Coverage Planning: Contents

Coverage Planning
Coverage Planning
Contents :
• Introduction & Definition of Terms
• The reference sensitivity performance
• Radio Frequency Propagation and Power
• Diffraction, Reflection, ducting
• System Interference
• Radio-frequency power
• Radio Wave Propagation Models
• Link budget calculation
• Suitable prediction models for Macro, Micro and Pico-cells
• Base Site Separation
• Location Probability
• Criteria for antenna selection parameters
• Fading
• Noise Figure calculations
• Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
• Measurement Tools supporting Cell Planning
• Effect of Sectorisation on the coverage
• Exercises
MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION

Coverage Planning
1. Introduction & Definition of Terms
To achieve coverage in an area, the received signal strength in UL and DL must be

above the so called receiver sensitivity level:
Coverage: RX_LEV > (actual) receiver sensitivity level.

No Coverage: RX_LEV < (actual) receiver sensitivity level.
The minimum receiver sensitivity levels in UL and DL are defined in GSM 05.05:
• for normal BTS : -104 dBm
• for GSM 900 micro BTS M1 : -97 dBm
• for DCS 1800 micro BTS M1 : -102 dBm
• for GSM 900 small MS (class 4, 5): -102 dBm
• for other GSM 900 MS: -104 dBm
• for DCS 1800 class 1 or class 2 MS : -100 dBm
• for DCS 1800 class 3 MS : -102 dBm
MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 2

Coverage Planning
Power class GSM 900 MS GSM 1800 M Tolerance
1 - 30 dBm +/- 2dB
2 39 dBm 24 dBm +/- 2dB
3 37 dBm 36 dBm +/- 2dB
45 33 dBm +/- 2dB
5 29 dBm +/- 2dB
Table 1 Maximum output power for MS of different power classes.
TRX Power Class GSM 900 BTS GSM 1800 BTS
1 320 - (< 640 ) W 20 – ( < 40 ) W
2 160 - (< 320 ) W 10 – ( < 20 ) W
3 80 – (<160 ) W 5 – ( < 10 ) W
4 40 – (< 80 ) W 2.5 – ( < 5 ) W
5 20 – (<40 ) W
6 10 – (< 20 ) W
7 5 – (< 10 ) W
8 2.5 – ( < 5 ) W
Table 2 Maximum output power (before combiner input) for normal BTS / TRX of different
power classes.

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TRX power class GSM 900 micro BTS GSM 1800 micro BTS
M1 > 0.08 – 0.25 W > 0.5 -1.6 W
M2 > 0.03 – 0.08 W > 0.16 – 0.5 W
M3 > 0.01 – 0.03 W > 0.05 – 0.16 W
Table 3 Maximum output power (per carrier, at antenna connector, after all stages of
combining) for micro BTS/ TRX of different power classes.
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Coverage Planning
2. The reference sensitivity performance
The reference sensitivity performance, as defined in GSM 05.05 for the GSM 900, in
terms of frame erasure, bit error, or residual bit error rates (whichever appropriate) is
specified in the table below, according to the type of channel and the propagation
condition.

Coverage Planning
GSM 900
Propagation conditions
Type of channel
static TU 50 TU 50 RA 250 HT 100
(no FH) (ideal FH) (no FH) (no FH)
FACCH/H (FER) 0.1 % 6.9 % 6.9 % 5.7 % 10.0 %
FACCH/F (FER) 0.1 % 8.0 % 3.8 % 3.4 % 6.3 %
SDCCH (FER) 0.1 % 13 % 8% 8% 12 %
RACH (FER) 0.5 % 13 % 13 % 12 % 13 %
SCH (FER) 1% 16 % 16 % 15 % 16 %
TCH/F9.6&H4.8 (BER) 10-5 % 0.5 % 0.4 % 0.1 % 0.7 %
TCH/F4.8 (BER) * 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 %
TCH/F2.4 (BER) * 2x10-4 % 10-5 % 10-5 % 10-5 %
TCH/H2.4 (BER) * 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 %
TCH/FS (BER) 0.1α % 6α % 3α % 2α % 7α %
class I b (RBER) 0.4/α % 0.4/α % 0.3/α % 0.2/α % 0.5/α %
class II (RBER) 2% 8% 8% 7% 9%
TCH/HS (FER) 0.025 % 4.1 % 4.1% 4.1 % 4.5 %
class I b (RBER, BFI=0) 0.001 % 0.36 % 0.36 % 0.28 % 0.56 %
class II (RBER, BFI=0) 0.72 % 6.9 % 6.9 % 6.8 % 7.6 %
(UFR) 0.048 % 5.6 % 5.6 % 5.0 % 7.5 %
class I b [RBER,(BFI or UFI=0)] 0.001 % 0.24% 0.24 % 0.21 % 0.32 %
(EVSIDR) 0.06 % 6.8% 6.8 % 6.0 % 9.2 %
RBER,SID=2 and (BFI or UFI=0) 0.001 % 0.01 % 0.01 % 0.01 % 0.02 %
(ESIDR) 0.01 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 3.2 % 3.4 %
(RBER, SID=1 and SID=2) 0.003 % 0.3 % 0.3 % 0.21 % 0.42 %
table reference sensitivity performance

Coverage Planning
Examples of channel coding
Figure 1 Channel coding for signalling data
Figure 2 Channel coding for user data (FR)

Coverage Planning
Notes and definition
Note1:
The specification for SDCCH applies also for BCCH, AGCH, PCH, SACCH. The actual
performance of SACCH, should be better.
Definition of terms:
FER: Frame erasure rate (frames marked with BFI=1)
UFR: Unreliable frame rate (frames marked with (BFI or UFI)=1)
EVSIDR: Erased Valid SID frame rate (frames marked with (SID=0) or (SID=1) or ((BFI or
UFI)=1) if a valid SID frame was transmitted)
ESIDR: Erased SID frame rate (frames marked with SID=0 if a valid SID frame was
transmitted).
BER: Bit error rate on the Air-interface. Determined by the value of RX_QUAL.
BFI: Bad Frame Indicator. A parameter within the TRAU frame. The value of the BFI
indicates to the voice decoder if a TRAU frame contains valid data (BFI=0) or not (BFI=1).
Depending on that information, the voice decoder uses or discards a TRAU frame. Note: for
FCCH frames, BFI always equals 1, beacuse they contain signalling data.
SID: Silent descriptor. A 2-bit-long parameter that indicates whether a TRAU frame in the
uplink is a SID frame (SID=2) or a regular speech frame (SID=0). A SID frame contains only
data for the purpose of producing comfort noise but no speech information.
RBER, BFI=0: Residual bit error rate (defined as the ratio of the number of errors detected
over the frames defined as "good" to the number of transmitted bits in the "good" frames).
RBER, (BFI or UFI)=0: Residual bit error rate (defined as the ratio of the number of
errors detected over the frames defined as "reliable" to the number of transmitted bits
in the "reliable" frames).

Coverage Planning
RBER, SID=2 and (BFI or UFI)=0: Residual bit error rate of those bits in class I
which do not belong to the SID codeword (defined as the ratio of the number of errors
detected over the frames that are defined as "valid SID frames" to the number of
transmitted bits in these frames, under the condition that a valid SID frame was sent).
RBER, SID=1 or SID=2: Residual bit error rate of those bits in class I which do not
belong to the SID codeword (defined as the ratio of the number of errors detected
over the frames that are defined as "valid SID frames" or as "invalid SID frames" to
the number of transmitted bits in these frames, under the condition that a valid SID
frame was sent).
Note 2:
1 <=α<= 1.6. The value of α can be different for each channel condition but must
remain the same for FER and class Ib RBER measurements for the same channel
condition.
Note 3:
FER for CCHs takes into account frames which are signalled as being erroneous (by
the FIRE code, parity bits, or other means) or where the stealing flags are wrongly
interpreted.
NOTE 4:
Ideal FH case assumes perfect decorrelation between bursts. This case may only be
tested if such a decorrelation is ensured in the test. For TU50 (ideal FH), sufficient
decorrelation may be achieved with 4 frequencies spaced over 5 MHz.

Coverage Planning
3. Radio Frequency Propagation and Power
3.1 Diffraction (shadowing)
occurs when the path is blocked by an object with large dimensions relative to and
sharp irregularities (edges).
Secondary “wavelets” propagate into the shadowed region
3.2 Reflection
Occurs when a wave impinges upon a smooth surface.

Dimensions of the surface are large relative to λ
3.3 Scattering
Occurs when a wave impinges upon an object with dimensions on the order of λ or
less, causing the reflected energy to spread out or “scatter” in many directions.
Small objects such as street lights, signs, & leaves cause scattering.
Figure 3 Scattering

Coverage Planning
3.4 Doppler shift
Doppler shift is the frequency shift experienced by a moving vehicle:

• Frequency increases when moving towards the base station
• Frequency decreases when moving away from the base station
Doppler shift increases the signal bandwidth fd = v cosΘ .

λ
Figure 4 Doppler shift illustration

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3.5 Doppler Spread & Coherence Time
• Doppler Spread, fm , is the maximum Doppler Shift
fm =V
λ
where V(m/s), fm(HZ) and λ (m).
• Coherence Time, TC , is the time domain dual of Doppler Spread:
Coherence Time is the time duration over which two received signals have a strong
potential for amplitude correlation.
Two signals arriving with a time separation greater than TC are affected
differently by the channel.
If the symbol rate is greater than 1/TC, the channel will not cause distortion due to
motion

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3.6 Delay Spread

• Delay Spread, στ , is the standard deviation of the distribution of multipath signal
amplitudes and delay times
Figure 5 Excess Delay

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3.7 System Interference
Interference is defined as any interaction of radio signals that causes noise or

effectively cancels out both signals. Interference usually occurs between two radio
signals whose frequencies are too close together or even identical. Base transmit
and mobile transmit cellular frequencies were assigned with a 45 MHZ separation
between them to avoid interference. However, most interference experienced in
cellular systems is still internally generated.
Higher frequencies may require less of a separation between transmit and receive
than lower frequencies to reduce or eliminate interference.
3.7.1 Co-channel interference
Co-channel interference occurs when there are two or more transmitters within a
cellular system, or even a neighbouring cellular system that are transmitting on the
same frequency (channel). This type of interference is usually generated because
channel sets have been assigned to two cells that are not far enough apart; their
signals are strong enough to cause interference to each other.
Hint:
Co-channel interference , when it occurs, is a by-product of the basic tenet of cellular
system design: frequency reuse.
Though the basic principle of cellular system design is to reuse assigned frequencies
over again throughout a system, it is also very important to ensure that the
frequencies are reused far enough apart, geographically, to ensure that no
interference occurs between identical frequencies (i.e, channel set) . therefore , there
must be enough base station between co-channel cells to provide a level of
protection to ensure that interference is thwarted and/or eliminated. In conjunction
with ensuring that the cell sites are placed far enough apart geographically, the
appropriate power levels must be maintained at cell base station throughout a system
to avoid co-channel interference.

Coverage Planning
The following factors must be carefully determined to reduce the possibility of

interference to a minimum:
• RF power levels (most important factor)

• Geographic distances between co-channel cells (cells using the same sets of
frequencies).
• Types of antennas used.
As more cells are added to a system operating on co channel frequencies, it
becomes more difficult to keep co channel interference at a level that is not
noticeable to subscribers of cellular service. Co-channel interference could manifest
itself in the form of cross talk, static, or simply dropped calls.
Hint:
Cells that are co channels must never be direct neighbours of each other. Other
cells must be placed in between co-channel cells to provide a level of protection
against signal interference.
An “infant” cellular system can start out in its early developmental stages with no cells
that are cochannel. But as the subscriber base grows, additional capacity is needed
in the system. New cells and radio channels are added until a point is reached where
cochannel frequencies must be introduced.
The following options are available to wireless carriers to reduce or eliminate
cochannel interference:
1. use down tilt antennas when and where appropriate.
2. use reduced gain antennas.
3. decrease power out put at base stations.
4. reduce the height of towers.

Coverage Planning
3.7.2 Carrier to interference ratio
The carrier to interference ration (C/I) is a measure of the desired signal the cell or
mobile phone ‘sees” relative to interfering signals.
Hint:
Ideally, the goal in RF design is to have a C/I ration of 18 dB or better throughout a
cellular system to avoid cochannel interference. The 18 dB level was chosen by the
cellular industry to obtain a “clean, noise free landline quality signal”.
There should be an 18 dB difference between any given cell and all other cells (and
mobile phones) throughout a cellular system. The carrier to interference ratio is also
known as the signal to interference ratio. The frequency-reuse plan is a tool used to
keep the C/I ratio at the ideal level of 18 dB or better.
Hint:
As more cells are added to a cellular system, a migration occurs from a noise limited
system to an interference limited system. The system has more potential to produce
cochannel interference and/or adjacent channel interference (described below).

Coverage Planning
3.7.3 Adjacent channel interference
Adjacent channel interference is caused by the inability of a mobile phone to filter out
the signals (frequencies) of adjacent channels assigned to side by side cell sites (e.g.
Channel 361 in cell A, channel 362 in cell B, where cells A and B are next to each
other). Adjacent channel interference occurs more frequently un small cell clusters
and heavily used cells.
Good system design can minimize adjacent channel interference temporarily by
preventing adjacent channel assignments in cells that are next to each other.
There are differing views as to why specifications for mobile phones are so poor
concerning their inability to filter out adjacent frequencies.
3.7.4 Intermodulation interference
There are others types of interference that occasionally plague cellular systems. The
most common form of interference, other than cochannel and adjacent channel
interference , is Intermodulation interference (IM). If a cell site is collocated with other
radio-based services, Intermodulation interference may result; competent
engineering practices should overcome this interference .
Intermodulation interference describes the effect of several signals mixing together to
produce an unwanted signal, or even no signal at all; another type of IM is created by
mobile phones themselves. If a customer is on a call in close proximity to a cell site
on the opposite band (A band / B band), the power from all of the radio channels in
the cell can cause the receiver in the mobile phone to overload. When this happens
the result will be a dropped call. This problem is a direct result of mobile phone
manufacturers’ reducing the cost of producing the phones. To resolve this situation,
both cellular carriers operating in the market may have to place cells sites near each
other so that a stronger signal is maintained in the mobile phone. Then, the mobile
phone will not overload and drop the call.

Coverage Planning
3.8 Ducting
Ducting is defined as the atmospheric trapping of a cell base station’s RF signal in

the boundary area between two air masses, hot air over cold air or vice versa.
Ducting of a cellular RF signal is caused by an atmospheric anormaly known as
temperature inversion. Ducting is an anormaly of nature that can affect how well RF
propagates through a given area.
If the ground temperature is 30°F up to 2000 feet, and then there is a layer of ice cold
or very hot air, the RF signal could be trapped between these two air masses and
propagate for as long as the duct exists. The duct could go on for hundreds or even
thousands or miles. This creates a problem because instead of being absorbed by
ground clutter (which is usually desirable to a degree), once trapped the ducted
signal could cause interference in distant cellular systems.
Ducting is undesirable in RF propagation design, but also unavoidable. Down tilting

of cellular antennas may compensate for ducting. Down tilting is the act of electrically
(and sometimes mechanically) directing the RF emitted by the cellular base station
toward the ground at a predetermined angle. The most common place for ducting to
occur is across large bodies of water.

Coverage Planning
4. Radio-frequency power
RF power is defined as the amount of radio-frequency energy, in watts, delivered by

the cellular base station radio to the base station’s transmit antenna. Power is
determined by RF amplifiers used at the cell site and the amount of RF energy that is
delivered to the base station antenna by the cellular radio (transceiver). There will
also be loss of the signal as it propagates through the coaxial cable due to
impedance. This factored into cellular RF design by engineers.
4.1 Effective Radiated Power
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is determined by multiplying the gain of the antenna
(mobile or base station) times the power delivered to the base of the antenna. ERP is
measured in watts.
Example:
10 W of radio energy directed into a 10 dB gain cellular antenna equals 100W of
ERP.
Note:
Formulas used to determine ERP can be very granular, as they represent
logarithmic relationships.

Coverage Planning
4.2 Allowable power level
For cell base stations:

In the cellular industry , carriers are allowed to use up to a maximum of 500 W ERP
at cell base station. Power levels used depend on the frequency-reuse pattern.
Ideally, the maximum power level needed to provide coverage is used, but no more
than that.
The average power level for base station (macro-cells) is 20 to 100 W to cover an
area from 8 to 30 mi. Again, this level will depend on terrain in the coverage area and
antenna gain. The actual range of ERP in a cellular system can be anywhere from 0
to 500 W.
The base station (down-link) power levels are part of the license conditions. For
instance, the limits in the following table were provisionally specified:
Maximum EIRP per carrier Maximum average EIRP per MHZ
62 dBm 58 dBm/MHz
Table 4 Base station Transmit Power
For mobile telephones:

Mobile telephones have allowable power classes assigned to them by the FCC. These power
levels are known as station class marks. mobile telephones (car installations) have higher
power; they emit more power because they run off car batteries.

Coverage Planning
5 Radio Wave Propagation Models
5.1 Radio Wave propagation

The radio wave propagation is described by solutions of the Maxwell equations. The
Maxwell equations are the set of four fundamental equations governing
electromagnetism (i.e., the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields). They were first
written down in complete form by physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who added the so-
called displacement current term to the final equation, although steady-state forms
were known earlier.
For time-varying fields, the differential form of these equations in cgs is:
∇ .E = 4 πρ
1 ∂ B
∇ × E = −
c ∂ t
∇ .B = 0
4 π 1 ∂ E
∇ × B = J +
c c ∂ t
where :
∇. is the divergence, ∇x is the curl,
π is the constant pi, J is the vector current density,
E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field,
ρ is the charge density, c is the speed of light,

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In MKS, these become :
ρ
∇ .E =
ε
°
∂B
∇ × E = −
∂t
∇ .B = 0
∂E
∇ × B = µ J + ε µ
° ° ° ∂t
Where ε0 is the permittivity of free space and µ0 is the permeability of free space.

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5.2 Empirical models and deterministic models
5.2.1 Empirical models
Complex empirical models have been developed to characterize an environment with

variable antenna heights, clutter, multipath, etc.
• These models predict the propagation loss.
• The most popular models are from Okumura, Hata, and Walfisch-Ikegami.
• Other models have been developed by Lee, Egli, Carey, Longley-Rice,
Ibrahim-Parsons, and many more
5.2.2 Deterministic models
The Deterministic models are based on simplifying assumption for the general
problem. This can be a mathematical approximation of the original problem (like the
finite difference model). Or it can be a simple model for a special situation of the
general problem (like the knife edge model). Deterministic model can reach a very
high precision, but they suffer from a very high complexity.
5.2.3 Semi empirical models
The Semi empirical models are a combination of empirical models with deterministic
models for special situations (like knife edge models).

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Coverage Planning
5.3 Fundamentals aspects concerning Radio propagation:
Let us call by PT the Transmitted power and PR received power. The received power
is given by:
P =P ∗ C
R T dn
During the propagation, the Radio wave is affected by attenuation: The Path Loss.
Path Loss:
P 
− 10.log R  = L = −10.log(C) + 10.n.log(d ) = − A − α.log(d)
 PT 

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Illustration of the received power level as function of distance d on linear scale.
P
R = C.d − n
P
T

Coverage Planning
5.4 Examples
5.4.1 Free space propagation
P 2
R = L =  λ 
P  4πd 
T
Where:
C
λ= : Wavelength in vacuum.
f
C= 2.9979.108 m/s: speed of light in vacuum.
F: frequency in MHZ.
D: distance in Km.
The Path Loss is then given by:
2
 1 C
L =  . 
 4Π d f 
2
 1 C C
So L(db) = 10.log .  = 20.log( ) + 20.log(f) + 20.log(d)
 4πd f  4π
Finally:
L(db) = 32.44 + 20.log(f) + 20.log(d)

Coverage Planning
5.4.2 Two ray model
2-Ray Models and Fresnel Zones are useful for predicting indoor and microcell
coverage :
• The distance between the transmitter and receiver is often less than the
breakpoint.
• Fresnel zones not practical for distances beyond the breakpoint.
Figure 6 Two ray model

NB: The ground is assumed to be flat and perfectly reflecting.
Let us call by:
Ee: the Electromagnetic field emitted by the BTS .
E1: the Electromagnetic field received through the direct path d1.
E2: the Electromagnetic field received through the indirect path d2 (the influence of
the surface “reflexion” is completely neglected.
ET: the total Electromagnetic field received through both the direct and indirect path.

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Ee = E0.exp[j2 π ft]
E1 = E0.exp[j2 π f(t-d1/c) ]
E2 = E0.exp[j2 π f(t-d2/c) ]
ET = E1+ E2 = E0.exp(j2 π ft-βd1).[1-exp(-jβ ∆d )]
where : ∆d =d2-d1 and β=2 π /λ
P= |E|2
From the schema below , we conclude by geometric relations that:
(hBS − hMS ) 2
d1 = d 2 + (hBS − hMS ) 2 ≈ d +
2d
d1 = d 2a + d 2b
(hBS + hMS ) 2
d 2 = d 2 + (hBS + hMS ) 2 ≈ d +
2d
hMS .hBS
d 2 − d1 = 2
d

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2
 λ  2  kh h  2πf
PR ≈   .4.sin  MS BS  ;k =
 4πf   d  c
The Path Loss is now given by:
 kh h 
L(db) = 32.44 + 20log(f) + 20log(d) - 6.02 - 20log sin( MS BS ) 
 d 
For large (the MS is far away from BS), we can write: d>>>khMShBS,
 kh h  kh h 2.πfh MS hBS
sin MS BS  ≈ MS BS =
 d  d cd
Finally:
L(db) = 120 − 20.log(h BS ) - 20.log(h MS ) + 40.log(d)
where:
f: frequency in MHz.
d: distance in km.
hBS : height base station in m.
hMS : height mobile station in m.
The model is valid for hBS > 50m and d in the range of km or for LOS microcell
channels in urban areas.

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Coverage Planning
5.4.3 Log-distance path loss model
-n
 d
PR ≈  
 d0 
d
L(db) = L d0 + 10.n.log( )
d0
Where :
d0: reference distance ca. 1km for macro cells or in the range of 1m -100m for micro
cells; should be always in the far field of the antenna
L d0 : reference path loss; to be measured at the reference distance.
Environment Exponent n
Free space 2
Urban area 2.7 – 3.5
Shadowed urban area 3-5
In building LOS 1.6 – 1.8
Obstructed in building 4–6
Obstructed in factories 2-3
Table 5 Exponent n in different environments

Coverage Planning
5.4.4 Okumura Hata model
Okumura developed a set of famous curves, often used by other model developers:
• Okumura’s model is in graphical form
• Based on extensive measurements in the Tokyo area
• Model is valid:
over the frequency range150-1920 MHZ.
over distances from 1-100 km.
for an urban environment over quasi-smooth terrain.
• Okumura’s model is very accurate in cluttered environments, but responds slowly

to rapid changes in terrain (as often seen in rural areas)
The Okumura Hata model assumes a quasi flat surface, i.e. obstacles like buildings
are not explicitly taken into account. Thus the Okumura Hata model is isotropic. The
different types of surfaces (big cities, small cities, suburban and rural) are
distinguished by different correction factors in this model.

Coverage Planning
Parameter range for this model
Frequency f= 150… 1500MHz.
Height base station hBS= 30… 200m.
Height Mobile station hMS= 1… 10m.
Distance d= 1… 20km.
L urbain = 69.55 + 26 .16 .log(f) − 13 .82 .log(h BS ) - d(h MS ) - c + [44.9 - 6.55log(h BS ) ]log( d )
Where:
• f: frequency in MHz.
• d: distance in km.
• hBS : height base station in m.
• hMS : height mobile station in m.
[1.1.log (f)-0.7]. hMS-[1.56.log(f)-0.8] small cities

d (hMS)
3.2.[log(11.75.hMS)]2-4.97 big cities (f>400 MHz)
2.[log(f/28)]2 + 5.4 suburban areas

C
4.78 [log (f)]2-18.33.log(f) + 40.94 rural areas

Coverage Planning
Application
For f= 900MHz, hBS= 30m, hMS= 1,5m, the formula reads:
L urbain = 126.42 - d(h MS ) - c + 35.22log(d )
d(hMS) in KM +0.02≈0 small cities
-0.001≈0 big cities (f>400 MHz)
9.94 suburban areas

C
28.51 rural areas

Coverage Planning
5.4.5 COST Hata model
• Masaharu Hata took graphical data from the Okumura Model and created
some equations for the frequency range 150-1500 MHz.
• The COST-231 (COST:European Cooperation in the field of scientific and

technical research) project in Europe further developed the Hata Model for use
in the DCS/PCS bands.
• The basic model describes propagation loss in an urban environment, but a

number of correction factors can be applied to extend it to any environment.
The Hata Model and its COST-231 extension is one of the most widely used in
cellular/PCS due to it’s simplicity and accuracy.

Coverage Planning
Parameter range for this model:

Frequency f= 1500… 2000 MHz.
Height base station hBS= 30… 200m.
Height Mobile station hMS= 1… 10m.
Distance d= 1… 20km.
L urbain = 46 .3 + 33 .9.log(f) − 13 .82 .log(h BS ) - d(h MS ) - c + [44.9 - 6.55log(h BS ) ]log( d )
Where
The major difference between the Okumura Hata model is a modified dependence on
d(hMS) in KM [1.1.log (f)-0.7]. hMS-[1.56.log(f)-0.8]
-3 city center
C 2.[log(f/28)]2 + 5.4 suburban areas
4.78 [log (f)]2-18.33.log(f) + 40.94 rural areas

frequency and additional correction factor for inner city areas .
For f= 1800MHz, hBS= 30m, hMS= 1,5m, the correction term for the dependence on
hMS can again be neglected. For the other terms of COST Hata model the insertion of
the values serves:
L urbain = 136 .24 − c + 35.22. log( d )
c = -3 city center
C =1.14 suburban areas
C =31.92 rural areas

Both models, the Okumura Hata model and the COST Hata model can lead locally to
substantial deviation from the measured attenuation since these models are isotropic.
Local properties of the surface (big buildings, hills etc.) are not taken into account.

Coverage Planning
5.4.6 ITU model
The ITU (or CCIR) model was originally developed for radio broadcasting. It is based
on measurements in the UHF and VHF range which are summarized in graphs (ITU-
R 370-7, ) for the field strength.
The different topographic situations are described by the parameters hBSeff and ∆h .
The ITU model describes the radio wave propagation for the ranges
f= 30... 250 MHz and 450... 1000MHz

d= 10... 1000km
Definition:
hBSeff is the antenna height above the mean elevation of the terrain measured in a
range from 3km to 15 km along the propagation path.
∆h is the mean irregularity of the terrain in the range from 10km to 50 km along
the propagation path, i.e. 90% of the terrain exceed the lower limit and 10% of the
terrain exceed the upper limit of the band defined by ∆h .
The curves for the field strength are given for different hBSeff and ∆h = 50m. The
correction for other values of Dh is given in an additional graph.
Since local effects of the terrain are not taken into account the deviation between
predicted and actual median field strength may reach 20dB for rural areas. In urban
areas this value may be well exceeded.

Coverage Planning
Figure 7 ITU model illustration
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Coverage Planning
5.4.7 Correction of the ITU model: clearance angle method
An improvement of the ITU model is obtained by considering the maximum of the

angle (clearance angle) between the horizontal line and the elevations in the range of
0 to 16km along the propagation path. The correction to the field strength ITU model
(with ∆h =50m) is given as graphs for the clearance angle. The clearance angle
correction applies to both the receiving and the transmitting side.
Figure 8 the clearance angle method

Coverage Planning
5.4.7 Walfisch Ikegami model
• The Walfisch Ikegami model is valid between 800 and 2,000 MHz and over
distances of 20 m to 5 km.
• Useful for dense urban canyon-style environments where antenna height is lower
than the average building height.
• The Walfisch Ikegami Model includes a diffraction constant and the street width.
• Signals are ‘guided’ along the street, like an urban canyon.
Parameter range for this model:

Frequency f= 800… 2000MHz
Height base station hBS= 4… 50m
Height Mobile station hMS= 1… 3m
Distance d= 0.02… 5km
Further parameter:
Mean building height: ∆h in m

Mean street width: w in m
Mean building spacing: b in m
Mean angle between propagation path and street: ϕ in °

Coverage Planning
Figure 9 Walfisch Ikegami model
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Coverage Planning
With LOS between BS and MS (base station antenna below roof top level):
L LOS = 42.6 + 20.log(f) + 26.log(d)
With NON-LOS:
L0 + Lrts + Lmsd Lrts + Lmsd >0
LNLOS=
L0 Lrts + Lmsd ≤0
• L0: free space propagation:
L(db) = 32.44 + 20.log(f) + 20.log(d)
• Lrts : roof top to street diffraction and scatter loss: -10 + 0.354.φ, 0<φ<35°
L urbain = −16.9 + 10.log(f) − 10.log(w) + 20.log( ∆h − h MS ) + 2.5 + 0.075.φ, 35°<φ<55°
4.0 - 0.114.φ, 55°<φ<90°

• Lmsd : multi-screen diffraction loss:
L msd = L msd1 + k a + k d .log(d) + k f .log(f) - 9.log(b)
Lmsd1= -18.log(1+hBS-∆h) hBS> ∆h
0 hBS≤ ∆h
54, hBS> ∆h
ka= 54 – 0.8.( hBS- ∆h ), hBS ≤ ∆h and d >0.5
54 – 0.8.( hBS- ∆h ).(d/0.5) hBS ≤ ∆h and d ≤ 0.5

Coverage Planning
18, hBS> ∆h
kd=
18 – 15.( hBS-∆h)/ ∆h hBS ≤ ∆h
-4 + 0.7.(f/925 -1) , Medium sized cities and suburban centres

with moderate tree density
kf=
-4 + 0.7.(f/925 -1) Metropolitan centers
Although designed for BS antennas placed below the mean building height the COST
Walfisch Ikegami model show often considerable inaccuracies.
This is especially true in cities with an irregular building pattern like in historical grown
cities. Also the model was designed for cities on a flat ground. Thus for a hilly surface
the model is not applicable.

Coverage Planning
5.4.8 Lee micro cell model
This model is based on the assumption that the path loss is correlated with the total
depth B of the building blocks along the propagation path. This results in an extra
contribution to the LOS attenuation:
L = L LOS (d) + α(B)
For both L LOS (d) and α(B) can be read off graphs based on extensive measurements.
This model is not very precise and large errors occur in the following situation:
When the prediction point is on the main street but there is no LOS path.
When the prediction point is in a side street on the same side of the main street
as the BS.

Coverage Planning
5.4.9 Diffraction knife edge model
Diffraction models apply for configurations were a large obstacle is in the propagation
path and the obstacle is far away from the transmitter and the receiver, i.e: h>>λ and
h<<d1,d2.
Figure 10 Diffraction knife edge model

The obstacle is represented as an ideal conducting half plane (knife edge)
Huygens principle: all points of a wave front can be considered as a source for a
secondary wavelet ⇒sum up the contributions of all wavelets starting in the half
plane above the obstacle.
Phase differences have to be taken into account (constructive and destructive
interferences).

Coverage Planning
Difference between the direct path and the diffracted path:
h 2 (d1 + d 2 )
The excess path length: ∆ =
2d1d 2
2π∆ π 2 2(d1 + d 2 )
Phase difference: ϕ = = u with u = h. Fresnel Kirchoff diffraction
λ 2 λd1d 2
parameter.
The diffraction Loss is given by:
ED 1+ i − iπ u 2
2 ∫
L D (v ) = −20log( ) = −20 .log( exp( ) du )
E0 2
E0 : field strength obtained by free field propagation without diffraction (and ground effects).
ED : diffracted Field strength.
The following approximations exist :
≈ 0, v<<0, Los region, h<0
LD(v)=
≈ 13.5 + 20log(v) v>>0, Shadowed region
Shadow border region: v=0 LD(0)= 6

Coverage Planning
Fresnel Zone
Theoretically, propagation can be predicted with the help of a 2-ray model and
Fresnel Zones: An electromagnetic wave front can be divided into zones of
concentric circles, separated by λ/2. These zones are called Fresnel Zones.
1st Fresnel Zone defines a propagation breakpoint, do.
Before do, the propagation is approximately free space propagation.
Figure 11 Fresnel zone illustration

Coverage Planning
Condition for the n’th Fresnel Zone: l1+l2-d1-d2=n. λ/2
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Coverage Planning
5.4.10 Diffraction multiple knife edge Epstein Petersen model
The attenuation of several obstacles is computed obstacle by obstacle with the single
knife edge method, i.e. first diffraction path:l1I2, second diffraction path: I2I3.
The model is valid for hi<<di.
Figure 12 Diffraction multiple knife edge Epstein Petersen model
LDTotal = LD (v1) + LD (v2)
2(d1 + d 2 ) 2(d 2 + d3 )
With: v 1 = h1 . and v 2 = h2 .
λd 1 d 2 λd 2 d 3
In this case, The Fresnel integral is replaced by an empirical approximation:
≈ 0, v<-0.78,
LD(v)=
≈ 6.9 + 20.log[v-0.1+ (v − 0.1) 2 + 1 )] v>>-0.78
This model is rather imprecise. The error grows with the number of obstacles.

Coverage Planning
5.4.11 Diffraction multiple knife edge Deygout model
This model is recursive.
First the attenuation of the main obstacle is computed (in this example O1 with the
path I1s1). In the second step the possible (main) obstacles along the paths to and
from the main obstacle are computed (here O2 with l2l3).
This procedure is continued until all obstacles are taken into account.
Figure 13 Diffraction multiple knife edge Deygout model
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Coverage Planning
5.4.12 Diffraction multiple knife edge Giovanelli model
Also the Giovanelli model is recursive.
The recursion procedure is the same as for the Deygout model. Instead of taking a
correction term in the attenuation the receiver is considered at an effective position at
a height heff.
Figure 14 Diffraction multiple knife edge Giovanelli model
L DTotal = LD (v1) + LD (v2)
2(d1 + d 2 + d3 ) 2(d 2 + d 3 )
v 1 = h 1. and v 2 = h 2 .
λd1 (d2 + d3 ) λd2 d 3
d1 d3
h1 = h1 − .h eff and h eff = h 2 − .(H2 − H1 )
d1 + d 2 + d3 d2
The attenuation predicted by this model is between the values obtained from the
Epstein Peterson model and the Deygout model without the correction term.

Coverage Planning
L DTotal = LD (v1) + LD (v2) – C(O1,O2)
2(d1 + d 2 + d3 )
v 1 = h1 .
λd1 (d 2 + d 3 )
2(d 2 + d3 )
v 2 = h2 .
λd 2 d3
Correction term: [
C(O1,O2)= 12−20log( 2 ).( p )2p
1−α/π q
]
2(d1 + d 2 + d 3 ) d (d + d 2 + d3 ) 2(d1 + d 2 + d3 )
p = h1 . , α = arctan( 2 1 , q = h2 .
λd1 (d2 + d3 ) d1d3 λd3 (d2 + d1 )
The correction term is chosen such that the result coincides in a good approximation
with an exact solution. After n steps this models may cover up to 2n-1 obstacles.
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Coverage Planning
5.5 Semi empirical models
Semi empirical model combine deterministic models like knife edge models with
empirical models like Okumura Hata or COST Hata.
The mentioned empirical models are only valid for a quasi flat surface. In combination
with knife edge models they can be extended to hilly surface or a mountain area.
The combination of empirical and deterministic models requires usually additional
correction terms. For the specific combination of models and their correction terms
most user develop their own solution which they calibrate with their measurements. .
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Coverage Planning
5.6 Deterministic models
5.6.1 Ray tracing and ray launching

With the methods of geometrical optics all possible propagation paths from the
transmitter to the receiver are determined and summed up, i.e. there is a free space
propagation from the antenna to the first obstacle or from obstacle to obstacle and at
the obstacle the ray is reflected or diffracted until it reaches the antenna. The
algorithm takes only rays with an adjustable maximum number of reflections and
diffractions.
With this method a very high precision for the prediction of the path loss can be
obtained:
• For this method a digital map with high accuracy is required.

• For the reflection and diffraction attenuation factors have to be specified which
depend on the building surface (e.g. glass or brick wall).
• The algorithm is very complex and computer power consuming.
However, there are continuous improvements for hardware, software and algorithms.

Coverage Planning
5.6.2 Finite difference algorithm

Since the solutions to field equation are inaccessible the partial derivatives for the
fields are replaced by finite differences. This is obtained by introducing a grid and
considering the fields only at the nodes of the grid. The derivatives become
differences along the edges of the grid. The partial differential equation becomes a
linear equation system. However, the linear equation system involves very large
matrices for realistic problems to be treated with a sufficient precision.
With this method a very high precision for the prediction of the path loss can be
obtained:
• For this method very precise surface data are required.

• The surface data have to be parameterised in an appropriate way for the grid.
However, as for the ray launching and ray tracing method, there are continuous
improvements for hardware, software and algorithms.

Coverage Planning
6. Link budget calculation
Link budget tells us the maximum allowable path loss on each link, and which link is
the limiting factor.
This maximum allowable path loss will set our maximum cell size.
Instead of solving for propagation loss in the prediction equations, we can take the
maximum allowable loss from the link budget and calculate the cell radius, d, from
the propagation model.
The link budget is simply a balance sheet of all the gains and losses on a
transmission path. The link budget usually includes a number of product gains/losses
and “margins”
6.1 Product Parameters in the Link Budget
• Transmit Power (≈ 30-45 dBm for base stations):

Approximately 0-30 dBm for mobiles.
Simply the EIRP of the transmitter.
• Antenna Gain (≈18 dBi for base stations):

A measure of the antenna’s ability to increase the signal (usually by narrowing the
beam).
• Diversity Gain ( ≈3-5 dB):

By utilizing different time, space, or frequency, the system can tolerate a weaker
signal. This translates to a gain.
• Receive Sensitivity (≈-102 to -110 dBm):

The lowest signal a receiver can receive and still be able to demodulate with
acceptable quality.
• Duplexer Loss (≈1 dB):

The loss from using the piece of equipment which duplexes the uplink and downlink.
• Filter Loss (≈2-3 dB):

The loss from using a filter to make the transmit or receive signals cleaner

Coverage Planning
• Combiner Loss (≈3 dB):

The loss from using the piece of equipment that can combine multiple frequencies
.onto one antenna system.
• Feeder Loss (≈3 dB) :

The loss from the cables connecting the base station with the antenna system
• Interference Margin (≈1 dB):

Accounts for high interference during busy hour. Depends on frequency reuse plan,
traffic load, etc.
An interference margin can be introduced in the link budget in order to achieve
accurate coverage prediction in case that the system is busy. This margin in principle
depends on the traffic load, the cell area probability and the frequency reuse. The
required margin will be small if interference level decreasing concepts like frequency
hopping, power control and DTX are used. Typically, a margin of 2 dB is
recommended.
• Vehicle Penetration (≈6 dB):

Accounts for the attenuation of signal by the frame of a car.
• Building Penetration (≈5-20 dB):

Accounts for the penetration of building material for indoor coverage. Depends on the
type of building and the desired quality at the center of the interior.
Hints about penetration inside buldings
With the extension of cellular services to building interiors, signal penetration to and
from these buildings must be considered. Thus, it is possible to determine unwanted
interference levels, or even consider the possibility of extending the services provided
by exterior microcells to the interior of certain buildings.
In some simulators a three-dimensional diffraction model has been proposed which is

based on plotting the facets of buildings by means of perfect conductor planes of
finite thickness. These planes are perforated at intervals by rectangular openings
which represent the corresponding windows. With this physically-based model it is

Coverage Planning
possible to determine penetration as a function of the striking angle of the wave and
the average window size.
• Body Loss (≈3 dB):

Accounts for the signal blockage created by a mobile user’s head (sometimes called
head loss).
• Fade Margin (≈4-10 dB):

Accounts for multipath fading dips for slow moving mobile.
Multipath fading is not a problem for fast moving mobiles as they tend to move out of
a dip faster than the channel changes.
• The fade margin typically varies with the coverage reliability:

We typically vary this parameter with the help of some special curves (Jake’s Curves)
and a certain reliability of coverage (percentage: ≈ 75-95%)
Figure 15 Product Parameters in the Link Budget

Coverage Planning
6.2 Power Balance Equations
Uplink Equation
Lpu = Pm + Gm + Gb + Gd - Ld - Lj – Sb
Downlink Equation
Lpd = Pb - Ld - Lj - Ltf + Gb + Gm – Sm
Where:
• Lpu is the maximum allowed uplink path loss in dB

• Pm is the TX power of the mobile in dBm
• Gm is the antenna gain of the mobile in dBi.
• Gb is the antenna gain of the BTS in dBi.
• Gd is the diversity gain of the BTS in dB
• Ld is the duplexer loss in dB.
• Lj is the jumper loss in dB.
• Sb is the RX sensitivity of the BTS in dBm
• Lpd is the maximum allowed downlink path loss in dB.
• Pb is the setting of the power of the BTS in dBm.
• Ltf is the TX filter loss of the BTS in dB.
• Sm is the MS RX sensitivity in dBm.

Coverage Planning
6.3 Typical Link Budget

Gains are added, losses are subtracted
Parameter Symbol Units Uplink Downlink
Frequency F MHz 1900 1900
MS TX Power Pm dBm 30 ---------
MS RX Sensitivity Sm dBm --------- -101
MS Antenna Gain Gm dBi 2 2
MS Feeder Loss Lm dB 0 0
BS Transmit Power Pb dBm --------- 47.0
BS RX Sensitivity Sb dBm -107.0 ---------
BS Antenna Gain Gb dBi 20 20
BS Diversity Gain Gd dB 3.5 ---------
BS Duplexer Loss Ld dB 0.6 0.6
BS Jumper/Connector Loss Lj dB 0.9 0.9
BS TX Filter Loss Ltf dB --------- 2.3
Product Path Loss Lp dB 161.0 166.2

Coverage Planning
Typical Link Budget (total system)
• Different areas will have different requirements
Area Classification
Urban Suburban Rural
Symb. Units UL DL UL DL UL DL
Product Path Loss Lp dB 161.0 166.2 161.0 166.2 161.0 166.2
BS Antenna Height Hb m 30 30 45 45 60 60
Feeder Loss per m Lf/f dB/m .0646 .0646 .0646 .0646 .0477 .0477
Total Feeder Loss Lf dB 1.938 1.938 2.907 2.907 2.862 2.862
Fade Margin |Mf| dB 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.60 5.60
Body Attenuation Ab dB 2 2 2 2 2 2
Vehicle Attenuation Av dB 0 0 0 0 6 6
Building Attenuation Abld dB 15 15 12 12 0 0
Total Path Loss Lpt dB 136.5 141.7 138.5 143.7 144.5 149.8
The lower Lpt value plugs into the empirical models to yield the cell radius

Coverage Planning
Example of an UL link budget (GSM 900 MHz MS power class 4, BS with tower
mounted amplifier, frequency hopping on, receive diversity used):
Outdoor-MS Indoor-MS Car-mounted Units

UL-Link Budget
(class 4) (class4) Ms (class2)
33 33 39 dBm
Max. Output power
0 0 -2 dB
Feeder Loss
0 0 +2 dBi
Antenna Gain
MS
Body Loss - 5 /- 3 -5/-3 0 dB
(900 / 1800) MHz
Build (Indoor) penetration Loss 0 -18 0 dB
Path loss dB
Fading Margin: lognormal: - 12 -12 - 12 dB
For 1sigma=10 and cell area

probability=99%
Fading Margin: Rayleigh -3 -3 -3 dB

Environment
Interference Margin -2 -2 -2 dB
Frequency hopping gain +3 +3 +3 dB
Rx - diversity gain + 3.5 + 3.5 + 3.5
Antenna gain + 17 + 17 + 17 dBi
Tower mounted amplifier gain +6 +6 +6 dB
Jumper + Feeder + Connector -4 -4 -4 dB

Losses
Duplexer Losses - 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.5 dB

BS
Receiver Sensitivity - 107 - 107 - 107 dB

Coverage Planning
7. Suitable prediction models for Macro, Micro and Pico-cells
7.1 Macrocells
A macrocell is a large cell that provides coverage over a range of several kilometres.
This definition is rather broad, as it covers many different propagation environments:
rural areas, mountain areas, motorways, suburban residential areas and urban
residential areas. The definition of macrocell still applies even in urban areas with
high building densities that the base station is located above the mean height of the
surrounding buildings, normally on rooftop masts.
Clearly, the application of a single model to such widely differing environments is not
the optimum approach, but it is typical in most commercial applications. It is common
to use empirical models which consider statistical variations according to the
morphology of the terrain. The most commonly chosen is the Okumura-Hata model
with the modifications introduced by COST-231. Normally a term is added to this
formulation in order to account for multiple edge diffraction following some of the
classic models -Epstein-Peterson, Deygout, Giovanelly, etc.- These methods adopt
different approaches to the problem of assessing multiple edges loss on the basis of
the classic expression of Fresnel for a single edge.
Given the statistical nature of this type of methods it is obvious that they require
tuning, i.e. they need to be adapted to the particular environment in which they are
going to be applied. Commercial tools differ in the by-default configuration of the
typical models -it is typical that the model has been optimised to work in the typical
propagation conditions encountered in one given country, that are likely to differ
strongly with respect to another one. Also, different tools provide varying levels of
flexibility for the user to adjust the operation of the model, as fine tuning by the
operator -basing on measurement data- is only facilitated in a few cases.

Coverage Planning
7.2 Microcells
Microcells are by definition urban cells covered by base stations with antennas
located below the surrounding buildings roof tops. Guided propagation of waves
through the streets is achieved by reflection, corner diffraction, and occasionally over
rooftops. The coverage range is normally less than 1 kilometre.
There are two alternative approaches to solving the electromagnetic problem behind
the coverage prediction in this type of environments. The first entails the use of
empirical methods, in the same line as in macrocells. The accuracy of the results
provided is worse here than in macrocells, due to the smaller range of this cells, in
which statistical averaging is not valid any more. The second approach relies on
physical models that provide accurate results not requiring tuning. The disadvantage
in this case, however, is given by the large computation times.
The Walfisch-Ikegami/COST 231 is an empirical model framed in the first category

and that needs to be used with caution in pure microcellular environments.
Deterministic pseudo 2D ray tracing models are an example of the second category
of models, and even if more accurate, they are interesting only if efficiently
implemented, so that the computation times are reduced. Very few tools implement
today a real ray tracing model (see figure 2), but it is expected that new releases of
the tool are equipped with this type of models.

Coverage Planning
7.3 PICOCELLS
Picocells are generally smaller than microcells and are located inside buildings. It will
therefore become necessary to have means of radio coverage prediction in interior
environments.
In terms of propagation, these environments typically contain large numbers of

dispersing elements. This gives rise to major variance in average received power
levels at different sites and strong temporal distortion of the wave reaching the
receiver.
There are two ways of approaching this problem, based on statistical or deterministic
models. The former are based on statistical information regarding the mean
characteristics of the dispersors in environments of this kind, while the latter use
realistic information. Obviously the latter cease to be applicable when the information
on characterization of dispersors is insufficient to give an adequate level of detail.
At all events, in high-variance environments of this kind it is not appropriate to apply

heuristic models, and therefore the approach to the problem must be physical (using
ray tracing techniques, for example).

Coverage Planning
Propagation model Rural Urban In-house
Log-distance path loss + + +
ITU + - -
Okumura Hata + 0 -
COST Hata + 0 -
Epstein Peterson + + -
Deygout + + -
Giovanelli + + -
Okumura Hata & knife edge + 0 -
COST Hata & knife edge + 0 -
COST Walfisch Ikegami - + -
Ray launching ray tracing + + +
Finite difference 0 + +
table Application areas of the different models

Coverage Planning
8. Base Site Separation
The following tables show the maximum cell to mobile distances and site separations
(to provide continuous coverage) for a number of environments, calculated using a
theoretical GSM model with actual equipment parameters.
Tri-sectored sites were assumed. In each case the results are given for both outdoor
and indoor quality coverage, assuming a building penetration loss of 17 dB.
Environment Dense urban Urban Suburban Rural
Maximum outdoor
2.1 km 5.8 km 6.6 km 16.7 km
quality range
Maximum indoor
0.7 km 1.5 km 2.1 km 5.4 km
quality range
Maximum site 8.1 km

Separation for indoor 1.0 km 1.3 km 3.2 km
(approx. 60 sites per 10,000
quality coverage
km2 covered)
Table 6 GSM900 Ranges and Base Site Separations
Environment Dense urban Urban Suburban Rural
Maximum outdoor 7.6 km

1.3 km 2.8 km 4.8 km
quality range
Maximum indoor quality 2.5 km

0.4 km 0.9 km 1.6 km
range
Maximum site separation 3.7 km

0.6 km 1.4 km 2.3 km
for indoor quality
(approx. 280 sites per
coverage
10,000 km2 covered)
Table 7 GSM1800 Ranges and Base Site Separations

Coverage Planning
9. Location Probability
The propagation conditions of electromagnetic waves in real environments are not

stable, but location (and time) dependent fluctuations appear.
The radio network planner has to take this into account by working with probabilities,
e.g. with the following two coverage probabilities:
• Cell edge probability

• Cell area probability
Typical cell edge probabilities for:
• Very good coverage: 95%

• Good coverage: 90%
• Acceptable coverage: 75%
As will be discussed later, these values correspond to the following cell area
probabilities:
• Very good coverage: 99%

• Good coverage: 97%
• Acceptable coverage: 91%

Coverage Planning
10. Criteria for antenna selection parameters
Band : Choose frequency band for your antenna. Selecting a band will filter the
below choices.
Beam width : Choose a nominal horizontal beam width to narrow down the
selection.
Gain : Choose a nominal gain to further narrow down the selection. Gain is
expressed in dBi.
Name: Choose an antenna by name. The names are on the form family-band-
beamwidth-gain-downtilt-antenna connector.
El-tilt : Choose electrical downtilt. Fixed antenna downtilt will only have one option
here which will be chosen by default. For variable electrical tilt antennas (AEDT), the
available antenna patterns for each measured tilt will be listed.
Frequency : Choose what measurement frequency to use for the chosen antenna.
By default the first frequency in the list of available frequencies will be chosen.
Please note that it is important to choose a frequency for multiband antennas in order
for the coverage calculation to calculate for the right frequency band.
BTS Parameters : The following BTS parameters can be changed; Mechanical tilt,
Antenna Orientation, Antenna Input power, Propagation model, Tilt Method.
Mechanical Tilt : Set the mechanical or /and electrical tilt in whole degrees. Uptilt or
downtilt.
Orientation :Set the antenna direction.
Power : The power setting indicates the power measured in dBm at the antenna
input terminal. The power setting should hence correspond to the base station output
power minus any external combiner and feeder losses in the normal BTS case. The
ERP (Effective Radiated Power) will be power setting plus antenna gain.
Propagation Model
Choose propagation model to use for this option when calculating image in plot
window. Choose the same model for all options unless you deliberately want to
compare models.

Coverage Planning
11. Fading
Fading occurs on different scales due to different causes.
Fading appears statistically but different fading types obey different probability
distributions.
Propagation models predict only the average value of the receive level.
An extra margin has to be added due the fading effect.
The common question for all fading effects is: how big to choose the margin such that
the received level drops not below a given limit with a specified probability?

Coverage Planning
11.1 Categories of fading
11.1.1 Large Scale Fading
• This is the “loss” that propagation models try to account for.

• Mostly dependant on the distance from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Also known as “Large Scale Path Loss”, “Log-Normal Fading”, or
“Shadowing”.
11.1.2 Small Scale Fading
• Could be 20-30 dB over a fraction of a wavelength.

• Caused by the superposition or cancellation of multipath propagation signals,
the speed of the transmitter or receiver,and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
• Also known as “Multipath Fading”, “Rayleigh Fading”, or simply as “Fading”.
• The distance between small scale fades is on the order of λ/2.
Figure 16 categories of fading

Coverage Planning
Types of Small Scale Fading
The Doppler Spread causes:
• Fast Fading:
(High Doppler Spread) and (Coherence time < symbol period)
• Slow Fading
(Low Doppler spread) and (Coherence time > symbol period)
The Multipath Delay Spread causes:
• Flat Fading
(BW of signal < Coherence BW) and (Delay spread < symbol period)
• Frequency Selective Fading

(BW of signal > Coherence BW) and (Delay spread > symbol period)

Coverage Planning
11.2 Fast Fading
11.2.1 Rice fading
It exists a dominant path (usually the LOS path):
Figure 17 Rice Fading illustration

Coverage Planning
Rice Fading is given by:
V V V V2 + V2
f(V ) = R .I ( R1 R ).exp( − R1 R)
R P 0 P 2P
N N N
Where
VR :received signal strength
VR1 :received signal from the dominant signal
I0 : modified Bessel-Function of the first kind and zero order.

N
PN = ∑ VRI2 +other noise sources: received power of the non dominant signals
i =1
including
other noise sources like man made noise.
2
For VR1 >> 1 : the Rice distribution can be approximated by a Gauß distribution:
PN
1 (V − V )2
f(V ) = .exp( − R R1 )
R 2πP 2P
N N

Coverage Planning
Example: Gaussean distributed signal for: VR1 =5V
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Coverage Planning
11.2.2 Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading is the other important special case of the Ricean fading.
Rayleigh fading describes the situation were there is no dominant path, i.e. a non
LOS situation.
All contribution to the received signal are comparable in strength and arrive
statistically distributed.
Figure 18 The Rayleigh Fading
V V2
f(V ) = 2 R .exp( − R )
R V 2 V2
R R
Where
VR : the averaged field strength
1 2 1 P
P0 = VR : the averaged received power: f(P0 ) = .exp( − 0 )
2 P0 P0

Coverage Planning
Integrated probability for the power to be below a fading marging for a Rayleigh
distribution:
All described types of fast fading have as characteristic length scale the wavelength
of the signals.
To combat Fast Fading:
Use frequency hopping
Use antenna diversity

Coverage Planning
11.2.3 Slow Fading
Slow fading denote the variation of the local mean signal strength on a longer time
scale.
The most important reason for this effect is the shadowing when a mobile moves
around (e.g. in a city).
Measurements have shown that the variation of the mean receive level is a normal
distribution on a log scale log normal fading.
The fading can be parameterised by adding a zero mean Gaussean distributed

random variables X σ
L(d) = L (d) + X σ
1 (P - P ) 2
X σ (P) = .exp[ − ]
2πσ 2σ 2
The σ has to be determined by measurements.
Let Pm be a minimal receive level, what is the probability Pr that the receive level is
higher than the minimal receive level, i.e. Pr( Pr(d)>Pm)=?

Coverage Planning
To compute the probability that the receive level exceeds a certain margin the
Gaussian distribution has to be integrated. This leads to the Q function:
∞ 1 x2 1 z
Q(z) = ∫ .exp( − )dx = .(1 − erf( ))
z 2π 2 2 2
Note that Q(z)=1-Q(-z)
Z Q(Z) Z Q(Z) Z Q(Z) Z Q(Z)
0.0 0.50000 1.0 0.15866 2.0 0.02275 3.0 0.00135
0.1 0.46017 1.1 0.13567 2.1 0.01786 3.1 0.00097
0.2 0.42074 1.2 0.11507 2.2 0.01390 3.2 0.00069
0.3 0.38209 1.3 0.09680 2.3 0.01072 3.3 0.00048
0.4 0.34458 1.4 0.08076 2.4 0.00820 3.4 0.00034
0.5 0.30854 1.5 0.06681 2.5 0.00621 3.5 0.00023
0.6 0.27425 1.6 0.05480 2.6 0.00466 3.6 0.00016
0.7 0.24196 1.7 0.04457 2.7 0.00347 3.7 0.00011
0.8 0.21186 1.8 0.03593 2.8 0.00256 3.8 0.00007
0.9 0.18406 1.9 0.02872 2.9 0.00187 3.9 0.00005
Table 8 the Q-function

Coverage Planning
Jake’s formula
Jake’s formula gives a relation for the probability that a certain value Pm at the cell
boundary at radius R is exceeded and the corresponding probability for the whole
cell.
It is based on the log distance path loss model:
d
P (d) = P − L (d ) + 10.n.log( )
R R 0 d
0
1 1 − 2ab  1 − ab  
Pr (Pm ) = 1 − erf(a) + exp( ).1 − erf( ) 
cell 2  b2 b 2  

where
(Pm − P (R))
• a= R .
2σ
10.n.log(e )
• b= .
2σ

Coverage Planning
11.2.4 Log-normal Fading
In a shadowing environment, the probability of a certain level as function of the level

value follows a Gaussean distribution on a logarithmic scale.
In general, a Gaussean distribution is described by a mean value and the standard
deviation.
Figure 19 The Log-normal Fading
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Coverage Planning
From measurements: the standard deviation 1 sigma ( σ ) in a certain

LNF
environment. Typical measurement values (outdoor, indoor) are given in the following
table:
Environment σ (0) σ (i )
LNF LNF
Dense urban 10 dB 9 dB
Urban 8 dB 9 dB
Rural 6 dB 8 dB
To achieve a certain cell edge probability s LNF must be multiplied with a factor given
in the following table:
(Cell edge probability means the probability to have coverage at the border of the
cell)
Factor for calculation of

Cell edge probability in %
lognormal fading margin
50 0.000
55 0.126
60 0.253
65 0.385
70 0.524
75 0.674
80 0.842
85 1.036
90 1.282
95 1.645
96 1.751
97 1.881
98 2.054
99 2.326

Coverage Planning
12. Percentage of Coverage Area
With the given path loss specifications, its very beneficial to compute the percentage
of area with signal level greater than the threshold level, given a known likelihood of
coverage at the cell boundary.
The expression used for this purpose is:
Where:

Coverage Planning
The following set of curves show the percentage of useful coverage area, U(g) ,
where γ is a threshold level of the received signal plotted against s/n. If s/n = 4, then
with 75% boundary coverage provides 93% area coverage; with s/n = 6, area
coverage is 82% with 65% boundary coverage, etc.

Coverage Planning
Integrating the Gaussean distribution function over the whole cell area delivers cell
area probabilities. Some example results are given in the following table:
Cell edge probability in % Cell area probability in %
50 77
75 91
90 97
95 99
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Coverage Planning
12 Noise Figure calculations
Thermal Noise:
Every object which is at a temperature T > 0°K emits electromagnetic waves (thermal
noise). Therefore, electromagnetic noise can be related to a temperature.
P = s * e* A * T4
Noise Factor:
The Noise Factor can be calculated from the Noise Temperature as follows:
Noise Factor = Noise Temperature / 290°K + 1
Noise Figure:
The noise figure is the value of the Noise Factor given in dB:
Noise Figure = 10 * log (Noise Factor)
Conversion table
Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise

Figure Temp. Figure Temp. Figure Temp. Figure Temp.
0.1 7 1.1 84 2.1 180 3.1 302
0.2 14 1.2 92 2.2 191 3.2 316
0.3 21 1.3 101 2.3 202 3.3 330
0.4 28 1.4 110 2.4 214 3.4 344
0.5 35 1.5 120 2.5 226 3.5 359
0.6 43 1.6 129 2.6 238 3.6 374
0.7 51 1.7 139 2.7 250 3.7 390
0.8 59 1.8 149 2.8 263 3.8 406
0.9 67 1.9 159 2.9 275 3.9 422
1.0 75 2.0 170 3.0 289 4.0 438

Where : Noise Figure in (dB) and Noise Temperature in (°K).

Coverage Planning
12.1 Receiver Sensitivity
• Receiver Sensitivity is determined by:
RS = NF + Nt + C/N
Where :
Noise Figure (NF).
Thermal Noise Power (Nt).
Minimum C/N (Carrier to Noise).
Not much can be done to change Nt or C/N, but NF can be reduced to improve the
receiver sensitivity of the BTS, thereby extending the range of the cell.
• Noise Figure (NF)
• The Noise Figure is a measure of the noise generated by a receiver

• The Noise Figure is dominated by the initial stage of a receiver
A Low-Noise Amplifier (LNA) at the top of a BTS tower ‘manipulates’ the characteristics of
Noise Figure by ensuring a low figure is first in the chain.
LNAs have a very low Noise Figure, allowing us to lower the receive sensitivity on the
uplink (typically the limiting link).

Coverage Planning
12.2 LNA Mounting Example
• Assume the following hardware:
Feeder length of 50 meters of 7/8-in. air dielectric coaxial cable with 6.06 dB/100
meter loss
The gain of the LNA is 12 dB and the NF is 2 dB
• With a Cabinet Mounted LNA:

NF1 = 3.03 dB = 2
NF2 = 2 dB = 1.58
G1 = -3.03 dB= 0.5
NFTotal = 10*log {2+((1.58-1)/0.5)} = 4.99 dB

Coverage Planning
• With a Tower Mounted LNA:
NF1 = 2 dB = 1.58
NF2 = 3.03 dB = 2
G1 = 12 dB= 15.85
NFTotal = 10*log {1.58+((2-1)/15.85)} = 2.15 dB
Therefore, the tower mounted LNA offers a better Total NF, and thus a better receive
sensitivity at the BTS.

Coverage Planning
13. Cell Coverage Calculation
From consideration of link budget Maximum allowable path loss.

Using radio wave propagation formulas (e.g.Hata) Maximum cell size.
Exercise:
Consider a class 4 MS of height = 1.5 m. The BTS height = 30 m.

Assume Hata propagation conditions and a cell area probability of 97%.
What is the maximum outdoor, indoor cell radius and in-car cell radius:
a. In a dense urban environment (σLNF,o= 10 dB; σLNF,i= 9 dB )?
b. In a suburban environment ( σLNF,o= 8 dB; σLNF,i= 9 dB)?
c. In an open area (σLNF,o = 6 dB; σLNF,i = 8 dB)?
Assume an in-car penetration loss of 6dB.
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Coverage Planning
14. Basics about Digital Map Data
The cell planning tools require as one input digital map data (which are often based
on paper maps, satellite photos,..). These digital map data should contain information
about, the land usage (so called “Clutter” information), about the height of obstacles
and they should also contain so called vector data (like rivers, streets,…).
A digital map is an electronic database containing geographical information.

The smallest unit on such a map is called a pixel. The typical edge-length of such a
pixel is ranging from several meters to several hundred meters. A digital map is often
subdivided into several blocks consisting of many pixels. The different layers of
information in one block always use the same resolution, whereas different blocks
can have different resolutions.
Each pixel should contain information about:
Land usage (“Clutter” information)
Height data
Vector data (like rivers, streets,…)
Before working with these digital data, some pre-processing of the data may be
required. Some ideas are sketched on the following pages.
Figure 20 Digital mapping

Coverage Planning
14.1 Definition of terms

• Geoid
• Spheroid / Ellipsoid.
• Geodetic Datum / Map Datum / Datum.
Projections
• Are used to transfer the 3 dimensional earth to a 2 dimensional map.

• “Nobody is perfect”.
• No projection is at the same time exact in area, exact in angle and exact in
distance.

Coverage Planning
Geodetic datum:
simplified mathematical representation of the size and shape of the earth
1. Local geodetic datum — best approximates the size and the shape of the
particular part of the earth.
2. Geocentric datum — best approximates the size and shape of the earth as a whole
The GPS uses a geocentric datum to express its position because of its global extent.

Coverage Planning
Two coordinates systems are implicitly associated with a geodetic datum:
a. Cartesian coordinate system.

b. Geodetic (geographic) coordinate system.
A third coordinate system is provided by a map projection.

Coverage Planning
14.2 Map projections

Coverage Planning
14.3 Cylindrical projection

True at the equator and distortion increases toward the poles
14.3.1. Regular cylindrical projections
a. Equirectangular projection.
b. Mercator projection.
c. Lambert‘s cylindrical equal area.
d. Gall‘s sterographic cylindrical.
e. Miller cylindrical projection.

Coverage Planning
14.3.2 Transverse cylindrical projections
a. Cassini projection.
b. Transverse Mercator.
c. Transverse cylindrical equal area projection.

Coverage Planning
14.3.3. Oblique cylindrical projections

Coverage Planning
14.4 Conic projections
True along some parallel somewhere between the equator and a pole and distortion
increases away from this standard
1. Lambert conformal conic.

2. Bipolar oblique conic conformal.
3. Albers equal-area conic.
4. Lambert equal-area conic.
5. Perspective conic.
6. Polyconic.
7. Rectangular polyconic.

Coverage Planning
14.5 Azimuthally projections
True only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst at the edge of the map
1. The Gnomonic projection.

2. The azimuthal equidistant projection.
3. Lambert azimuthal equal-area.

Coverage Planning
14.6 Compromise projection
1. Gall‘s projection.
2. Miller projection.
3. Robinson projection.
4. Van der Grinten Projection.

Coverage Planning
For transformation of parameters (Latitude and Longitude) from the 3 dimensional

representation into a 2 dimensional rectangular system often a combination of WGS-
84 ellipsoid & UTM rectangular coordinate system is used (like e.g. for GPS).
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) system defines 2 dimensional positions

using zone numbers and zone characters for longitudinal and horizontal scaling:
UTM zone number (1-60):

longitudinal strips: range: 80° south latitude - 84° north latitude, width: 6 degree
UTM zone characters (using 20 characters, also called designators):

horizontal strips: range: 180° east - 180° west longitude, width: 8 degree

Coverage Planning
14.7 Hints concerning the usage of maps:
• Avoid in any case the referencing of geodetic co-ordinates to a wrong geodetic

datum. Referencing to a wrong datum can result in position errors of several hundred
meters! (In the meantime people agreed to use in the future the World Geodetic
System 1984 [WGS-84] for all maps.).
• Remember that e.g. different nations may use different geodetic datum.
• If a datum conversion is necessary a careful transformation of seven parameters

is necessary: 3 for translation, 3 for rotation, 1 for scaling.
• For daily work, try to use the same geodetic datum: in your planning tool(s), for
your GPS systems, and for your paper maps.
• Prefer the following map scales:

1:50000 (for rural areas and 900 MHz cell planning).
1:20000 (for rural areas and 1800/1900 MHz cell planning).
1:10000- 1:5000 (for urban areas and for micro cell planning).
In the maps, height information should be included as contour lines.

Coverage Planning
14.8 Examples
14.8.1 MACROCELLS
Propagation prediction in macrocellular environments is performed using geographic

databases which contain topographic (terrain height) and morphological (land use)
information at resolutions ranging from 50 to 200 m. This information is normally
derived from aerial photographs. The calculations performed on either type of
information are extremely error-sensitive:
• In the case of the terrain height, the most sensitive calculation is diffraction.
Errors can range from 0.3 to 1 dB per meter of error in the height of the
obstruction. In the case of multiple obstructions the error multiplies .
• In the case of morphology the propagation models incorporate correction
factors for land use, ranging from 0 to 30 dB. Any imprecision in the database
can cause incorrect application of these factors and lead to errors in the
coverage prediction .

Coverage Planning
14.8.2 MICROCELLS
Precise modelling of propagation conditions in microcellular environments requires
terrain databases with resolutions as fine as 1 m. At the same time, not only must the
resolution be higher, but much more detailed information is needed. It is essential to
have three-dimensional data on the environment and characterization of the
component materials of potential dispersors, such as buildings. All this information is
not available commercially and is therefore costly.
Figure 21 3D modelling of an urban environment

Coverage Planning
Studies on the sensitivity of the different microcellular propagation models to

database errors point to the importance of database accuracy. To illustrate the type
of errors that arise, we shall look at a study based on a typical scenario in a city , in
which the original databases were modified by introducing zero-average errors and
different standard deviations in the height and shape of buildings.
Figure 22 Scenario for the model sensitivity study

Coverage Planning
15 Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
the main tasks of radio network planning tools are :
• Coverage planning.
• Capacity planning.
• Frequency planning.
• Link Budget calculations.
• Propagation predictions.
• Propagation model fine tuning.
• Co- and adjacent channel interference analysis.
• Macro, micro cell planning.
• Handling of multi-layer structures.
• Repeater system handling.
• Microwave planning.

Coverage Planning
Remarks to radio network planning tools and required digital

map data
Tools using empirical propagation models require map data with less resolution
compared to tools working with deterministic propagation models.
In case empirical propagation models are used:
• Typical pixel size: 50m x 50m to 200m x 200m

• Using statistics, the signal variation around the mean value is taken into account
• In case that the BS antenna is higher then the surrounding, the clutter correction
term of the target pixel contains most propagation effects. For the clutter
boundaries often several pixels before the target pixel are taken into account.
In case deterministic propagation models are used:
• Digital data with high resolution are required (often very expensive).
• Typical pixel size: 2m x 2m to 10m x 10m.
• Mostly used for big cities only.
Remarks to tools and required computational time
Depending not only on the hardware used but also on the algorithms behind the
software, the computational time required by different tools varies significantly.
Planning tools do not run fully automatically but always require some input and an
intelligent and creative usage.
Remember:
Garbage in Garbage out

Coverage Planning
16 Measurement Tools supporting Cell Planning
Fine tuning (calibration) of propagation models: Why? When? How?
• Since propagation models do not necessarily describe exactly the real situation, a
fine tuning of the models is necessary (e.g. clutter data may vary from country to
country).
• This tool tuning should be done in the start phase of the network planning (i.e.
before a detailed plan is performed).
• A test transmitter is located at typical site locations; a test receiver measures the
RX_LEV along predefined measurement routes. These measured values are
taken as input for the tool fine tuning.

Coverage Planning
Figure 23 Celular Network in an urban area, including the predicted path Loss from each
cell.
Figure 24 Comparison of predicted and measured results

Coverage Planning
17 Effect of Sectorisation on the coverage
The technique of sectorisation is well known, and consists in dividing the cell into
several equal angular sectors, usually 3 or 6. The coverage of a sector is ensured by
a directional antenna, which radiates mostly to the area of that sector and not to the
others. By doing this, the number of interfering Base Stations (BSs), is reduced and
the co-channel interference decreases. The most common sectorisation is the
division into three sectors of 120º each. However, the use of real antennas (i.e., of
nonideal radiation patterns) has an impact in the performance of the network, and
needs to be evaluated.
Sectorisation was implemented by dividing into 3 sectors. For antennas with an ideal
radiation pattern, there is a maximum of three interferers (the axes of the sectors
oriented to 60º, 180º and 300º). When using real antennas, the radiation pattern is
not confined to the 120º sector, and an overlap occurs between adjacent sectors;
hence, there will be a maximum of six interferers, although not all of them reaching
the receiver with the same interfering power.
Some simulations were made with this cell configuration. The use of 60º, 90º and
120º antennas was studied, as well as their influence on the calculation of C/I,
being also compared with the ideal case.

Coverage Planning
Figure 25 the radiation patterns for ideal and real 120º.

Coverage Planning
Exercise
Compare the coverage of an omni-cell (antenna gain = 10 dBi) and the coverage of a
three sectorcell configuration (antenna gain 18 dBi).

Coverage Planning
Omni versus Sector Cells
Advantages of omni sites:
Trunking gain (especially interesting for those networks having only a few
frequencies).
Omni antennas are usually less bulky than sector antennas.
Suitable in those areas, where the surrounding terrain limits the coverage (before
the maximum omni cell radius is reached).
Disadvantages of omni sites:
In case of horizontal antenna diversity: Diversity gain depends on direction.

Greater reuse distance required.
Less flexibility in network optimisation (concerning antenna tilt, power control
parameters, handover parameters).
TX/RX antenna separation difficult (usually TX/RX antennas are mounted on
different vertical levels to achieve sufficient separation).
Limited mounting positions: no wall mounting possible

Coverage Planning
Exercises
Ex 1.
Consider:
• an extended cell with 100 km cell radius covering a sea area (clutter term: 30 dB),
• a 900 MHz mobile station of power class 4,
• a BS with the GSM minimum receiver sensitivity,
• an (BS) antenna gain of 15 dBi.
What should be the height of the BS antenna?
Ex 2.
Consider:
• a mobile station with 2 Watts output power maximum,

• a BS receiver sensitivity of –104 dBm,
• an (BS) antenna gain of 15 dBi.
For a satellite carrying the BS, what would be the maximum radius for the satellite
orbit.
Ex 3.
How many sites can be saved in principle if TMAs with 6 dB gain are used in the
network? Use typical values and Hata’s propagation formula for calculation.

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Coverage Planning

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION

1. Introduction & Definition of Terms

To achieve coverage in an area, the received signal strength in UL and DL must be

Coverage: RX_LEV > (actual) receiver sensitivity level.

• for normal BTS : -104 dBm

• for GSM 900 micro BTS M1 : -97 dBm

• for GSM 900 micro BTS M2 : -92 dBm

• for GSM 900 micro BTS M3 : -87 dBm

• for DCS 1800 micro BTS M1 : -102 dBm

• for DCS 1800 micro BTS M2 : -97 dBm

• for DCS 1800 micro BTS M3 : -92 dBm

• for GSM 900 small MS (class 4, 5): -102 dBm

• for other GSM 900 MS: -104 dBm

• for DCS 1800 class 1 or class 2 MS : -100 dBm

• for DCS 1800 class 3 MS : -102 dBm

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 2

Power class GSM 900 MS GSM 1800 M Tolerance

1 - 30 dBm +/- 2dB

2 39 dBm 24 dBm +/- 2dB

3 37 dBm 36 dBm +/- 2dB

45 33 dBm +/- 2dB

5 29 dBm +/- 2dB

Table 1 Maximum output power for MS of different power classes.

TRX Power Class GSM 900 BTS GSM 1800 BTS

1 320 - (< 640 ) W 20 – ( < 40 ) W

2 160 - (< 320 ) W 10 – ( < 20 ) W

4 40 – (< 80 ) W 2.5 – ( < 5 ) W

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 3

M1 > 0.08 – 0.25 W > 0.5 -1.6 W

M2 > 0.03 – 0.08 W > 0.16 – 0.5 W

M3 > 0.01 – 0.03 W > 0.05 – 0.16 W

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 4

2. The reference sensitivity performance

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 5

FACCH/F (FER) 0.1 % 8.0 % 3.8 % 3.4 % 6.3 %

SDCCH (FER) 0.1 % 13 % 8% 8% 12 %

RACH (FER) 0.5 % 13 % 13 % 12 % 13 %

TCH/F9.6&H4.8 (BER) 10-5 % 0.5 % 0.4 % 0.1 % 0.7 %

TCH/F4.8 (BER) * 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 %

TCH/F2.4 (BER) * 2x10-4 % 10-5 % 10-5 % 10-5 %

TCH/H2.4 (BER) * 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 % 10-4 %

TCH/FS (BER) 0.1α % 6α % 3α % 2α % 7α %

class I b (RBER) 0.4/α % 0.4/α % 0.3/α % 0.2/α % 0.5/α %

TCH/HS (FER) 0.025 % 4.1 % 4.1% 4.1 % 4.5 %

class I b (RBER, BFI=0) 0.001 % 0.36 % 0.36 % 0.28 % 0.56 %

class II (RBER, BFI=0) 0.72 % 6.9 % 6.9 % 6.8 % 7.6 %

(UFR) 0.048 % 5.6 % 5.6 % 5.0 % 7.5 %

class I b [RBER,(BFI or UFI=0)] 0.001 % 0.24% 0.24 % 0.21 % 0.32 %

(EVSIDR) 0.06 % 6.8% 6.8 % 6.0 % 9.2 %

RBER,SID=2 and (BFI or UFI=0) 0.001 % 0.01 % 0.01 % 0.01 % 0.02 %

(ESIDR) 0.01 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 3.2 % 3.4 %

(RBER, SID=1 and SID=2) 0.003 % 0.3 % 0.3 % 0.21 % 0.42 %

table reference sensitivity performance

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 6

Examples of channel coding

Figure 1 Channel coding for signalling data

Figure 2 Channel coding for user data (FR)

MN 1790-TN-09 RADIO PLANNING AND OPTIMIZATION 7

Notes and definition

performance of SACCH, should be better.

FER: Frame erasure rate (frames marked with BFI=1)