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Sarah Jones

Professor Connors

HONORS 394A

14 March 2019

Rape and Portrayal of Women in Transformative Myth

In Greece and Rome the belief in and worship of multiple gods was commonplace, and

the rituals that took place were largely based in the myths that pertain to a certain god. One

account of many myths, from both Greece and Rome, is that of Ovid’s Metamorphoses‒ a long

poem of transformative myth that tells of how the world came to be. The Metamorphoses and

many other tales of myth, especially transformative myth, reveal the ways in which women were

portrayed and viewed in a societal context in ancient Greece and Rome but also allow an

understanding of the parallels that can be made between ancient and modern societies. The lens

through which these myths are perceived is the most important aspect of analyzing the impact

they have, from the gaze of an ancient male to a modern feminist. By analyzing these stories

today, insight can be gained on the influence art has on the further reinforcement of or

questioning of gender and class roles as time has progressed. For the purpose of this paper,

multiple assumptions have been made regarding the similarity in treatment of women in different

social classes in both Greece and Rome and in how gender is considered binary and relating to

the sex in which one was born. Although Ovid was a Roman poet, it has been understood that his

myths tie largely into the Greek world. This is predominantly due to simplicity, and I admit that

at times, especially in a scholarly discussion, the oversimplification of ideas can have a negative

effect in erasing certain struggles and conflicts of marginalized groups. It is imperative to

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evaluate the way in which we speak about and analyze a certain topic, as with the analysis of

myth and social structure that follows.

A large portion of the seemingly erotic stories in the Metamorphoses and myths

celebrated through ritual in both Greece and Rome involve the rape of women. Consistently

throughout these myths, the rapes are violent. This can be seen in the story of Philomela and

Tereus when he cuts out her tongue post-rape; it can be interpreted that part of the enjoyment of

the rape by Tereus is in the mutilation of his victim (Beek, 2016). Sometimes this violence may

be just an occurrence that accompanies the act of rape while other times it is a representation of

the association between male sexuality and aggression (Curran, 1978). These acts of violence in

the form of rape or assault are present throughout the Metamorphoses in over fifty cases in a

variety of stories. Why rape is such a common occurrence in a book meant to describe how life

came to be and and depict general eroticism is questionable, especially considering that it is

incorporated into common myths that may have not included it in the first place. For example, in

the story of Philomela and Tereus, some accounts of the myth involve Philomela being coerced

or tricked into marriage, but Ovid’s account of it includes violent rape (Curran, 1978). This calls

into question once again the purpose of these rapes for the sake of the poem. Perhaps Ovid is

making a point about how prevalent rape and assault are and society’s unwillingness to change

the normalization of these behaviors by mostly powerful men. The poem can quite easily be read

as stories of erotic desire and the creation of the world without paying any mind to the assaults.

They can be overlooked just as they are so easily overlooked in real life. Another note to think

about is that women are not given a true voice in these myths, just as women were not in life in

Greece. In court processions women had to be represented by a male as they had no true power
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to speak with regard to law and were expected by society to remain out of the public eye. Women

were repressed in most sectors of life, even if those in Rome were given a bit more freedom to

speak their mind (Lefkowitz & Fant, 2016).

What is also interesting is the fact that the majority of these rapes or violations are by

men to women, especially with men holding greater power in the scheme of divinity or class.

Any case of rape of men by women does not involve considerable violence either, like in the

case of Cephalus and Aurora. In the case of rape via unequal power, as in a god having sex with

a mortal with no power to refuse, the women with the power are still considered nonviolent and

non-threatening. Venus had significant power over her lover Adonis yet the story is most often

read as a tragic loss of lovers in which Venus was not abusing her power in any capacity (Curran,

1978). This portrayal of men and women in terms of rape and level of threat show both the

extent of power men have over women and that even when women are the assaulter they are seen

as inherently weak compared to the male victim. The implications of these themes are harmful to

both men and women: women are deemed powerless in any situation and male rape victims are

not taken seriously and considered weak for not fighting off the innately inferior gender. This

further supports the idea that the perspective in which these stories are read and interpreted can

be vital to understanding both the parallels to society and the power of art in solidifying cultural

norms.

The manner in which rape and assault is described in Ovid’s Metamorphoses is with little

detail and at quick pace throughout. Sometimes the assault is not even spoken of but implied.

The casual nature of the language, depending on the interpretation, communicates the way in

which rape was dealt with in ancient times and even today but may also provide a point of
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contemplation on the reader’s responsibility to realize this casualness. As stated before, rape is

heavily prevalent in myth, just as it is in the real world. It is not shocking to hear about an assault

of a woman, whether it be a headline, word of mouth, or in a story. In some cases of myths, an

assault entirely defined the identity of a character, many of which had their plotline end shortly

after the attack (Curran, 1978). This was true for women in Greece and Rome as it is for women

today‒ constantly defined by sex and value to another person. By speaking of rape in a relaxed

manner, these stories show the ultimate ideals of male superiority to the point of glossing over

the effects of an assault (Curran, 1978). Contrasting the idea that violence is a part of the

pleasure of an attack, in some cases it is not acknowledged even by the perpetrator. The victim is

simply a means to an ends in terms of a quick conquest rather than a person who will forever be

impacted by the actions taken. Perhaps Ovid is satirizing this entire ideal. In my opinion this is

both a vice and virtue for the Metamorphoses. From a modern feminist perspective it is baffling

to think of these stories as being read by an ancient audience with no shocking reaction; maybe

the reader saw rape as commonplace and accepted, maybe they did not even view it as rape but

as eroticism, or maybe they did not even realize it was rape at all.

Besides rape as a common plot point, a major thematic element of transformative myth

revolves around wildness, especially with reference to a hunter and huntress. Wildness in general

in mythology and in society is connected to the nature of women. The mythological female is

equated to wildness, being described as ‘outside’ of civilization. It is thought that the reason for

this relies on the fact that most women are capable of childbirth, a nature that men do not have

and cannot control (Blundell, 1995). Women are thus out of control and wild, an identity shared

with nature. A common theme then is how men represent civilized society and women innately
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oppose this civilization because nature opposes it, and women are the same as nature. Oftentimes

it is even seen in myth for women to be taken to the extreme of wildness and be seduced by

animals, showing their wild nature and willingness to have sex with anything (Curran, 1978).

In the case of Ovid, however, although he implements the theme of wildness into the plot

and meaning of his tales, he does not make any indication that the women are seduced by

animals. Daphne and Apollo embody this concept fully of wildness with regard to a hunter and

huntress. Apollo is considered a great hunter and is fresh off a great conquest when he is struck

by Cupid with mad lust for Daphne. Daphne is also a huntress, and a follower of Diana and the

hunt in general. Naturally she rejects sexuality to maintain her virgin status not only as a rule to

follow Diana but as a general desire for herself (Heath, 1991). In order to avoid being caught by

the hunter Apollo, and in so losing her status as a huntress and transforming to the hunted, she

also transforms into a laurel tree. She loses her free will not only as a wild huntress but as a

human. This as an even worse fate than rape as she loses her entire sense of identity in order to

escape; it is also ironic that she loses her identity to maintain her virgin identity. This loss of self

can parallel the trauma that rape victims feel in modern times and presumably ancient times as

well. Even though Daphne does ultimately escape the rape of Apollo by becoming an

impenetrable tree, she is still violated by him afterwards when he takes the laurel to keep in his

quiver and in a crown. In a sense she does not escape him at all and Apollo remains the now

justified hunter, placing his conquest on his hunting instrument, the quiver. The hunt is not just

for animals but people, especially those who explicitly wish to not be hunted. If read from a

feminist and modern perspective, this exact dynamic can represent the endless capacity of men to

take advantage of women-- or at least of those with power to take advantage of the powerless.
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This is not an isolated incident either. An almost identical story can be found in another myth

about Syrinx transforming into reeds to escape the rape of Pan (Heath, 1991).

This common concept of wildness in much of the Metamorphoses and myth in general

tends to have a correlation with rape. Those who reject sexuality, usually the huntress followers

of the virgin Diana, are the most common victims (Heath, 1991). As a narrative this can make a

point about society but also reinforce misinformation about sexuality. From an ancient male’s

perspective, the hunt is much more exciting if it for those who wish to not be hunted. A different

perspective, one that can be harmful to rape victims, is seeing that this hunt is in fact rape but

only because they blatantly reject all forms of sexuality. Ovid’s account of only these virgins

being raped can imply that rape is only rape if the woman does not express her sexuality. If

thought of in this way, this is supporting the idea that assault of women is not because she is

“asking for it” implicitly. However, this mindset simultaneously represses women further by

restricting their ability to express themselves and their sexuality.

Similarly, still following the theme of the hunt and wildness, is the story of Callisto.

Callisto was also a virgin huntress and follower of Diana. In the beginning of her story she sets

aside her bow to rest. Considering she is putting aside this physical embodiment of her wild

huntress identity, it can be interpreted that she is also setting aside her rejection of sexuality, now

being open to the idea (Heath, 1991). Although I do not see it as such, perhaps Ovid wrote it in

this way as if to justify the following actions of Jupiter. Perhaps he wrote it as such in order for

the reader to understand that there is no such invitation for sex unless full, undeniable consent is

given no matter the previous sexual history of the woman. In fact, even the consequences of rape

on an emotional level to the victim are apparent in how Callisto almost forgets to pick up her
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bow after the rape by Jupiter (Heath, 1991). This is a clear indication of trauma; she almost loses

her identity as a result of the rape, at least in a metaphorical sense.

A quite similar story in terms of removing the physical embodiment of the hunt from the

victim is that of Actaeon and Diana. Actaeon and Diana are once again both hunters. In this

myth, however, both parties take a rest and put aside their weapons, thus rejecting their roles as

the hunter for a moment (Heath, 1991). What follows is an interesting portrayal of victimization

as both parties are victims in the end. While Diana is violated by Actaeon’s male gaze on her

naked body, Actaeon is physically violated by being transformed into a stag and brutally ripped

apart by his own dogs. He thus is transformed from the hunter to the hunted as well. In a

contradictory manner, both Diana and Actaeon reject this wildness in terms of the hunt just to

regain that status in the wild transformation into a stag. Besides following the thematic element

of the hunt and wildness, Diana, the virgin huntress, is still a victim although she is not

transformed. The fact that Actaeon simply looking at her, a man gazing at a far more powerful

goddess, resulted in the violation of her identity, shows society’s tendency to regard the nature of

women as less powerful due to the sexual dominance of men. In reference to the previous point

about females not being seen as a threat even when they are the abuser, in this case of a goddess

and a mortal man, the gender power dynamic plays an equal role to the divine power dynamics in

the victimization of the opposite party. Even though Actaeon’s actions were accidental, he still

was able to violate Diana through the fact that he is a threat as a man to a vulnerable woman.

Wildness and transformation often go hand in hand in myth as well in which there is a

transformation from wilderness to civilization. This is the overarching theme of the

Metamorphoses and rituals practiced by the Greeks and Romans. From the beginning of time to
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when the Metamorphoses was written, men were transitioning away from a wild nature to a more

civilized version in which the household and state rule supreme. In myths, the women can be

seen as transforming from wild to civilized. This is exemplified when the virgin huntress is

violated by man, making her inherently less wild as she loses her virgin status. By being

violated, the woman can be seen as transformed into a civilized form of her previous self, giving

way to the interpretation that women need to be controlled by men for the sake of bettering

society; everything is done for the sake of the polis, oikos, or empire (Vesley, 2005). Callisto’s

story is a bit different in that she is punished by being turned even wilder and into a bear as

punishment, yet she stills embodies the idea that wildness is the opposite of progression. As a

result of this ideal, women in Greece would take to participating in a ritual in which young girls

would go to the woods and “play the bear” in order to rid themselves of any wildness and

prepare for a life as a proper, tame wife (Lefkowitz & Fant, 2016). In the case of Daphne and

Apollo once again, Daphne is the first love of Apollo, the god of civilization. Diana does not

protect Daphne from Apollo, presumably due to her wild nature, and thus Apollo can be seen as

taking responsibility by civilizing Daphne through transformation (Vesley, 2005). If these myths

are read as implying this concept, a harmful reinforcement of society’s expectations of women

are in place. Women were and still are heavily controlled by men and society, whether directly or

indirectly, and popular myths that portray women as better due to this control create a positive

feedback loop that further enforces these ideals in life and art. Once again, however, if we read

this concept critically, it can be understood how harmful it is and how it impacted society,

allowing us to better represent these gender dynamics in future art and prevent it from continuing

today.
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In order to properly understand these narratives and the underlying theme following the

oppression of women, it is also necessary to note the role women play in propagating this

oppression. In my opinion, men were and are the ultimate source of the oppression of women,

but both men and women play a part in intensifying its effects. This can be mostly seen today

with the concept of ‘victim blaming.’ This has come to light especially in recent years with the

MeToo movement in which many men and women have been taking to the media to share their

own stories of sexual assault, especially in the movie industry. By coming forward with their

experiences, people with similar ones have been able to band together towards a movement in

holding abusers accountable and reducing victim blaming. This ‘victim blaming’ is when

someone is harassed or assaulted and upon telling of their experience they are blamed for their

own assault. Common examples are when a woman is raped and people attribute it do to the

outfit she was wearing or the amount of alcohol she has consumed rather than a rapist taking

advantage of her. This occurred in Greek and Roman societies as well, but more so in which we

see women as having not even been raped at all when it happened. In the story of Callisto we see

that Diana punishes Callisto for being pregnant, having broken the vow of virginity, and expels

her from the community, turning her into a bear. Rather than understand the pregnancy was due

to rape by Jupiter and thus punishing him, Diana betrays her own follower and fellow woman for

the sake of chastity. This notion is common in myth; the story of Medusa is quite similar to that

of Callisto’s in which a rape victim is ultimately punished but not the assaulter (Heath, 1991).

Besides the fact that myth parallels this concept of punishing and blaming rape victims in

society, it also supports it by allowing readers to understand that chastity, the ultimate virtue until

marriage in both Greek and Roman households, is the woman’s responsibility-- to the point of
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avoiding rape. While it is likely that women believing women could not have too drastic of an

effect in ancient times, it can be an ultimate power source to fuel social equality among genders

today and implicate abusers.

While the connections between Greek and Roman society, modern society, and myth are

strong, the way in which we view these connections is the most important aspect of analyzing

them. The manner in which these myths, especially those in the Metamorphoses, are read and

taught determine their ultimate impact. The Metamorphoses can be read as a parody, a real

portrayal of life, nonsensical stories, or any combination of these (Segal, 1998). How we read

Ovid now and look at these myths affects society today substantially even though pagan ideals

are largely lost. Some classical scholars claim the rapes within the myths are fictional with no

relationship to the real world as times were different when they were written, implying that they

are not commonplace today (Beek, 2016). However, these myths are still applicable. By utilizing

this mindset, we are effectively erasing the struggles that women went through and continue to

go through. On the other hand, by treating the rapes in myth as accurate and ultimate

representations of what assault is, misconceptions are promoted. The poem by Ovid may make a

statement about society, but the unrealistic nature of his work can be perceived in various ways.

In Ovid’s representation of rape, the abusers are often powerful strangers and the act is quite

violent. In reality, the majority of rapes are done by someone the victim knows personally. If this

incorrect ideal becomes the definition of rape, it might be incorrectly thought by a reader and

students that most rapes and victims were not entirely real or as traumatic as they truly are

(Curran, 1978).
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Ultimately the best way to read these myths is critically, understanding how they

represent ancient society to a decent extent but also the human perspective and experience today.

Art and history are powerful tools in education. It is vital to recognize the limitations and the

implications of a work from numerous perspectives as it allows for more complete analysis and

true understanding of a work and its influence in normalizing or challenging ideals in society and

history.
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Works Cited

Beek, A. E. (2016). Ovid’s afterlife. Retrieved from https://eidolon.pub/ovid-s-afterlife-

4f708df9d244

Blundell, S. (1995). Women in ancient Greece. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Curran, L. C. (1978). Rape and rape victims in the Metamorphoses. Arethusa, 11(1), 213-241.

Heath, J. (1991). Diana’s understanding of Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”. The Classical Journal,

86(3), 233-243.

Lefkowitz, M. R., & Fant, M. B. (2016). Women’s life in Greece and Rome. Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press.

Segal, C. (1998). Ovid’s metamorphic bodies: Art, gender, and violence in the
“Metamorphoses”. Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, 5(3), 9-41.

Vesley, M. E. (2005). Women and civilization in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Syllecta Classica, 16,
61-83. doi:10.1353/syl.2005.0004