Coffee

 Prepare a brief write up on its

1. Description
-anatomy
-morphology
-family
-genius
-appearance
-the part you consider
2. Current status in terms of current losses incurred and production data (past 5
years data)
-PSA
3. Processing unit operations that it will undergo when processed
–cleaning, sorting, drying

Guide Questions
1. Define engineering property and discuss its importance
2. Enumerate the different engineering properties and explain its importance to
agricultural processing; and
3. Enumerate and explain its applications
A coffee bean is a seed of the Coffea plant and the source for coffee. It is the pip inside
the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Just like ordinary cherries, the coffee
fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically
beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to true beans. The
fruits; cherries or berries, most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides
together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two.
This is called a "peaberry". The peaberry occurs only between 10% and 15% of the
time, and it is a fairly common (yet scientifically unproven) belief that they have more
flavour than normal coffee beans.[3] Like Brazil nuts (a seed) and white rice, coffee
beans consist mostly of endosperm.[4]
The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the Arabica and
the Robusta; ~60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.
[5]
 Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% caffeine and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0%
caffeine.[6] As coffee is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee
beans are a major cash crop and an important export product, accounting for over 50%
of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.[7] In 2017, 70% of total coffee
production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.[8]

The coffee tree averages from 5–10 m (16–33 ft) in height. As the tree gets older, it
produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance.
Coffee plants are often grown in rows a few feet apart (depending on the desired
density chosen by the farmer). Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or
other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the
sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee
beans are grown at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C (59 and 75 °F) and Robusta at
24–30 °C (75–86 °F) and receive between 150 and 300 cm (59 and 118 in) of rainfall
per year.[16] Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is
developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
Two lesser known species grown for consumption are Coffea liberica and Coffea
racemosa.

Processing[edit]
Further information: Processing of coffee
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking",
where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed
from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee
because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will
harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the
harvest must be sorted.
The Asian palm civet eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet
prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its
digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp
surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested,
processed and sold as a niche product. Once they are finally processed, these beans
are called kopi luwak, and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed"
process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa.
The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented
– soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp
residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-
quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well.
Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then
spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly
for even drying.

Processing[edit]
Further information: Processing of coffee
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking",
where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed
from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee
because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will
harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the
harvest must be sorted.
The Asian palm civet eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet
prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its
digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp
surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested,
processed and sold as a niche product. Once they are finally processed, these beans
are called kopi luwak, and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed"
process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa.
The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented
– soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp
residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-
quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well.
Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then
spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly
for even drying.

Composition
Coffee cherry cross-section
The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans.
These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and
mucilage and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are
green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh
300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green
coffee beans, such as caffeine, deter many insects and animals from eating them.
Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee
bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile nitrogenous compounds (including alkaloids,
trigonelline, proteins, and free amino acids) and carbohydrates are of major importance
in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid
2000s, green coffee extract has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been
clinically studied for its chlorogenic acid content and for its lipolytic and weight-loss
properties.

Nonvolatile alkaloids

Immature Coffea canephora berries on a tree in Goa, India

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted
coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green
coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green
coffee beans.[18] Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine,
liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid
noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process, usually
about 15 minutes at 230 °C (446 °F), whereas the concentrations of most other
alkaloids are not changed.[citation needed] The solubility of caffeine in water increases
with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, or tartaric acid,
all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, 1 g (0.035 oz) of caffeine
dissolves in 46 ml (1.6 US fl oz) of water at room temperature, and 5.5 ml (0.19 US fl
oz) at 80 °C (176 °F).[19] The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in
water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.[citation needed]

Trigonelline (N-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of vitamin B6 that is not as bitter as

caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting
temperature of 230 °C (446 °F), 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to nicotinic acid,
leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.[20][21]

Proteins and amino acids

Proteins account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins
are of the 11-S storage kind[22] (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22
kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee
beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids
under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to
generation of Maillard reaction products.[23] High temperature and oxygen
concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-
molecular-weight peptides and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the
presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other
proteins include enzymes, such as catalase and polyphenol oxidase, which are
important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino
acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica
coffee). In Coffea arabica, alanine is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e.
1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in C. robusta, alanine is
present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.[24][25] The free
hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste,
making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh
green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: isoleucine 81
mg/kg, leucine 100 mg/kg, valine 93 mg/kg, tyrosine 81 mg/kg, phenylalanine 133
mg/kg. The concentration of gamma-aminobutyric acid (a neurotransmitter) has been
determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from Tanzania.
[26] Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in
green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products
(reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of
the amino acids). Further, diketopiperazines, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-
leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino
acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.[27] The bitter flavor
of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of
diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its
bitterness.[28]

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The
carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by polysaccharides, such as
arabinogalactan, galactomannan, and cellulose, contributing to the tasteless flavor of
green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans,
with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked
galactan main chains, with frequent members of arabinose (pentose) and galactose
(hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by
stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to
yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain
of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical
breakdown and less soluble in water.[29] The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan
in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of
the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.[30] Free
monosaccharides are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free
part of monosaccharides contains sucrose (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100g of
arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100g. In arabica
green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100g, free fructose 23
to 30 mg/100g; free galactose 35 mg/100g and mannitol 50 mg/100g dried coffee
beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for hydroxyl radicals, which are
generated during the peroxidation of lipids in biological membranes.[31]

Lipids
The lipids found in green coffee include: linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic
acid, arachidic acid, diterpenes, triglycerides, unsaturated long-chain fatty acids, esters,
and amides. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 and 14
g/100 g.[32] Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee
beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides
with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid
content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a
wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 to 300 mg lipids/100 g dried green
coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such
molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.[33] Lipids of the
interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30%
to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids
(13.5 to 17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8 to 10.7 g
lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the
lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include cafestol, kahweol and 16-O-
methylcafestol. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in in vitro experiments to
protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.[34] In coffee oil from green coffee beans
the diterpenes are esterified with saturated long chain fatty acids.

Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids

Chlorogenic acids belong to a group of compounds known as phenolic acids, which are
antioxidants. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is
65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.Garg, Satish
K. (2021). Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity. pp. 725–748.
At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a
residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green
tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a
valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous
compounds comprising caffeic acid, ferulic acid and 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid, which
are connected by an ester bond to the hydroxyl groups of quinic acid.[35] The
antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.[36] Chlorogenic acids have
a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/l water. At higher concentrations of 1
g/l water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine
and are important modulators of taste.

Volatile compounds
Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, aldehydes,
and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of pyrazines (green-
herbeaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less
pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success
was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that
primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped
liquid from the beans.[37] Many consumers experiment with creating green bean
"extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of
steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A
steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used
as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just
isolated caffeine extract.[38] The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with
acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of
the extract.

When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma
of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting,
the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised.
Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in
green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have
been identified, including acetic acid (pungent, unpleasant odor), propionic acid (odor of
sour milk, or butter), butanoic acid (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2
mg/100g coffee beans), pentanoic acid (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee
at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), hexanoic acid (fatty-rancid odor), heptanoic acid (fatty
odor), octanoic acid (repulsive oily rancid odor); nonanoic acid (mild nut-like fatty odor);
decanoic acid (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – 3-methyl-
valeric acid (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), acetaldehyde (pungent-
nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at
concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), propanal (choking effect on respiratory system,
penetrating-nauseating), butanal (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans
at 2 to 7 mg/kg), or pentanal (very repulsive nauseating effect).[39]

Wikipedia
UNDERSTANDING THE COFFEE PLANT

The beans we roast, grind, and brew to make coffee are the seeds of a fruit. The coffee
plant produces coffee cherries, and the beans are the seeds inside.

Coffee trees can naturally grow to over 30 ft/9 m. But producers prune and stump plants
short to conserve the plants’ energy and to help harvesting. Smaller trees have better
yield and quality in a limited space.

Each tree is covered with green, waxy leaves that grow in pairs and coffee cherries
grow along its branches. Depending on the variety, it takes three to four years for a
coffee plant to produce fruit. The National Coffee Association USA states that the
average coffee tree produces 10 lbs of coffee cherry per year, which results in around 2
lbs of green beans.

But there are different varieties of coffee and their beans have many different
characteristics. Size, flavor, and disease resistance vary, among other factors.

THE LAYERS OF A COFFEE CHERRY

A coffee cherry’s skin is called the exocarp. It is green until it ripens to a bright red,
yellow, orange, or even pink, depending on variety. Green coffee cherries shouldn’t be
confused with green coffee beans, which are the unroasted seeds from inside the ripe
coffee cherry.

Beneath the cherry skin is a thin layer called the mesocarp, more commonly known as
the pulp. Mucilage is the inner layer of the pulp. There’s also a layer of pectin
underneath the mucilage.These layers are full of sugars, which are important during
the fermentation process.

Then we reach the coffee seeds, which are technically called the endosperm but that
we know better as beans. There are usually two beans in a coffee cherry, each of which
is covered by a thin epidermis known as the silverskin and a papery hull that we call
parchment (technically the endocarp).

The parchment is usually removed in hulling, which is the first step in the dry milling
process. Machines or millstones are used to remove any remaining fruit and the dried
parchment from the beans. But sometimes green beans are sold with this layer intact
as parchment coffee.

The silverskin is a group of sclerenchyma cells that are strongly attached to the beans.
These cells form to support and protect the seed. They come off during roasting, when
they are known as chaff.
Sometimes there is just one seed inside a coffee cherry and it is rounder and larger that
usual. This happens in about 5% of coffee cherries and the beans are known as
peaberries.

Peaberries can be an anatomical variation of the plant or they can form when there is
insufficient pollination and one ovule isn’t fertilized. Sometimes the seed simply fails to
grow, whether due to genetic causes or environmental conditions. Peaberries usually
occur in the parts of the coffee plant that are exposed to severe weather conditions.

There is some debate over whether peaberries have a sweeter and more desirable

flavour and they are sometimes sold at a premium. Regardless of whether you think
they taste different, their rounded shape allows for better rolling in the roasting drum. So
it’s best to keep them apart from other beans to avoid an inconsistent roast.

HOW ANATOMY IMPACTS YOUR CUP

Coffee cherry skin and fruit is usually discarded, but sometimes they are dried to make
cascara for tea and other products.

It is difficult to remove skin and mucilage from coffee beans and different processing
methods have developed to do so. Each method has an effect on the flavour and profile
of the final coffee.

For example, washed coffee has all of the fruit flesh removed before drying. But in
natural coffee the fruit flesh is removed after drying. In honey and pulped natural
processing, the skin and sometimes part of the mucilage is removed before drying but
the remaining mucilage and other layers are removed after.

Leaving the mucilage on results in sweeter coffee with more body. It’s easier to
understand why if we compare both dry and wet post-harvest processes.

When coffee cherries are taken from the branch, they start to germinate. This uses the
sugar in the seed. Germination stops when drying begins. Natural processed coffees go
to the drying terrace earlier than pulped naturals or washed coffees. Because of this,
more sugars remain in the naturals and you end up with a sweeter bean.

Washed coffees have clean, more consistent flavours that can show off a lot of acidity.
Natural coffees have a lot more fruitiness, sweetness, and body.

The sugars of the mucilage also ferment during both dry and wet processing, and this
has an impact on the final flavor. Without careful monitoring and consistent drying,
the unpredictable process of fermentation can undesirable qualities.
https://perfectdailygrind.com/2019/02/what-is-a-coffee-bean-the-anatomy-of-the-coffee-
cherry/

What Is a Coffee Bean? The Anatomy of The Coffee Cherry

-Perfect Daly Grind

Everyone recognizes a roasted coffee bean, but you might not recognize an actual
coffee plant.

Coffee trees are pruned short to conserve their energy and aid in harvesting, but can
grow to more than 30 feet (9 meters) high. Each tree is covered with green, waxy leaves
growing opposite each other in pairs. Coffee cherries grow along the branches.
Because it grows in a continuous cycle, it’s not unusual to see flowers, green fruit and
ripe fruit simultaneously on a single tree.
It takes nearly a year for a cherry to mature after first flowering, and about 5 years of
growth to reach full fruit production. While coffee plants can live up to 100 years, they
are generally the most productive between the ages of 7 and 20. Proper care can
maintain and even increase their output over the years, depending on the variety. The
average coffee tree produces 10 pounds of coffee cherry per year, or 2 pounds of green
beans.
All commercially grown coffee is from a region of the world called the Coffee Belt. The
trees grow best in rich soil, with mild temperatures, frequent rain and shaded sun.
 

Botanical classification

Coffee traces its origin to a genus of plants known as Coffea.  Within the genus there
are over 500 genera and 6,000 species of tropical trees and shrubs. Experts estimate
that there are anywhere from 25 to 100 species of coffee plants.
The genus was first described in the 18th century by the Swedish botanist, Carolus
Linneaus, who also described Coffea Arabica in his Species Plantarum in 1753.
Botanists have disagreed ever since on the exact classification, since coffee plants can
range widely. They can be small shrubs to tall trees, with leaves from one to 16 inches
in size, and in colors from purple or yellow to the predominant dark green.
In the commercial coffee industry, there are two important coffee species — Arabica
and Robusta.
Coffea Arabica — C. Arabica 
Varieties: Bourbon, Typica, Caturra, Mundo Novo, Tico, San Ramon, Jamaican Blue
Mountain
Coffea Arabica is descended from the original coffee trees discovered in Ethiopia. 
These trees produce a fine, mild, aromatic coffee and represent approximately 70% of
the world's coffee production. The beans are flatter and more elongated than Robusta
and lower in caffeine.
On the world market, Arabica coffees bring the highest prices.  The better Arabicas are
high grown coffees — generally grown between 2,000 to 6,000 feet (610 to 1830
meters) above sea level — though optimal altitude varies with proximity to the equator. 
The most important factor is that temperatures must remain mild, ideally between 59 -
75 degrees Fahrenheit, with about 60 inches of rainfall a year. The trees are hearty, but
a heavy frost will kill them.  
Arabica trees are costly to cultivate because the ideal terrain tends to be steep and
access is difficult. Also, because the trees are more disease-prone than Robusta, they
require additional care and attention. 

Coffea canephora — C. canephora var. Robusta

Variety: Robusta
Most of the world's Robusta is grown in Central and Western Africa, parts of Southeast
Asia, including Indonesia and Vietnam, and in Brazil. Production of Robusta is
increasing, though it accounts for only about 30% of the world market. 
Robusta is primarily used in blends and for instant coffees. The Robusta bean itself
tends to be slightly rounder and smaller than an Arabica bean.  
The Robusta tree is heartier and more resistant to disease and parasites, which makes
it easier and cheaper to cultivate. It also has the advantage of being able to withstand
warmer climates, preferring constant temperatures between 75 and 85 degrees
Fahrenheit, which enables it to grow at far lower altitudes than Arabica.  
It requires about 60 inches of rainfall a year, and cannot withstand frost. Compared with
Arabica, Robusta beans produce a coffee which has a distinctive taste and about 50-
60% more caffeine.  
The Anatomy of a Coffee Cherry
The beans you brew are actually the processed and roasted seeds from a fruit, which is
called a coffee cherry.
The coffee cherry's outer skin is called the exocarp. Beneath it is the mesocarp, a thin
layer of pulp, followed by a slimy layer called the parenchyma.  The beans themselves
are covered in a paper-like envelope named the endocarp, more commonly referred to
as the parchment.  
Inside the parchment, side-by-side, lie two beans, each covered separately by yet
another thin membrane. The biological name for this seed skin is the spermoderm, but it
is generally referred to in the coffee trade as the silver skin.
In about 5% of the world's coffee, there is only one bean inside the cherry. This is called
a peaberry (or a caracol, or "snail" in Spanish), and it is a natural mutation. Some
people believe that peaberries are actually sweeter and more flavorful than standard
beans, so they are sometimes manually sorted out for special sale.
 
https://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/What-is-Coffee

What is CoffeE?

National Coffee Associations

What Are The Different Types Of Coffee?

In short, there are 3 main types; Arabica, Robusta, Liberica, but…

It gets a lot more complicated than that. Before I get into explaining these 3 types, I
need to briefly explain the classification of the coffee plant.

It sounds very scientific (well, it is), but this is just a brief overview to give you a little
more insight into where the coffee plant comes from. I’ll also give a simple explanation
of what each term means…

What Plant Do Coffee Beans Come From?

Here is a breakdown of coffee taxonomy from the USDA:

Domain: Eukaryota – An organism that has cells with a nucleus enclosed in the
membrane.

Kingdom: Plantae – Plant.

Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plant.

Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plant.

Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plant.

Class: Magnoliopsida – A type of flowering plant.

Subclass: Asteridae – A lower classification of flowering plant.

Order: Rubiales – An order of dicotyledonous plants

Family: Rubiaceae – A family of mostly tropical herbs, shrubs, and trees.

Genus: Coffea L. – The coffee plant.

Species: Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora – E.g Arabica, Robusta or Liberica.

Now you know where the terms ‘Arabica’, ‘Robusta’ and ‘Liberica’ come from, let’s delve
into how these coffees are different and where they have come from…

What Is Arabica Coffee?

Most of us associate Arabica with high quality deliciousness.

In fact, it’s so popular that it makes up around 60 – 70% of the world’s total
consumption.

Are we correct in placing all our trust in these mysterious beans? Are they the superior
bean? Here are the facts…

Where Does Arabica Come From?

Arabica, also known as coffea arabica or Arabian coffee is believed to be the first
species of coffee cultivated. This would have been during the 11th century in Ethiopia.
Today, high quality Arabica is usually grown in South/Central America and Africa.

What Does Arabica Taste Like?

It is so popular because of its delicious taste. In the flavour profile you may notice
sweetness with hints of caramel, nuts and chocolate. Some blends have a fruitier
profile, with flavours of berries.

The type of acidity depends on the growing conditions, but many coffee connoisseurs
favour Arabica for a pleasant acidity.

What Are The Varietals Of Arabica Coffee?

Arabica has the most varietals (at least 40), so I won’t go into detail for every single one.
Instead, here are some of the most well-known varietals that you have probably tasted.
Browse the shop section to see which products we offer in each varietal:

Now you’re familiar with the most popular type of bean, let’s discuss the second most
popular…

What Is Robusta Coffee?

The world’s second contender for their routinely cup of coffee, Robusta, also known as
Coffea canephora. It makes up around 30% of total production, so is a strong runner up
for the populations favourite.

Where Does Robusta Come From?

Robusta grows at a much lower altitude than Arabica, usually at around 0 – 800 metres
above sea level. It is difficult to say when specifically the Robusta plant was discovered
as there isn’t enough evidence.

Although, researchers did find that French colonists introduced it to Vietnam in the late
19th century. Today, it is primarily grown in Indonesia and Africa.
What Does Robusta Taste Like?
Whilst Arabica is sweeter and softer, Robusta has a stronger and slightly harsher taste.
It is also described to have a peanutty after taste.

Robusta has almost double the amount of caffeine that Arabica has, which is why those
who prefer a very strong, dark and powerful cup may prefer it.

What Are The Varietals Of Robusta Coffee?

There are much fewer varietals of Robusta beans due to the lack of demand. There are
also many which are part Arabica and part Robusta, these are called hybrids. Some of
the main varietals include:

 Kopi Luwak
 Timor hybrid
 Kapéng Alamid
 Icatu
And finally, the third main type of coffee bean…

What Is Liberica Coffee?

Accounting for just 2% of the world’s coffee consumption, Liberica is a rare type of bean
that is often unheard of. It is a ‘heirloom’ species, which is a common term used in
Western countries, or it’s also referred to as ‘heritage variety’ in Australia.
Liberica has come close to extinction many times in the past, which is why its quantities
are limited and price tag expensive.

Where Does Liberica Come From?

Wikipedia tells us that Liberica was introduced to Batangas in the Philippines in the late
19th century. Its duty was to revive the country’s production after the coffee rust disease
killed the Arabica plants.
Today, Liberica is still grown in Batangas, as well as:

 Cavite
 Central Java
 Eastern Java
 West Africa
 Malaysia
What Does Liberica Taste Like?
Out of all the types of coffee plants, Liberica produces the biggest beans. The flavour
profile is unique, and is described as smoky, nutty, floral with hints of dark chocolate,
ripe berry and spice.

It is favoured for its smooth aftertaste and lingering taste of rich dark chocolate.

What Are The Varietals Of Liberica Coffee?

As the production of Liberica is so scarce, the varietals are limited and not well known
amongst the wider coffee community.

The most popular varietal of Liberica is Kapeng barako, also known as barako coffee in
English. The first Barako tree was grown in Brazil, however it now resides in the
Philippines. It is favoured for its strong flavour and pungent aroma. Other than being
used for beverages, Barako is also used as a body scrub in local spas.
Discovering The History Of Coffee Around The World…
The world of coffee is developing rapidly by the second, which can make it difficult for
online resources to keep up with the latest discoveries.

Learning about coffee species and their history is fascinating, and at Adams + Russell
we use our own expert knowledge and other resources to answer your questions and
give you a better understanding of this intriguing industry.

We work hard to make sure our educational information is regularly updated, but if you
have an insight to offer or a suggestion to improve our resources, we’d be more than
happy to hear your feedback in the comments.

https://www.adamsandrussell.co.uk/types-of-coffee-beans-characteristics/

Types of coffee beans and their characteristics (Arabica, Robusta, Liberica)

4 Different Types of Coffee Beans:

1.Arabica Coffee Beans (Coffea arabica)

Arabica beans are by far the most popular type of coffee beans, making up about 60%
of the world’s coffee. These tasty beans originated many centuries ago in the highlands
of Ethiopia, and may even be the first coffee beans ever consumed! The name Arabica
likely comes from the beans’ popularity in 7th-century Arabia (present-day Yemen).

The downside of Arabica beans is that they’re harder to grow. Because of this, Arabica
beans are pricier. All coffee beans grow in the so-called Bean Belt, an area between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, in 50 countries around the world. But Arabica beans
need extra shade, water, and high altitude to grow properly. These plants are more
susceptible to plant diseases and must be grown at an altitude of at least 2,000 feet.
They’re also smaller plants, measuring between 8 and 15 feet when fully grown.

What do they taste like?

Most gourmet coffee brands advertise that they use 100% Arabica beans. Why?
Arabica coffee beans are considered the most high-quality variety. They’re known for
their smooth, complex flavor and distinct lack of bitterness.

Depending on where they’re grown, Arabica beans can offer many different tasting
notes, from earthy Indonesian to floral Ethiopian. If you want to amaze your tastebuds,
pick up a bag of single-origin Arabica beans!

Where can you buy Arabica beans?

Arabica beans are widely available, especially from gourmet coffee companies. If you
want to try Arabica coffee, check the label to ensure that it hasn’t been blended with
Robusta beans, the second variety.

2. Robusta Coffee Beans (Coffea caniphora)

The second most popular type of coffee bean is Robusta. This bean originated in sub-
Saharan Africa and is now grown primarily in Africa and Indonesia. It’s also particularly
popular in Vietnam and is often mixed into coffee blends. It’s a less expensive variety,
making it a very budget-friendly choice for roasters.

Robusta beans are larger and more rounded than the other bean varieties. These plants
typically grow much larger than Arabica plants, measuring between 15 and 20 feet.
Robusta beans are typically considered to be hardier because they can grow at lower
altitudes and resist diseases. But recent research suggests that they don’t handle heat
as well as was previously thought.
What do they taste like?
Many people think that Robusta coffee is harsher and more bitter. It often has a strong
smell and a somewhat flat, almost burnt taste. Robusta beans also have significantly
more caffeine than Arabica beans.

Though many fans of gourmet coffee turn up their noses at Robusta, we’d recommend
trying it every once in a while. You may be surprised! We sampled an excellent Robusta
bean from Angels’ Cup coffee subscription. The unusual Thai beans were earthy and
spiced, without a hint of bitterness.

Where can you find Robusta beans?

Robusta beans are pretty easy to find since they’re common in blends. Some gourmet
roasters offer special Robusta blends, and you can check Vietnamese coffee suppliers
like Len’s Coffee. Plus, instant coffee is typically 100% Robusta.

Liberica Coffee Beans (Coffea liberica)

Native to central and western Africa – specifically Liberia, hence its name – Coffea
liberica is prized for its piquant floral aroma and bold, smoky flavor profile. This hardy
species is frequently mixed with other varieties to add body and complexity, but rarely
receives any credit. Unheard of in Western civilization before the late 1800s, Liberica
gained a foothold with Southeast Asian coffee producers after a fungal disease (“coffee
rust”) wiped out much of the region’s Arabica crops.

Growing from a much larger plant than Arabica or Robusta, most Liberica cherries tend
to be irregular in shape and closer to Robusta in size and general appearance. It’s also
tolerant of hot, humid climates and does well at low altitude. Now produced mainly
in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, the bean makes up roughly 2% of the
world’s coffee supply. Over 95% percent of the Malaysian coffee yield is Liberica beans.
However, it’s not commonly found in North American and European markets.

What do they taste like?

Among enthusiasts, Liberica coffee has a controversial and polarizing reputation for wild
inconsistency. Those who’ve tried this rare variety either love it or hate it. Some coffee
drinkers adore the unusual, nutty, woody flavor and sneaky backbite on the finish.
Others compare the flavor to burnt garbage.

Where can you buy Liberica beans?

Perhaps the most renowned Liberican coffee is found in the Philippines, where it’s
known as “kapeng barako” (Barako coffee), which translates to “macho stud” in
Philippine culture. Typically served black with sugar, this hard-charging Liberican brew
is not for the faint of heart. Considered somewhat of a relic from an older generation,
kapeng barako is still widely available on the shelves of local supermarkets and served
in coffee shops across the Philippines. In fact, outside of Southeast Asia, your best bet
for finding Barako coffee (or Liberica beans) is in a market that caters to the Filipino ex-
pat community.

4.Excelsa Coffee Beans (Coffea excelsa)

The fourth major type of coffee bean is called Excelsa. Though it was once considered
a separate coffee species, scientists recently reclassified it as a Liberica variant.

Excelsa beans grow almost entirely in Southeast Asia, and they’re shaped somewhat
like Liberica beans — elongated ovals. These beans grow on large 20 to 30-foot coffee
plants at medium altitudes.

What do they taste like?

In terms of flavor, Excelsa beans are pretty unique. They combine light roast traits like
tart notes and fruity flavors with flavors that are more reminiscent of dark roasts. They’re
also lighter on aroma and caffeine — while maintaining an unusual depth of flavor. You
can sometimes find these unusual beans in blends because they add complexity.

Where can you find Excelsa beans?

Excelsa beans aren’t as common as Arabica and Robusta beans and can be harder to
find outside of Asia. Luckily, specialty roasters like Len’s Coffee offer Excelsa beans.

https://coffeeaffection.com/different-types-coffee-beans/
ANATOMY OF A COFFEE BEAN
APRIL 29, 2017 ♦ BY SEPRIYANY 

Pericarp
The pericarp is the external 3 layers of the fruit: the exocarp (skin), mesocarp
(mucilage), and endocarp (parchment).
Exocarp (Skin).
The exocarp, likewise described as the peel, skin, or epicarp, is the outermost layer of
the coffee fruit. It is formed by a single layer of compact parenchyma cells (cells with
thin main walls which contain chloroplasts and can take in water). The color of the
exocarp at the start of fruit advancement is green due to the presence of chloroplasts
which then vanish as the fruit develops (Castro and Marracini, 2006). Color upon
maturation relies on the coffee range, however, is most typically red or yellow. Red skin
color originates from anthocyanin pigments while yellow skin color is credited to luteolin
(Borem, 2008).
Mesocarp (Mucilage).
The mesocarp, likewise described as the mucilage, is the flesh of the coffee fruit. While
“pulp” can often describe exclusively the mesocarp, the term normally describes a mix
of the exocarp and part of the mesocarp gotten rid of throughout pulping. In unripe
coffee fruit, the tissue is stiff. With maturation, pectolytic enzymes break down pectic
chains, leading to an insoluble hydrogel that is rich in sugars and pectins (Borem,
2008). Research studies have actually revealed that the mucilage/water ratio of the
mesocarp enhances as growing altitude boosts (Borem, 2008). In the damp processing
technique, this mucilage layer is eliminated through managed fermentation. In the dry
technique, the mucilage, together with the exocarp and endocarp, is left undamaged
throughout drying (see Harvest and Post-harvest) for additional information.
Endocarp (Parchment).
The endocarp, or parchment, is the innermost layer of the pericarp and is the hull that
covers the coffee bean. It is formed of 3 to 7 layers of sclerenchyma cells (fibrous cells
that act as the primary assistance cells in plants). The cells of the endocarp harden
throughout coffee fruit maturation, hence restricting the last size of the coffee seed, or
bean. In arabica coffee, the typical weight of the parchment with 11 % wetness material
is around 3.8 % of overall coffee fruit weight (Wilbaux, 1961, as mentioned in Borém,
2008).
Seed.
The coffee seed, or bean, consists of a silver skin, an endosperm, and an
embryo. Coffee seed (bean) sizes differ; nevertheless, they balance 10mm long and
6mm broad.
Silver Skin.
The silver skin, likewise called the perisperm or spermoderm, is the outermost layer that
covers the seed. It is formed from the nucellus, or main part, of the ovule. Typically
some residues of the silver skin continue to be on the bean pre-roast and come off
throughout coffee roasting as chaff. The silver skin might be polished off of the bean;
nevertheless, it is typically accepted that this lessens coffee taste. It has actually
likewise been proposed that the presence of a huge quantity of silver skin on milled
coffee suggests coffee chose prior to its perfect ripeness. In some areas, the silver skin
might handle a darker tone, where case the beans are called fox beans. Fox beans are
ruled out to be a flaw.
Endosperm.
The endosperm is the primary reserve tissue of the seed and is composed of only one
tissue though the cells in the outside and indoor part of the endosperm differ in oil
material and cell wall density. The chemical material of the endosperm is of utmost
value because it is the precursor to the taste and fragrance of roasted coffee. The
chemical substances discovered in the endosperm can be classified as soluble or
insoluble in water. The water-soluble substances are caffeine, trigonelline, nicotinic acid
(niacin), a minimum of 18 chlorogenic acids, mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides, some
proteins and minerals, and carboxylic acids. Parts insoluble in water consist of cellulose,
polysaccharides, lignin, and hemicellulose, in addition to some proteins, minerals, and
lipids (Borem, 2008).
Embryo.
The embryo is composed of a hypocotyl (embryo axis) and 2 cotyledons and is 3-4 mm
long (Wintgens, 2009). Coffee seeds sprout through epigeal germination, where the
hypocotyl lengthens and presses the seed up above ground. The initial cotyledons
remain underground; nevertheless, brand-new cotyledons will form.
http://redberrycoffee.co.id/anatomy-of-a-coffee-bean/
PDF-DOWNLOADS-COFFEE
 — DAVE BARRY
Home » Coffee 101 » Introduction to the Coffee Plant

Introduction to the Coffee Plant

By Brian Lokker. Published January 3, 2014, last updated March 24, 2019.2 Comments

When you drink your morning cup of coffee with its welcoming aroma and smooth taste,
do you think about what’s in your cup and where it came from?

A glass of orange juice doesn’t fall far from the tree, and you know there’s a cow behind
every glass of milk (older folks will remember that sometimes it’s even a “contented
cow”1).
But you may be a little less certain about coffee. You know that the hot brown liquid in
your coffee cup is made from “beans,” but what kind of beans are they and where do
they come from?

The short answer: coffee “beans” are the seeds of the coffee plant. For a complete
botanical treatise, you’ll need to look elsewhere. But here’s a little more information
about the coffee plant and its seeds.

Coffee’s botanical family

Coffee is part of the botanical family Rubiaceae, one of the largest families in the plant
kingdom. The Rubiaceae family comprises almost 500 genera and more than 6,500
species.

Species in this family include trees, shrubs, and herbs. They grow widely in tropical and
sub-tropical regions throughout the world and are typically found in the lower story of
forests.

Economically, the coffee plant (the Coffea genus) is by far the most important member
of the Rubiaceae family, but other members of the family are also economically
significant. In addition to beverage plants, the family also includes:

 medicinal plants: the bark of Cinchona officinalis is the source of quinine, used to
treat malarial fever
 dye plants: the roots of Rubia tinctora (common madder) are one of the oldest
sources of red dyes
 timber plants: the wood of Adina cordifolia is used for furniture, flooring, and
more
 ornamental plants: Gardenia jasminoides (common gardenia, cape jasmine) is
found in many gardens
Coffee plant characteristics
The coffee plant is indigenous to the Kaffa region of Ethiopia in Africa. According to
legend, it was discovered by Kaldi, a young goatherd. Coffee plants are now cultivated
in more than 70 countries, primarily in the equatorial regions of Central and South
America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.

There are some 25 major species within the Coffea genus. The plants and seeds
display significant variations, making precise classification difficult.

All coffee species are woody evergreens, but the plants range in size from small shrubs
to trees more than 10 meters (30 feet) tall. Leaves vary in color from yellowish to dark
green, with touches of bronze or purple. Leaf size and shape also vary, but most coffee
leaves are oval or elliptical.
The plant produces white flowers and red berries or “cherries” that contain seeds. The
seeds of the berries are the “beans” from which the coffee beverage is made. Most
coffee berries contain two seeds. (About 5% of berries contain only one developed
seed. These coffee beans are known as “peaberries”).

The anatomy of a coffee berry

This illustration shows the berry and seed structure. The key: (1) center cut, (2) bean
(endosperm), (3) silver skin (testa, epidermis), (4) parchment (hull, endocarp), (5) pectin
layer, (6) pulp (mesocarp), (7) outer skin (pericarp, exocarp).

Once the coffee berries are harvested from the trees, they are processed to extract the
beans, which can then be roasted to make the coffee beverage.
Coffee species
Of the 25 or so Coffea plant species, two species, Coffea arabica (Arabica coffee)
and Coffea canephora (Robusta coffee), account for almost all commercial production.
According to the International Coffee Organization, two other species, Coffea
liberica (Liberica coffee) and Coffea dewevrei (Excelsa coffee) are also produced
commercially, but in much smaller quantities unlikely to be available to most consumers.

Coffea arabica (Arabica coffee)

Arabica coffee accounts for over 60 percent of worldwide commercial coffee production.
It is the primary species of coffee grown in South and Central America and in Central
and East Africa and is widely grown in other regions along with Robusta.

Coffea arabica leaves and berries

Arabica grows best in shade, at higher elevations of 1,000–2,000 meters (about 3,300–
6,000 feet). Arabica trees thrive in environments where annual rainfall averages 1,500–
2,000 millimeters (59–79 inches) and temperatures average 15–24° C (59–75° F). The
trees can tolerate lower temperatures, but not frost.

Coffea arabica is genetically different from the other coffee species: it has four sets of
chromosomes rather than two. It is predominantly self-pollinating, so that Arabica
seedlings usually vary little from their parents. The berries are oval, about 1 cm. in
length, with flat seeds.

The two best-known varieties of Coffee arabica are ‘Typica’ and ‘Bourbon’. From these,
numerous sub-varieties, cultivars, and hybrids have been developed.

Arabica beans are generally considered to produce higher quality, better tasting coffee
than Robusta. Most gourmet coffees are made from Arabica beans. Well-known Arabica
beans include Colombian Supremo, Ethiopian Sidamo, Jamaican Blue
Mountain, Tarrazú, Costa Rica, and Guatemalan Antigua.

Coffea canephora (Robusta coffee)

Although ‘Robusta’ is actually one of the two primary varieties of the Coffea
canephora species rather than the species itself, the name is often used to refer to the
species.
Robusta (Coffea canephora) berries

Robusta accounts for almost 40 percent of commercial coffee production — just about
all coffee production that is not Arabica. Robusta is the predominant coffee grown in
Southeast Asia and West Africa. The world’s leading producer is Vietnam, which
recently surpassed Brazil, where the beans are often called ‘conilon’.

Optimal growing conditions for Robusta differ from those for Arabica: Robusta grows in
lower elevations, from sea level to 700 meters (about 2,300 feet). It prefers higher
temperatures: 24–30° C (75–86° F), and more rainfall: 2000–3000 millimeters (79 – 118
inches).

Robusta beans have a more bitter taste than Arabica, as well as 40–50 percent higher
caffeine levels. But, as suggested by its name, Robusta is a robust plant: it is resistant
to Hemileia vastatrix, coffee berry disease, and other diseases to which Arabica is
susceptible. And Robusta trees yield significantly more coffee beatns than Arabica.
Because Robusta has more body than Arabica, it is often used in traditional Italian
espresso blends where a full-bodied taste is desired. But more often Robusta is used in
coffee blends as a less expensive substitute for Arabica. That’s why most high-quality or
gourmet coffees will tout the fact that they are “100% Arabica coffee.”

Arabica or Robusta — enjoy your coffee!

So now, although you may not be a coffee botanist, you should have a little more
knowledge of the plant behind those coffee beans. And the next time you enjoy a cup of
coffee out in the garden, pick some fresh gardenias for the table. They’re cousins, after
all.

Notes:

https://www.coffeecrossroads.com/coffee-101/introduction-to-coffee-plant

Home » Coffee 101 » Introduction to the Coffee Plant

post

Introduction to the Coffee Plant

By Brian Lokker. Published January 3, 2014, last updated March 24, 2019.
 Coffee Beans

Rebeckah Burke

University of Rochester, Department of Chemistry

1. Introduction

From farm to cup, coffee undergoes an amazing transformation. In fact, most of us are
only familiar with a single part of coffee: the bean. Coffee begins as a fruit, fondly
referred to as the coffee cherry. However, most of the coffee fruit is stripped away in
the processing steps, leaving only the coffee bean (endosperm) and sometimes silver
skin behind.

Coffee beans are often sold as blends. While blends contain beans of the same species
(Arabica), they often contains different sub-species, or varietals, of coffee from places
all over the world. In contrast, single origin coffees are sourced by geological location
and contain a single varietal of coffee. Single origin coffees typically have distinct
flavor notes that arise from different factors in their growing environment, like
elevation, climate, and soil. In addition, coffee can be processed in a variety of ways,
and this, too, impacts the flavor.

Additionally, coffee beans must be roasted before they can be used to create a
delicious cup of coffee, as the raw, green beans have a bland and upleasant flavor.
Physical and chemical changes that occur during roasting transform the coffee seed
into the bean we know and love. In addition to the chemical reactions that take place
during roasting, the beans lose water content. This evaporation of water creates a
build up of internal pressure and an evolution of gases. As this changes the volume of
the coffee bean, the pore structure in the coffee bean is expected to undergo physical
changes.

http://www2.optics.rochester.edu/workgroups/cml/opt307/spr16/beckah/index.htm
Hoffmann, J. The World Atlas of coffee; Firefly Books: Buffalo, NY, 2014.

http://microscopy.berkeley.edu/Resources/instruction/DIC.html
CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Coffee Plant and Genetics

Thiago Ferreira,a Joel Shuler,b Rubens Guimarãesb and Adriana Farah*a

a
 Núcleo de Pesquisa em Café Prof. Luiz Carlos Trugo, Laboratório de Química e
Bioatividade de Alimentos, Instituto de Nutrição, Universidade Federal do Rio de
Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil. E-mail: afarah@nutricao.ufrj.br
b
 Universidade Federal de Lavras/Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola - Cx. Postal
3037 Lavras, MG, 37200-000, Brazil.

The coffee beverage that we know and appreciate results from roasted seeds from
trees belonging to the botanical family Rubiaceae, genus Coffea. Although over 100
species within the genus Coffea have been catalogued, only two are actually of great
importance in the world market, C. arabica L. and C. canephora Pierre. Even though the
great complexity in the taxonomic classification of coffee makes it difficult to unveil the
paths followed by the Coffea genus on its way from Africa to being cultivated worldwide,
the present chapter briefly introduces this journey. Since knowledge of the coffee plant
and its characteristics is fundamental for understanding coffee growing and related
agronomic aspects, this will also be discussed.

1.1 Introduction

The coffee beverage treasured by millions of people around the world results from
roasted seeds of trees belonging to the botanical family Rubiaceae, genus Coffea.
Coffee plants were discovered in Africa and eventually disseminated to countries
throughout the world. Along this journey, a number of new cultivars have been created
from selected varieties to fulfil the need for plants with higher productivity, resistance to
diseases and superior cup quality, and over time, new wild varieties have been
discovered as well. Currently, over 100 species within the genus Coffea are
catalogued.1–3 Despite this diversity, only two species are actually of great importance in
the world market, C. arabica L. and C. canephora Pierre. Knowing the genetic origin of
coffee varieties and cultivars within these two species is important to understand the
main differences and similarities in their chemical composition and flavour.
Since its discovery, coffee has attracted the attention of explorers and botanists from
all over the world, especially in the second half of the 19th century, when many new
species were discovered. Because of the great variation in the types of coffee plants
and seeds, botanists have failed to agree on a precise, single system to classify them or
even to designate some plants as true members of the Coffea genus.4
Knowledge of the coffee plant and its characteristics is fundamental for understanding
practical coffee growing topics, as well as topics related to interaction with the
environment and its reactions to biotic and abiotic stresses.
In this chapter, we introduce the coffee plant, discuss its origin and genetic aspects of
the two main species, and explain how they migrated from Africa to other continents,
becoming the most commercially important coffee species in the world.

1.2 The Genus Coffea

The coffee tree is part of the sub-kingdom of plants known scientifically as the
Angiosperm, or Angiospermae, meaning that the plant reproduces by seeds enclosed in
a box-like compartment, the ovary, at the base of the flower. It belongs to the botanical
family Rubiaceae, which has some 500 genera and over 6000 species, subfamily
Ixoroideae. The current classification of the Coffea genus results from recent fusions of
several subgenera and genera.4,5 According to Leroy6 and Bridson,7 two genera existed
in this subfamily, Coffea L. and Psilanthus Hook.f. (an Australasian genus), with
the Coffea genus being split into two subgenera, Coffea and Baracoffea. After
morphological and molecular studies by Davis et al.8 and Maurin et al.,9 respectively, the
group concluded that a sister relationship between both subgenera was actually highly
unlikely and untenable.10,11 Later, subgenus Coffea and genus Psilanthus were merged
according to additional phylogeny analysis (using molecular and morphological data),
leading to the current Coffea genus,12 which is by far the most economically important
member of the Rubiaceae family.4,13 The botanical classification of coffee is shown
in Figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Botanical classification of the coffee plant according to Anthony et al.14 and Natural
Resources Conservation Service (USDA).15 For further information on coffee specimens, access
the website of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.16

The various species of subgenus Coffea are largely present in the African continent,

though they are mostly restricted to tropical zones when growing in the wild. There are
41 species from continental Africa (from Guinea to Tanzania and from Ethiopia to
Mozambique), 59 from Madagascar and 4 from nearby islands (1 from Grand Comore
and 3 from the Mascarenes Islands Mauritius and Réunion), each area having 100%
endemicity for its species.1,2,14 Considering the merge between subgenus Coffea and
genus Psilanthus, located in Asia and in Australasia, currently there are at least 125
species in the genus Coffea.1,5,10
From all catalogued species under the genus Coffea, only three have commercial
importance: Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora and, to a much lower degree, Coffea
liberica, with the first being the most cultivated crop.4C. arabica is a tetraploid species
(2n = 4x = 44) originating from a natural hybridization between either C.
canephora and C. eugenioides or ecotypes related to these two diploid (2n = 2x = 22)
species.17–19 It is the species with highest cup quality compared to other known species,
but the plant is not as strong and resistant as C. canephora species. Triploid hybrids,
originating from crosses between C. arabica and diploid species, have been reported.
They tend to be robust plants but are almost completely sterile.4,17C. arabica is self-
compatible (self-fertile nature), which so far has only been reported in two other coffee
species: C. heterocalyx Stoff. and C. anthonyi Stoff. & F. Anthony, ined. Despite its
inferior cup quality, C. canephora maintains heterozygosity due to its cross-pollinating
(self-incompatible) nature.4,9Coffea liberica Hiern is a diploid species cultivated to a
minor extent, mainly because of its sensitivity to diseases, especially Fusarium
xylarioides. Its seeds tend to have a better cup quality compared to C.
canephora species, but still inferior compared to C. arabica.20 Despite the close
phylogenetic relationship between C. liberica and C. canephora, these species differ
substantially in their morphological characteristics. C. liberica could thus be of interest
for interspecific breeding programs.20
Owing to the richness of coffee species and varieties, and to the popularity of the
coffee beverage, when referring to the main coffee species, some confusion has been
observed regarding nomenclature, and the authors found it useful to clarify some
misconceptions. For example, ‘Coffea canephora’ has been described as ‘Coffea
robusta’, when ‘robusta’ is actually mostly reported as being a variety or subvariety of
the Coffea canephora species. In the same way, the word ‘robusta’ has been popularly
used for commercial and other purposes as a synonym of ‘Kouilouensis’ (also called
‘Kouillon’ or ‘Conilon’), which is a different variety of Coffea canephora, widely cultivated
in Brazil and with different chemical and sensory characteristics. Another
misunderstanding sometimes occurs with the term ‘Coffea dewevrei’, which has been
used to refer to a separate species in some instances, and, in other instances, as a
synonym for Coffea liberica. In fact, ‘liberica’ and ‘dewevrei’ (the latter also called
‘excelsa’ coffee) are different varieties within the Coffea liberica species. In addition,
coffee varieties (wild genotypes) have been confused with cultivar names (plants
selected by humans for cultivation).4 As science advances and studies go deeper into
unveiling the genetic, chemical and sensorial differences among coffee species and
varieties/cultivars, knowledge of coffee genetics and nomenclature becomes ever more
important for interpretation and dissemination of correct information in scientific reports.
1.3 Origin and Distribution of Subgenus Coffea in Africa

Coffea species have colonized many types of forests throughout a wide elevational

distribution in the African continent. Up to 70% of species in Coffea subgenus are
present in humid and evergreen forests, and at least 13% are adapted to seasonally dry
forests in continental Africa. The other 17% of the species are adapted to various other
types of forest, including humid evergreen forests, gallery forests, seasonally dry
(evergreen to deciduous) forests, savannah woodlands and shrublands.14,21
In Madagascar, 67% of the species grow only in humid evergreen forests, 17% grow
only in seasonally dry forests and the remaining species grow in both types of
forests.1,21,22
Coffee trees are naturally found from sea level up to 2500 m, but no species grow
throughout this entire range.22 Species presenting the broadest elevational range of
growth are: C. eugenioides (300–2200 m); C. brevipes (80–1450 m); C. canephora (50–
500 m); C. liberica (80–1800 m); C. mongensis (400–200 m); C. munfindiensis (950–
2300 m); C. salvatrix (400–1850 m); C. dubardii Jum., C. homollei J.-F. Leroy and C.
perrieri (50–1200 m).1,22 The largest number of endemic species in Africa is present
between 200 and 1000 m above sea level, including C. canephora and C. liberica sub
sp Dewevrei.22 This broad range is mainly caused by variations in latitude. For example,
in Uganda, an equatorial country where the minimum temperatures are warm and
relatively stable, C. canephora grows above 1000 m. The altitude range for C.
arabica optimum growth is 1200–1950 m, with average growth occurring at 1575 m. It is
worth noting that this elevation range is observed both on the continent and on islands,
though the number of species that grow over 1000 m above sea level is higher in
continental Africa than in Madagascar.21,22Figure 1.2 presents the average elevational
distribution and type of forest colonized in Africa by important species of
subgenus Coffea. The broadest elevational range species presented above are not in
the pyramid. Throughout the rest of the world the presence or absence of species is
largely defined by minimal temperatures, which is in most cases determined by
elevation and latitude.21,22

Fig. 1.2 Elevational distribution (in mean) and types of forest colonized in Africa
by Coffea species. Some species are not included in the pyramid because they have a wide
range of elevational distribution (>1000 m), i.e., C. brevipes (80–1450 m), C. canephora (50–
1500 m), C. eugenioides (300–2200 m), C. liberica (80–1800 m), C. mongensis (400–2000
m), C. mufindiensis (950–2300 m) and C. salvatrix (400–1850 m). C. eugenioides is also
naturally found in humid, evergreen forests, gallery forests, seasonally dry evergreen forests,
savannah woodlands and shrublands. (Adapted with permission from ref. 21, Copyright 2011
Springer Nature, and ref. 22, Copyright 2015 Springer Nature.)

The natural evolutionary history of coffee probably occurred between 150 000 and 350 
000 years ago in the African continent.21 Biogeographic analysis had indicated that the
centre of origin of subgenus Coffea was in Kenya.21 However, new DNA analysis and
floristic records suggest that Lower Guinea in west equatorial Africa could be the centre
of origin and speciation of Coffea subgenus Coffea as well as the richest sub-centre of
endemism in the Guineo-Congolese region. Diversity in subgenus Coffea has,
therefore, been underestimated for a long time.21,23 This region likely played the role of
refuge for coffee trees during the last arid maximum (18 000 years before Pangea: B.P.)
and previous arid phases. In Central Africa, a chain of small refuges has been located
near the Atlantic Ocean: in west and south Cameroon, in the Crystal and Chaillu
Mountains in Gabon and in the Mayombe Mountains in Congo. These areas, rich in
coffee species, are known to be hotspots of biodiversity.1,11,14Figure 1.3 shows the
original distribution of the current genus Coffea L., including subgenus Coffea in Africa
and the additional Australasian Psilanthus spp.12

Fig. 1.3 Original distribution of the species included in the current classification of

genus Coffea L. Grey colour area: distribution of the Coffea subgenus Coffea in the African
continent.12 Dark green colour area: additional areas of distribution of current Coffea genus,
after the inclusion of Asian and Australasian Psilanthus spp.12 Red circle: probable place of
origin of Coffea subgenus Coffea in West-central Africa (Lower Guinea) before Pangea,
considered to be a hotspot of Coffea biodiversity.14
The C. arabica species has its primary centre of diversity in the southwestern Ethiopian
highlands (in altitudes between 1000 and 2000 metres), the Boma Plateau of Sudan
and Mount Marsabit of Kenya.19,24 Its strict natural localization is due to the way that C.
arabica speciation processes have occurred, as explained above. On the other hand, C.
canephora has colonized various regions in Central Africa, stretching from West Africa
through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, the Democratic Republic of
Congo, Uganda and northern Tanzania down to northern Angola.25,26 In general, C.
liberica habitats are localized to the same regions where C. canephora grow.21,22
The history of coffee cultivation is incompletely documented with regard to the
domestication of the coffee plant in Africa and its dispersion throughout the world by
humans (Figure 1.4).27 Welman28 reported in 1961 that the cultivation of C.
arabica varieties began when wild coffee was introduced from Ethiopia to Yemen as
early as 575 AD or AC (Anno Domini, or After Christ), although other authors have
reported possible cultivation even before that.29 However, such data have been based
on myths and legends, not scientific texts. Based on historical and scientific data, C.
arabica diverged into two genetic bases, which have been described as two distinct
botanical varieties: Coffea arabica var. arabica (usually called Coffea arabica var.
Typica Cramer) and Coffea arabica var. Bourbon (B. Rodr.) Choussy.17 These have
subsequently led to most of the commercial C. arabica cultivars grown
worldwide.19 Bourbon-derived cultivars are characterized by a more compact and
upright growth habit, higher yield and better cup quality (sensorial quality) than Typica-
derived cultivars.24
Fig. 1.4 Origin and dissemination throughout the world of the most important coffee
species, Coffea arabica L. Yellow circle: origin of cultivated C. arabica L. (mainly southwestern
Ethiopia but also in the Boma Plateau of South Sudan and Mount Marsabit of Kenya). (1) C.
arabica introduction into Yemen as early as 575 AD (after Christ).19 (2) Coffee plant distribution
to Réunion islands and taken from India to Java (Indonesia).30,31 (3) From Java, coffee was
introduced in Europe (Amsterdam) in 1710.19,27 (4) From Europe, coffee was taken to South
America (Suriname) in 1718. From there it was introduced in Martinique island (1720 or 1723)
and Brazil via French Guiana (1727).27,33,35 From South America the coffee was spread around
the world. Note: colours indicate only the countries and not specific coffee growing regions
within the countries.

Historical data indicate that the Typica variety originated from a single plant that was
taken from Yemen to India.30–32 Subsequent generations from this plant were taken to
the island of Java in 1690 and then Amsterdam in 1706 or 1710, where plants were
cultivated in the botanical gardens.19,27 From Amsterdam, coffee was introduced to the
Americas when seedlings were taken to Suriname in 1718. From there, an arabica
coffee tree was introduced in the West Indies (Martinique) in 1720 or 1723.33 In 1727,
seeds were taken to the state of Pará in northern Brazil, apparently from French
Guiana. Seeds from Suriname also became the parent of numerous self-progenies,
which were further disseminated around the Americas (Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Haiti,
Cuba, Central America, the Guianas, etc.).27,34,35
The Bourbon variety originated with the re-introduction of coffee trees to Bourbon
Island (now Réunion, one of the Mascarenes Islands) with plants from Mocha, a city on
the Yemeni coast (1715–1718). From there, Bourbon plants were possibly taken to
Mauritius Island and later to various coffee growing origins worldwide.18,19
The spread of C. canephora from Central Africa throughout the world is more recent.
It was initially taken to Indonesia in the 20th century as a solution to the coffee leaf rust
that was attacking coffee plantations since it had presented resistance to this
disease.30 There are many varieties of C. canephora in Africa. However, only two have
been commercially disseminated throughout the world: C. canephora from Guinea,
and C. canephora from Congo.26C. canephora cultivars such as Laurenti (originated in
the Belgian Congo), Apoã and Guarani (produced by the Agronomic Institute of
Campinas, IAC) are less important economically.25,26
All of the places that grow C. canephora species, as well as hybrids with C. arabica,
report its introduction due to the presence of coffee leaf rust and the need for breeding
programs. Additionally, C. canephora thrives in warmer regions where C.
arabica varieties are not well adapted.25,26
Currently, coffee is cultivated in the belt between the two tropics, being widely found
in the tropical regions of South America (Brazil and Colombia), Asia, Oceania, Africa,
Central America and Mexico.36C. arabica species prefer annual average temperatures
between 18 °C and 22 °C and tend to grow in highlands. The closer this species gets to
the equator, the higher the altitude needed for optimum growth. Therefore, the optimum
altitude for growth and production to achieve a quality beverage will vary according to
the country or growing region. C. canephora is more suitable for intertropical lowlands
and can withstand higher temperatures than C. arabica.22

1.4 The Coffee Plant

This section covers the anatomy of the coffee plant, including the root system and aerial
parts of the plant, and provides an overview of the flowering process and coffee fruit
development.

1.4.1 Root System

Coffee plants are perennial, and the establishment of an adequate root system is
fundamental to the health of the tree and its subsequent production throughout its
lifetime. The root system (Figure 1.5) plays several key roles for the plant. Though often
overlooked, it serves the basic function of fixing the plant in the soil or substrate.
Perhaps the most widely known role is providing water to the plant. Apart from being a
major constituent of plants, water acts as a solvent that serves to transport gases,
minerals and other solutes from cell to cell and organ to organ; is a reactant in important
processes such as photosynthesis; and maintains turgor, which is essential for cell
enlargement and growth.37 The root system also serves as a reserve for carbohydrates,
and produces and accumulates key phytohormones such as auxins, abscisic acid and
cytokines.38,39
 Fig. 1.5 Root system of C. arabica L.
plant.

It is impossible to succinctly define the root structure pattern of coffee plants since, as
with all plants, it is patterned postembryonically, adapting its structure to optimize
resources and respond to biotic and abiotic signals.40 Many factors may affect the
pattern of the root system and the size of the roots, including species and cultivar;
physiological factors such as fruit load; vigour of the aerial part of the plant; plant
reserves; pest and disease attacks; plant spacing; prunings; the chemical, physical and
biological conditions of the soil; and the soil water content, among others.39,41–44
The aerial and root systems of the plant are directly related. Any alteration in the
aerial part of the plant, such as pruning, excess fruit loads, pest attacks and diseases
can lead to depletion of the root system, potentially causing root death, especially of
roots with smaller diameters.41,45 Similarly, the root system may, depending on
conditions, either provide assimilates to the aerial parts of the plant, or it may act as a
relatively important sink, such as during dry seasons, draining assimilates from non-
fruiting and sometimes fruiting branches.41
Despite this variance, there are common features such as the presence of tap roots,
axial roots, lateral roots, feeder roots and root hairs. In coffee, as in other
dicotyledonous plants, the first root axis arises from the radicle and is called the tap
root.46 Though long lived, tap roots in coffee are generally not prominent, usually
terminating at a depth no greater than 0.5 m.39,44,47 Plants may also contain more than
one tap root.44,48 If the tap root becomes bent or twisted upon planting, this may result in
a twisted or contorted condition, which may negatively affect the plant throughout its
lifetime.39,48 Because of this, many growers have adopted the practice of cutting the
bottom few centimetres of the tap root before transplanting in an effort to avoid a twisted
tap root. This results in removing the apical dominance of the tap root and triggers more
lateral ramification.39
Ramifications from the tap root can be divided into two types, depending on the
direction of their growth. Axial roots grow vertically below the plant, generally reaching
depths of around 2–3 m. Lateral superficial roots, on the other hand, grow parallel to the
soil surface and usually reach depths no greater than 2 m. Lateral roots tend to
concentrate under the plant skirt, but can extend outward, often interweaving with
neighbouring tree roots in densely planted fields. Feeder roots of various lengths are
distributed on the axial and lateral roots. The root hairs that grow on these feeders are
the main providers of mineral nutrition for the plant.48

1.4.2 Orthotropic and Plagiotropic Branches

Above the ground, coffee plants exhibit a dimorphic branching behaviour (Figure 1.6), in
which orthotropic (vertical) stems produce plagiotropic (horizontal) branches, which in
turn produce more plagiotropic branches and coffee fruit.30,42,44,45,49
 Fig. 1.6 (A) C. arabica L. with one
orthotropic stem and various fruit-bearing plagiotropic branches. (B) C. canephora Pierre with
various orthotropic stems (photo courtesy of Pedro Malta Campos). (C) Fruit-bearing
plagiotropic branches of C. canephora Pierre (photo courtesy of Dr Aymbiré Fonseca).

The principal plant stem, or trunk, is orthotropic. There can be one or several main
orthotropic stems per plant, depending on the desired plant stand. Orthotropic stems
always grow vertically, or perpendicular to the soil. The apical meristem gives rise to
two types of vegetative buds: serial buds and head of series buds. Serial buds on
orthotropic stems form other orthotropic stems, called suckers. Head of series buds on
orthotropic stems produce primary plagiotropic shoots, or branches. Each head of
series bud is capable of producing only a single branch. Therefore, should the branches
die (from frost, hail, over-shading, drought or other factors), it is necessary to stump the
tree back, inciting the growth of new orthotropic stems, which will have new head of
series buds capable of forming more primary plagiotropic branches.
Plagiotropic branches are the lateral branches, with primary plagiotropic branches
originating from the orthotropic stems, and secondary and tertiary plagiotropic branches
originating from other plagiotropic branches of respective orders. As with orthotropic
stems, plagiotropic branches have serial buds and head of series buds. Serial buds,
contained in the leaf axils, may form either fruit or more plagiotropic branches. Head of
series buds only form other plagiotropic branches. Since plagiotropic branches cannot
generate orthotropic stems, cuttings that will be used for plantings must originate from
orthotropic stems in order to generate a normal, vertically growing tree.
The development and growth of the plant is dependent on species, variety and the
environmental conditions in which the plant is situated. With C. arabica, within one year
the plant typically develops six to ten levels of plagiotropic branches. After two years the
orthotropic stem is usually 1.2–2 m in height, and the first flowers appear. After three
years, the plant reaches maturity and usually begins to yield commercial crops.30,48

1.4.3 The Leaves

The foliar surface of adult coffee trees varies according to species, state of health,
irradiance levels and many other factors.48,50 In the principal commercial varieties, C.
arabica and C. canephora, leaves are generally thin, shiny and waxed, elliptical in form
and conspicuously veined. They typically grow in pairs that are opposite to each other
on the branch. Between these two species, the main difference is that Coffea
arabica leaves are smaller, with a glossy dark upper surface, while Coffea
canephora leaves are often lighter in colour, less waxy, larger and slightly undulating
(Figure 1.7).30

Fig. 1.7 Coffee leaves of

(A) C. arabica L. and (B) C. canephora Pierre.

Leaf colour varies between species and variety. For example, younger leaves of C.
arabica are either light green or bronze, depending on whether the plant is of Bourbon
or Typica variety in origin, respectively (Figure 1.8). The bronze colour of Typica plants
fades with age.48 Leaf coloration is generally lighter on the abaxial (lower) leaf surface
compared to the adaxial (upper) leaf surface, resulting from different cutin compositions
(Figure 1.9).39

Fig. 1.8 Young coffee leaves of (A)

a Coffee arabica var. Bourbon plant with light green leaves and (B) a Coffea arabica var. Typica
plant with bronze coloration in emerging leaves.
 Fig. 1.9 C. arabica L. leaf. (A) Adaxial
(upper) surface. (B) Abaxial (lower) surface.

Leaves contain domatia, small cavities found in the lower epidermis. Although there is
not a consensus regarding their exact function, it is possible that they play a positive
role by harbouring mutually beneficial predators such as mites.51,52 They can be used to
distinguish Coffea species by comparing their size, shape, placement and the presence
or absence of stomata on the outermost cell layer of the domatia.
Stomata are apertures in the epidermis, facilitating the gas exchange of the plant with
the external medium. Stomatal density is a function of both the number of stomata and
the size of the epidermal cells, and it varies between species and even between leaves
on the same plant. Stomata are typically composed of two stomatal cells, or ‘guard
cells’, with an aperture between them called the ostiole. Through this pore, the internal
atmosphere within the intercellular spaces communicates with the exterior. Like other
epidermal cells, stomatal cells are lined with a cuticle, which spreads down into the
ostiole and lines the external wall of the substomatal chamber.
The cuticle is a waxy substance that covers the leaf and is largely impervious to
liquids and gases. It is made mainly of cutin, a fatty substance that becomes oxidized
and polymerized on the outer cell surface through a process known as
cuticularization.53 The cuticle protects the leaf against abiotic damage and provides a
barrier to water evaporation. In fact, it has been estimated that only about 5% of the
water lost from leaves escapes through the cuticle. Almost all of the water lost from
leaves is lost by diffusion of water through the stomata.54
The lifecycle of coffee leaves varies between species. C. arabica, under greenhouse
(phytotron) conditions, reaches full leaf expansion after 30–35 days and maximum dry
weight after 50–60 days.54,55 The lifecycle can be divided into four stages: quiescent
buds, in which the apical meristem and paired leaf primordia are covered by two firm
stipules (leaf-like appendages); the emergence of the bud, where the leaves emerge by
pushing apart the stipules, although they remain tightly associated to each other; lamina
expansion and mechanical strengthening of the leaf; and finally senescence.30,56

1.4.4 Flowering

While in equatorial regions, such as Colombia, the coffee flowering and fruit cycle may
occur at various times throughout the year, in non-equatorial regions, which represent
the majority of worldwide coffee production, coffee plants follow a single annual cycle of
growth and fruiting.42
Coffee plant flowering consists of two distinct processes: flower bud initiation and
flower opening, or anthesis (Figure 1.10). Flower bud initiation occurs when the serial
buds of plagiotropic branches are induced to differentiate into flower buds. Buds grow to
4–6 mm and then enter a dormancy period, which in most growing regions coincides
with a dry season.48,57
 Fig. 1.10 C. canephora Pierre
inflorescence.

The dry period is necessary to break the dormancy of the floral buds. An extended dry
season affects phytohormone levels in the plant. It also leads to low internal water
potential which increases the unusually low hydraulic conductivity of the coffee roots,
predisposing the trees to rapid rehydration following the first rains.42
During the first 3–4 days after a water stimulus, meiosis occurs and there is an
increase in the levels of endogenous, active, gibberellic acid in the flower
buds.42 Inflorescences of both C. arabica and C. canephora are of the glomerular type,
and flowers on C. canephora plants are generally more abundant and larger. The
flowers are ephemeral, generally only lasting for two days. Several blossoming events
can occur in each flowering season, and the greater their number and longer the spaces
between them, the less uniform the coffee fruit will be upon the harvest.

1.4.5 The Fruit

The fruit of the coffee plant is typically described as a drupe: a fleshy, indehiscent fruit
with a pericarp that is clearly differentiated into an exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp
(Figure 1.11).58,59 These layers surround the coffee seed, which comprises an embryo,
endosperm and perisperm. How these layers develop, and their interaction during
development and later post-harvest, will ultimately determine the quality and flavour
profile of the coffee beverage. This development, as well as the anatomical components
of a mature coffee fruit, are discussed in this section.

Fig. 1.11 Transverse cut of a coffee

fruit. Coffee is considered a drupe, having a clearly differentiated exocarp, mesocarp and
endocarp. Photo courtesy of Thompson Owen, Sweet Maria's Coffee.

1.4.5.1 Stages of Fruit Growth

 

The time from flowering to the completion of fruit maturation varies greatly between
species and is dependent on factors such as genotype, climate and cultivation
practices. In general, the maturation times for several species are around 80–90 days
for C. racemosa, 220 days for C. arabica, 300 days for C. canephora and 360 days
for C. dewevrei and C. liberica.60
Despite these differences in maturation times, key steps in fruit development among
commercial species appear to be identical and can be divided into five stages.45,59 The
first stage generally occurs for the first six to ten weeks after flowering in C. arabica,
although fruits may enter into a latent state for up to 60 days after pollination.61 This
stage is one of limited fruit growth and is commonly referred to as the ‘pinhead’ stage
(Figure 1.12).42,45,48 The growth that occurs in this stage is mainly through cell division,
not cell expansion.

Fig. 1.12 C. arabica L. fruit in the

‘pinhead’ stage.

The second stage, generally lasting from 6 to 16 weeks after flowering in arabica, is the
rapid swelling stage, characterized by a rapid increase in volume and dry weight, mostly
due to pericarp growth. Unlike the first stage, this second stage is dominated by rapid
cell expansion. Fruit locules swell to full size through the growth of the transient
perisperm, which will later be consumed by the endosperm as it fills the locules in future
stages.59,61 Endocarps, which will line the locules, begin to lignify. The size to which the
locules swell depends greatly on the water status of the plants during this period; fruits
that expand during wet weather become larger than fruits that expand in hot, dry
weather.42
After this rapid growth, the fruit enters the third stage, which is one of suspended and
slow growth and lasts for only two weeks. In this stage, though the final fruit size is
obtained, the amount of dry matter is still low.45
In the fourth stage, the endosperm fills in the locules, consuming all but a small
amount of the perisperm that had previously occupied this space.59 The remnants of the
perisperm will become the silverskin that comes off as chaff when the coffee is
eventually roasted. In arabica, this stage generally occurs between 17 and 28 weeks
after flowering.45
The final stage of development is the ripe stage. Changes in this stage occur mostly
in the pericarp, in particular an increase in the dry weight, the breakdown of the
mesocarp leading to a softening of the fruit and the change in colour of the exocarp
from green to red, yellow or in some cases pink or orange, depending on the flavonoid
compounds associated with the genotype.

1.4.5.2 Fruit Anatomy
 

Knowledge of the anatomical aspects of the coffee fruit is relevant to determine how
interactions between the anatomical components impact coffee quality, as well as to
accurately study how quality can be maximized both during fruit development and in
removing and drying the bean. The mature coffee fruit consists of a pericarp, comprising
the outer layers of the coffee fruit (exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp) and the seed,
comprising the embryo, endosperm and silverskin (Figure 1.13).47,58

Fig. 1.13 C. arabica L. seed showing the

58
perisperm.

Exocarp – The exocarp or epicarp, commonly called the skin or peel, is the outermost
tissue of the coffee fruit. It is composed of a single layer of compact, polygonal
parenchyma cells.47,58 The exocarp is green for most of the fruit’s development. Toward
the end of maturation, chlorophyll pigments disappear, and after a transient yellow
phase, the exocarp cells accumulate anthocyanin, bringing on a red coloration that can
range from pink to burgundy. In the case of yellow fruit, leucoanthocyanin replaces
anthocyanin, allowing exposure of the yellow pigment luteolin.62
Mesocarp – The mesocarp, also called the mucilage or ‘pulp’, is the fleshy part of the
fruit between the parchment and the skin. In some literature, it is referred to as the ‘true
pulp’,59 and in other literature it is divided into an inner mesocarp, called mucilage, and
an outer mesocarp, which is called the pulp per se.63 However, popularly speaking, the
part called pulp is the exocarp, the part of the mesocarp that is removed during the
pulping process.
It is formed by parenchyma cells and vascular bundles and in general accounts for
around 29% of the mass of the dry fruit.64 Increases in altitude lead to higher
concentrations of dry matter in the mucilage.58 The mesocarp is hard in unripe coffee
fruit. As the coffee matures, pectinolytic enzymes break down pectin chains, resulting in
a hydrogel that is insoluble and rich in sugars and pectins. This difference is
fundamental in the pulping process as it allows for the separation of unripe and ripe
fruit.
Endocarp – The endocarp, more commonly called the parchment, is composed of
sclerenchyma cells and completely envelops the seed. It is mostly composed of
cellulosic material.65 The endocarp is formed by 5–6 layers of intercrossing fibres, which
give it extraordinary strength.47 While it serves to protect the seed from mechanical
damage, it is a barrier to both the transfer of chemical compounds from the pericarp to
the endosperm, and the removal of water from the coffee seed during drying. It also
acts as an impediment to germination, perhaps through mechanical
resistance.66 Nonetheless, the parchment is usually not removed since it is
recommended to store coffee in parchment (or dried fruit pods), and the hulling process
to remove the parchment can damage seeds, negatively impacting germination.39
 Seed – Coffee seeds are generally elliptical and plane-convex in shape, with a
longitudinal furrow on the plane surface. They comprise the silverskin, endosperm and
embryo.
The silverskin, also called the perisperm or spermoderm, is the outermost layer of the
seed and is composed of sclerenchyma cells. It is thought to serve in the accumulation
and transport of biochemical compounds from the pericarp to the endosperm, although
exactly which compounds are transferred and how this occurs is not well known.59,61 As
the fruit matures, the perisperm is consumed by the growing endosperm, and
transforms into a thin pellicle that may become partially detached upon drying in C.
arabica. This difference in adherence, as well as the colour of the silverskin after the
coffee has dried, are used to determine the presence of immature coffee beans in
several classification protocols.67,68 In C. canephora the silverskin is adherent and
brown.
The endosperm is the principal reserve tissue for initial plant growth after germination.
It is a living tissue that is formed by the fusion of one spermatic nucleus and two polar
nuclei, resulting in a triploid (3n) tissue.47,65 Initially a liquid milky-coloured tissue with
thin cell walls, as the coffee fruit develops, its cell walls thicken due to the deposition of
complex polysaccharides. These thick and partially lignified cell walls do not present
intercellular spaces, but are crossed by many plasmodesmata, which establish
connections between these cells and play a key role in the transport of water and other
substances.69 The external part of the endosperm is composed of small polygonal cells
that are rich in oils, and it is sometimes called the ‘hard endosperm.’ The internal part of
the endosperm, sometimes referred to as the ‘soft endosperm’, is composed of larger
rectangular cells with slightly thinner cell walls.47,59
The embryo is small (3–4 mm long in C. arabica), composed of a hypocotyl attached
to two cotyledons, and localized close to the convex surface of the seed (Figure
1.14).39,47,48 It contains few storage reserves and is therefore dependent upon the
endosperm for nutrients during its initial growth.
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/chapterhtml/2019/bk9781782620044-00001
Coffee

ContentContent

1. Description

2. Uses

3. Propagation

4. References

Diseases

- Bacterial

- Fungal

Pests

- Insects

See questions about Coffee

Description

Coffee is the name give to several species of plant in the genus Coffea (family
Rubiaceae), including C. arabica and C. canephora which are cultivated for their beans
(seeds) that are used to make the stimulatory drink. Coffee plants are small evergreen
trees or shrubs often with multiple stems and smooth leaves. The leaves are oval in
shape and dark, glossy green. Coffee plants produce clusters of cream-white flowers
and a fruit, commonly referred to as a berry, which normally possesses two seeds. The
fruit is green to begin with but ripens to a crimson red and turns black when dry. C.
canephora can reach a height of 15 m (49 ft), but C. arabica is smaller, reaching only 4–
5 m (13–16 ft). The trees can live for 20–30 years. Coffee may also be referred to as
Arabian coffee (C. arabica) or robusta coffee (C.cenephora) and originates from Africa.

Uses

Coffee beans are usually cured, roasted and ground before being brewed with hot water
to produce the coffee beverage. The ground beans are often dehydrated to produce
instant coffee.
Propagation

Basic requirements Coffee plants grow best in warm, humid environments. Arabica
coffee varieties grow best at temperatures between 18 and 22°C (64–72°F), while
Robusta coffee grows best in slightly warmer temperatures of 22–26°C (72–79°F). The
plants do not tolerate cold and freezing temperatures will kill the leaves instantly. The
plants can grow in a wide range of soils but generally prefer a deep, well-draining loam
with a pH between 5 and 6. Seeds Most coffee varieties are self pollinating and can be
propagated from seed. Coffee seeds are usually pre-germinated in sand beds before
planting in a nursery. The seeds are spread in the sand and covered to keep them
moist. The seeds usually germinate within 4-5 weeks. When shoots begin to emerge,
they are removed and planted in polyethylene bags or prepared nursery beds. The
seedlings are grown in shade and are are ready to be transplanted when they are 6 to
12 months old. Transplanting Young coffee plants are planted in the field in large, pre-
dug holes. (50cm × 50cm × 50cm). Various spacings are used in different regions of the
world and coffee can be grown as hedgerows or in high density squares depending on
the variety. Coffee will usually grow best if planted in rows and plants should be spaced
3 m (9.8 ft) apart. Young trees are delicate and require protection by shading. Shade
trees are usually planted before the coffee trees are transplanted (up to a year in
advance).

Go Back

Coffee

ContentContent

1. Description

2. Uses

3. Propagation

4. References

Diseases

- Bacterial

- Fungal

Pests
- Insects

See questions about Coffee

Description

Coffee is the name give to several species of plant in the genus Coffea (family
Rubiaceae), including C. arabica and C. canephora which are cultivated for their beans
(seeds) that are used to make the stimulatory drink. Coffee plants are small evergreen
trees or shrubs often with multiple stems and smooth leaves. The leaves are oval in
shape and dark, glossy green. Coffee plants produce clusters of cream-white flowers
and a fruit, commonly referred to as a berry, which normally possesses two seeds. The
fruit is green to begin with but ripens to a crimson red and turns black when dry. C.
canephora can reach a height of 15 m (49 ft), but C. arabica is smaller, reaching only 4–
5 m (13–16 ft). The trees can live for 20–30 years. Coffee may also be referred to as
Arabian coffee (C. arabica) or robusta coffee (C.cenephora) and originates from Africa.

5367660519_c83bdb86e4_z.jpg

Coffee plantation

1304188244_f7a4454fd9_z.jpg

Coffee berries

5.jpg

Flower close-up

56430583_90c9334016_z.jpg

Coffee flowers

3234613535_22f8c71e7b_z.jpg
Coffee plant

5454614380_73515a0d70_z.jpg

Berries and foliage

Uses

Coffee beans are usually cured, roasted and ground before being brewed with hot water
to produce the coffee beverage. The ground beans are often dehydrated to produce
instant coffee.

Propagation

Basic requirements Coffee plants grow best in warm, humid environments. Arabica
coffee varieties grow best at temperatures between 18 and 22°C (64–72°F), while
Robusta coffee grows best in slightly warmer temperatures of 22–26°C (72–79°F). The
plants do not tolerate cold and freezing temperatures will kill the leaves instantly. The
plants can grow in a wide range of soils but generally prefer a deep, well-draining loam
with a pH between 5 and 6. Seeds Most coffee varieties are self pollinating and can be
propagated from seed. Coffee seeds are usually pre-germinated in sand beds before
planting in a nursery. The seeds are spread in the sand and covered to keep them
moist. The seeds usually germinate within 4-5 weeks. When shoots begin to emerge,
they are removed and planted in polyethylene bags or prepared nursery beds. The
seedlings are grown in shade and are are ready to be transplanted when they are 6 to
12 months old. Transplanting Young coffee plants are planted in the field in large, pre-
dug holes. (50cm × 50cm × 50cm). Various spacings are used in different regions of the
world and coffee can be grown as hedgerows or in high density squares depending on
the variety. Coffee will usually grow best if planted in rows and plants should be spaced
3 m (9.8 ft) apart. Young trees are delicate and require protection by shading. Shade
trees are usually planted before the coffee trees are transplanted (up to a year in
advance).
12773862595_40d48c879b_z.jpg

Coffee seedlings in polyethylene bags

6688280445_79c9818d51_z.jpg

Shaded coffee nursery

100274951_3a899d140c_z.jpg

Coffee nursery beds

References

Bittenbender, H. C. & Smith, V. E. (2008). Growing Coffee in Hawaii. College of Tropical

Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai'i at Mãnoa. Available at:
http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/coffee08.pdf. [Accessed 13 November 14].
Free to access CABI Crop Protection Compendium. (2008). Coffea datasheet. Available
at: http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheet/14791. [Accessed 13 November 14]. Paid
subscription required. DE Foundation. Manual for Sustainable Coffee Production.
Available at: http://www.defoundation.org/assets/Uploads/Uganda-Full-Coffee-Manual-
DEF-PLAN.pdf. [Accessed 13 November 14]. Paid subscription required. Kuit, M.,
Jansen, D. M. & VanThiet, N. (2004). Manual for Arabica Cultivation. Tan Lam
Agricultural Product Joint Stock Company & Improvement of Coffee Quality and
Sustainability of Coffee Production in Vietnam. Available at:
http://www.defoundation.org/assets/KNOWLEDGE-CENTER/Support-for-project-
activities/Background-materials-Coffee/Coffee-Hand-BookFinal1.pdf. [Accessed 13
November 14]. Free to access.
Common Pests and Diseases

Diseases

Category : Bacterial

Bacterial blight Pseudomonas syringae

Symptoms

Water-soaked spots on leaves which dry out and become brown and necrotic with
yellow halos; necrosis of shoot tips which spreads rapidly down branches; leaves turn
black and die off but remain attached to tree

Cause

Bacterium

Comments

Disease can be spread long distance by the movement of infected seedlings or within
the field by water splash; bacteria can enter the plant through wounds

Management

Protective sprays of copper should be applied to the plants just before the onset of the
rainy season and should be continued right through to the short rains

Category : Fungal

Cercospora leaf spot (Brown eye spot, Berry blotch) Cercospora coffeicola

Symptoms

Brown spots on foliage which enlarge and develop gray-white center and a red-brown
margin; lesions may also be surrounded by a yellow halo or may have a burned
appearance if lesions are very numerous; infected leaves may drop from plant
prematurely; lesions on green berries are brown and sunken and may have a purplish
halo; infected red berries may have large black sunken areas

Cause

Fungus

Comments
Disease can be spread by wind, water-splash and through human movement through
fields, particularly when plants are wet

Management

Ensure crop is adequately fertilized as nutrient deficient plants are more susceptible to
the disease; remove all crop debris from filed after pruning to prevent build up of
inoculum; good plant spacing and pruning to open up the canopy promotes good air
circulation around foliage and protects against disease; if disease does occur then it can
be controlled with the use of copper fungicides where available

Coffee berry disease (CBD) Colletotrichum kahawae

Symptoms

Dark sunken lesions on green berries; berries dropping from plant; mummified berries

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Very serious diseases; can destroy up to 80% of crop

Management

Protective sprays of copper containing fungicides can help to control the disease; any
diseased berries should be removed from plants; resistant varieties are available and
should be planted in areas where disease is present

Coffee leaf rust Hemileia vastatrix

Symptoms

Small, pale yellow spots on upper leaf surfaces followed by powdery orange-yellow
lesions on the undersides of leaves; symptoms commonly develop on lower leaves of
plant first and then spread; infected leaves drop from the plant and twigs and branches
become defoliated

Cause

Fungus

Comments
History Origins and spread Coffee originates from high altitude regions of Ethiopia,
Sudan and Kenya and the rust pathogen is believed to have originated from the same
mountains. The earliest reports of the disease hail from the 1860s. It was reported first
by a British explorer from regions of Kenya around Lake Victoria in 1861 from where it is
believed to have spread to Asia and the Americas. Rust was first reported in the major
coffee growing regions of Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) in 1867 and the causal fungus
was first fully described by the English mycologist Michael Joseph Berkeley and his
collaborator Christopher Edmund Broome after an analysis of specimens of a “coffee
leaf disease” collected by George H.K. Thwaites in Ceylon. Berkeley and Broome
named the fungus Hemileia vastatrix, Hemileia referring to the half smooth
characteristic of the spores and vastatrix for the devastating nature of the disease. It is
unknown exactly how the rust reached Ceylon from Ethiopia but over the years that
followed, the disease was recorded in India in 1870, Sumatra in 1876, Java in 1878,
and the Philippines in 1889. During 1913 it crossed the African continent from Kenya to
the Congo, where it was found in 1918, before spreading to West Africa, the Ivory Coast
(1954), Liberia (1955), Nigeria (1962-63) and Angola (1966). The collapse of the coffee
industry in Ceylon In the nineteenth century, Ceylon was one of the largest coffee
producing regions in the world, responsible for the export of approximately 42 million
kilos of coffee per year. In the 28 years following the arrival of rust, export ceased and
production was reduced to less than 3 kg/year. It wasn’t until 1879 that the government
of Ceylon set up a commission to investigate the crisis and the British government sent
Harry Marshall Ward to the plantations. Ward’s work on the coffee rust fungus would
establish him as one of the most important figures in the field of plant pathology. Ward
was able to link the collapse of the coffee crop to the Hemileia vastatrix fungus and,
identify characteristics of both the fungal spore and agricultural practices that caused
such a catastrophic loss. Unfortunately the investigation came too late and the rust
epidemic was too far advanced. Ward could do little other than document the complete
collapse of the coffee crop, as has been recounted in many histories of the disease
(Large, 1940, Carefoot and Sprott 1967, Money 2007). Ward’s observations however,
would provide the crucial basis for the development of future control strategies,
discussed below. Biology and ecology of coffee rust The collapse of the Sri Lankan
coffee industry and Ward’s investigation of the agricultural practices being employed
highlighted the problems created by planting coffee at such high densities. The
proximity of the plants to one another created optimal conditions for rust transmission
over short distances while the reduced genetic diversity resulting from the practice of
monoculture meant that once the rust pathogen broke down the inherent host
resistance, little could be done to prevent its spread. The pathogen, Hemileia vastatrix,
evolved within the forest and adapted to the widely dispersed nature of the wild host by
producing highly mobile spores that are capable of travelling large distances via wind
currents, water splash and on the bodies of insects. The practice of removing native
trees to plant coffee side by side, removed a natural barrier to the movement of the rust
spores and helped compound the catastrophic crop losses witnessed in Ceylon. Rust
transmission and infection Coffee leaf rust is an obligate parasite and is transmitted
when urediniospores (spores produced from the brown-red rust pustules) disperse from
one part of the plant to another, or to a new, uninfected plant. The spores are produced
on the underside of the leaf from uredinia which make up part of the red/orange
pustules on the undersides of the leaves. When the spores erupt, they enter the air
current where they can travel a few centimeters to the next leaf, or hundreds of
kilometers to another site (spores have been recorded travelling 1,000 m up in the high
altitude air streams). The spores are also known to travel over shorter distances by rain-
splash, which is a common way for plant pathogens to travel from leaf to leaf of the
same tree. There are also documented cases of spores being transported to new sites
by small insects such as Thrips and parasitoid wasps. When the spores reach a leaf,
they attach to the surface using the spines on their rough side. In order for the spores to
germinate, they require the presence of liquid water on the leaves and a temperature of
17 to 25°C (62.6 to 77°F), with 22°C (71.6°F) being optimal. Heavy rains can wash the
spores from the leaves and prevent infection occurring. When conditions are favorable,
the spores produce a long tubes known as germ tubes which move over the leaf
searching for a stomata (tiny openings in the leaf surface where plants breathe and
release water). The germ tubes produce appressoria (flattened fungal structures that
produce ‘pegs’ to puncture through host tissues) on, or close to the stomata, from which
infection hyphae grow and puncture the host cells. The entire infection process is
completed in 24 to 48 hours and new urediniospores erupt from the stomatal openings
after 10 to 14 days. One rust lesion will produce 4–6 spore crops over a 3–5 month
period releasing 300–400,000 spores into the environment to repeat the process. The
2012 Coffee leaf rust epidemic In 2012 there was a major increase in coffee rust across
ten Latin American and Caribbean countries. The disease became an epidemic and the
resulting crop losses pushed coffee prices to an all time high amid concerns for supply.
The reasons for the epidemic remain unclear but an emergency rust summit meeting in
Guatemala in April 2013 compiled a long list of shortcomings. These included a lack of
resources to control the rust, the dismissal of early warning signs, ineffective fungicide
application techniques, lack of training, poor infrastructure and conflicting advice. In a
keynote talk at the “Let’s Talk Roya” meeting (El Salvador, November 4th 2013), Dr
Peter Baker, a senior scientist at CAB International, raised several key points regarding
the epidemic including the proportional lack of investment in research and development
in such a high value industry and the lack of investment in new varieties in key coffee
producing countries such as Colombia.

Management

Resistant varieties Commercially grown coffee has, through the practice of

monocultures, lost much of the genetic diversity of its wild ancestors. Sadly, due to the
effects of deforestation, wild coffee has also lost much of its genetic diversity outside of
its evolutionary center in Ethiopia. The breeding of crop varieties which are resistant to
key pathogens has proven to be a very successful method of controlling diseases and
inIn the late 1950s, a natural coffee hybrid was discovered growing wild in East Timor.
The plant was found to be a hybrid of C. arabica and C. canephora and was named
Hibrído de Timor (HDT). The plant was found to possess full or partial resistance to all
known races of the rust pathogen and five genes were subsequently elucidated from the
hybrid and from other coffee varieties that were responsible for conferring the resistance
Varieties expressing some of these genes have been grown commercially but the the
resistance was broken-down after a few years when new virulent races of the rust
pathogen emerged. Crosses of the hybrid with other commercial cultivars produced the
‘Colombia’ cultivar which is now widely planted. Colombia managed to reduce its losses
during the 2012/13 epidemic because of new plantings. Many Colombian farmers are
now replanting with Castillo or Colombia varieties. Fungicides Copper-containing
fungicides Copper-containing fungicides remain one of the most effective and
economical methods of controlling the rust pathogen in susceptible coffee varieties and
during conditions which are favorable to the development of rust. They have the added
advantage of being active against a number of other fungal pathogens and have also
been shown to increase coffee yields. Examples of copper-containg fungicides used in
coffee include copper oxychloride and cuprous oxide which have largely replaced the
use of Bordeaux mixture in most commercial plantations. These chemicals are applied
protectively with plants being sprayed in advance of infection and work by adhering to
the plant and producing a toxic barrier to invading fungal pathogens. They pose
limitations due to their need to be reapplied at regular intervals to protect new growth
flushes and also pose environmental concerns over the accumulation of copper to toxic
levels in the soil. Copper-containing fungicides can be alternated with systemic
fungicides to reduce the amount of copper build-up. Systemic fungicides Systemic
fungicides used in coffee include pyracarbolids such as triadimefon and propiconazole
and strobilurins such as azoxystrobin. Systemic fungicides are transported around the
plant in the vascular tissue after application thus requiring lower doses and less
frequent application than copper-based fungicides. They can be applied after infection
has occurred to treat the symptoms of the disease and eradicate it from the host plant.
Systemic fungicides tend to be more expensive and some have been shown to induce
severe defoliation of the coffee plant. They have been shown to be very effective at
controlling rust when used in combination with copper-containing fungicides. Organic
fungicides Only one organic fungicide is widely used in coffee - triadimefon. Triadimefon
is a systemic fungicide which is applied to the foliage and works to inhibit the rust
infection. It can be alternated or combined with other chemicals and is generally very
effective at controlling rust infections. Organically certified control methods Most
commercially grown coffee varieties are susceptible to coffee rust fungus and because
organic farmers cannot use chemical approaches controlling the rust is extremely hard.
(note that in some growing regions copper based fungicides are allowed). Here we
discuss a few methods and we encourage others to share knowledge by emailing
PlantVillage or answering questions on the forum. i) Planting spore traps. The fungal
spore has a rough side that attaches to plant tissue. Wind-break trees can be used to
reduce the spore load. Organic coffee is often grown using shade trees which may act
to reduce inoculum reaching the coffee plants. ii) Spraying organic formulations that
impacts the ability of the spore to germinate or of new spores to be produced. We have
heard that some farmers had success with this strategy but we do not know the details.
Dr Peter Baker of CABI has reported to us that some farmers are using lime sulphur
because of the expense of copper. We will try and find more information. Please contact
PlantVillage if you have information. iii) Spraying water. It is feasible that high pressure
water can wash the spores from the leaves and reduce the spore load. Heavy rains may
also have the same effect. As humidity on the leaves actually promotes fungal growth
then washing is best done when the water is likely to evaporate. Biological control
Concepts Biological control is the use of one living organism to control another living
organism that is considered a pest species. In addition to breeding new and better
genetic material and the use of good crop husbandry, the development of an effective
biological control strategy could provide another tool to manage coffee rust which would
allow for organic certification and the continued use of heirloom varieties. If a suitable
agent(s) can be identified in the short term, then this approach would be available in
significantly less time than that needed to develop a new variety. CBC of fungi exploits
the ability of coevolved fungal natural enemies in order to produce massive quantities of
inoculum on the host plant and allow them to spread and propagate continuously within
the host population. It offers a sustainable control method but has and has, surprisingly,
never been used for crop pathogens (diseases). The concept is simple and follows the
enemy-release hypothesis whereby an exotic or alien species increases its fitness, and
hence its invasiveness, because it arrives without its guild of co-evolved natural
enemies. Examples i) Bacteria Bacteria such as Bacillus and Pseudomonas are known
to produce compounds that negatively affect fungal pathogens of plants. Such bacteria
evolved in the soil and utilize antifungal compounds to compete with soil dwelling fungi.
A number of studies have shown how coffee rust development in greenhouse settings
or in the lab can be retarded by Bacillus and Pseudomonas. For example, a study by
Haddad et al, 2009 showed for the first time that certain strains of< i>Bacillus and
Pseudomonas reduced coffee rust on organic farms in Brazil. In follow up work the
same team (Haddad et al 2014) found 17 different bacterial isolates collected from
leaves, leaf debris, and soil reduced both the infection frequency and the number of H.
vastatrix urediniospores produced per leaf by more than 70%. ii) Other fungi White halo
fungus, Lecanicillium lecanii, has been suggested as a potential biological control agent
of coffee rust by Prof. John Vandermeer and collaborators at the University of Michigan
(Vandermeer et al 2009). White halo fungus has been shown to be hyperparasitic on
Hemileia vastatrix in laboratory conditions and it has also been observed attacking the
fungus in the field. White halo fungus often infects green coffee scale which feed on
coffee. These insects are frequently tended by ants which collect the sugar that they
excrete. The ants often create clusters of scale insects on the plants which are infected
with white halo disease. It is postulated that white halo fungus may attack and kill the
coffee leaf rust fungus or may simply reduce its abundance due to crowding effects or
produce chemicals to attack it. Currently, the fungus does not appear be a viable
biological control agent because it has not evolved to parasitize the fungi, rather it
evolved to infect insects. Promising attempts have been made to culture the fungus and
apply it as a topical spray to control the rust fungus. Future prospects Currently, no CBC
program has focused explicitly on controlling coffee rust but pathogenic rusts have
themselves been used to control other pests. For example, rubber vine is considered to
be a major pest plant in Australia as it is highly invasive and causes millions of dollars of
damage to agriculture and massive ecological damage. A team led by Dr. Harry Evans,
a scientific officer with CAB International, identified a rust called Maravalia (which is
taxonomically close to coffee rust) in the center of genetic origin for rubber vine in
Madagascar which showed potential for use as a CBC agent. Before the rust could be
released in the environment in Australia, it had to be quarantined. This process
removed the rust from its natural enemies and had the effect of making the rust fungus
extremely pathogenic. Dr. Evan’s stated that the rust went ‘berserk’ and when it was
eventually deployed in Australia, it was extremely successful at controlling the rubber
vine, even killing off young seedlings. In 2014, another team led by Dr. Evans and Dr.
Roberto Barretto of the Federal University of Vicosa in Brazil will begin to explore
genetic centers of origin of Arabica coffee with the aim of identifying similar co-evolved
natural enemies of Hemileia vastatrix. It is believed that CBC holds great promise for
the future control of coffee rust.

Pests

Category : Insects

Black twig borer Xylosandrus compactus

Symptoms

Wilting and yellowing of foliage, often at end of twigs and branches (termed "flagging");
o pin sized hole can often be found on the underside of the flagging stems or twigs
where the insect has entered the plant; twigs and stems are hollowed out and can be
seen by cutting open the affected tissue; the adult beetle is small and black, approx. 2
mm in length and is rarely seen; eggs and pupae are creamy white in color

Cause

Insect

Comments

Damage caused by the beetles promotes secondary infestation by bacteria and other
fungi; adult beetles overwinter in the plant

Management

Prune out infested twigs and stems and destroy; flagging branches should be pruned
back a few inches from the beginning of symptomatic areas; adequate fertilizer and
irrigation to ensure vigorous plants can speed recovery from pruning injury

Coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei

Symptoms

Fruit dropping from plants; small holes may be evident on red cherries; when the insect
is feeding, debris is pushed out of the hole and forms a brown or grey deposit on top of
the hole; adult beetle can be found by cutting open the berry; adult is a tiny black beetle
approx. 1.5-2.5 mm in length; larvae are white grubs with brown heads

Cause

Insect

Comments

Female beetle lays clusters of eggs inside the berries; insect undergoes up to 5
generations per year

Management

Removal of dropped berries and debris on plantation floor can help reduce sources of
new infections; remove any berries remaining on plants after harvest; insecticide
application is only effective if applied when the female beetle is still in the entry tunnel
and has not yet penetrated deep into the berry

https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/coffee/infos
Coffea
plant genus

Alternate titles: coffee

BY Melissa Petruzzello | Last Updated: Nov 17, 2021

Coffea, (genus Coffea), genus of about 125 species of flowering

plants of the family Rubiaceae, mostly native to tropical Africa. Two
species are of major economic importance as the source of coffee. For
information about coffee cultivation, see coffee production.
Physical description

Members of the genus Coffea are evergreen shrubs or small trees and

often inhabit the understory of tropical forests. The elliptical
waxy leaves are borne oppositely along the stems and often feature
prominent venation. Many species have a characteristic growth habit
in which the upright trunks branch horizontally and may then repeat
the pattern on secondary and tertiary branches. The small fragrant
white or pink flowers frequently open after a dry period and may last
only a few days. The fruit, known as a “coffee cherry,” is a one- or two-
seeded drupe and can be red, purple, yellow, orange, blue, or black
when mature, depending on the species. The “coffee beans” are the
rounded oblong seeds, each with a flat face marked by a lengthwise
groove.

Coffee plants

Two members of the genus, Coffea arabica and C. canephora, supply

almost all the world’s coffee consumption. Arabica produces a flatter
and more elongated bean that, when brewed, is considered milder and
more flavourful and aromatic than Robusta, the main variety of C.
canephora. Arabica is more widespread in cultivation than Robusta
but more delicate and vulnerable to pests, requiring a cool subtropical
climate; it must grow at higher elevations of 600–2,000 metres
(2,000–6,500 feet) and requires a lot of moisture and has fairly
specific shade requirements. Latin America, eastern Africa, Asia,
and Arabia are leading producers of Arabica coffee.
The rounder, more convex Robusta bean, as its name suggests, is
hardier and can grow at lower altitudes (from sea level to 600 metres.
Robusta coffee is cheaper to produce, has twice the caffeine content of
Arabica, and is typically the bean of choice for inexpensive commercial
coffee brands. Western and Central Africa, Southeast Asia,
and Brazil are major producers of Robusta coffee.

Two other species are of limited commercial importance as a source of

coffee. Sometimes considered more flavourful than Robusta, the large-
seeded C. liberica is limited in its cultivation because it is very
susceptible to plant diseases such as fusarium wilt and coffee rust.
Another plant, C. eugenoides, is cultivated on a very small scale for
specialty “wild” coffee with a low caffeine content.

https://www.britannica.com/plant/Coffea
coffee production, cultivation of coffee plants, usually done in large
commercial operations. The two major species of coffee plants (Coffea
arabica and C. canephora; family Rubiaceae) are tropical evergreen
shrubs or small trees of African origin. They are grown for the seeds,
or beans, which are roasted, ground, and sold for brewing coffee. This
article treats the cultivation of coffee plants and the harvesting and
processing of the beans. For information on the
beverage, see coffee. See also coffee roasting; history of coffee.

The Arabica species of coffee (C. arabica) is cultivated mostly in Latin

America, while the Robusta variety of C. canephora predominates in
Africa. Arabica is considered a milder, more flavourful and aromatic
brew than Robusta, though the latter is a hardier plant and is thus
cheaper to produce. It has twice the caffeine content of Arabica and is
typically the bean of choice for inexpensive commercial coffee brands.
Both coffee species are also grown in India, Indonesia, and other Asian
countries. There are many varieties, forms, and types of each. The
effects of environment and cultivation further increase this diversity.
Cultivation

Climatic factors most important for coffee growth are temperature and

rainfall. No variety can withstand a temperature in the vicinity of 32 °F
(0 °C). Temperatures between 73 and 82 °F (23 and 28 °C) are the
most favourable. Rainfall of 60 to 80 inches (1,500 to 2,000 mm) per
year is required along with a dry period of two to three months for the
Arabica. Irrigation is required where annual rainfall is less than 1
metre (40 inches). The Arabica species is more delicate and vulnerable
to pests than Robusta and requires a cool subtropical climate; it must
grow at higher elevations of 600–2,000 metres (2,000–6,500 feet)
and requires a lot of moisture and has fairly specific shade
requirements. The Robusta variety, as its name suggests, is hardier
and can grow at lower altitudes—from sea level to 600 metres.

Plantations are established in cleared forestland or modified forests.

The young coffee plants are spaced in rows so that the density varies
between 1,200 and 1,800 plants per hectare (500 and 750 plants per
acre). Seedlings or cuttings raised in nurseries are carefully planted at
the beginning of the rainy season; until they start producing fruit three
to four years later, their care is limited largely to the trimming
required to give them a strong, balanced framework and to stimulate
fruiting.

Shade-grown and sun-grown coffee

Coffee has traditionally been cultivated in the shade of other trees,

which mimics the natural growing conditions of the plants in a forest
understory. Some shade-grown coffee is grown on plantations that
have been planted with shade trees, which allows farmers to space the
plants as desired. On such farms, fruit and timber trees are often
utilized, which allows farmers to further supplement their income.
Other growers modify existing forested land and may or may not plant
additional shade trees. Both methods can be considered a form of
permaculture (“permanent agriculture”) or agroforestry, and a
diversity of shade-giving trees is usually encouraged to promote
ecological interactions within the system. Some of these interactions
directly benefit coffee production, such as improved nutrient cycling
and the provision of habitat for pest-eating birds and
useful pollinators, while others are more broadly beneficial, such as
improved carbon sequestration and water filtration, decreased
soil erosion, and the preservation of biodiversity. Shade-grown coffee
is considered more labour-intensive than sun-grown coffee and
produces lower yields. However, it produces a superior flavour in the
beans and is frequently sold at higher prices as a specialty coffee. In
the late 20th and early 21st centuries there was renewed interest in
shade-grown coffee as a sustainable farming method, and
most organic coffee was shade-grown. In 2021 about 25 percent of
global coffee production was considered shade-grown.

With the Green Revolution of the 1960s and ’70s, the traditional

shade-grown method lost much of its popularity because better results
can be obtained without shade or with very light shade if other
practices, such as trimming, weeding, and fertilization, are followed.
Yields as high as 2,300 to 3,400 kg per hectare (2,000 to 3,000
pounds per acre) can be grown, compared with 500 to 1,000 kg per
hectare (450 to 900 pounds per acre) by traditional methods. To
achieve such productivity, many coffee plantations were converted to
this “sun-grown” methodology, causing the deforestation of large
areas of Central America and other coffee-growing regions. Grown as
monocultures, sun-grown coffee plants are more vulnerable to disease
and thus require greater pesticide inputs than shade-grown coffee.
Robusta coffee is better adapted as a sun-grown coffee plant than
Arabica.
Diseases

Among the diseases of the coffee plant are leaf rust, caused by the

fungus Hemileia vastatrix, which does considerable damage in the
plantations of Arabica, and coffee berry disease, caused by the
fungus Colletotrichum coffeanum, which also attacks the Arabica.
Robusta appears to be resistant, or only slightly susceptible, to these
scourges. Among the numerous parasites that attack the coffee plant is
the berry borer (Stephanoderes hamjei), which damages the seeds of
both Arabica and Robusta.
Harvesting and processing

The time between blooming and maturing of the fruit varies

appreciably with the variety and the climate; for Arabica it is about
seven months and for Robusta about nine months. The ripened fruits
of the coffee plant are known as coffee cherries, and each cherry
generally contains two coffee seeds (“beans”) positioned flat against
one another. About 5 percent of cherries contain only one seed; called
peaberries, those single seeds are smaller and denser and produce, in
the opinion of some, a sweeter, more flavourful coffee. The fruit is
gathered by hand when it is fully ripe and red-purple in colour.
Hulling

The cherries are processed by disengaging the coffee seeds from their
coverings and from the pulp and by drying the seeds from an original
moisture content of 65–70 percent water by weight to 12–13 percent;
all beans must be removed from their fruit and dried before roasting.
Three techniques are used for processing the coffee: the dry, or
“natural,” process, the wet (and washed) process, and a hybrid process
called the semi-washed, or “pulped natural,” method. The coffee
resulting from these processes is called green coffee, which is then
ready for roasting.
The dry process

The oldest and simplest method of processing coffee, requiring little

machinery, is practiced in dry climates such as those
of Brazil and Ethiopia. After the fruits have been sorted (often by
hand) and cleaned (via running water or washing canals or in large
tanks), they are placed in the sun to dry on concrete, brick patios, or
raised mats. The cherries are frequently raked or turned by hand to
shift them onto the driest surface and to prevent fermentation and
mold. The drying process may take several days or up to four weeks.
The drying process is critical: overdried coffee will break, forming
defective beans, and coffee too moist can deteriorate quickly if
attacked by fungi and bacteria. When the fruits have been dried to a
water content of about 12–13 percent, they are mechanically hulled to
free the seeds from their coverings. In rainy regions where humidity
and rains during harvest time are common, the dry process is
obviously not practical.
The wet process

The wet process requires more equipment than the dry method but
produces beans that are better preserved and more homogeneous and
have fewer defects. Most Arabica coffees are produced by the wet
method, and they generally command a higher price.

In the first step of the wet process, the skin and the pulp of the fresh
fruit are removed by a pulping machine, which consists of a rotating
drum or disk that presses the fruit against a sharp-edged or slotted
plate, disengaging the pulp from the seed. Pulp still clings to the coffee
seed, however, as a thin mucilaginous layer. That layer is eliminated
by fermentation, actually a form of digestion in which naturally
occurring pectic enzymes decompose the pulp while the wetted seeds
are held in tanks for one to three days. Washing clears all remaining
traces of pulp from the coffee seeds, which are then dried either by
exposure to sunlight on concrete terraces or by passing through hot-
air driers. The dry skin around the seed, called the parchment, is then
mechanically removed, sometimes with polishing.
The “pulped natural” process

A third method, called pulped natural, is a hybrid of dry and wet

processing. Pulps are removed mechanically, but the beans are dried
without any intermediate fermentation, and the mucilage is not
removed until after drying. Beans thus treated have a good balance of
sweet and acidic notes with robust body.
Storage

The prolonged storage of coffee in the producing countries presents

problems, especially in the warm and humid coastal regions,
where molds and parasites may develop and cause damage; for that
reason coffee from those areas is exported as quickly as possible. In
moderate climates the conservation of dry lots does not pose a
problem as long as they are stocked in well-ventilated places.
Grading

The practice of grading and classifying coffee gives sellers and buyers a
guarantee concerning the origin, nature, and quality of the product to
aid in negotiations. Each coffee-producing country has a certain
number of defined types and grades—based on characteristics such as
growing altitude and region, botanical variety, method of processing,
roast appearance, and bean size, density, and defects—but there is no
universal grading and classification system.

Fair Trade coffee, part of the larger Fair Trade movement, arose to
ensure that coffee is harvested and processed without child labour and
dangerous herbicides and pesticides and that growers and exporters,
particularly in the poorer regions of the coffee-growing world, are paid
a fair price. How well such Fair Trade standards are enforced is a
matter of controversy.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/coffee-production

BY René Coste | See All Contributors | Last Updated: Nov 16, 2021 |

Coffea spp. characteristics

coffee plant

Drawing of coffee plant

What is coffee?

Coffee is a beverage that is obtained from the roasted seeds of the

coffee or coffee plants (Coffea spp). Coffee trees are evergreen shrubs
of the Rubiaceae family. They come from tropical Africa, and a fewer
species from Asia.

Coffee plants have bright green opposite leaves with smooth margins.
Its flowers, white, grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves and are
aromatic. From them, fruits are born. they are red drupes with the size
of a cherry (In fact these fruits are known in many places as coffee
cherries).

The outside of the fruit is fleshy and inside it there are two seeds or
coffee beans, surrounded by a membranous layer of leathery texture,
hence this layer is commonly known as the “parchment”. Some species
of trees only produce one seed per fruit. In this case the seeds of these
varieties are known as “pearl coffee”.

The “coffee beans” or seeds are the the part of the fruits that contains
more caffeine. These are usually round with a flat face and have a
groove or channel in the flat part. When it comes to varieties with a
single seed, this is completely round. The reason for this difference is
due to the fact that in double seed varieties, the two seeds that grow
inside each fruit press each other, so they stop the growth in the part
which is in contact, so this becomes flat.
How long does coffee plant take to produce fruits?

Coffee plants usually produce commercially marketable fruits between

3 and 5 years age. Subsequently, they can be productive for a period of
about 15 to 20 years, with average production of each sample of
approximately 450 g per year, although there are more productive
varieties that can reach more than 1 kg. For optimum production
cultivated bushes are pruned to reduce its width and height. This is
done to further facilitate the tasks of maintenance and harvesting.

Before being ready for use, one must remove the outer pulp and
papery membrane that covers the seed. This provides a clean, green
seed which is known by the name of “green coffee”. Subsequently, as
explained below, this seed is subjected to a series of processes of
roasting to obtain roasted black coffee or dark brown coffee such as it
is normally sold in establishments.

Main species of coffee plants

Types of coffee

There are approximately 40 species of coffee plants, but the coffee

drink is obtained primarily from three plants: The Arabic coffee,
robusta coffee and liberica coffee.

The Arabic coffee (Coffea arabica) is a shrub that grows about 12 feet
in their natural state, but when cultivated it does not grow more than
4.5 meters. It stands out from a deep root system. Its leaves are
opposite, bright green. White flowers, fragrant, jasmine-like odor, are
small. Its fruits, dark green, glossy at first, become dark red when ripe.
Although its name suggests that it is a species from the Arabian
peninsula, it actually comes from the mountains of Ethiopia, where it
grows in the wild between 1000 and 2000 meters of altitude. Today
we find it cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions of the
world between 1300 and 2800 meters above sea level. It requires a
lower temperature than robusta variety (between 15 and 24 degrees C)

It seems that this is the first kind of coffee that was cultivated in the
world. It can also be grown as a garden shrub, where it becomes very
decorative because of its evergreen leaves.

It is the most important species at present. Since it yields a higher

quality coffee, it commonly used to produce espresso coffee. Its
caffeine content (0.8 to 1.4%) is lower than that of the robust variety
and it is a less productive (1500 to 3000 kg per ha)

Photo of Arabic coffee

Photo of Arabic coffee

Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora = Coffea robusta) is a tree or shrub

about 10 feet high. It’s kind easier to grow than arabica since it is more
resistant to diseases, especially in regard to coffee rust (Hemileia
vastatrix), collegora (Pellicularia koleroga) or nematodes. It grows in
lower places, being cultivated from sea level to 700 m altitude. It
needs a higher temperature (between 24 and 30 º C)

It is a much more productive plant than the arabica variety (from

2300 to 4000 kg of seed per ha). producing more oval seed from
which a coffee with a higher caffeine content (from 1.7 to 4%) and with
a more bitter taste is obtained. Therefore, the coffee produced by this
plant is used mainly for soluble type varieties or blends with Arabica.
The robusta coffee comes from West Africa but it is grown in many
tropical areas of the world.

Bag of sublime coffee from Colombia

Bag of sublime coffee from Colombia. It belongs to the species Coffea

arabica

Liberica coffee (Coffea liberica) is a well-grown tree that can reach 18

m high with large leathery leaves. It produces larger fruit and seeds
that provide little flavor. It is used primarily for blending in small
amounts with the previous varieties. As its name suggests, comes from
Liberia in West Africa but it is mainly grown in Indonesia, East and
Central Java Island where it was taken in the late nineteenth century
to replace the Arabica variety which had been decimated by coffee rust
disease.

A detail of Arabic coffee fruits and leaves

A detail of Arabic coffee fruits and leaves

Processing coffee

Before being pocketed, the fruit of the coffee tree should be subject to
some prior processing. The main steps include the harvesting, the
elimination of the outer layers, polishing, decaffeination, roasting,
toasting, etc. (More information about ” How to process coffee“)
Uses of coffee

Among the main uses of the coffee plant we include the following:

Coffee beverage: Coffee plant is mainly used to produce seeds, from

which, once they have been roasted and ground,, an infusion is
produced, consisting on dissolving it in hot water. Coffee infusion,
along with tea infusion, is the most consumed beverage in the world.

Besides the seeds in some places, especially the Far East, coffee drinks
are made using the leaves lightly toasted. In this case, caffeine content
is generally higher than the seed itself. In this way we obtain a type of
much cheaper coffee.

To realize the importance it plays in nutrition nowadays, it is sufficient

to consider the enormous number of black coffees, white coffees,
decaffeinated coffees, espressos, instant coffees or whatever varieties
of coffee beverages that are drunk worldwide for breakfast or as a
snack.

Picture of freshly roasted coffee beans

Picture of freshly roasted coffee beans

Coffee as a flavoring: Drinking coffee is not only consumed as a

beverage but it is also used to flavor and aromatize many dishes. Thus,
this ingredient takes part in the composition of ice creams, candies,
cakes, etc. Coffee is also used in many recipes (coffee custard, mocha,
coffee mousse, chocolate cake and coffee ice, etc)
Coffee as natural medicine: The use of coffee as a curative natural
medicine is very old. It has been used in the Middle East, not only as a
ritual drink, but also as a stimulant and painkiller. Modern studies
about the therapeutic properties of this plant put the stress on its
diuretic, analgesic and anti-oxidant values. The latter may be well
suited for the prevention of many degenerative diseases. (More on the
“Properties of coffee” in the listing below)

Coffee as medicine: The pharmaceutical industry uses caffeine in the

composition of several drugs (mainly analgesics) or as a single drug. in
the latter case, it is mainly used to prevent drowsiness in people who
work in jobs that require to be especially alert (carriers, taxi drivers,
operators of dangerous machinery, etc.) or to speed up the metabolism
in people with fatigue.

Coffee in gardening: The coffee remains can be used as fertilizer for

plants. They contain many minerals, especially nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium, thus facilitating the growth of plants. Using leftover
coffee to water the flowers or as a fertilizer is a good way to get better
plants. Larger amounts of leftover coffee can be obtained from coffee
shops or big cafes. The remnants of coffee improve the composition of
the compost.

Coffee production in the world

Coffee is one of the world’s most important crops, given the high
number of people living directly or indirectly from it. It is estimated
that there are more than 6000 million kilograms of coffee per year and
over 120 million people depend on it. One should keep in mind that
this crop is the main source of income for many developing countries.

The two largest world producers are Brazil, which produces nearly a
third of world production and the production of which employs some
3 million people, and Vietnam where production has increased greatly
in recent years.
Colombia is the third largest producer. Indonesia, Ethiopia, India,
Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Uganda are also big producers.

The world’s largest exporters are Brazil, Colombia. The main

importing countries are USA, Germany, Italy, Japan, France, Canada,
UK, Spain, Russia, Netherlands and Sweden.
https://www.botanical-online.com/en/food/coffee-plant-characteristics
Botanical Name of Coffee
Coffee is a drink brewed from the tropical and ground seeds of tropical evergreen
origin. The tropical evergreen origin is mainly of African origin. The botanical
name of the coffee is Coffea Arabica. There are other botanical species of coffee,
C. Canephora. Coffee Arabica and C. Canephora are the two coffee names that
are supplied all over the world. There are various other species of coffee around
the world. Some people wonder what the scientific name of the coffee is. It's one
of the most common drinks which is a part of everyone's life. While going through
this article, one will find out that the botanical name of the coffee is Coffea
Arabica. 

Botanical Description of Coffea Arabica

Coffea Arabica is the botanical name for coffee. It is Coffea Arabica which is
supplied all over the world. The Coffea Arabica bean is widespread, delicate, and
vulnerable to pests. Coffea Arabica needs a subtropical climate to grow properly.
It is a mild, flavorful, and aromatic brew of coffee. The coffee beans of Arabica
are different from Robust, which is the main variety of coffee beans of Robusta. 
Arabica is a coffee bean that grows in a cool subtropical climate. It grows at high
elevations like 2000ft to 6500 feet. The major countries around the world that
Coffea Arabica and other kinds of coffee beans grow are Latin America, Eastern
Africa. Asia and Arabia. Every excellent bean needs a different type of climate to
grow. Arabica requires a lot of atmosphere, sun, and shade. Unlike Arabica, the
Robusta needs a lower altitude, like sea level to 2000 feet, to grow. Robusta
beans are mainly grown in countries like Western and Central Africa, Southeast
Asia, and Brazil. 

ImagewillbeuploadedsoonImagewillbeuploadedsoon

Processing of Green Coffee

The process of production of coffee is complex and organised. There are two
main processes in the production of coffee, the first step is the processing of
green coffee, and the second step is the processing of the bean. Here you will
find the various steps involved in the processing of green coffee. 
 Hulling: It is the process when the ripened fruits of the coffee shrubs are
picked out. Each fruit contains two coffee seeds. The cherries are another
name for the beans of coffee. They are processed by disengaging the
coffee seeds from the coverings and pulp. The cherries are then dried.
Cherries need to have no pulp and be dried before roasting. The result of
the process of hulling is green coffee. 
 The Dry Process: It is a simple method of processing the beans. The dry
process requires the assistance of simple machinery. After the cherries
have been sorted by hand, they are placed in the sun to dry on concrete
patios. The fruits are rakes or turned by hand to prevent them from
fermentation or mould. It takes up to four weeks.
 The Wet Process: The wet process starts when the skin and pulp of the
coffee are removed. It is the process where the pulping machines are
used. The thin layer of leather is removed by fermentation. After the
process of fermentation, the dry skin around the seed is removed
mechanically. 
 The Pulped Natural Process: It is a hybrid process of the dry and wet
process. It is a process when the pulp is removed mechanically, and beans
are dried without fermentation. 
Processing of the Coffee Bean 
 Decaffeination: It is the process where their caffeine is removed from the
green beans stage. The method of decaffeination is done before roasting
the coffee beans. It is a process where the beans are immersed in hot
water, which extracts the bean's flavour. The flavourful water is used to
wash the next batch of green beans. 
 Roasting: It is a process where the aromatic and gustatory qualities of the
coffee are developed by roasting it at high temperatures. The method of
roasting releases steam, carbon dioxide, and other volatiles from the
beans. Beans turn deep rich, and their texture changes. Too much roasting
of the beans is harsh for the beans and causes them to break. 
 Grinding: The last step is grinding. Many leave the coffee as beans so the
consumer can grind them at home. However, grinding is a process where
the beans are put through a scored roller to cut them. 
https://www.vedantu.com/biology/botanical-name-of-coffee
What is Coffee? Botanical Classification of Coffea Arabica
Apr 21, 2013 •

The Coffea arabica(botanical name of coffee), is native to Ethiopia, and now cultivated in many
different equatorial regions: in Africa, Central America, South America, West Indies, South/South
East Asia, and Pacific islands.

The Coffea arabica belongs to the large sub-kingdom of the Angiosperms, which means that the
plant reproduces by seeds enclosed in the ovary, a box-like compartment, at the bottom of the
flower.

This sub-kingdom is subdivided into two classes. The basis for this division is the number of leaves
in the little plant which develops from the seed. The coffee plant, as it develops from the seed, has
two little leaves, and therefore belongs to the class Dicotyledoneæ.

Botanical Classification of Coffee

Kingdom: Vegetable
Sub-Kingdom: Angiospermæ
Class: Dicotyledoneæ
Sub-class: Sympetalæ or Metachlamydeæ
Order: Rubiales
Family: Rubiaceæ
Genus: Coffea
Sub-genus: Eucoffea
Species:C. Arabica

The class Dicotyledoneæ is separated into sub-classes according to whether the flower’s corolla is
all in one piece, or is divided into a number of parts. The coffee flower is arranged with its corolla all
in one piece, forming a tube-shaped arrangement, and accordingly the coffee plant belongs to the
sub-class Sympetalæ, or Metachlamydeæ, which means that its petals are united.

The next step is the order. The coffee plant belongs to an order known as Rubiales. The order is
then divided into families. Coffee is placed in the family of Rubiaceæ. The members of this family are
noted for their action on the nervous system. In the case of coffee, the caffein acts as a stimulant to
the nervous system.

Under the family of Rubiales, the coffee plant is belong to genus Coffea and its sub-genus Eucoffea.
This su-genus belongs Coffea arabica, which is commonly consumed Coffea specie as well as
Coffea robusta and coffea liberica.

http://blog.italcoffee.com/botanical-classification-of-coffea-arabica/
 Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report
Taxonomic Hierarchy
       
  Kingdom Plantae  – plantes, Planta, Vegetal, plants  
     Subkingdom Viridiplantae  – green plants  
        Infrakingdom Streptophyta  – land plants  
           Superdivision Embryophyta   
              Division Tracheophyta  – vascular plants, tracheophytes  
                 Subdivision Spermatophytina  – spermatophytes, seed plants, phanérogames  
                    Class Magnoliopsida   
                       Superorder Asteranae   
                          Order Gentianales   
                             Family Rubiaceae  – madders, rubiacées  
                                Genus Coffea L. – coffee  
    Direct Children:  
                                 Specie Coffea arabica L. – Arabian coffee
   
s
                                 Specie Coffea benghalensis B. Heyne ex Schult. – bengal coffee
   
s
                                 Specie Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner – robusta coffee
   
s
                                 Specie Coffea congensis A. Froehner – congo coffee
   
s
                                 Specie Coffea liberica W. Bull ex Hiern. – Liberian coffee
   
s
                                 Specie Coffea stenophylla G. Don
 
s
https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?
search_topic=TSN&search_value=35189#null
Coffee is one of the most popular drinks on the planet, trailing only water and tea in
global daily consumption. Although it’s a drink many people rely on for a morning pick-
me-up, it can be easy to overlook the plant that produces this culturally and
economically important caffeinated beverage.

What is Coffee?
Coffea is a genus in the Rubiaceae family. Although it is often referred to as the coffee
family, Rubiaceae contains other important or well-known plants such
as Cinchona (some plants of this genus are used to make quinine), Gardenia, and
Missouri-native buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis). Members of the Rubiaceae
family are found all over the world. The greatest centers of diversity are found in Central
and South America, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, and the tropical Pacific islands.
The genus Coffea contains more than 50 species, nearly all of which are native to Africa
and Madagascar. These evergreen plants typically grow as a shrub or small
tree. Coffea species have opposite, glossy, dark green leaves, and produce clusters of
small, sweetly-scented white flowers which give way to small, usually red, drupes
(berries).
Although commonly referred to as coffee “beans,” the drupes actually house the seeds
of the coffee plant. The seeds contain caffeine, a stimulant, and are dried and roasted to
create varying flavor profiles.
Much of the commercial coffee consumed today is from one of two species, Coffea
arabica and Coffea canephora (syn. robusta), with C. arabica making up more than half
of the coffee commonly sold in American stores.
Although originally from Africa, Coffea arabica is grown today in tropical and subtropical
regions across the globe. Brazil produces more coffee annually than any other country.
Other top producers include Vietnam, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Colombia.

The Dark Side of Coffee

Coffee is not without its problems. Because of the growing demand for this commodity,
tropical forests have been cleared and converted into coffee plantations. Whenever
possible, look for coffee that is sustainably produced and fair trade. This helps ensure
that existing forests are not destroyed and the people working on the plantations are
paid and treated fairly.

Coffee at the Garden

The Garden’s living collection includes several coffee trees. The largest live in the
Climatron, near the entrance to the Brookings Exploration Center. Several smaller trees
are kept in the greenhouse and brought outside seasonally.
The Garden horticulturists generally do not harvest the coffee, to allow visitors more
opportunity to see the fruits on the tree. However, staff did harvest some of the fruit in
2018 to make a video showing how coffee is processed for drinking. Please do not pick
any fruits or vegetables at the Garden.

Rubiaceae Research and Coffee Conservation

Garden researchers also encounter coffee quite a lot, and not just when working late
hours to describe new species. Our botanists work both in coffee’s native range in
Africa and Madagascar, and in many of its cultivated homes across the Neotropics.
Dr. Charlotte Taylor is an expert on the Rubiaceae family, specializing in the
genera Palicourea and Psychotria. Taylor has published more than 400 new species in
her career, utilizing the Garden’s expansive herbarium collection to identify and
describe plants. Look at the specimens below. Can you spot the similarities and
differences between these three species?
https://discoverandshare.org/2019/09/27/plant-profile-coffee-botany-international-day/
History
Resources
The coffee tree, genus Coffea, family Rubiaceae (Madder
family), is native to Ethiopia. The name coffee also refers to the
fruit (beans) of the tree and to the beverage brewed from the
beans. Coffee is one of the world’s most valuable agricultural
crops.
There are about 30 species of Coffea, but only two provide
most of the world market for coffee. Coffea arabica is
indigenous to Ethiopia and was the first cultivated species of
coffee tree. C. arabica provides 75% of the world’s supply of
coffee. Coffea robusta, also known as Coffea canephora, was
first discovered growing wild in what is now Zaire. This species
was not domesticated and cultivated until the turn of the
twentieth century, and now supplies about 23% of the world’s
coffee. Coffea liberica is also an important source of coffee
beans, but is mostly consumed locally and does not enter the
world market in great quantity.
C. robusta and C. liberica were developed because of their
resistance to insects and diseases.
Cultivation and harvesting

The coffee tree or shrub grows to 15–30 ft (3–9 m). The tree
has shiny, dark green, simple, ovate leaves that grow opposite
each other in an alternate fashion, and reach 3 in (7.5 cm) in
length. Fragrant white flowers that bloom for only a few days
grow where the leaves join the branches. Clusters of fruit, called
cherries, follow the flowers. The cherries are green while
developing and growing. The green berries change to yellow,
and then to red when the cherries are mature, and deep
crimson when ripe and ready for picking. The cherries do not all
ripen at once, and trees that grow in lower, hotter regions often
hold multicolored berries, flowers, and leaves all at once.
Each cherry has two chambers or locules that hold two beans.
The beans are oval and flat on one side with a lengthwise
groove. They are covered by papery skin that must be removed
before roasting. A soft, fleshy pulp surrounds the beans.
Cherries with one bean, usually round, are called peaberries.
Coffee trees raised from seeds generally flower the third or
fourth year, and produce a good crop at five years. The trees
can produce crops for about 15-20 years. Coffee trees can yield
from about 1–8 lbs (0.5–3.6 kg) in a year, with 1.5–2 lbs (0.7–
0.9 kg) being the average. It takes 5 lbs (2.3 kg) of cherries to
produce 1 lb (0.5 kg) of beans.
Coffee grows best in regions located between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (25°north and south of the
equator), also called the “coffee

belt.” Coffee trees do not produce well in extremely hot

weather, nor can they tolerate frost. Ideally, the annual mean
temperature should be around 70°F (21.1°C). There should be
adequate rainfall 70 inches (178 cm) per year especially when
the fruit is developing. C. arabica grows best at higher altitudes
2, 000–6, 000 ft (610–1, 830 m) and because the fruit of this
species takes about six to seven months to ripen after
flowering, only one crop is harvested per year. C. robusta grows
best at lower altitudes around 3, 000 feet (915 m), and
depending on the climate and soil, the fruit can be harvested
two to three times per year. Coffee trees grow best in rich, well
drained, organic soil, particularly in regions with disintegrated
volcanic ash. The dangers for growing coffee trees are frost, the
coffee bean borer, coffee leaf miner, and the fungus Hemileia
vastatrix.
There are two methods of harvesting and processing the
cherries. The wet method, used where water is abundant,
involves picking only the ripe cherries. The cherries are soaked
in water to soften the skin and the skin and pulp are removed,
leaving a sticky film. The cherries are put into tanks to ferment
for about 24 hours and then washed to remove the sticky
covering on the bean. The beans are spread out to dry, and put
into hulling machines that remove the papery skin. Coffee
beans processed by the wet method tend to be more
expensive. They are considered to have a better flavor,
probably because only ripe cherries are picked. The dry method
involves stripping all the cherries from the branches. The
cherries are thoroughly dried and put into machines that remove
the dry outer covering, pulp, and papery skin. The dry method is
the oldest type of processing and is currently used for about
two-thirds of the world’s coffee. Both processes result in a
dried, green coffee bean. Dried, processed beans are then
sorted, and graded for quality, type, and size. The beans are
packed for transport into bags of 132 lbs (60 kg) each. Coffee is
exported all over the world and is usually roasted after it
reaches its destination.
History

The first cultivated coffee, C. arabica, is native to Ethiopia. In

Africa, coffee beans were consumed as food and later made
into wine. The coffee plant made its way to
neighboring Arabia around AD 1000, where it was made into
and consumed as a beverage. coffee beans were introduced
to Europe in the fifteenth century as a result of the spice trade.
Until the late part of the seventeenth century, all coffee came
from Arabia, but the first coffee tree was brought to Europe by
Jussieu and planted in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in 1714.
This tree became the source of all Latin American coffees. This
same tree was stolen and later replanted (after a treacherous
sea voyage) in Martinique. This species spread to the West
Indies and later, Brazil. The West Indian colonies
of Spain and France became major world suppliers. Later, the
Dutch successfully cultivated the coffee tree in Indonesia, and
eventually became the leading coffee producer. When the
fungus Hemileia vastatrix wiped out most of the coffee trees
in Asia, the West Indian and Brazilian industry became
dominant. By the late nineteenth century Brazil had vast coffee
plantations and was the leading coffee producer. This status
fluctuated with the emancipation of its slaves, incoming
European immigrant workers, the start of many small farms,
and overproduction. Today, Brazil and Colombia are the world’s
leading producers of coffee beans.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-
almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/coffee-plant
Types of Coffee that Grow in the Philippines
 June 6, 2019  admin   Blog

The Philippines, also known as the Pearl of the Orient Seas, is one of the few countries that yield the
varieties of commercially used coffee namely, Arabica, Liberica, Excelsa, and Robusta. What makes
the country suitable for all of these four varieties is its climatic and soil conditions, stretching from
lowland to mountain regions.

The history of coffee here in the Philippines is as rich as its flavor. In 1740, the first coffee tree was
introduced in Lipa by a Spanish Franciscan monk. This is the start of coffee growing in the country
as it was spread to other parts of Batangas like Lemery, San Jose, Tanauan, Taal and Ibaan. The city
of Lipa eventually declared as the coffee capital of the Philippines.

Batangas has begun exporting coffee to America by 1860s, followed by the newly opened market in
Europe. Since the coffee plantations and exporting in Batangas became successful, the industry
then flourished to Cavite. It was in 1876 where the first coffee seedlings in Amadeo was planted.
There was a time where the Philippines is the only source of coffee beans worldwide, dating back in
1880. In 1889, the glory days of the Philippine coffee industry ends. This is because of the coffee
rust and the insect infestation. Brazil then had regained its position as the leading producer of
coffee. Though this was not the end of the coffee industry, lesser areas were allocated since various
farmers had shifted to other crops. It was in the 1960s when the farmers went back to growing
coffee. This is with the help of the Americans since they introduced a more resistant variety of
coffee.  Numerous coffee beans supplier in the Philippines then become prominent. They are
committed to delivering only quality coffee products in every way possible. Currently, the Philippines
produces 30,000 metric tons of coffee per year.

Nowadays, we drink coffee not just to get a daily dose of caffeine. Drinking coffee is more of an
experience and appreciation. Knowing where your coffee came from means understanding it in
totality. Below are the four types of coffee that grow in the Philippines:

The Arabica Coffee of Cordillera

This is usually called “Kapeng Tagalog”. Since Arabica is a type of bean that grows at high altitude,
notably those areas that constantly receives rainfall and a plentiful amount shade, the Cordillera
region is undeniably perfect for this. It is one of the most commonly produced coffee and accounts
for over 70% of coffee production worldwide. Arabica is known for its bittersweet taste and
distinctive aroma. If you’d like to see the coffee plantations for yourself, most of them are can be
found in the areas of Benguet, Sagada, and Ifugao although they are also abundant in the Southern
Tagalog areas namely Batangas and Laguna, and Cavite.

Kapeng Barako of Batangas

If you prefer a coffee with a strong flavor, then the Liberica coffee, or most popularly known as the
Kapeng Barako is the appropriate coffee for you. To give you a glimpse of its history, the first ever
Barako tree came from Brazil and was planted in Lipa City, Batangas in 1800. The production of this
kind of coffee is not as overwhelming as compared to the other varieties which made Kapeng
Barako a rare species. This is one of the main reasons why a trip to Batangas will not be completed
without enjoying a sip of their eminent coffee.

Robusta Coffee of Southern Tagalog

It is probably the most prevalent variety of coffee in the Philippines. If you’ll compare it to Arabica,
this type of coffee is much easier to cultivate. It can grow on lowlands which makes them
widespread in the Southern Tagalog regions namely in the areas of Bulacan, Mindoro, and Cavite. It
accounts for almost 85% of the coffee grown in the Philippines as it is largely used to produce
instant coffee that we enjoy every single day. A brewed Robusta coffee is characterized by a much
sharper flavor with a distinctive aroma. Apart from the given areas, Sultan Kudarat also produces
high quality of Robusta. One of the popular brands is Kape Dulangan.

The Excelsa Coffee of Quezon and Batangas

This type of coffee accounts for over 7% of the country’s entire coffee production. It has a very
distinct taste that you compare to the sweetness of jackfruit, perfectly matched with its tempting
aroma. Another thing that makes this coffee special is that it is resistant to dryness and other coffee
diseases making it easy to grow as well. To see it for yourself, you may visit the farms located in the
Quezon, Bicol, and even in Sorsogon.

Civet Coffee of Davao and Cavite

This is not your typical coffee. If you’re looking for a much exotic taste coming from an exotic
source, then you might consider Civet coffee. As included to its name, this coffee belongs to the
Philippine Civet cat. The coffee itself came from their poo. Philippine Civet cat is a tree-dwelling
animal that feeds on coffee berries. The droppings, which were washed and cleaned has then
resulted in a distinctive coffee flavor. It is characterized by a dark chocolate aroma. Specifically, this
can be found in Davao, and the most famous brand is the Mt. Apo Civet Coffee while in Amadeo
Cavite, they have the Café Amadeo. Southern Luzon also has this kind of coffee locally known as
Kapeng Alamid or Kapeng Musang.

Which among those type do you prefer the most?

https://caffeinebrothers.co/types-of-coffee-that-grow-in-the-
philippines/
 Guide to Coffee in the Philippines
and Must-Visit Local Coffee
Shops
By Grayson Yañez

Verified Expert

A morning brew to wake up the senses and jumpstart the day, a cold cup on a
lazy afternoon by the beach, or a hot perk while gazing at stunning landscapes
up in the highlands. Coffee has become an inevitable part of one’s day,
especially when traveling.
If you're traveling in the Philippines, quality coffee is something to look out
for. While the country may not be synonymous yet with a rich coffee culture
like that of Vietnam, Colombia, or Italy, the Philippines has grown and
cultivated an array of coffee varieties since the 18th century. 

Artisanal cafes and third-wave coffee shops have also sprouted in the
Philippines over recent years.

hanks to a new breed of entrepreneurs honoring locally sourced beans and

the communities that have worked hard for generations, Filipino coffee is
finally in the spotlight.
https://guidetothephilippines.ph/articles/ultimate-guides/coffee-philippines-
guide
Types of Coffee Beans and What Sets Them Apart
Walking through the coffee aisle of your local grocer, you’ve probably noticed at some
point that nearly, if not all, of the bags say “Arabica Coffee” or “Arabica Beans” on them.
Ever wonder why? There are actually several different types of coffee beans, with
Arabica being the most common. It actually accounts for 60 - 70% of coffee produced
globally, but there are some other types that are far less common in the United States.

More often than not, when we think of how coffee is categorized and marketed, we’re
usually thinking of things like roasting profiles or source of origin. This information is
certainly helpful in identifying what to expect with a given coffee, but it doesn’t tell the
whole story. Let’s take a closer look at what types of coffees are out there and what
makes each of them unique.

Characteristics of Coffee Bean Types

There are four primary types of coffee beans we’ll be discussing here: Arabica (Coffee
arabica), Robusta (Coffee caniphora), Liberica (Coffee liberica), and Excelsa (Coffee
liberica var. dewevrei). Let’s discover what differences define these various types of
coffee.

Arabica
As mentioned earlier, Arabica is the most common (and certainly most heavily
marketed) type of coffee in North America. That’s because it actually has a sweeter,
more delicate flavor and the coffee itself tends to be less acidic. Arabica beans are
farmed in areas with high elevations above sea level, particularly those where rain is
plentiful. In fact, Brazil, known for its lush rainforest, is the world’s foremost exporter of
Arabica beans. The plants themselves are fairly delicate, requiring a fair amount of
pruning and constant attention to environmental factors. The Coffee arabica species is
particularly prone to disease so farming in great quantities is a challenge. This drives up
the cost of the bean considerably in the global market, but many coffee drinkers around
the world are happy to pay the difference because of the softer, sweeter taste.

One point to note about the popular but sensitive bean is that its taste has a reputation
of being diminished a bit when it is served cold or blended with milk or creamer. While
that may be the case, it’s fair to say the difference probably won’t be noticeable when
you’re adding some additional flavor to the drink anyway.

Robusta
When it comes to global production, Robusta coffee beans are second on the list and
the most popular in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Its name does this bean justice,
as it is known for its strong and often harsh flavor profile. Robusta coffees have
extremely high levels of caffeine, which makes the plant far more resilient than the
Arabica species. That’s because the caffeine acts as natural insect repellent, eliminating
a major threat to the tree. The coffee caniphora species is also particularly tolerant of its
environment, so it can be grown in any number of altitudes and climates. Because of its
reputation for tasting burnt or rubbery, robusta is not generally a very popular coffee
commodity, except where very strong coffee is a cultural norm. However, because it’s
so much easier to grow and harvest than Arabica beans, many farmers do tend to reap
higher profits when they can sell Robusta. So where is it going? Robusta might be used
for discount lines like instant coffees and is sometimes used as a filler in dark roasts. By
using 3 parts Arabica to 1 part Robusta in a given batch, a roaster might save up to
20% on the cost of raw beans. However, if this looks to you like sacrificing product
quality for the bottom line, you’d be right.

There are some instances, though, of delicious, hiqh quality Robusta coffees finding
their way onto grocery store shelves. These are generally single-origin coffees made
from craft, small-batch roasters. The very best Robusta coffee beans will have hints of
chocolate and rum within their flavor profile, but in all reality, are not always readily
available. At the end of the day, if your main interest in a cup of coffee is getting a daily
dose of caffeine, you’d probably do just as well going with a standard cup of Robusta
and cutting the flavor with cream and sugar.

Liberica
Liberica coffee beans are a rare treat. They’re grown in very specific climates with
production being far too scarce for farmers to scale their operations to truly satisfy a
global marketplace. Even still, the beans are considered a pleasant surprise. Many
who’ve tried the coffee liken the aroma to fruit and flowers and describe the flavor as
having a somewhat “woody” taste.

There was a time when Liberica coffee was incredibly popular. Near the end of the
nineteenth century, a plant disease now known as “coffee rust” had set in and
eliminated almost all of the Arabica plants across the entire planet. Because coffee was
such a huge commodity, even at that point, farmers and government bodies both set out
to find suitable substitutes. The Philippines were the first to harvest and sell the Liberica
plant at a noteworthy volume and as the sole supplier the nation saw its economy grow
tremendously. At this point, the Philippines was a U.S. territory but as its economy grew
the nation declared its independence. As a result, the U.S. imposed steep economic
sanctions and cut off supplies to the country. This ultimately led to the downfall of the
Liberica coffee bean in the global marketplace, as no other nations were ever able to
step up and match the production that the Philippines had once pioneered.

Excelsa
The final type of coffee bean we introduce today is Excelsa. Excelsa is technically a
member of the Liberica family, but its species is actually incredibly distinct. Like the
Liberica coffee described above, Excelsa is grown primarily in Southeast Asia and
represents only a small fraction of the world’s coffee production. Excelsa does boast a
tart, fruitier flavor and is known for showing attributes of both light and dark roast
coffees to create a unique profile that is frequently sought out by coffee enthusiasts.
How to Choose What to Buy
We’ve said it before and we’ll say it again, drinking coffee is about finding what you
enjoy and sticking with it. Knowing that Arabica and Robusta the most prevalent and
affordable options you’ll encounter on a regular basis, think about how you actually like
to drink your coffee - hot, iced, with/without creamer? Typically, if you’re more of a
coffee purist who enjoys a simple fresh, hot, black coffee then a light Arabica bean like
our Ethiopian Yirgacheffe product would be an ideal choice. If you generally prefer
pouring your coffee over ice or enjoying it with some additional flavor add-ins, then we
might recommend giving our Knockbox Espresso a shot. The main thing to remember is
that it’s all about finding what works for you, so try different things and enjoy the
process!
https://districtroasters.com/blogs/news/types-of-coffee-beans

MARCH 13, 2019

Coffee production in the Philippines
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Liberica coffee beans from Mindoro.

Coffee production in the Philippines began as early as 1740 when the Spanish

introduced coffee in the islands. It was once a major industry in the Philippines, which
200 years ago was the fourth largest coffee producing nation.
As of 2014, the Philippines produces 25,000 metric tons of coffee and is ranked 110th in
terms of output. However local demand for coffee is high with 100,000 metric tons of
coffee consumed in the country per year.  The Philippines is one of the few countries
[1]

that produce the four main viable coffee

varieties; Arabica, Liberica (Barako), Excelsa and Robusta.  90 percent of coffee[2]

produced in the country is Robusta. There has been efforts to revitalize the coffee
industry. [3]

History[edit]
Early years[edit]
Arabica coffee variety was introduced in West Java in 1690. Muslim pilgrims have already smuggled Yemeni seed to
west India, the real source of Dutch seedlings, and probably introduced it to Sumatra. West Sumatran coffee was
sold to British interlopers and American missionaries spread coffee further, probably to the Philippines in the
eighteenth century. Southeast Asian consumption of coffee grew and was closely associated culturally with
Islam. [4]Coffee was introduced in the Philippines as early as 1730, when a Franciscan friar planted the first coffee tree
in Lipa, Batangas. Coffee introduced from the Philippines came from Mexico. Coffee production was later promoted
by Augustinian friars Elias Nebreda and Benito Varas in other parts of Batangas such as Ibaan, Lemery, San
Jose, Taal, and Tanauan. Coffee plantations became part of the foundation of Batangas' economy and Lipa was later
labeled as the coffee capital of the Philippines.[5][2][6]

Growth in the 19th century[edit]

Following the aftermath of the American Civil War, in the 1865, there was a sudden increase of demand for Philippine
coffee in the United States since it became cheaper importing coffee from the Philippines than importing coffee from
Brazil. Barako from Batangas was shipped from Manila to San Francisco. Half of the Philippines' coffee export in that
year were shipped to San Francisco. Coffee also began to be exported to Europe following the opening of the Suez
Canal in 1869. In 1876, coffee was introduced in the town of Amadeo in neighboring Cavite and the province began
producing coffee. However, Lipa remained as the main producer of coffee in the Philippines and Batangas
barako cost five times as much as Java beans. In 1880, the Philippines was the fourth largest exporter of coffee
beans. Coffee production in competitor regions of Brazil, Africa and Java declined when coffee rust plagued the
regions and from 1887 to 1889, the Philippines was the only source of coffee in the world.[6][5]

Decline in the 1880s-1890s[edit]

In 1889, coffee production in the country saw a great decline following the introduction of coffee rust in the country
and increased incidence of insect infestation. These elements virtually destroyed all coffee trees in Batangas. By
1891, coffee production in the country was reduced to 1/6 of its total production two years earlier. By this period,
Brazil has regained its position as a major coffee producer. Surviving coffee seedlings were transferred to Cavite as
many farmers in Batangas shifted to growing other crops.[5]

Post-World War II[edit]

During the 1950s, the Philippine government, with assistance from Americans, introduced a variety of coffee to the
country which is more resistant. Instant coffee began to be produced in commercial quantities which resulted to the
increase of demand for coffee. Many farmers began shifting back to growing coffee in the 1960s. Importation of
coffee were momentarily stopped due to a surplus in the world market due to sudden proliferation of coffee farms. In
1980, the Philippines became a member of the International Coffee Organization (ICO).[5]

21st century[edit]

The bean belt and the top 20 coffee producing countries in 2011 according to FAOSTAT which includes the Philippines.

Demand for coffee experienced growth. In 2002, the yearly coffee consumption of the Philippines was 75,000 metric
tons. This figure grew to 170,000 metric tons annually by 2018. As of the same year, the Philippines began to import
coffee due to low coffee production at only 35,000 metric tons annually. It imports about 75,000-100,000 metric tons
of dried coffee beans amounting ₱7−10 billion from Vietnam and Indonesia according to the Department of
Agriculture (DA).[7]
By 2016, according to PhilMech, an agency under DA, Mindanao is the leader of local production of dried coffee
beans. Sultan Kudarat is the province that produces the most coffee in the island. Coffee production in traditional
cultivation areas such as the Cordillera and Calabarzon experienced a decline due to strong typhoons which battered
the region in the same year.[7]
While 2020 brought further challenges – including the Covid-19 pandemic and the Taal Volcano eruption – it could
also mark the beginning of a new era for Philippine specialty coffee. For the first time in history, a locally-produced
coffee won the 2020 Philippine National Barista Championship (PNBC). [8]
The Duterte administration signed a “Philippine Coffee Industry Roadmap 2017-2022” with the purpose of boosting
the country’s annual domestic coffee output from 37,000 metric tons (MT) a year to 214,626 MT by 2022. According
to the roadmap, this will bring the country’s coffee self-sufficiency level to 161% from the current 41.6%. [9]

References
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/eating-coffee-beans
Brown M, 2019

Can You Eat Coffee

Beans? All You Need to
Know
https://mb.com.ph/2021/10/05/revised-philippine-coffee-roadmap-hopes-to-
revitalize-local-coffee-industry/#:~:text=Despite%20the%20rising
%20popularity%20of,from%202019%20to%20last%20year.
Published October 5, 2021, 1:00 PM
by Yvette Tan

Revised Philippine Coffee

Roadmap hopes to revitalize local
coffee industry

https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Crops%20Statistics%20of%20the%20Philippines%2C%202015-
2019.pdf

2015-2019 Crops Statistics of the Philippines

2020, PSA
THE PHILIPPINE COFFEE INDUSTRY

Just like its flavor, Philippine coffee has a rich history. The first coffee tree was introduced in
Lipa, Batangas in 1740 by a Spanish Franciscan monk. From there, coffee growing spread to
other parts of Batangas, allowing the province to grow in wealth over the decades. Lipa
eventually became the coffee capital of the Philippines. In the 1860s, Batangas was already
selling coffee to America, through San Francisco, and subsequently, with the opening of the
Suez Canal, the Europe market opened. By 1880, the Philippines had become the fourth largest
exporter of coffee beans, and when the coffee rust hit Brazil, Africa, and Java, it became the only
source of coffee beans worldwide. Unfortunately, by the end of the decade, the coffee rust
eventually reached the Philippine shores, destroying all the coffee trees in Batangas. The
Philippine coffee industry experienced ups and downs thereafter and never recovered its glory
days.1 However, all is not lost for the Philippine coffee industry. Coffee is grown in 50 countries
along the equatorial zone called, “The Bean Belt”. Interestingly, the Philippines lies within the
Bean Belt. Blessed with favorable climate and soil conditions, from the lowland to the mountain
regions, the Philippines is also one of the few countries that produces the four varieties of
commercially-viable coffee - Liberica, Excelsa, Robusta and Arabica. In 1980, the Philippines
became a member of the International Coffee Organization, a group of importing and exporting
coffee nations. According to the Agricultural Cooperative Development International and
Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance (ACDI-VOCA), an American nongovernment
organization providing technical support to the Philippine coffee farmers, there are positive
trends for the Philippine coffee industry – coffee consumption is on the uptick and there are now
more skilled farmers. The ACDI/VOCA notes that Philippine coffee has already penetrated the
markets in Canada, Japan, and New Zealand and that the domestic market continues to be strong,
particularly for specialized coffee (Arabica coffee with a cup score of at least 80 points).2 While
Philippine coffee production remains relatively low and is unable to even meet local
consumption demand (coffee production was at 62,062 metric tons of green coffee beans in 2019
but Filipinos consume 100,000 metric tons of coffee a year and drink almost as much coffee as
the people of the United States, Brazil, Japan and the European Union), the Philippines is
looking to be one of the leading producers of top-grade coffee around the world Through the
Philippine Coffee Industry Roadmap 2017-2022, the country is expected to raise coffee
production seven-fold by 2022, bringing the coffee industry at par with that of Brazil, Colombia,
Vietnam, the Honduras, and Indonesia. Through the coffee roadmap, the Philippine government
aims to guarantee a coffee industry that is cost-competitive, aligned with global quality
standards, reliable and environment-friendly, which will provide sustainable benefits to farmers,
processors, traders, and exporters, and the Philippine food security and poverty alleviation.3
Coffee Manufacturers in the Philippines There are several local small and medium coffee
processors of roasted beans and ground coffee in the Philippines. Nestle Philippines, Inc., located
in Cagayan de Oro, is the largest local processor of soluble coffee, which accounts for 80% of
the instant coffee market. It is followed by Universal Robina Corporation and Commonwealth
Foods Corp.4

Aside from the aforementioned Philippine manufacturers’ brands, there are also locally-made
ground coffee brands available in the market, such as Aguinaldo Blend, Altura Coffee, Café
Amadeo, Café de Lipa, Café Chico, Coffee Alamid (civet coffee), Davao coffee (variants
Robusta, Arabica and Excelsa), Gourmet Café, Kalinga blend, Kalinga Robusta premium coffee,
Kalinga brew, Kalinga Musang coffee, Kape Isa, Magallaya brew premium coffee (Excelsa),
Monk's Blend, Mt. Apo Civet Coffee, Inc., Musang coffee roasted bean, Negros Rainforest,
Rocky Mountain (variants of Mountain Blend and Classic Blend), and Sagada coffee. These
products are manufactured by entrepreneurs, mostly operating on a small scale, and are primarily
named after the place where they are produced.5 With the rise of the third coffee wave and
growing focus on the origin, whether ethically-sourced and directly traded, and quality of the
coffee beans, more new local coffee players are emerging, such as Primal Brew, Kalsada Coffee,
Figures of Beans, Kape Maria, SGD Coffee, Gourmet Farms, Basilio Coffee, Cafe-Te-Ria,
BrewsCo, Daybreak Coffee, Dipbrew Coffee Co., Great Basket Third Wave Coffee, Sinag
Coffee Roastery, Everyday Coffee Roasters, Original Grounds Coffee Co., Fresh Batch,
Commune PH, Comfy Beans, Henry & Sons, Stout Coffee PH, Mr. Beans Coffee, Beanhi,
Coffee for Peace and Coffeellera, among others.6,7,

3 "DTI sees bright prospects ahead for Philippine coffee industry", Business Mirror, published
on 24 April 2018
 1. Geographic conditions suitable for cultivation of different coffee varieties:

The Philippines can grow four varieties of coffee namely the Robusta, Arabica,
Excelsa and Liberica in the entire country. While those varieties afford the
country flexibility to explore for potential niches, it was revealed that the two
most popular varieties, the Robusta and Arabica coffee aligns with that of the
regional and global trends.

2. Archipelago can sustain natural barriers to plant diseases:

Coffee rust which spread by fungus spores dispersed through the wind makes land
locked regions susceptible leaving severe damages in the coffee industry.

3. Coffee Industry supported by DTI and the DA:

The Department of Agriculture helped in establishing nursery centers and seed

gardens, together with universities and educational institutions, including the
private sector. The Bank of the Philippine Islands, the CDA and local
governments has also engaged in distributing seedlings in the region while
supporting implementation was from the PRDP. Other government agencies that
provided support to the coffee industry in the country include the DENR, DOST,
the Department of Labor and Employment, TESDA and local government units.

4. Improvement of organization in line with the production segment of chain:

Cooperative networks have strengthened in recent years while they are still
developing especially in the Arabica production areas like Benguet Province.
Support from the DA and the PRDP by means of extension services and input
provision helped these networks gain traction.

Challenges

1. Limited stock of higher quality seedlings:

Sometimes the quality of the plants can be substandard, other than the DA other offices
are issuing deficient varieties.

2. Lack of modern production strategies:

This is part stems from includes both the age of farmers and a lack of extension services.

3. Crude post-harvest processing techniques:

 Lower-quality Robusta has lessened the incentives for farmers for upgrading and
improvement to their post-harvest capabilities. In addition, many farmers still need
training about the benefits of sorting beans based on coffee species.

4. Lack of synchronization between industry shareholders:

While there is government attention and cooperation within individual segments of the
chain, communication often weakens between the various lumps.

5. There are gaps in assembly and distribution of research and technical knowledge:

Data collected about the country’s production volume conflicts with estimates offered by
international organizations. In addition, there is only a limited transfer of knowledge and
technology from research and development centers to producers and are not being
sufficiently communicated.

6. Popularity of instant coffee:

The popularity of coffee beverages allowed Nestle as the dominant consumer of the
Philippines’ coffee beans accepting only Robusta beans with minimum standards. With
this, Arabica coffee required a paradigm shift for farmers seeking to enter higher-value
segments.

DTI, 2017

https://industry.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/DTI-Policy-Brief-2017-10-The-Philippines-
in-the-Coffee-Global-Value-Chain.pdf

The Philippines in the Coffee Global Value Chain

Engineering properties, considered broadly, are physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics that are observable, measureable, and influence behavior to the extent that they
are important in engineering analyses and design, and in performance of components, systems,
or processes.

It is important to choose the right material for any job that we pursue. Not
choosing the right material can cause unintended consequences like metal
whiskers growing on metallic parts. These consequences can lead to bigger
disasters. Hence, it is important to understand the classification of materials.
And understand their properties and applications.
The economists mainly concerned with the industries manufacturing engineering materials
are interested in finding out ways in which the engineering materials can be used or applied
in the best economic way. The economist should have working knowledge of properties and
manufacturing processes of various engineering materials.
The services of such an economist can be of extreme use in making choice of engineering
materials under specific conditions or in deciding the line of manufacture of engineering
materials from the available local raw materials.
The services of such an economist can be of extreme use in making choice of engineering
materials under specific conditions or in deciding the line of manufacture of engineering
materials from the available local raw materials.

Adding just a small proportion of carbon to iron produces a material that is much stronger and
harder. Mixing nickel and titanium can produce a material that has the extraordinary property of
being able to ‘remember’ a shape. From just a few dozen metallic elements, there are an infinite
number of alloys that can be created, each with their own characteristic properties. Understanding
how the structure of metals and alloys determines their properties has led to advances in the design
of alloys with properties suited to their intended applications.

The economists mainly concerned with the industries manufacturing engineering materials
are interested in finding out ways in which the engineering materials can be used or applied
in the best economic way. The economist should have working knowledge of properties and
manufacturing processes of various engineering materials.
APPLICATION
 2.2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
The knowledge of some important physical properties such as
shape, size, volume, surface area, thousand grain weights,
density, and porosity of different grains is necessary for the
design of various separating, handling, storing and drying
systems. The function of many types of machines is influenced
decisively by the size and shape of the fruit participating. The
size and shape are, for instance, important in their electrostatic
separation from undesirable materials and in the development of
sizing and grading machinery. Bulk density, true density, and
porosity (the ratio of intergranular space to the total space
occupied by the grain) can be useful in sizing grain hoppers and
storage facilities; they can also affect the rate of heat and mass
transfer of moisture during aeration and drying processes;
Density is used to separate materials with different densities or
specific gravities. Separation of properly matured peas can be
separated from the immature and infected ones by water
flotation methods. Grain bed with low porosity will have greater
resistance to water vapor escape during the drying process,
which may lead to higher power to drive the aeration fans.
Cereal grain densities have been of interest in breakage
susceptibility and hardness studies. For instance, bulk density
values for raw and parboiled paddy have practical applications
in the calculation of thermal properties in heat transfer problems,
in determining Reynolds number in the pneumatic handling of
the material, and in separating the product from undesirable
materials. It plays an important role in other applications that
include the design of silos and storage bins and the maturity and
quality of paddy, which are essential to grain marketing. The
resistance of bulk grain to airflow is in part a function of the
porosity and the kernel size.
 2.3. FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES:
Frictional properties such as angle of repose and coefficient of
friction are important in designing equipment for solid flow and
storage structures and the angle of internal friction between seed
and wall in the prediction of seed pressure on walls. The
coefficient of static friction plays also an important role in
transports (load and unload) of goods and storage facilities. It is
important in filling flat storage facility when grain is not piled at
a uniform bed depth but rather is peaked. Coefficient of friction
is important in designing storage bins, hoppers, chutes, screw
conveyors, forage harvesters, and threshers. The material
generally moves or slides in direct contact with trough, casing,
and other components of the machine. The various parameters
affect the power requirement to drive the machine. The frictional
losses are one of the factors, which must be overcome by
providing additional power to the machine. Hence, the
knowledge of coefficient of friction of the agricultural materials
is necessary.
 2.4. AERO AND HYDRO-DYNAMIC PROPERTIES:
The aerodynamic properties and hydrodynamic properties like
terminal velocity and drag coefficient of agricultural products
are important and required for the designing of air/ hydro
conveying systems and the separation equipment. The physical
properties, such as density, shape, size, etc., are required for
calculating the terminal velocity and drag coefficient of the
agricultural produce. In the handling and processing of
agricultural products, air is often used as a carrier for transport
or for separating the desirable products from unwanted
materials, therefore the aerodynamic properties, such as terminal
velocity and drag coefficient, are needed for air conveying and
pneumatic separation of materials. As the air velocity, greater
than terminal velocity, lifts the particles to allow greater fall of a
particle, the air velocity could be adjusted to a point just below
the terminal velocity. The fluidization velocity for granular
material and settling velocity are also calculated for the body
immersed in viscous fluid.
 2.5. THERMAL PROPERTIES:
These properties are involved in almost every food processing
operation. Knowledge of the thermal properties of foods is
essential in the analysis and design of various food processes
and food processing equipment involved in heat transport, with
respect to heat transfer or energy use, such as in extrusion
cooking, drying, sterilization, cooking etc. The most important
thermal properties in food processing such as, specific heat
capacity (Cp), thermal conductivity(k), and thermal
diffusivity(a). Specific heat has an important role in
determination of energy cost and for the dimensions of
machinery and equipment that are needed in thermal processes.
Furthermore, specific heat (Cp) of food materials changes
according to their physical and chemical properties. The thermal
conductivity (k) of food determines how fast heat can be evenly
transferred to the entire food mass, which in turn affects the
quality of the final product. When heating and cooling of
materials involves unsteady state or transient heat conduction,
the material temperature changes with time and knowledge of
the thermal diffusivity (a) is required for predicting temperature
in these processes.
 2.6. OPTICAL PROPERTIES:
Light transmittance and reflectance properties of agricultural
commodities are used for sorting, grading, maturity, surface
colour and blemish determination. The use of hyperspectral,
multispectral, infrared imaging and computer vision system have
enabled even determination of moisture and other chemical
composition, contamination of agro commodities to greater
satisfaction of consumer and trader and reduced the manual
inspection, which might be subjected to error due to fatigue.
These systems offer the potential to automate manual grading
practices and thus to standardize techniques and eliminate
tedious inspection tasks. The automated inspection of produce
using machine vision not only results in labour savings, but also
can improve inspection, objectivity.
 2.7. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES:
Dielectric properties play a major role in determining the
interaction between the food material being processed and the
electromagnetic energy. The degree of heating of a food material
subjected to microwave or radio frequency processing is
strongly influenced by the dielectric properties of the food.
Dielectric heating or volumetric heating occurs due to
polarization and ionization of molecules, which are effectively
used in drying, sterilization, pasteurization and other thermal
processing operations. Dielectric properties consist of dielectric
constant (ε′) and dielectric loss factor (ε″). Dielectric constant is
a measure of the ability of a material to store electromagnetic
energy whereas dielectric loss factor is a measure of the ability
of a material to convert electromagnetic energy to heat. Loss
tangent (tan δ), a parameter used to describe how well a product
absorbs microwave energy, is the ratio of ε″ to ε′. A product
with a higher loss tangent will heat faster under microwave field
as compared to a product with a lower loss tangent.
 2.8. ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES:
Acoustic properties of biomaterial describes how the biological
cell recats to sound waves, which carry enough energy through
photons and capable of bring change in the product. Acoustic
properties are long been used in medical diagnosis; its’ use in
food processing and in detecting the imperfections in agro
commodities is gaining momentum. Moreover, the effect of high
intensity sound waves on living cell also are being explored and
effectively used in homogenizing liquid sample, extraction of
plant materials and as pretreatment for drying and dehydration
process. Ultrasound is the sound that is above the threshold of
the human ear (above 18 kHz). Ultrasound is generated with
either piezoelectric or magnetostrictive transducers that create
high-energy vibrations. These vibrations are amplified and
transferred to a sonotrode or probe, which is in direct contact
with the fluid. Some known applications of high power
ultrasound in agro- processing include the following: extraction
(release of plant material), emulsification, homogenization,
crystallization (formation of smaller ice crystals in freezing),
filtration, separation, viscosity alteration, defoaming, a
pretreatment for drying and extrusion. Ultrasound inactivates
enzymes and bacteria by breaking the cell membranes due to the
violence of cavitation and due to the formation of free radicals
and hence used for pasteurization and blanching.
 2.9. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:
Some electrical properties which are of importance in agro
processing are electrical conductance, resistance, impedance.
Electrical conductance or capacitance has been used for
determining the moisture content of grain. Electrostatic
separation of grains is also used for separating grains, based on
the ability of the grain to hold electrostatic charge. Electrical
conductivity of the grain decides the ability of the material to
hold electrostatic charge. Recently ohmic heating has been in
use for drying, pasteurization, blanching and other thermal
processing of foods, based on resistance heating. Ohmic
processing, sometimes described as resistive heating,
consists of passing mains alternating current directly through a
conductive food, which in turn leads to heat generation. Because
heating accompanies the current; heat distribution throughout
the product is far more rapid and even, which in turn can result
in better flavor retention and particulate integrity compared to
conventional processes. The efficiency of ohmic heating is
dependent on the conductive nature of the food to be processed
and hence knowledge of the conductivity of the food as a whole
and its components is essential in designing a successful heating
process.
 2.10. RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES:
Knowledge of the rheological and mechanical properties of
various food systems is important in the design of flow
processes for quality control, in predicting storage and stability
measurements, and in understanding and designing texture. The
rheological behavior under limited deformation has been widely
used to obtain information on the structure and viscoelasticity of
materials.  An understanding of flow behavior is necessary to
determine the size of the pump and pipe and the energy
requirements. The rheological models obtained from the
experimental measurements can be useful in design of food
engineering processes if used together with momentum, energy,
and mass balances. Effects of processing on rheological
properties must be known for process control.
 2.11. TEXTURAL PROPERTIES:
Texture is one of the most important quality characteristics of
foods. Foods have different textural properties. These
differences are caused by inherent differences due to the variety
difference, differences due to maturity, and differences caused
by processing methods. Food texture can be evaluated by
sensory or instrumental methods. Sensory methods need a taste
panel containing trained panelists. It is hard to repeat the results.
Instrumental methods are less expensive and less time
consuming as compared to sensory methods.
 Engineering Properties of Agricultural Materials Introduction

Engineering properties when broadly defined refers to the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics which can be observe, measure, and influenced behaviorally to the degree that
they really appear to be a vital factor in engineering design and analysis, including the
performance of its components, systems, or processes. Engineering properties are essential in
the design and operation of equipment engaged in agricultural processing. They are also useful
for the structure, development and manufacture of other farm machinery. Unit operations
involving cleaning, sorting, drying process, dehydration method, storage, grinding, milling,
supervision, transportation, and thermal processing are one of the vital operations in agricultural
processing. In handling of commodities, properties which serve as necessary and important
factors includes the physical, mechanical, rheological, aerodynamic, hydrodynamic, frictional,
electrical and optical properties of the biological materials and resources. Basic knowledge on
the said properties are of great help for the engineers as well as the food scientists, processors
and manufacturers for effective and efficient process of developing equipment.
Engineering Properties of Agricultural Materials

 January 2019

DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.20324.83842
Authors:

T. Krishnakumar

 ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum, Kerala