Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of bleaching agent called ink
eradicator; involves the use of some chemicals or reagents that is capable of oxidizing
or bleaching ink. 
3. Decipherment of Obliterated Writing 
- Is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it undecipherable or
illegible, done with the used of superimposing inks; usually examined with the used of
Infra-red lightning. 
4. Examination of Charred Document and Water Soaked Document
- Refers to partly burned or brittle document. Decipherment is usually accomplished
with the used of Infra-red-light examination; other wise known as Smeared Over
Writing
5. Development of Invisible Writing 
- Writing that has no readily visible ink strokes. Made by sympathetic ink such as acids,
juice and others. They are possible of development can be by heat, water, chemical
fuming, or by ultra-violet light process
6. Decipherment of Contact Writing
- Refers to partially visible ink strokes caused by sudden contact between a sheet of
paper with another paper containing fresh ink. Can be enhanced through fuming or
ultra-violet light process
7. Decipherment of Intended Writing 
- Usually applied to a partial depression appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the
one which the visible writing appears
Writing & Signature: 
➢ System of Writing – is the combination of basic shape and designs of letter and the
writing movement which was taught in school
➢ Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic designs letter that is fundamental to
the writing system
➢ Writing Movement – refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as
pressure, rhythm, pen lifting etc. 
Agraphia – one loses the ability to write, although he could still manage to grasp a
writing instrument thus the ability or power to hold a pen or pencil to form symbols
and words can be said to emanate from this critical center; Fortex of the brain.
Extensor muscle – forms upward stroke
Flexor – forms downward stroke
Lumbrical muscle – combination of extensor and flexor that forms lateral strokes
 
Types of Writing Movements: 
1. Finger Movement 
- Employed in Vertical Writing
- Letters are formed by the action of Thumb, index, and the middle finger.
2. Hand Movement 
- Involves the action of the hand as a whole with the finger playing but a minor role
- The wrist is the pivotal of the lateral movement
3. Forearm (or muscular) Movement
- Writing produced by the movement of the hand and arm and also fingers
- Elbow is the pivotal of the lateral movement
4. Whole-arm Movement 
- It involves the action of the entire a without a rest and is employed in a very large
writing.

Alteration-form of changes
Blank Paper-A sheet of paper
Characteristics- any property or mark
Collation-critical comparison
Comparison-setting two or more specimen
Conclusion-A scientific result
Cursive writing-joined together
Document examiner-studies scientifically
Decipherment-clear or out
Disguised writing- hiding his identity
Examination -close or critical study
Efface -rubbing out or erase
Exemplars-disputed document
Expert witness-legal term
Forgery -simulating or copying
Graphology-interpret the character
Guided writing- hand printing steadied
Hand lettering-known ad hand printing
Holographic document- completely written by one person holo means hand graph
means wrting
Model signature- genuine signature
Natural writing-control or alter
Restoration-brought out again
Reference collection – material complied
Safety Paper- treated / contains minutes design
Sample-portion of the whole
Significant writing habits sufficiently unique
Slant -condensed and compact
Writing-very complicated series
Writing condition-both the circumstances
Writing Habits -repeated elements
Wrong handed writing-opposite hand form

Legal Classes of Document:

1)Public Document- issued by public official in response
2)Official Document-function of his office
3)Private Document-private person / person legally authorized
4)commercial document- code of commerce

Sec 19 Classes of Document- presentation in evidence

Sec 20 Proof of Private Document- Private document offered as authentic

Steps no 1. – art of handwriting/copy book form

Steps no 2. – form recedes/ focus of attention
Steps no3 – manual operation/ more progress

Types of characteristics
1) Class characteristics- taught to the child / common
2) Personal Characteristics- deviations/ higly personal and peculiar
Rule 1 . personal and individual to him alone
Corollary 1- gradual changes
Corollary 2- persons lifetime

Writing is an acquired art

Rule 2- Deterioration/ any cause affects

Corollary 1: very rapidly due of sharp

Transitory changes – physical and mental condition

Such as fatigue
Basic cause is affecting the writer

Rule 3-A- writter cannot exceed his maximum writing ability

Rule 4- Attempted Disguised
Corollary 1- lack of uniformity / typical diaguise
Corollary 2- converse / lack of disguise

Rule 5- wrting variations/ property of every one

Corollary 1 – degree of variation
Corollary 2 – Variation in writing/ was prepared
Corollary 3- govern the degree / the purpose for which writing
Corollary 4- day to day

Tremors- writing weakness / shaky

Kinds of Tremors
1) Genuine Tremor – old age/ weakness or sickness
Tremor of Illiteracy- weakening of the muscle
2) Tremor fraud – wrong place or tremor

Line Quality – written stroke

Types of Writing movements

1) Finger movements- vertical writing
2) Hand movements- action of the hand/ fingers playing/ wrist is the pivotal
3) Forearm or muscular movement- movements of the hand / elbow is the pivotal
4) Whole Arm Movement- entire without rest

Elements of Writing Movement

1) Writing pen pressure – contact with the paper

2) Pen emphasis – intermittently forcing the pen
Shading-fountain pen
3) Rhythm- balance quality of movement
4) Skill- relative degree
5) Speed – cannot be measured of the writer proficiency
6) Pen-Lift- interruption in stroke
 7) Shading – increased in the width
8) Pen Position (pen hold) – relation to the paper surface
9) Pen scope- reach of the hand
10) Retracing or retrace – goes back over another
11) Retouching or patching- going back to repair defective portion

Element of Letter Forms

1) Arc- bend crook/ inner side

2) Beard – up and down
3) Blunt- beginning and ending
4) Buckle knot- horizontal and looped stroke
5) Central part or body- small circle
6) Dactus or Junction Broken- Disconnected between two letters
7) Dactus link or junction connected- continous line
8) Eye loop and eyelet- small loop formed
9) Foot- base or bottom of letter
10) Hitch- beginning of capital letters
11) Hook or through-curve of small letters or bottom loop
12) Hump- rounded outer side
13) Initial spur- long initial rising
14) Knob – tiny pool of ink spread
15) Main stroke or stem or shank of staff- ling upright downward
16) Space Filler or terminal spur – upward horizontal or downward ( asuy)
17) Whirl- high loops

Alteration- addition or deletion

Erasure – removal of the writing
Erasure by mechanical means- use if some abrasive objects
Erasure by chemical means – chemicals or reagents / oxidizing or bleaching an ink

Visual Inspection- artificial light and direct light

Transmitted light- most powerful method
Ultra violet light- violet radiation/ changing color
Photography- printing the paper

Class Characteristics

characteristics or properties which are common or which can be foufid in the specimen writing of other
person. Gross characteristics.

Individual Characteristics

characteristics which are highly personal or peeliar. That which is unlikely to occur in other's
handwriting .

Characteristics
- refers to any property, marks or elements which distinæishes. Also referred to as identifying details.

3.NaturaI Writing - a specime writing that is executed nor without any attempt of alte usual writing
habits.

4.Disguised- a specimen of executed deliberately with of changing its usual writing habits the hope of
hiding one's identity.

5) Guided /assisted - a specimen of writing executed while the writer's hand is at steadied. usually
employed by beginners in writing.

Handlettering - refers to Writing characterized by a disconnect

1. Cursive - Writing in which letters are for the most part joined together.

Writing Signature

*Significant Writing Habits one's writing that are sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve as a strong
basis of individuality.

Slant - refers to the relative degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline. Slope of writing.

BaseIine - an imaginary or straight line in which the writing rest.

Handwriting - is a visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious expressions of fixed
muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental impression o certain ideas associated with script form.

Writing Habits - refers to any repeated elements of once handwriting which serves as an identifying
characteristics.

Writing - is the visible result of ah very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a combination of
certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued
painstaking effort.

System of Writing - is the comb n tidn of the basic shape and designs of letter and the writing movement
which was taught in school.
Copy book form - is an illustration of the basic designs letters that is fundamental to the writing system.
—Writing movement - refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as, pressure, rhythm, pen
lifting, etc.

Signature -
Classes of Signature

Formal or complete – acknowledging / checks

Informal or Cursory- personal correspondence

Careless signature- mail carrier/ autograph collector

CHAPTER VI
SIGNATURES AND FORGERY DETECTION
Signature is a name of a person signed by him on a document as a sign of acknowledgment, Signature is
said to be one important thing that a person owns. You can be the riches among the rich or the poorest
among the poor because of your signature. Almost all documents• requires signature for its complet
authenticity. When a person signed his name, he carries one of his most common writing acts making his
signature highly complex and individual. The question of how he writes his name is dependent on a
number of combined factors. Just like for instance in a case of near-i.lliterate usually produces a
measurable, plodding pattern, lacks in skill and freedom of execution but still it is individual to him
alone. With those who have attained a higher level of writing capabilities signature also assumes
greater. skills, its strokes flows with less primitive effects: Some of the factors that contribute -to this
effect are his muscular control and coordination, his health, age, nervous temperament, the oftenest of
being engaged to writing and even his personality. While a number of these factors are blended in a
person's signature nonetheless, the writer is not particularly conscious of these factors as he executes
until such a time through practice or repeated execution of which the strokes are somehow being
formed in a semi-automatic way carrying a consistent pattern with certain degree of variation,

Some writers make use of all these three classes of signature especially those working in a business or a
company in order for 'them to have distinction
between important and not so important documents in the company and differentiate them with his
personal document. Some even makes a distinctive or somewhat hidden mark to their signature in
awareness of possible forgery of his signature.
FORGERY

Documents containing disputed signature occupies the highest level the hierarchy of questioned
document cases. It is due to this, that a specialized branch of questioned document examination was
estabiished —the Signature Verification. The identification of one's signature calls for a greater
emphasis' than in handwriting identification but the basic principles remains the same. There are certain
characteristic or features that a signature has that do not appear in the ordinary handwriting of a
person, making signature more unique, complex and truly individualized. The way signature is written is
a great factor to its recognition. Although it contains fewer letters and -even sometimesunrecognizable
letters strokes being in a form of highly individualized signature its identification is being accomplished.
This -is due to the frequent use of one's signature, its great importance, its value to the author somehow
that makes it more automatic than the usual handwriting. Here the skills, the momentum of the pen and
the forms of the letters plays a very important role.
To ordinary layman letter structure is the most common eye-catching pan but to the lenient person
who knows the art and science of signature identification he knows that the factors of movements or
execution is the most important aspects for accurate and effective identification.
Once a person signed his name in a form of a signature there is automatically that desire to produce
something based pn pre-determined pattern as to how his signature would look like. This pattern
consists of personal designs with certain touch of artistic ability and personality. Once this is done in
repetiti0n it will tum into a form that makes it distinguishable over all others.
 Basically, there are two sets of elements to be considered, Those elements associated to the form or
designs of the letters that usually gives the genera: form of the signature and those properties that are
relative to the motion of the writing instrument. If the questioned and all the standard signatures show
an excellent number of similarities with none of the significant differenceS' therefore, you may say that
same person wrote them.

Natural variations play a very important role in,_ ascertaining the genuineness of a signature. Its
presence or absence, its degrees or extents are very significant in determining whether or not the
questioned and the sets of Standards belong to the same person. The concept of natural variation is in
line with the truth that no two specimen of signature are completely and absolutely identical. Therefore,
the extent in which variations •in the specimen signature varies, the condition of the writers, the
conditions under which the writing was prepared and other factors that might affect the over-all
appearance of the writing should be taken into consideration. Especially in determining differences that
arc part of variation as distinguished from that of significant differences.
The process by which signature was forged is also an important factor that is to be considered in
determining the true nature of the signature. It is always said that anything done out of imitation will
leads to a poorer quality of writing. But as what was discussed in earlier a matter of form or design is
only one of the factors to be considered -in signature identification. The way a fraudulent signature was
made is also the reason for which it is identified to be truly forged and not a genuine one. There is no
perfect process of forgery, be it done by simple, simulated or tracing for each one of these processes
leave its trade mark of being fraudulent to whatever will be its product.
There are various classes of forged signature but how they are made are generally categories into three
Major types - The simple, the simulated and the traced forgery.

The Simple Forgery

Simple forgery is a forged signature made without any attempt on the pa of the forger to imitate or
make a facsimile of the genuine signature of the person purported to sign the document. As the name
implies, this is one of the simple type for the forger need not have a genuine signature at hand in order
to ma such a forgery. Using his own style of writing, the forger executes the name the person who
supposed to sign the document. Sometimes it is done with se modification of his own style and he takes
advantage of the element of time that things will be accomplished before it will be detected. This is one
type Of forgeries that is very easy to be identified, even by ordinary person. There hard and fast rule to
its detection for at the moment a genuine signature is obtained simple comparison will obviously show
that they were not written only one person. It is also this type of forgery, that identification of the forge
quite more easy than the two other processes. Its identification of the forger lies on the fact that it is
written in the own style of the forger, thus it reflects his writing characteristics.
This is a common practice by check thief, criminals who steal, endorse or passes government or
corporate checks. BY utilizing fictitious signature and pretence, the forger may successfully take things
to his advantage

There where simple instances at which this type of forgery are made. Like for instance in school, there
are students in the hope of giving faior to their friends, might sign the name of their friend in the
attendance sheet even though the said student is actually absent, the student write his friend's name
and opposite of which is a signature which is actually a mere creation of the one signing it. This type of
forgery is also called as Spurious Signature.
The Simulated Forgery

The simulated forgery is considered to be the most skilful type of forgery. Although this form appears or
made in various level of skills depending upon the forger, The reason for its being branded as the most
skillful type, lies on the fact that this process is done in not just ordinary way, it takes _real skill Of
different degrees in order for a forger to successfully imitate the signature which he intends to sign.
Through free-hand imitation a gifted forger will make a practice

over a scratch paper for twenty-thirty times before signing it to the fraudulent document. This is one of
the reasons why at the moment the forger sign it, he sign with certain continuity as distinguished from
those of amateur forger. It is also of this reason that detection of this type is relatively more difficult
especially if skillfully done.
Aside from the challenge of skills on the part of the forger, another thing
that he has to work for is to be able to understand the characteristics of the mode) signature of another
person, execute the same, while discarding his OW writing style. See it is not just a simple job. There are
even certain instances that the forger could not be able to avail himself of the model signature, but
because of his desire to accomplish it and with sufficient familiarization with the signature to be
imitated, simulation can still be undertaken, Simulated forgery is also ca as copied forgery.
The Traced Forgery
The traced forgery like a simulated forgery necessarily requires the ac f a model signature. As the name
implies, it is the result of an attempt of the bi to

make a close resemblance of the original by means of some tracing proc so as to

Most cases of traced are easy to identify than a simulated one, This to the fact that a traced signature is
done in way foreign from writing actually not more of writing rather a drawing. one exemption to this
could e case of those who traced the signature with certain practice that they ca with a fact, 'fræ pen
movement. But still the large numbers of these cases really drawn with a slow, measurable stroke, done
with much consciousness hesitation and abrupt turns due to certain movement. some of the processes
used in making traced forgery

CARBON OUTLINE PROCESS

This process is one of the most common means utilized by forger in making a number of identical copies
or records of certain entries, A piece of carbon paper either blue or black is interleaved between the
genuine signature and the fraudulent document with the genuine document placed on. top. Using s dry
pen or pointed instrument the outline of the model signature will then be traces in order to make an
offset print the carbon on the fraudulent document, If a piece of blue carbon was used, the signature
outline will be grossly approximate the line of a blue pen. When a black carbon was the one used, the
signature outline will grossly resemble the work of a self lead pencil. The genuine and the carbon paper
will be removed and the carbon outline will be inked using a• pen.

One of the troubles that a forger has is how to put the ink strokes on the same place where the carbon
outline was. That is why he has to be slow in doing it. Another draw could be the dirt that he carbon
outline produced.
 INDENTION OR CANAL-LIKE PROCESS
This is done in similar way the carbon outline process is made, only now a carbon paper is eliminated in
the process. The genuine document is placed above the fraudulent document, the forger will follow the
outline of the genuine using a pressure, enough to make or leave an indented writing on the fraudulent
document. The depression or indented signature is thereafter ovenuritten with an ink to I finish the
forgery. Just like in carbon -outline process, the difficulty now I on the part of the forger is how to make
the ink strokes coincide with the depression or indented outline.
TRANSMITTED LIGHT OR PROJECTION PROCESS

Among the three methods being utilized by some forger, tt6 method has greater advantage on the part
of the forger. Here the fraudulent document is the one placed above the genuine document using a
transmitted light, these two documents will be placed on top the plane glass of the transmitted light
With a strong light passing through these two documents, the image/outline of the genuine signature
will be projected to the fraudulent document and later traced with ink. In this process the forger can be
fast in his execution 3 the problem of dirt by carbon or depression by indention process — eliminated.
With this process and with practice, forgery will be easier should be considered by a document examiner
or signature verifier as a challenge to their credibility in signature identification.
N.B.
Simulated and traced forgeries have something in common. Both utilize model signature and the
objective of the forger is to affect a facsimile. They only differ somehow on the manner of executing it or
having it done.
45

There are a number of drawbacks on the part of the forger using Simulation as well. as tracing and they
are: (1) Giving much attention to the conspicuous features of form and not to other details that
encompasses the execution of a genuine writing; (2) Imitation or tracing leads to disguised, and
disguised leads to a poorer result; (3) TOO much consciousness of -the process leads to hesitation; (4)
Failure to identify significant characteristics of the writing of another, (5) Difficulty in eliminating or
discarding his own writing habits; (6) It needs great muscular skills to produce the writing being
imitated; (7) Awareness of criminal act, fear of discovery and anxiety to do the work well; and (8) the
most basic and fundamental defect is not on the divergent form but in the quality of the line strokes.

Defects that a traced forgery might be evidenced by looking on one or more of the following:
1. Quality of line strokes

2. Naturalness of movement, freedom strokes and speed of execution of the writing;

3. Hesitation causing pen lifting, retouching and shading;
4. Selecting and dating model signatures;
5. Presence of pencil, carbon or indention outlines which point to the

Identification of the questioned signature with a genuine or model signature used such as using actual
measurements with the aid of test plates, superimposition with transmitted light, or taking photographs
and producing transparencies to easily superimpose one over the other, transparent glass with uniform
ruled squares or various lines to show all parts agreeing with said

SEVEN (7) CLASSES OF DISPUTED SIGNATURESI

QUESTIONED SIGNATURES

1. Forged signature where no attempt has been done to make a copy or facsimile of the genuine
signature of the person purporting to sign

3. Forged signature that closely resembles the genuine signature' since they have been produced by a
tracing process referred to as Traced For e
Forged signature that resembles the genuine signature written freehand also called as
Simulated or Copied Forqery.
 Genuine signature which the writer honestly unwilling to accept a genuine.
 Genuine signature obtained by trickery€
 Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner to afford
signatures some plausible ground for disclaiming them should they deem it expedient.
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF FORGERY
 1 . Hesitation and pen stops at unusual places
 
 Abrupt change in direction of strokes, showing uncertainty of movements
 Concealed joining or carefully made patching or retouching
 Blunt initial and/or terminal strokes 
 Lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes
 Misplaced shading or shading in more than one direction caused by a false start
 Defective line quality
 
  v. urxcS, ut Wavy lines (TretTlOÜS)
 
 Unnatural pen lifting
 Presence of carbon, pencil or indented outlines along the strokes
 
 EVIDENCE OF NATURALNESS IN WRITING HALLMARKS SPONTANEOUS
WRITING
 
 A general rhythmic writing through out
 Smooth unbroken strokes in writing 
 Finely tapered strokes both at the beginning and ending letters
 Tendency towards illegibility especially towards end of signature or other words
indicating great speed.
 
  PRIMARY SIGNS AND FORGERY
 1. Slow brokeri strokes, way lines

Unnecessary retouching or patching

 Lack of difference in pressure on up and down
 
 Blunt starting and ending strokes
 
 Meaningless markings and blots caused by false start
 Shading in more than one directed cause by a false start by an effort to imitate line,
which by twisting the pen rather than varying the pressure or imitating pen hold.
 
 CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
 
 Line Quality — (Natural or Feigned)
 Letter form — (Genera' or Individual)
 Proportions — (Balance or disproportionate) 
 Height Ratio — (Between different letter)
 Skill — (lowest and highest level of dexterity and artistic or not)
 Writing movement (Rhythmic or varied)
 Writing Continuity — (Joined or *ined fetters)
 
  8. Writing Pressure (Light, medium, heavy)
 
 Pen scope (Short, average or extended)
 Letter spacing — (narrow or broad)
 Speed — (Slow, average, or rapid)'
 Slant (Controlled or extremely variable)
 letter size- (Large, Medium, Small)
 Connections — (Angular, rounded or broken)
 other individual idiosyncrasies such as manner crossing t-bars, split letter, excessive
underlining, bent staff and diacritical markings.

CHAPTER Vil
 CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS
 The improper or careless handling of a disputed document can lead to a serious
curtailment of certain technical examinations. Most frequentiy this condition is brought
about by ignorance of the consequences of mishandling just the simple act of removing
and replacing a letter in its envelop repeatedly can cause noticeable deteriorate.
 The care, handling and preservation of documents can be discussed adequately by setting
forth certain positive rules of action in the form of "DO's" and listening in several
admonitions jn the form. of "DONT's".
 DO 's"
 I. Keep documents unfolded in protective envelope.
 Protective Envelopes
 The most useful and effective protective covering of a disputed document is a
transparent plastic envelop. This kind of envelope can easily be purchased commercially
or can easily be made from sheets of clear plastic to a size sufficient to accommodate any
flat unfolded paper.
 As an alternative, a large, heavy manila or craft envelope or folder can be used. Again,
the document should be laid flat, unfolded as to prevent wear aiong folds. If a
nontransparent envelope is used, it should be carefully labeled both for convenience and
to eliminate unnecessary handling. This kind of envelope makes a poor permanent
substitute for a transparent one because the document is not easily examined but
protection; by any sort of envelope preserve the documents and reduces the chance of
damage. 
 
 Take disputed papers to the document examiner's laboratory at the first opportunity.
 If storage is necessary, keep the document in a dry place away from excessive heat and
strong tight.
 
 Proper Storaqe
 Once a document is disputed, it- is seldom, stored,or filed for long, but important
documénts are often kept for years.'Some of these maybe challenged long after they were
prepared, the document may deteriorate seriously. Moist humid atmosphere, excessive
heat, and strong light accelerate the normal
 Of aging, bringing about changes in a relatively short time. Under these
 49

conditions, it is entirely possible that even though there is no apparent effect for exposure
to moisture, heat or light, the document had undergone microscopic changes.
 DON'T's"
 
 Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry them in a pocket for a long time.
 Avoid Excessive Handlinq
  Repeated handling of a document can actually wear it out. In thisway a paper becomes
dirty, frayed, and stained. Folds deemed and finally broken by repeated opening and
folding.
 Do not mark disputed documents (either by consciously writing or by pointing at them
with a writing instruments or dividers)
 
 Do Not Mark
 Interfering marks may result either from someone's deliberately writing in the paper or
form those unconscious strokes and smudges placed there by someone's pointing at the
documents with a pen, pencil, pair of dividers, or eraser. Both must be avoided.
 
 
 Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or punching
for filing purposes.
 Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or
 
 
 do not treat or dust for latent fingerprint before consulting a document examiner.
 Do Not Mow "Amateur Testing"
 Charred doauments, because of their extremely fragile nature, must be handled as .little
as possible. Even transporting them to the .laboratory care.
 
 When documents of this kind are discovered, much is to be gained by discussing all
aspects of the question with a qualified document examiner before any attempt is made to
move the materials to his laboratory.
 When possible, the charred documents should be moved in the container in which they
are found. tf the fragments 'are not Packed tightly, •lightweight absorbent cotton may be
used as padding. Jarring Of the box must be kept to
 minimum if not entirely eliminated 

THE EQUIPMENT OF A DOCUMENT LABORATORY

 Tools are of great importance in any discovery and providing. There are
 certain things that the physical evidence would like to tell us but sometimes only with
the aid of some scientific instrument that the evidence trying to tell us. Just like a
quotation that Osbom used in his book" Questioned Document Problems", regarding
physical evidence — But human naked eye has its limitations and these limitations leads
the document examiner to the idea of needing some tools in order to decipher if not to
restore what is to be known or discover in the document. Since Questioned Document is
not an exact science exhibits are necessary to convince the court. Such will be needing
the aid of some equipment.
 Document examination is not very complicated in terms of the used for equipment in as
much as the instrument to be used depends on thé scope of the examination needed to
perceived what is needed to be perceived. Sometimes even an ordinary table lamp, a
camera for photographing will do to discover and prove something in the document under
scrutiny. But there are some cases also that a need for powerful equipment will be more
desirable for it is the only means to prove the authenticity or forgery of the document.
Artificial light like Ultraviolet Lamp and Infra-red gadget may sometimes be at used.
There are several equipment that can be of great significance to document examination
but the author decided to made mention of some of the most useful and commonly used
for the purpose as well as 
 THE ROOM
 It is ideal that separate room should be built for physical examination and for
photographing and processing to the extent of utilizing specialized photography.
 The room should provide a means for storage of documents, a cool, dry and ventilated
storage. Ample bench space over which a number of documents can be placed and can be
scrutinized within an easy 'Sight and reach of the examiner. These make the examination-
easier and less- •time consuming Comparison or collation can be made well and
organized despite the number c' documents being examined.
  Optical EQUIPMENTS
 Some equipment can be made through improvise but not when we talked of magnifiers,
microscopes and camera lenses. A job welt done •cannot •be attained with the use of
inferior optical equipment. Mounting of exhibits is of great 

significance for demonstration and proving in court, thus quality should not be
compromise with the use of cheaper ecvipment of poor performance. P,
 
 Hand Magnifier
 There are varieties of magnifiers that are at used at present. What is needed? Practically,
what is necessary for use is one, which will serve the greatest purpose of the examination.
A magnifying lens that is just enough in its magnification (at least capable of making
four-times the size of the original), having a diameter of about two inches but not more
than or less than one inch will be reasonable to cover a wider field of view. 
 Other forms such as Illuminated magnifier, Binocular magnifier, adjustable lens can be
of great help to document examiner but they are rarely used especially; in the country.
 Microscopes
 
 Microscope also appear in various forms, there are compound microscope for biological
testing, microscope with a wide-flat form for documents to be laid and comparison
microscope for simultaneous viewing and matching of two specimen at one time.
 One of the most useful types is that of a stereoscopic microscope for It gives document
examiner an extensive examination, showing great details Of documents and anything on
it that our naked eye alone is impossible Of being
 deciphered. This microscope is of unique form for it gives an examiner three
dimensional enlargement of the specimen under consideration making it ideal for
examination of cross writings. writing across a folds, sequence of strokes and disturb
fiber partly concealed. 
 Stereoscopic microscopes can be purchased with built-in lighting systems,
 
 
 this type is convenient for use but sometimes a separate illumination-can be found to be
of greater advantage in some cases for such can be controlled in it intensity and angle of
illumination required. In a comprehensive laboratory one Of the most powerful and
useful equipment used is that of the Forensic Comparator microscope sometimes they
called it three-in-one microscope, an instrument that can bring together two objects into
the same field of view so that they may easily be compared under the same degree of
magnification. This is extensively used in questioned document, fingerprint, Ballistics
and even for forensic chemistry purpose.
 
 Camera and Lens
 
 An S-L-R Camera has its indispensable used in questioned document examination for
discovering and proving in court until at present. A Photographic enlargement of
signature, handwritings and type prints including alterations in documents with the use of
some illuminations are very important to show

agreement or disagreement the characteristics of the questioned and standard document.

This will not be possible with the use of the document itself alone for such is too small
and comparison will be very difficult as •to' prove or disprove the claims of either party
concerned.
 With S-L-R camera all it takes is to have a variety of lens .that can be used for different
purposes. One type of lens that is commonly at use especially for photographing
handwritings, signatures and type prints is that of the macro Jens or a specialized short
focus lens that does not only record image but also enlarged the same in certain degrees.
 An appropriate stand is necessary to maintain parallelism between the camera and the
document. A photographic stand with a built in stage is found to be more convenient than
an ordinary tripoa in order to avoid distorted image of the disputed as well as the standard
documents.
 
 MEASURING APPARATUS
 In document examination, measurement plays a very significant role for in some cases it
is even become a sole basis in determining genuineness of the document. There are
various standards measuring instrument but some of which were not available to our
document examiner. In addition to the regular photographing equipment it is necessary to
have a number of measuring devices that can be photograph with the documents when
making court exhibits.
 a. Handwriting Measuring Test Plates
 
 This instrument is about a foot or fifteen .inches in length either plastici metal, or glass
made, an instrument wry' graduated scales in both inches and centimeters. With these
scales, measurements will be easy and direct on the document. Handwriting measuring
test plates also varies in form depending on what is to be measured in a document. There
are what called Handwriting slope measuring test plates, design measure degree of
writing inclination; Handwriting
 
 comparison test plates design to make a simultaneous comparison of w specimen
handwriting, showing their alignment, slant or se and proportions.
 
 b. Typewriting measuring test plates
 Measuring instrument design to measure the typeface pitch of a given typewriting as
well as determining alignment, scale and proportion of the type characters. A valuable
scale for use on typescript consist of a setof parallel lines about half-inch apart. Each line
has a short intersectinglines 9t usual spacing of 9110, 12 and 16 to the inch as well as one
of 2.6 mm. If a type prints does not conform to any of this thin scale it only connotes that
it was spaced on the metric system.
One such article of universal utility is accurate ruler on paper which can be placed
directly on a document and photographed with it aid the photographer in securing the
exact extent of enlargement. For instance, if a paper ruler an inch in length is placed on
the document being photographed, the length of the image of the ruler on the ground
glass is a measure of the degree of enlargement. Therefore, the image of the inch ruler
measures six inches; the enlargement is six-inch diameters. The degree of enlargement
can also be determined in court in the same way by measuring the length of the.ruJer on
the photograph.
 To show accurately the difference or identity in the slant, spacing, alignment, curve,
angle or proportion of two writings to be compared, the document examiner must have a
number of special measures on colorless glass plates that can be placed over the
documents and' photographed with them. This is an approved practice. When document
testimony is illustrated photographically in this way, points of identity or dissimilarity in
different writings can be seen by anyone able to understand the measures of the common
ruler and protractors.
  SPECIAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
 A. The Visible Light application
 1. Direct lighting
 This type of light examination is generally applies for photographing purpose. In as
much as document are to be photograph in a dose distance a separate light should be
required in order to obtain a good exposure of the document being p, totograph anu in
some case this light examination is also useful in cases of erasures and concealment of
erased surface by addition Of certain substance after erasure has bee made.
 2. Oblique Lighting
 This type of lighting process positioned the lamp at one's with the source of illumination
striking the surface of the paper at a very low angle. This will cause varying angles to the
light incident for every uneven area on a document This light examination is best use in
indented writings and erasures.
 3. Side lighting
 In this process the paper is held vertically and the light strikes the surface of the paper
from one side. This is used in showing presence of disturb fiber due

4. Transmitted light
 One of the very uSeful instruments in document examination is the
 
 transmitted light gadget. It gives a•ource of illumination thatwould strike 'the back or the
bottom of the paper. This apparatus is so simple,' it is essentially consisting of a plane
glass on which the document i' placed and a source of light placed beneath it. The lamp is
house in a box sealed in all side except with one with the glass or a lamp may also be
backed with a metal reflector for a more powerful source of illumination. This lighting
examination is very useful in determination of watermarking in paper, shows fiber
arrangement in paper as well as sequence of strokes.
 B. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT GADGET
 
 The X-ray or Roentgen
 This gadget is rarely at used in questioned document examination
 
 although sometimes an X-rays of very soft radiation or Genz rays can be of use for
purpose of making a transmitted light photograph to show up watermarking as well any
thinner surface of the paper like the site of erasures. But such activity can likewise be
best shown with the used of ordinary transmitted light, that is only X-ray is not
commonly at use cc practically it is more applied in medico-legai examination. 
 The Uttra-violet light gadget
 
 The Uitra-vio!et !inht gadget appears in various forms,- some in a form similar to a
fluorescent lamp where the glass envelope also acts as a filter which absorbs the bulk of
the visible radiation and allowing the shorter wave lengths to pass through. This lamp is
commercially termed as the Ublack light" for at the the power is off the bulb is colored
black. This lamp is found to be very useful both for commercial and laboratory
application. One of its widest applications is in detection of counterfeit Philippine
Currency notes. Many businesses established big or small that are directly involved in
money transaction Ultra-violet lamp for security reason.
  This lamp makes a discharge through mercury vapor confined in a tube of transparent
fused quarts. Heat and visible lights are generated along with the ultra-violet light, A
nickel glass independently mounted from -the discha/ge tube absorbs the visible light
 Infra-red Lamp
 
 The used of infra-red photography refers to that special type of black and white
photography whereby image are reproduced through the action of infra-red
 rays on sensitized films.

The value of photography by infra-red lies on the fact that infrared radiation like visible
light often are reflected and or transmitted quite differently by common objects Some
objects subjects under infra-red rays are transparent while others are opaque. Objects
which reflects the infra-red rays are said to be transparent to infra-red rays. On the
positive print the objects appear gray or as white shades. Where the infra-red rays are not
reflected but absorbed, the objects are said to be opaque to infra-red rays. On the positive
prints the object Wii! appear as black shades.
 The word infra-red meansn below or beyond the red". As the wave increases to 700
milimicrons and above the radiation merges into heat wave and finally into the radio
waves- Even though the infra-red extends far out only the region quite near the visible
light, is of interest photographically. • Infra-re& rays -in the longest wavelength
among the photographic rays arid it is also called the
 
 heat rays.
 
 infra-red radiation can be made by photofloo& buib with infra-red transmitting
filters like No. 25, 87, 80A or by black-Out flash bulb. Blackout flash lamp makes
photography in almost complete darkness without the usual visible light. Only a dull red
glow from the lamp, •is visible. In case, it is necessary for the photographer to know
where the subject is and the distance.
 USES OF INFRA-RED:
 1 . Shows gun powder 
 
 Deciphering 
 Restoration of writing documents;
 Decipherment of Obliterated writing;
 
 Differentiate paints or pigments which visually identical but & -different
composition;
 Detection and demonstration of certain secret writings or stains ion cloth or paper;
 Record subject in total darkness without being detected;
 
 8 Addition, interlineations or insertion; and
 9. In Surveillance Photography and night vision.

CHAPTER
 INKS AND WRITING INSTRUMENTS
 IMPORTANCE
 Practical knowledge about inks, their composition, resistance to moisture, performance
and absorption effects, manufacturing dates, is a valuable asset in questioned document
examinations. Ink used is Usually examined when the date or age of document is
questioned or when some parts of a document are suspected to have been corrected,
added, altered and/or inserted by another hand with the intent to defraud.
 ANCIENT INKS
 Pre-Christian era inks were mostly soot or carbon blacks dissolved in water with holding
solutions to attain desired fluidity. The Chinese and Indians were expert crude ink
manufacturers using pulverized stones and saps of woods.
 MODERN BLACK INKS
 The modern Chemist, leamed from the ancient preparations, has the following ink
solutions in black:
 i. Tanno-gaiiate from sulphate of iron with gum — the most durable ink solution for
records purposes 
 
 Lampblack with alkaline solution
 Coal tar dyestuff with water
 Iron tannate with aniline colorings —
 The ink containing tannin and iron salts takes an everlasting nature for it resist alcohol
and stays black indefinitely.
 
 Another kind of black ink that appears blue initially but becomes black when exposed to
moisture is the logwood ink with potassium chromate.
 ANILINE INK
 This is made out of coal tar dissolved in acids. This was used as early as 1870.
 However, the ink is washable and) therefore) is not good for permanent records.

FOUNTAIN PEN INKS

 Fountain pen inks are supposed to be the best writing inks, quick drying, waterproof and
durable. So, manufacturers introduced- alkali-resistant dyes in caustic soda solutions.
 INDELIBLE FLUIDS
 
 These are used mostly when a penetrating marking is desired that will not be
 
 erased. It is not commonly used except for special reasons. It is compos logwood,
potassium) aniline, bi-chromate, nutgall, gum and silver nitrate.
 INVISIBLE OR SECRET INKS
 These are classified according to the mode by which can make them visible:
 
 Heating Process
 Chemical Reaction
 Moistening or Immersing in Water
 Crude preparations take the form of secretions, juices, saliva, gum, milk, etc.
 
 AGE OF WRITING
 At most, modern chemistry can only approximate whether a document written with an
ink is recent or old. A recent writing is usually determined by incomplete oxidation
process but once oxidation is completed, age determination basing solely on the ink is
impossible. The best method here is not by a chemical test but by comparison with other
contemporary documents in which persons knowledgeable of their production could
establish their ages. 
 RESTORATION TECHNIQUES
 When a writing is suspected to be erased eitherpby optical illusion or by chemical
erasures or by removing paper fibers by rubber erasures, the following are recommended
to restore the writing:
 
  1. Expose it under ultra-violet rays then, photograph.
 
 2. Test ink used before erasure (thru chemical analysis). Depending on the
 ink, the erased writing containing iron would appear by means of;
 a. Iodine or Ammonium Sulfide Fuming; b, Treatment of Tannic or Gallic Acid

SEQUENCE OF WRITING
 The difference in absorption effects of inks accounts for the easy determination of the
sequence of writing where the problem is to determine which of the two (2) writings with
crossed lines was written first or last.
 The following factors are considered, kind and quality of ink, pen use. quality of paper
and time. Extensions of letters above or below the baseline 31 helpful especially under
magnifications. Consider the following: (1) When the first ink fine is still moist, the
crossing second line wilt not only darken the scored portion but will have its ink on the
scored portion fused through the first line appearing as expanded. (2) When the first line
is dry, the crossing line will darken the scored portion and will appear to be overlapping
or plowing the first line.
 In this problem, it is a lot easier to determine ink writing versus writing. When pen and
ink are used to cross some lead lines, the ink flowing the pen will fully cover the lead.
But when a pen is used first and the pen used to cross some ink lines, the lead strokes
scoring the ink lines will ape top of the ink when the ink is dried and will appear plowing
the ink line if yet completely dried.
 it is ink versus ink or ink versus lead, ten to fourteen times magnification is necessary to
expose the crossing lines.
 
 OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORY OF INK, WITH APPROXIMATELY DATES
page 59

CHAPTER IX
 Papers
 GRADE
 Quality of papers used for writing purposes vary according to materials used,
manufacturer's technical' specifications and market demand on certain kinds. The best
grades of papers now used in are those having cellulose fibers, cotton, rags and the
Philippine's abaca fibers. What most people know are the brands that they have used.
Further, what a forger does not is that when he substitutes another page containing his
spurious writings in a set of genuine
 
 documents, these can be easily detected by paper grade comparison.
 THICKNESS
 Paper manufacturers measure thickness of papers by means of knowing how many
pounds is the weight of one ream. Document examiners measure thickness by means of
micro- calipers with thousandth of inch readings.
 CONDITIONS
 Written documents of whatever kind of paper used are usually suspected because of
unaccounted alterations or erasures. Most document showing altered pcft:ons contain
genuine information, which were changed and superimposed by visible writings. When
proper examination is done, these suppressed and hidden physical facts would be
concrete proof of unauthorized alterations, and the real meaning is exposed.
 Other conditions of papers that raise suspicion as to their validfty are Physical characters
like when an older presents a crumpled, discolored, soited and/ or moistened documents.
When these cannot be satisfactorily explains, the documents must be authenticated.
 Bank checks that carry designs to disguise forgery, once a genuine writing is done can
still be passed by a skill check on men. Those that. are tinted would Ordinarily
discourage unauthorized erasures but again, bad check manipulators with unknown
special techniques, æn still erase the tint, and rewrite the Check after a successful
retinting.
 SIZING
 The surface of a writing paper is coated with animal or •vegetable gelatinous substances
that are rolled during manufacturing processes. This is

applied to improve the absorption effect of a writing liquid to avoid blotting feathering.
The paper of higher quality is made with finer sizing, Any technique erasing writing on a
sized paper can easily be detected by oblique lighting expose the disturbed portion. Also,
when a paper is folded, sizing is broken and one writes over a folded paper, the examiner
can easily determine when writing was done actually after folding of the paper.
 Chemical test to determine the kind of sizing a paper has, by way of o is to apply iodine
or phloroglucin reagents. Animal sizing produces a different color from vegetable sizing.
A disputed page of document can be checked by chemical test or by ultra-violet ray that
gives fluorescence in different papers.
 WATERMARKS
 Paper manufacturers place water markings in their papers to denote their origin and
production. Some use the same watermarks in all their grades of paper but when any
portion of their marker is damaged, they take note. Some
 cases of questioned documents resulted to the discovery of a paper used in an instrument
dated several years before the actual manufacturing, through this water marking of
manufacturers.
 OUTLINE OF HISTORY OF PAPER, WITH APPROXIMATE DATES
page 63 to 64

CHAPTER X
 EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING
  Another class of questioned documents, which requires a different approach, is that of
documents containing typewriting and typescript With the
 existence of various machine, many of the documents being submitted in the questioned
document laboratory involves typescript. Its scientific examination may leads towards the
determination of its origin, age and sometimes even the identity of the typist. Different
typewriters are now manufactured in many highly industrialized countries with certain
varieties in form and mechanicai construction and even in electronic fom such as the IBM
electric typewriters. A conventional typewriter may be look as an very simple machine
with simple operation, but looking closely on the way its pieces of mechanism works the
typist will find it a beat complex still. It takes some interlocking keys before the machine
will fully work for its purpose. Before a typist starts his work, there are certain
adjustment or pre-arrangement to be made in order to come up with the desired results. It
only means to say that in a number of words, sentence or paragraph that a typist has
typewritten in sheet of paper involves a number of motivated working parts.
 
 
  At present, problems relating to typewriting and typescript becoming more complicated
due to advancement in technology such as the used of computers, printers, scanners. fn
some advanced country, one of the latest crimes, which
 
 involves machination is the spread of cyber crime. Through computers, microchips,
scanners and other modern machine accounts are being transferred from one account
numbers to another.
 January 7, 1714 — is the first recorded attempt to invent a typewriter found in the
records of the British patent office, granted by her majesty Queen Anne, to Henry Mill,
an English engineer.
 1827 the first United States patent for a mechanical writing machine was issued to
William A Burt of Detroit, Michigan
 1867 — Christopher Latham Sholes developed the sholes glided and sole typewriter
patented on June 23, 1568, it mechanically impressed the upper casee letter for the
alphabet into a piece of paper. It may be viewed at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington
D.C. 
 March 1, 1873 — Sholes entered into contract with the Remington Arms Wor Lion New
York to produce the sholes Gladder and Scult typewriter.
 1874— Model no. 1 of the Remington typewriter become available to the public,

1978 Remington model no. 2 which first wrote both upper and lower cased letters were
introduced
 IMPORTANT TERMS IN CONNECTION WITH TYPEWRITINGS
 
 TYPEFACE It is the printing surface of the type block.
 TYPEFACE DEFECT —- Any peculiarity of the typewriting caused be actual damage
to the typeface metal, which may be actual break in the outline of the letters.
 
 CHARACTERS -— In connection with typewriting, is used to include letters symbols,
numerals or point of functions.
 PICA TYPE FACE — Typeface impression ordinarily spaced ten (10) characters to the
horizontal pitch.
 ELITE TYPE FACE - Typeface impression ordinarily spaced twelVe (12) characters to
the horizontal pitch.
 PROPORTIONAL SPACING MACHINE — A typewriter with type letter spacing
similar to the type spacing of conventional printed in which all letters are allotted
horizontai in conformity with their relative widths.
 
 TRANSITORY DEFECTS — ts an identifying typewriter characteristic, which can be
eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
 
 PERMANENT DEFECTS — Any identifying typewriting characteristics of a typeface
of replacing the 
 
 IDENTIFICATION RULE IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
 Two specimens of typewriting are the works of single typewriter 'if all type — sized,
design, and the spacing are same in the two documents and if there is a unique
combination of defective character and no significant difference in common between the
sets of specimen.
 PRINCIPAL TECHNIQUES UTILIZED IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
 The principal technique utilized in comparing a questioned typewriting with a known
typewriting on their proper sequence are the following:
 
 1. Measure the type pitch
 Letter spacing in majority of typewriters has been traditionally made either in 1/12 inch
(Elite type face pitch) and 1/10 inch (pica type face pitch) In certain

countries, type sizes have been designs in various metric system such as in the case of
elite spacing it is not only limited to 1/12 inch it is likewise express in 212 mm, 2.00,
2.20, 2.23) 2.25, and 2.30 mm while in pica spacing includes 2.50 and 260 mm in
addition to 2.54 mm which is the equivalent of 1/10 in. The identification of type
measurements would greatly help the investigator in search of the probable instrument to
look for. This technique would lessen the search for the probable instrument despite the
existence of modem equipments. Most of the typewriter designed for commercial use
largely in a form of manual or conventional type, where type characters are form with the
use of a type bar or type metal bar, which carries the designs of the character. This
becomes prevalence up to the mid of the 20 century.
 In 1939 a different type of typewriter mechanism was introduced by the IBM company
which was called the Proportional spacing machine and which are known in the market as
executive typewriter. This type of typewriter usually designed to make typescript with
1132, 1/36 or 1/45 in spacing. This type of machine was largely manufacture in United
States by Remington and Olivetti (Underwood) companies. Through the combination of
letter spacing and letter designs, makes and model of typewriter can be determined. 
 
 
 Verify the size and design
 
 
 The determination of the size and designs of typefaces is an accurate means in
determining the make and model of a typewriter especially in dealing : with domestic
machines. Actually, in determining ethe make and model of a typewriter what is
necessary is to have a complete reference collection containing the various changes in
typeface designs by different manufacturer, but a random search for a particular specimen
in such a file might entail unnecessary loss of time. Such determination of the make and
model will lessen the burden and the time element necessary in looking into the probable
typewriter from which a questioned typewriting was typewritten. This is true especially
when the make and the model were properly identified. 
 VERFICATION OF TYPEFACE DESIGN AND SIZE
 (Primary type size and design)
 THE FOLLOWING DESIGNS
  The central serif the same height as the sides.
 
 W — 2 The central serif without a serif, the same height on the sides.

a low center.
 G — I Tangent the two (2) oval arid the connecting strokes in a vertical- line which does
not lean more than 20 degrees to the right and the space between the upper oval and the
lower oval is narrow less than the half the vertical dimension of the lower oval, 
 G— 2 The left tangent of the two ovals ad the connecting strokes "C — 1" but the space
between the upper and the lower oval is equal or greater than the half the vertical
dimension of the lower oval.
 
 G — 3 The top is offset to the right by the means of.gooseneck connecting strokes.
 68

4 The connecting stroke between the upper and the lower oval does not extend to the left
far enough to touch the common tangent.
 G 5 The common tangent of the two ovals and. the connecting stroke is inclined to the
right vertical by more than 20 degrees.
 G — IA Sub-class of G — where the lower oval is no large as to almost tough the top
oval.
 G — I B Sub-class of G —1 smith in whiéh the top oval and the bottom strokes of the
lower oval are straight (ines
 T — 1 The cross stroke extends -the same distance to the right and left of the vertical
staff.
 T -—2 The cross bar is larger to the right of the vertical staff than to the left extending
out to at least the inner edge of the bottom curve.

3. Look for individual typeface defects

 Just like any other instruments such as firearms or tools for constructions typewriters are
also identified not on the general resemblance of their product bu't on the imperfection or
defects that it bears. General similarities might only serve to determine possibilities but
for more accurate identification of qvestion€d typewriting, a number of similarities of
individual defects are necessary. After the determination of the make and model of the
typewriter the next thing for the document examiner should look for are the individual
typeface defects. Through individual defects, typewriting in appear in solely or in
combination with other defects. Similarity of type face pitch limits the search of the
examiner in determining the class of typewriter used in printing the questioned typescript,
letter size and designed Look for individual typeface defects. (See Fig. 3) questions will
finally be determined as to what particular typewriter it was typewritten
 Listed below are the various following individual-typeface defects that may
 
 1. VERTICAL MALALIGNMENT
 A character printing above or below its proper position is vertical alignment. 
 2. HORIZONTAL 
 An alignment defect in which the proper position.
 3. TWISTED LETTER
 Letter and character is design to print at a certain sized angle to the baseline due to the
wear and damage to the type bars and the type bars and the type block some letters
become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
 
 The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner the remainder of its
outline. 
 5. REBOUND
 Typeface defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter one
slightly off—set tethe tight or left.
 6. ACTUAL BREAKAGE
Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the typefa metal which maybe
actual breakage in the line of the letters.
 7. CLOGGED
 The typeface became filled with dirt and ink. Particularly in enclose letter

 Fig. 3. Illustration of Typeface Defects

 NINE POINTS THAT MAYBE INVOLVE IN QUESTION TYPEWRITING page 71
 
 That of ascertaining the exact date of such typewriting.
 Whether every line of the document was written at one time.
 Whether the various lines of the document were written at different by the same
machine.
 Whether the document was written at different times several machine.
 Whether spurious, typewritten pages have been added to the original document.
 Whether interlineations have been added to the original document.
 Whether additional words of sentences have been written at the end of the
 paragraph.
 Whether the entire document was written by one machine.
 Whether the document was written by a particular suspected typewriter.
 
 PRINCIPAL TYPEWRITING QUESTIONS THAT MAY BE RESOLVED IN
TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION 
 1. To determine whether an evidence typewriting was suspected typewriter.

To determine whether an evidential typewriting prepared as a known typewriter was

actually typewritten on its purported date.
 To determine whether ali of typewriting was prepared by a SUSpected typist.
 
 
 4 To determine the make or brand of typewriter on which a questioned typewriting was
prepared.
 
 Points to be considered in preparing Standards of typewriting:
 
 Include all words and characters used in the questioned documents:
 a. Used the same wordings as the questioned document if possible;
 
 Employ different degree of pressure and speed;
 Utilize the same or similar quality of paper; and
 Make no machine adjustment or ribbon change until at least several standards are
completed then prepare more.
 
 Each sheet should contain data on make, model, serial number- of machine and initials
or signature of investigators.
 Submit typewriters ribbon if it has not been change since the questioned typed.
 
 Procedure in Examininq Questioned Typewritinq documents
 
 Get a specimen from standard typewriting, measure the typeface pitch.
 Use the Three Points of preparing standards of typewriting.
 Examine the individual letters of the specimen.
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF TYPIST
 The points for consideration to identify the operation and who wrote particular piece of
typewriting are:
 1 . Spelling; 
 
 Punctuations;
 Use of Capital;
 Division of Words;

6, Construction of sentences;
 
 Observance or non-observance of grammatical rules; and
 Subject matter in general as relating to specifically to the typewriting itseh the matter to
consider in addition to those mention above are:
 
 
 Depth of identification of paragraph. (indention);
 
 Spacing before and/or after punctuations;
 Use of characters in an unusual ways as:
 
 
 ) Capital "l" for figure u 1"
 Small "rt for capital "l" 
  (3) Sign for the word "and"
 
 Arrangement of conclusions;
 Erroneous repetitions of letters or words;
 Arrangement of heading;
 Striking shift key letters in the wrong position;
 Repeated heavy impressions of certain letters;
 Uniform light impressions of certain characters;
 Peculiar erasures or corrections;
 Uneven margin;
 Balanced or unbalanced placing of letter on page;
 Length oflines; and
 Method of writing numbers, amounts and fractions.
 
 
 dentification of Age of the Typewriter:
 The basis of identification is upon selected letters. Each of these letters turn is classified
by means of various features of its designs into one of several roups:
 
 The three (3) basic letters in the system in the order of their use are ug" and "t", may not
be always positively identify the machine.
 
 The letters r, y, m, l, and s, serves as supplementary factors in the pica stems and a, r, y,
l, m, and comma(,) in the elite type.

CHAPTER Xl
 Scientific Handwriting Examination Process
 1. Examination Process:
 
 Analysis
 
 Properties or characteristics of the disputed writing are observed, taking into
consideration its feature of form (general or individual) and Jine quality (whether written
in a natural manner or not). Consistency and oneness of execution of the disputed writing
is also verified.
 Four important things to consider in initially analyzing the questioned and standard
writings before conducting a comparison.
 
 
 Determine whether date of execution of questioned and known writing are
contemporary.
 Determine age and physical condition of writer at the time of execution of questioned
and known writing.
 
 c. Determine lowest and highest level of writing capability of the writer thru the
questioned and known writing.
 d. Also, determine separately whether questioned and standard writings were written by
one person and how identifiable (individualistic) are the writings.
 Comnarieon
 Properties or characteristics of the unknown (disputed) as determined through analysis,
are compared with the known attributes of the standard items.
 Five Elements or Examination—aspects that should be considered in all handwriting
comparisons:
 
 General (system of writing) characteristics against individual features..
 Consistency or inconsistency of individual features, i.e., habitual, accidental, temporary
or rare.
 Whether writing is within the demonstrated capability of the writer. 
 Whether the individual features are hidden characteristics o not.
 Frequency of occurrence of a certain feature based o experience.
 
 Ill. Evaluation
 Writing elements or characteristics is assigned a value based on the following
 1. Degree of consistency with which it occurs throughout th
Degree of speed or spontaneity with which it was made;
 Extent to which it deviates from the prescribed ort copy book standards;
 Frequency with which it is encountered in writings taken at random; and
 Degree of conspicuousness of the element in question and others of a more or less
complexity.
 
 COMMON CAUSES OF ERRORS IN RENDERING A CONCLUSION
 
 
 1Basing opinion on inadequate amount of writing disputed or standards.
 
 2Allowing outside pressure, influence, prejudice, sympathy, or antipathy to effect a
conclusion.
 
 
 3. quality.

CHAPTER
 MISCELLANEOUS DOCUMENT PROBLEMS
 Documents as discussed in chapter two are questioned not only because of the signature
that t bare nor only because of the handwriting it contains but rather on a variety of ways
depending upon the issue that was raised and what it completely made up. This chapter
discussed on the miscellaneous problems that document examiner might encounter in
re}ation to. the genuineness of the document such as (1) Detection of alteration, (2)
{Decipherment and or restoration of erased writing, (3) Decipherment,pf obliterated
writing, (4 Examination of Indented writing, (5) developing -secret writings, (6)
Examination of Charred documents, (7) Examination of Contact writings, (8)
Examination of water-soaked documents, (9) Determination of age of Documents, (10)
Developing Latent Prints in 
 l. Alteration 
 Alterations in documents can either be an addition or deletion in its original content,
which is not a part of its original production.
 
 Alterations in documents do not necessarily mean a forgery in as much as there can be
alterations that are considered a part of the genuineness of the document. Usually an
obvious alteration is a common indication of a genuine alteration considering that the
author is not bothered by its atteration for anytime he or she can attest •to its genuineness.
On the other hand, documents containing partly concealed alterations are the usual
indication of forgery. This is true in most cases because of the attempt of the forger to
successfully passed
 
 document.
 ALTERATIONS ARE MADE IN ANY OF THE FOLLOWING MEANS:
 61. ERASURE
 Removal of the writing from the paper. An erasure can be made by mechanical or
chemical means. Erasure by abrasions which leaves spots and black patches too
pronounced to escape detection by the alert examiner. Eradication by means of
chemicals, on the other hand, leaves traces of some reagents in a document especially in
newly bleached document which when viewed in some instruments will often show a
yellowish discoloration.

a. ERASURE BY MECHANICAL MEANS

 This process involves the use of some abrasive objects like Indian tubber eraser,' knives,
razor blades and other sharp instrument. Using a rubber eraser by rubbing off the writings
usually leaves traces of partially left inks, thinner are, roughened surface which if Over
written rapidly absorbs inks and makes the writing ragged and fuzzy and translucently
under the transmitted light.
 
 Some forgers in the hope of hiding traces of abrasions, applies a
 
 solutions of rosin or glue pressed, smoothed and glazed the erased area; other make use
of wax, paraffin or starch to cover up a thinned. out placed caused by erasure.
 
 
 In the case of overwritten erased writing such as alterations can be identified through the
applications of transmitted light from the back of the paper and supplement with
photomicrograph of the surface to show traces or erased inks or writings.
 
 In a document pressed with rosin, hold the paper in a reflected fight and you will observe
that a smoothened area appears glossier than the rest of the paper or it looks duller than
the normal surface. If wax, paraffin or starch was used, bend the paperin a decided arc
and move it so that the bend or arc (not a break travels along the paper, which will stretch
the surface of the erased area and such coating will crack into place or powder.
  Heavy abrasipns which has eliminated all visible traces o the original writing and
seriously disturbed paper_fibers Of the affected area usually defies restorative efforts but
never the less through transmitted
 
 light the area of erasure can still be identified Nonetheless, we should not expect
impossibility when we really desire to decipher an erased writing. Neither should
pessimistically neglect restorative efforts because they are n successful in all cases.
 b. ERASURE BY CHEMICAL MEANS
 This process involves the use of some chemicals or reagents that is capable of oxidizing
or bleaching an ink. They are commonly called by document examiner as Ink Eradicator.
They are usually composed Of solutions of Chlorinated lime or soda. This mixture made
more active by first touching the ink mark with a fifty percent (50%) of acetic acid,
which accelerates the liberations of the chlorine gas, the chemical which is responsible
for bleaching the ink writing. The common commercial ink eradicator which is effective
with the widest range of inks of the "twosolution" type. The two solutions which have
been mixed before being

78 lAktaw

hydrochloric acid to form Prussian blue which makes the writing plainly visWe.
 The most scientific method of restoring ink is by fuming. Hold Of stretch the document
over a saucer containing ammonium sulfide. If the writing is very dim, support the
document over the saucer and cover With glass. The ammonium sulfide fumes will cause
the iron in the ink to dark enough to read. For permanent record, photograph this because
the moment the document is lifted out of the fumes the writing disappears again.
 Metallic iodine crystals may also be used in fuming, but they usually discolor the paper.
Though useful in helping to 'bring out iaterft ink lines, much care must be exercised in
their use. Indelible pencil writing can also be restored using ammonium sulfide or iodine
fumes and documents should be photographed by transmitted light (throwing strong light
through
 the paper from behind it.)
 METHODS OF EXAMINATIONS 'F ERADICATIONS IS SUSPECTED:
 
 PHYSICAL METHODS OR NON DESTTRUCTIVE PROCESS
 
 c. VISUAL INSPECTION- ARTIFICIAL LIGHT varying in intensity. and reflected at
different lighting is useful but later transmitted light, if the effect of the and oblique
light is unsatisfactory. DIRECT LIGHTING, it is the normal method of looking at the
is arrange a it less dir su ace of the paper and the eyes also iooks down on to
it. Transmitte light is of the most owerful methods in the docume armory. n
essential, it is nothing more than placing the document for front of a powerful source of
light so that the eyes perceives only the light which has traveled through the document. In
practice, it is most convenient to have the document supported on a Sheet of opalescent
glass, which act as both support and light diffuser. The sheet of glass is itself supported
above a powerful source of light by a wood or metal frame. To protect the eye from glare
a hole (n a sheet Of cardboard is moved over the portion of the document, which is to be
explored. This method is also very useful in showing watermarks Of the paper, although
ultra violet light is still much powerful in detecting watermarks. Oblique light, here the
source of light is a bulb Of comparatively low wattage about 40w. — Held in a fairly
close-fitting metal reflector titled so that the effective source of illumination is not the
bulb but the narrow area at the bottom of the inside of the reflector. It is useful in
bringing out any physical faults in the nature of the paper surface across which the light
passes.

(JLTRA VIOLET LIGHT Viewing the document under the ultra—er

 adLatLQLis very useful especially recently applied ink eradicators and watermarkings,
The term ultra violet light was derived from the color arrangement of the visible light
wherein the ultra violet rays where located nearly before the visible light or that portion
in the wavelength that is occupied by the violet color of the visible light. 
 PHOTOGRAPHY — Printing the paper as a negative on the process film is found to be
useful to conform any doubtful results of the visual and ultra violet light examinations.
Photography is very essential from the start of the process for it records the original
conditions of the document the moment the examiner receives the document. In order to
have an accurate descriptions of the visible results of the ultraviolet light and other light
examinations, photograph is an SOP for it will come a time that a need for presentations
of proof is of out most important. Photomicrography, thus play a special role in the
presentations of exhibits especially in showing minute characteristics of the questioned
document.
 
 ll. CHEMICAL METHODS
 
 AMMONIUM SULFIDE VAPOR—a reagent capable of coloring an
 
 erased area into black or brown if a stannous chloride or an
 
 inorganic reducing agents were used. in which case, photograph is necessary also
because visible results are only temporary as if the moment the document was removed
from the fumes, writings will also disappear.
 STRACH-JODINE PAPERIFUMES — a starch- iodine paper is moistened and touched
an area on which hypochlorite eradicator was recently used, the paper will tum blue. This
is due to the oxidation of the iodine to iodine, which in tum reacts with starch to produce
the blue color. A control test must be made on an untouched area of the paper.
 
 c, PH INDICATOR PAPERS — Merely pressing a piece of moistened pH indicator
paper against the suspected area is sufficient to show if any acid or basic substance has
been used. Many ink eradicators are acidic. A comparison test must be made on the other
part of the paper not close to the area in question.
 Ill. DECIPHERING OF ERASED WRITING
 a. VISUAL AND MICROCOPIC EXAMINATIONS - the
document is illuminated with light of varying sources, first reflecte@ then transmitted
and finally oblique Then, observation can be made either by naked eye or with the use of
a lens or microscope
 
 ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT — Some colored inks are fluorescents so that ii the erasure
has not removed all the inks from the fibers of the paper, traces maybe seen in the
intersection of the paper when viewed under the ultra violet light.
 POLARIZED LIGHT — This is useful for developing penal writing which was erased.
This principle is based upon the fact that traces of graphite which cannot be seen in an
ordinary light can be detected to polarized light through polarized screen as is used _in
photography or a document may be viewed through the low power of polarizing
microscope. 
 PHOTOGRAPHY — A photograph of the erased surface may be made using process
film, panchromatic film or infrared film. In all cases, proper filter must be used.
 
  e. CHEMICAL METHODS — Iodine fumes is considered to be very useful since it
reacts in almost all kinds of erased inks and it is also the only chemical that can be used
deciphering erased pencil writing, carbon and nigrosine inks. Others are ammonium and
potassium sulfide, thiocynite or hydroxide for other types of inks.
  2. OBLITERATION
 
 It refers to the obscuring of writing by superimposing inks, pencil or other marking
materials. It is otherwise ælled as Smeared Over Writing. A person may cross out or
obliterate an ink writing with the same ink, with different inks, crayon, pencil or other
pigments. The intentional obliteration of writing by overwriting or crossing out is seldom
used for fraudulent purposes because of its obviousness. Nevertheless, such cases may be
encountered in ail types of documents. Success at permanently hiding the original writing
depends on the material that is used to cover the writing. If it was done with the same ink
as the original writing, recovery will be difficult, if not impossible. However, if the two
inks are of different chemical composition, photography with infra-red sensitive film may
reveal the original writing. Infra-red radiation may pass through the paper layer of writing
while being absorbed by the underlying area, 'In one case, a canvas money bag was
recovered from the automobile of a suspect in a daring $50,000 robbery. The area of the
bag, which normally contained the identifying numbers, was saturated with a heavy blue-
bleck ink which entirely obliterated all traces of identifying markings. The saturations
was so dense that it rendered

opaque the effected area of the bag in what seemed to have been obvious effort to prevent
identification of the bag. Despite of the opacity of the near black saturation to transmitted
light, it proved relatively transparent to infrared radiation. Retracing and overwriting
when one writing is made over another, the strokes made last show clearly on top. The
last writing was made at least several minutes after the first had dried and therefore there
is no fusing or spreading of the ink on the places where the strokes or lines crossed.
 In case of a writing obliterated by a blue crayon, acetone or any inorganic, solvent can be
used to dissolve the crayon. If a suitable solvent is not immediately known, the
preliminary experiments on the pigments similar to those involved in the obliteration may
be made to find what solvent will remove the covering pigments without destroying the
or leaving the original writing
 
 undisturbed. The following solvents may be tried: water, alcohol, benzene, acetone,
carbon tetrachioride, toluene; xylener turpentine; amyl acetat, and morpholine.
 If the obliteration was accomplished by the use of paper cardboard, or similar materials
to cover the writing dry carbon tetrachloride or benzene may be used to render the reverse
side translucent by rubbing against the surface, of the paper is then made.
 The following methods are offered in 
 
 Visual observation 
 
 Fuming with iodine or in some cases with ammonia. ammonium sulfide, or thiocyanic
acid, these three (3) are very useful if iron is a constituent of the writing.
 Bleaching the covering 
 Photography with color 
 
 Very recently, Joseph D. Nicole, Chief technician of Dade Country Criminal Bureau of
investigation laboratory develop a new method of reproducing cancelled writing made
with printing inks composed of organic dyes by aPplication of "Thermo Fax" duplicating
machine. This machine can • only reproduce writing, which are made up of graphite or
carbon black. 
 
 ADDITION
 
 The validity of a document is sometimes quite naturally questioned because it contains
those parts in the form of interlineations or additions, which may greatly change, extend,
or limit its effect and value. In a case of this kind, the question to be determined is of
course whether the additions or Page 83 -84 laktaw

Many documents have been change by substitution of a whole fraudulent sheet for a
genuine sheet where a document consist more than one sheet. Wills, patent applications,
and other documents have thus been altered and no doubt have in many instances wholly
escaped detection. This naturally is a problem involving almost all the elements or phases
of a document and questions may arise regarding paper, watermarks, ink, handwriting,
typewriting, binding, contents, continuity and other questions discussed in various
preceding chapters. An investigation of this kind should give attention to all these
matters.
 OTHER FORMS OF ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS
 
 A. INVISIBLE WRmNG
 
 This type of writing specifically referring to writing which have no readily visible or
legible writing for they have been made by using a sympathetic ink or invisible ink. It is
generally used by criminals to avoid possible interception of the information they want to
transmit. The development and detection of this is quite simple but when in a more
serious aspects of it like in cases of espionage, developing is somewhat a difficult task.
The rationale of it lies on- the fact that persons involved in espionage usually make use of
no ordinary chemicals in preparing their correspondence compare to that of an ordinary
criminals who have a limited mentally respecting the use of sympathetic inks. Since an
invisible vmting is done using a &iemical much of its development depends on the
type of chemicals to be applied to make the writing legible.
 
 In case of possible presence of an invisible writing, the first step that the investigator
should do is to mark and photograph any document in order to preserve the original
condition necessary for the court presentation or other purposes. Methods of the
development can be done by physical or chemical means but still physiæl means should
always be the first option since it does not give any damage to the documents.
 B . PHYSICAL METHODS
 The methods like the usual one involve the use of light source of varying intensity. It
includes examination by transmitted light, oblique light, reflected light, ultraviolet light,
and infrared light: The application of heat is also one method Of
 which of the essence for there are invisible writing which are developed when the
document is dried and was heated. For example, hydrated cobaltous chloride is pink but
forms a colorless solution when diluted If writing with this substance are heated, it losses
it water of hydration and becomes blue.
 C .CHEMICAL. METHODS
 chemical methods of developing an invisible writing is Often accomplished using the
fuming method.

D, CHARRED OR BURNED DOCUMENTS

 Very often you maybe asked to examine blackened or partially burnf documents.
Documents or paper bills, which have been burned eithÉ accidentally or intentionally
may sometimes be deciphered in the laboratory. Th method of examination will depend
on the degree of burning and the kind c paper and ink used. Usually burned papers do hot
remain intact; instead the appear in fragments, the edge of which is frequently curled.
This piece is quifr brittle and great difficulty is often encountered in setting the fragments
in plane so that they may be photographed. The deciphering of charred documents often
proves impossible and is variably difficult inspite of the infallible methods describe by
other persons who have a little information regarding the burned document. The principle
of possible deciphering of the writing lies on the presence of enough iron compounds on
the charred papers that may be develop using some artificial light strikes in a certain way,
same is tue when graphite and indelible pencil marks. Before any attempt to examine this
type of altered document, precaution. should be taken into consideration on the fact that
charred documents are often so brittle that due care should be exercise in order not to
destroy the paper. If the charring 'is not severe, the documents may be mounted on a glass
using a 2% collusion in amyl acetate, as adhesive, If the charring is severe and the
fragments are very brittle; the paper is first placed in a fuming chamber of desiccators
with a tray of water at the bottom. The paper by
 
 absorbing the moisture become more flexible Once this condition is attained, the
fragments can be placed carefully between glass plates and photographed.
 writing visible, a photograph with a
 process film can be made first to increase the contrast and to record the writing which
may be visible. Chemical methods may be used to achieve contrast for Photographic
work other than the use of Jight. Using a sensitized emulsion plates pressed interleaving
the paper and leave in contrast for about two weeks, the Plates are then developed, fixed
and washed. A carbonized sheet used by Murray can also be utilized in a piece of glass is
set into the enamel tray, as percent of aqueous solution of silver nitrate is carefully
poured into the tray. A Second glass plate is set to cover the paper to protect from
damage. The writing appears as black image against a gray background. The writing is
photographed in situ in Order to preserve the result of the examination and then the
document is Washed several times with distilled water to remove excess of silver nitrate
and dried. The principle of its development depends largely on the presence of Certain
agents in the ink that can reduce silver ions into a free silver. This method is best to be
undertaken in a room that is free from direct sunlight.
 Another method devised by Taylor and Walls employed chloral hydrate to develop the
printing or writing on charred document. This examination is done using a solution
containing 25 grams of chloral hydrate in 125 of ethyl alcohol in which the document is
to be immersed and taken out immediately and dried at 60

degree Celsius. This procedure is repeated several times until a mass of chloral hydrate
corstals from the solution of which 13cc of glycerin have been added. The doament is
again dried at 60degtee CelsiuS. Both sides are examined and photographed using
process film.
 Mrs. Purisima T. Dumaul, NBL Chemist, has her own method of producing bumed
money by heating the specimen in a furnace under controlled temperature and time
suficient to convert the carbon deposit to carbon dioxide. men this is through the original
design, serial number and denomination of the paper will be restored. Examples of this
were bumed money submitted by the 
 Central bank which was reproduced.
 E. INDENTED WRITING
 Indented writing usually applied to a partial depressions appearing on a sheet of paper
underneath the one on which the -visible writing appears. This depressions or indentions
are due to the application of pressure on the writing instrument and would appear as a
carbon copy if a sheet of paper has been properly inserted. it can also appear on a black
sheet of paper used as the backing of the sheet while typing or writing out certain
message. Although, writing are often illegible the message so impressed can be possibly
develop or become more legible by appropriate treatment. This kind of writing can often
be found in alterations made to a document consisting of two or more pages. An
 
 example of this is in a case of a questioned will, where the husband of the
 
 diseased claimed that the alterations found on the will was made before it was signed.
Upon examinations of the document, it was found that on the second page of the will
showed some indented writings over the typewritten words. Common sense will teli you
testator had signed the will.
 deciphering 
 A. PHYSICAL
 
 SIDE LIGHTING — Letting a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost horizontally
over the surface of the paper. The indentions will appear as a shadow as on the untouched
surface sand the writing will then be outlined.
 
 USE OF POWERS — This method is just same with. procedure done in developing
fingerprint, which requires a considerable skill and best choice of powder for the best
results of the examination.
 INDENTION ON THE REVERSE SIDE In cases Of obliterations where the writing on
a sheet of paper has been obscured by overwriting with inks, pencil or crayon, it is
sometimes possible to discem the nature of the

writing by examination of the reverse side. If the original writing of typewriting was
made with heavy strokes, the paper will be pushed out on the reverse side in the pattem of
the writing, such indented writing may be reproduced by photography with side lighting
as described above.
 B, CHEMICAL
 
 FUMING — Some procedure with the deciphering of erased writing or obliterated
writing. Usually these •methods leave no perceptible 'trace ci any sort of treatment
because of the absence of the ink.
 
 USE OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS - The principle behind the use of the chemical
solutions due to the fact that the presSure applied to the paper will create a deformation
of the fiber structure of the paper beneath. If an
 
 
 iodine solution (lg iodine, 8g potassium iodide in Bcc of water and adding 20cc of
glycerin) is dabbed with cotton on the paper, the indented writing will become readily
visible and can then be photographed.
 The paper can be restored to its original condition by dabbing it with 1% solution of
hypo sodium thiosulfate. Always remember that this method does not apply to all kinds
of paper especially to a ruled paper for the lines will appear slightly smudged.
 
 CONTACT WRITING 
 
 Partially visibie writing due to the sudden contact of a blank paper into another paper
containing freshly applied inks. Cases Of this are Often referred to the NBI, in one case
an envelope in which a letter was sent to one of the detained prisoners was found to
contain traces of illegible writing. These invisible, traces which nothing but constituents
of the ink used in Writing the letter and placed inside the envelope before the writing
 
 was allowed to dry, may be processed and photographed.
 The following procedure of Paul Ermel is recommended for the processing of the contact
writing.
 
 The surface of the paper is treated in a dark room by red light with a solution composed
of 5g silver nitrate, lg citric acid, 0.5g tartaric acid and three (3) drops of nitric acid in
100g of distilled water. The writing is developed in ordinary light and fixed with ordinary
fixation. Since the process of fixation weakens the intensity of the letters, it is advisable
to photograph the writing first:
 The principie of this method is "based on the oxidation of the ferrous ion of the ink by
the silver nitrate to ferric ion and reduction of silver, which is deposited.

Since the reaction takes place at boiling temperature, it is to add citric and tartaric acids to
the reagent in order to form complexions with the ferric ions, which are formed. This
method is applied only if the treatment is made before the treatment is made before the
lapse of thirty days since only a negligible amount of iron is present in the inks after this
period.
 If the inks involved the contact writing contains iron, copper, and
 vanadium, it is possible to develop the illegible writing by the following methods:
 
 IRON — Solution of ammonium thiocyanate and sodium sulfide may be used to develop
the cationic pictures i.e. the colored compound, which results when the metallic cation
reacts with the reagent, forming an outline of the original writing.
 CHROMIUM With a capillary pipette and to the area one(l) drop of solution containing
4g sodium hypo chlorite and 2g barium chloride in 1200cc of distilled water. After a few
seconds, add a very small amount of phenol and one (1) drop of 1% diphenylacarbazide
solution of alcohol. A red color will appear which can bedtscharged by adding a few
drops of 10%sulfuric acid solution. A blue color appears if cromate is present and an
outline of a mirror image of the originaLwriting will be apparent. Any result must be
photographed.
 
 3, COPPER A drop of 2% ammonium hydroxide -is placed on the area selected. After a
few seconds, a drop of dithizone (diphenylacarbazone) is added (10 mg of dithizone in
500cc carbon tetrachloride). The green color of the reagent changes to brown, if copper is
present and reverse outline of the original writing will develop. Photograph the .result.
 
 4. VANADIUM — To the area selected, add one (1) drop of a solution Of 12% nitric
acid. After a few minutes, add one (1) drop of 1% hydrogen peroxide solution avoiding
excess. If vanadium is present, a reddish brown color will be developed and reversed
outline of the original writing
 
  will appear. Photograph the result.
 DENTIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS THROUGH WATERMARKS
 Every document made or manufactured contains distinctive unaracteristics which makes
a paper different from the other paper. Such characteristics are called watermarks. This
was placed on the paper during the time of its manufacture through the aid of dandy roll.

Watermarks are being identified using transmitted light gadget with an illumination,
either from the back or bottom of the paper that will guit to be identified. In some
instances, it can also be used to dotcrmine the dato Of manufacture of papers because
sometimes they make different designs depending upon the date of manufacture. This is
true to say especially in the most famous paper makers. Thus, in order to have an accurate
determination of papers, examiner should strive to go in contact with the different
manufacturers for their records of watermarks they are using in the manufacture of the
papers.
 Accidental Markings and Impressions on a Document
 The preparation of a document represents a series of planned acts, but at times important
elements become part of the document purely by chance and not through the
premeditated design of either those who prepared the document or those who
subsequently handle it, In this way, latent fingerprints, writings offset from some other
document, embossing from writing strokes that are not part of the page in question, and
traces of foreign matter with which the document has been in contact find their way into
it. More than likely their presence is entirely unknown the documents author, but under
propitious ciræmstances these chance markings and additions can play a significant role.
 LATENT FINGERPRINTS
 Latent (Invisible) fingerprints are piace upon papers simply by handling
 
 and remain until chemically developed. The case with which they are added to a paper
and their invisibility is definite assets, especially in investigations. If it is possible to
develop an identifiabie print to be compared with those of suspect, a very positive form
of evidence may be forthcoming. With some types of criminal investigation, such as
stolen checks cashed with a disguised, fraudulent endorsement, such a print can assume
significant importance.

Alteration
– refers to any form of changes be it an addition or a deletion to the original contents
of a document.
Black papers – a sheet of paper which contains no visible or readily visible writing.
At times it might only contains certain depressed mark or latent writing that can be
made legible with proper treatment,
Characteristics – refers to any property or mark which serves a distinguishing
traits and in questioned document examination it is commonly referred to as
Identifying Details. There are two groups of characteristics, class and individual
Collection – as used in this text, refers to critical comparison of two or more
specimen or side by side examination
Comparison – is the act of setting two or more specimen/items side by side to weigh
their identifying qualities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act in which
the elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the other.
Cursive Writing – specimen of writing in which the letter arefor the most part joined
together.
Document examiner – one who studies scientifically the detailsand elements of
documents so as to determine their source or to determine their authenticity. he also
referred to a handwriting identification experts although at present questioned
document examiner’s at work are so caried and complex.
Decipherment – refers to the process of making clear or out of what is otherwise
illegible or what has been effaced.
Disguised writing – is a specimen of writing executed deliberately by the author in
trying to alter his usual writing habits in the hope of hiding his identity.
Examination – is the act of making a close or critical study of any material so as to
discover facts about them.
Expert witness – it is a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his
special technical training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding
the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, that is involved in a lawsuit. His purpose in
court is to make a proper interpretation of some information so as to assist the court in
properly administering justice. Document examiner testifies in court as an expert
witness once he/she was allowed to do so.
Forgery – it refers to the act of simulating or copying or tracing somebody’s signature
without the permission of the later, for profit. It is also defined as the act of falsifying
and counterfeiting of treasury or bank notes, paper bills or any instruments payable to
bearer or order.
Guided writing – specimen of writing executed while the writer’s hand is at steadied.
Hand lettering – any disconnected style of writing also known as hand printing.
Holographic document – any document which is completely written and signed by
one person. Derived from the latin word “holo” which means “hand” and “graph”
which means “writing”.
Model signature – a genuine signature which has been used in preparing simulated or
traced forgery. Also known as model.
 Natural writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
control or alter its identifying habits.
Restoration – it refers to the process by which an erased writing is developed or
brought out again on the surface of the document itself.
Reference collection – material compiled and organized by the document examiner to
assist him in answering special questions comprises his reference collections which he
regularly maintained.
Sample – refers to a selected, representative portion of the whole. Is the some or few
representatives of the general population.
Significant writing habits – refers to characteristics of writing which is sufficiently
unique and well fixed to serve as a strong basis for the identity or non-identity of the
writing.
Slant – refers to the degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline or the slope
of the writing.
Standards – are the condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if
adequate and proper, should contain a true cross-section of the material from the
known source. They are design to be used for comparison and identification of
document.
Writing – it is the result of a very complicated series of acts being as a whole or a
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long
continued painstaking effort.
Writing condition – it includes both the circumstances under which the writing was
prepared and the factors which influence the writer’s ability to write at the time of
execution.
Writing habits – refers to any repeated elements or details which may serve to
individualize writing
Wrong handed writing – any writing executed with the opposite hand from that
normally used can be term “wrong-handed writing”. This is one means of disguise.
KIND OF TREMOR
Genuine Tremor
a. Tremor of old age 
b. Tremor of weakness or sickness
c. Tremor of illiteracy – tremor that is not due to weakening of the
muscle bu due to lack of skills on the part of the writer
Tremor of fraud – refers to tremor at the wrong place or tremor that
is wrongly placed
 
ELEMENTS OF WRITING MOVEMENTS
Writing (pen) pressure – is the average force with which the pen comes in
contact with the paper or the usual force involves in the writing.
Pen emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface
with increase pressure of writing.
Rhythm – is the balance quality of movement or the harmonious recurrence of the
strokes or impulse.
Skills – refers to the relative degree of the writer’s proficiency.
Speed – cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting by it can be
interpreted in broad term as to slow and drawn, deliberate average and rapid.
Pen-lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from
the paper.
Shading – refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter strokes or the
widening of the in strokes due to the added ink on the flexible pen point or the use of
the stub pen.
Pen position – is the location of the pen in relation to the paper surface, which can be
determined by the presence of the emphasis of pen shading.
Pen hold / pen scope – represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest is the
average scope or limits of the pen during the process of writing with the wrist of the
hand at still.
Retracing or Retrace – is the stroke that goes back over another writing strokes, it is
slightly to occur in the others handwriting.
Retouching or patching – Is a stroke going back to repair a defective portion of the
writing stroke. Careful patching is a common fault in forgeries.
CLASSES OF SIGNATURE
Formal or complete – class of signature used in acknowledging important document
such as will, checks, contract and business papers.
Informal or Cursory – a class of signature for routinely executed document or made
for personal correspondence.
Careless scribble – used for mail carrier, deliver of goods, purchase of equipment’s
and an autograph collector.
 
 
Decipherment of Erased Writings
Erasure – refers to removal of writings or any part of a document either my
mechanical or chemical process.
Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive method through rubbing or
scrapping.
Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of bleaching agent called in eradicator.
Usually examined with the aid of fuming, transmitted light, oblique light and ultra-
violet light examination.
Decipherment of Obliterated Writing
Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it
undecipherable or illegible.
Done with the used of superimposing inks.
Usually examined with the used of infra-red lights
Examination of Charred Document and water soaked document
Charred Document – refers to partly burned or brittle document. Decipherment is
usually accomplished with the used of infra-red light examination.
Development of Invisible Writing
Invisible Writing – writing that has no readily visible ink strokes. Made by
sympathetic inks such as acids, juice and others. They are possible of development
depending on the ink used methods of development can be by heat, water, chemical
fuming or by ultra violet light process.
Decipherment of Contract Writing
Contract writing – refers to partially visible ink strokes cause by sudden contact
between a sheet of paper with another paper containing fresh ink. Can be enhanced
through fuming or ultra violet process.
 
WRITING AND SIGNATURE
System Writing – is a combination of the basic shape and designs of letter and the
writing movement which was taught in school.
Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic design of letters that is fundamental
to the writing system.
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as,
pressure, rhythm, pen-lifting, etc.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Finger (used by beginners)
Hand (wrist serves as the point of pivotal and of limited freedom)
Forearm (most skillful type of movement)
Whole arm (used for ornamental or large writings)
TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS 
Class Characteristics – characteristics or properties which are common or which can
be found in the specimen writing of otherperson. Gross characteristics.
Individual Characteristics – Which are highly personal or peculiar. That which is
unlikely to occur in other’s hand writing.
METHODS OF TRACING
Carbon outline process – used of carbon paper.
Indention process – used of considerable pressure, canal-like process
Projection or transmitted light process – used of light from the back or bottom.
MAJOR TYPES OF FORGERY
Simple forgery – a forges signature where no attempt has been made to make a copy
or facsimile of the genuine writing of a person purported to sign document. Also
known as SPURIOUS SIGNATURE.
Simulated or Copied forgery – forged signature which resembles the genuine
signature written in free hand. Considered as the most skillful form of forgery.
Traced forgery – forged signature which closely resembles the genuine made by
some tracing (drawing) process or outline form.