Deforestation and Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands: A Strategy for Physical

Recovery
Author(s): Badege Bishaw
Source: Northeast African Studies, New Series, Vol. 8, No. 1, Special Issue: Natural Resource
Management, Human Development, and Macroeconomic Performance in Ethiopia (2001), pp. 7-
25
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Deforestation and Land Degradation
in the Ethiopian Highlands: A

Strategy for Physical Recovery

Badege Bishaw
Oregon State University,Corvallis

Abstract
Deforestation,acceleratedsoil erosion,and land degradationare seri-
ous problemsin Ethiopia.To overcometheseproblems,efforts havebeen
made to launch afforestation and conservationprograms;success to date,
however,has been limited.This paperwill discussagriculture and forestry
practices in theEthiopianhighlands and to
tiy identify thecauses ofdefor-
estationand land degradation there.Agroforestiy and social forestry
prac-
tices,plantationforestry, and conservationof the remainingforestsare
proposedas a strategy forphysicalrecovery.Social and policyissues such
as local participation
in naturalresourcemanagement and theexistenceof
clear land and treetenurepolicies are criticalforthe long-termsustain-
abilityand expansion of forestsin Ethiopia. In general,tree planting
throughagroforestry and social forestry
shouldbe an integralpartofrural
developmentprogramsto providethe communitywith food,fuelwood,
income,and environmental benefits.Increasingpublicawarenessthrough
education about forestry and natural resourceconservationis vital for
maintainingEthiopia'sremainingnaturalforestsand biodiversity.

Introduction
Forests and the benefitsthey provide in the formof wood, food,
income,and watershedprotectionplay a criticalrole in enablingpeople
to secure a stable and adequate food supply.Deforestationand land

®Northeast AfricanStudies(ISSN 0740-9133)

Vol.8, No. 1 (New Series)2001,pp. 7-26
7

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8 BadegeBishaw

degradationin Ethiopia,however,are impairingthe capacityof forests

and the land to contributeto foodsecurityand to provideotherbenefits
such as fuelwood and fodder.Ethiopiansare facingrapid deforestation
and degradationofland resources.Populationincreaseshave resultedin
extensiveforestclearingforagriculturaluse, overgrazing,and exploita-
tionof existingforestsforfuelwood, fodder,and constructionmaterials.
Forestareas havebeen reducedfrom40 percenta centuryago to an esti-
matedless than3 percenttoday.The currentrateofdeforestation is esti-
matedat 160,000 to 200,000 hectares(ha) peryear,and fertiletopsoilis
lost at an estimatedrateof one billioncubicmetersper year (FAO 1981;
UNEP 1983; Constable 1985; Kuru 1990; Yirdaw 1996), resultingin
massive environmental degradationand constituting a serious threatto
sustainableagricultureand forestry.
To reduce theseproblems,rural afforestation and conservationpro-
gramson farmsand communitylands have been practicedin Ethiopia
forthe past threedecades. The MinistryofAgriculture, in collaboration
with national and internationalorganizations,has made effortsto
implementagroforestry and communitytreeplantingprograms.Rural
treeplantingon farmand communitylands was identifiedas the most
importantarea of internationaldevelopment.In addition,the United
Nations Development Program,in consultationwith the Food and
AgriculturalOrganization(FAO), has been helpingEthiopia to promote
treeplantingand soil conservationprogramsin the highlandssince the
early 1970s (FAO 1985). The objectivesof theseactivitieswere: (1) to
meet the needs forfuelwood, constructionmaterials,and fodderfrom
treesplantedoutsideforests;(2) to reducedegradationof soil resources
and improveproductivity of agriculturallands; and (3) to reduce the
pressurefromtheremainingnaturalforestsand conservebiodiversity.
Additional researchon agroforestry and transferof technologyhas
been conducted by the International Center for Research in
Agroforestry(ICRAF), in collaborationwith national research and
developmentinstitutionson the East Africanhighlandssince the mid-
1970s (Nair 1990; Hoekstra,Torquebiau,and Bishaw 1990). The pri-
maryobjectivesof thiscollaborativeresearchwere to identifypotential
agroforestry practicesand researchneeds using"Diagnosis and Design"
methodologydevelopedby ICRAF. As partof thiseffort, a blueprintfor

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 andLandDegradation
Deforestation Highlands9
intheEthiopian

"Agroforestry:Potential and Research Needs for the Ethiopian

Highlands"was preparedby theTechnicalCommitteeforAgroforestry in
Ethiopia, in collaboration with ICRAF scientists.Based on altitude,
topography, and intensityofland-usesystems,thefollowingwere identi-
fiedas agroforestry practicesfortheEthiopianhighlands:alleycropping,
treesin home gardens,foddertreeplanting,treesas livingfences,farm
boundaryand road side planting,woodlotsand agroforests, treeson con-
tourbands,and gullyplanting(Hoekstra,Torquebiau,and Bishaw 1990).
Despite the large commitmentsof scarce resourcesby both govern-
mentaland nongovernmental agencies,however,success in treeplanting
and conservationhas been limited.Currenttree-planting practicesresult
in less than 20 percenttreesurvivalon averagenationally(Uibrig1989;
Gamachu 1988). This problemis only one of several major obstacles
hinderingthe developmentof forestry programsin Ethiopia.
This paper will review agricultureand forestrypractices in the
Ethiopianhighlandsand discuss the causes and consequences of defor-
estationand land degradationin the country.The studyproposesagro-
forestry and social forestry practices, plantation forestry,and
conservationof the remainingnaturalforestsas a strategyforphysical
recoveryin Ethiopia.In summary,some recommendations on social and
policy issues will be given to help promotetree plantingand natural
resourceconservationin Ethiopia.

-
Country Background Ethiopia

Geography and Agro-Ecology

Ethiopia,situatedin thehorn of Africa,has an area of 1,100,000km2
(472,000 square miles). With a populationof over 62.5 millionand an
annual rateofgrowthof 2.9 percent(WRI 2001), Ethiopia is thesecond
mostpopulous countryin black Africa,afterNigeria;in land area, it is
the ninthlargest.Althoughthe whole of Ethiopialies withinthe tropi-
cal altitudes,the climateis cool in the highlandsand warm in the low-
lands. The annual rangeoftemperatureis relativelysmallbecause ofthe
proximityto theequator.Rainfallvariabilitygenerallyincreasesas rain-
fall total decreases and thus is generallygreatestin the lower rainfall
areas of the northand northeasthighlands.The rainfallis uni-modal

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10 BadegeBishaw

(i.e., fallingmainlyduring one season of the year). Climate is deter-

mined mainlyby the altitude,which dominatesall aspects of land use
because of its influenceon temperature.
The countryhas a wide range of agro-ecological the
zones reflecting
wide variationin rainfall(both quantity and distribution),temperature,
altitude,topography, and soils. Accordingto studiesby Getahun(1978)
and Constable(1985), threebroad majoragro-ecologicalzones comprise
thehighlandzones ofEthiopia:theHighPotentialPerennial(HPP) Zone,
the High PotentialCereal (HPC) Zone, and the Low PotentialCereal
(LPC) one (see Table 1).

Table 1. Major agro-ecological zones of the Ethiopian highlands

Zone Climate GrowingPeriod
(no. ofdays)
HPP zone Warmand morehumid Mainly> 240
HPC zone Intermediate rainfall Usually>180
LPC zone occasional
Highvariability, drought Mainly90-150

The FAO's conceptof growingperiodswas used to classifytheland-use

systemsinto distinctlydifferentagriculturalpotentials.This growing
-
period concepttakesinto account influenceson plant growth notonly
precipitationand evapo-transpiration,but also temperatureand stored
soil moisture.However,it is broadlydefinedhere as the numberof days
in a year thatplantscan growwithoutirrigation.

Agriculture and Land Degradation

Agricultureis thedominantsectoroftheEthiopianeconomy,with85
percent of the population living in rural areas. Agricultureprovides
about 52 percentof the country'sgrossdomesticproduct,80 percentof
its employment,and 90 percent of its export earnings (World Bank
2000; CIA 2001). Ethiopia's economyis largelydominatedby subsis-
tence agriculture,and crop and livestockfarmingare the principalprac-
tices. Mixed farmingdominatesthe highlands,with crop and livestock
farmingpracticedin thesame managementunit.The productionsystem
is mainlyrain fed,subsistence-based,and smallholder-oriented.

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 intheEthiopianHighlands11
andLandDegradation
Deforestation

Crops such as barley,teff,wheat, and beans are grownin thehigher

altitudes,while sorghumand maize are the principalcrops in the mid
and low altitudes.In addition,coffee,sweet potatoes,chat, variousveg-
etables,fruits,and groundnutsare extensivelycultivated.Cattle,sheep,
and goats constitutethe livestockin the highlands.Crop and livestock
yields in the highlandsare verylow, and the recentdroughthas aggra-
vated the situation.Furthermore, populationpressureshave decreased
the size of holdings,includingboth arable and pasturelands,leadingto
conversion of forestedand marginal areas into agriculturallands
(Hoekstra,Torquebiau,and Bishaw 1990; Bishaw 1993).
Soil degradationin Ethiopiacan be seen as a directresultof past agri-
culturalpracticesin the highlands.The dissectedterrain,the extensive
areas with slopesabove 16 percent,and thehighintensityof rainfalllead
to acceleratedsoil erosiononce deforestationoccurs.In addition,someof
the farmingpracticeswithin the highlandsencourage erosion. These
include cultivationof cereal crops such as teff( Ergrotistef)and wheat
(Triticumsativum), which require the preparationof a finelytilled
seedbed, the singlecroppingof fields,and down-slopefinalplowingto
facilitatedrainage.Furthermore, sociopoliticalinfluences,especiallyinse-
curityofland-and treetenure,have discouragedfarmersfrominvesting in
soil conservationpractices.
Soil degradationis thus the most immediateenvironmentalproblem
facingEthiopia. The loss of soil and the deteriorationin fertility,
mois-
ture storage capacity,and structureof the remainingsoils all reduce
the country'sagriculturalproductivity.Soil erosion is greateston cul-
tivatedland, where the average annual loss is 42 tons/ha,compared
with five tons/hafrompastures. As a result,nearly half the soil loss
comes fromland undercultivation,even thoughthese lands coveronly
13 percentof the country.Not surprisingly, the highestaverage rates
of soil loss are fromformerlycultivatedlands thatare currentlyunpro-
ductive because of degradation and littleprotectivevegetativecover
(Hurni 1990).
The presentstatusand rate of soil erosionin Ethiopia call forimme-
diate action to retardand reversethisdegradationprocess.However,the
presentpopulationgrowthrate of 2.9 percent,in comparisonwith the
annual agriculturalgrowthrate of 2.4 percent(Hammond 2001), will

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12 BadegeBishaw

lead to even moreintensiveuse of cultivatableand pastureland to pro-

duce more foodand feed forthe growinghuman and livestockpopula-
tions. Hence, it is clear that intensificationof land use must be
accompanied by technologicalinnovationsthat will lead to increased
productivity,while simultaneouslyconservingthe soil resource.

Forest Resources of Ethiopia

Natural Forests

High forests,either coniferousor broad-leavedvegetation,covered

35-40 percentofEthiopiabeforehumansettlementtookplace.Withthe
inclusion of savanna woodlands, some 66 percentof the countrywas
originallycovered with forestor woodlands (Britenbach 1961; Wood
1990; Kuru 1990; Yirdaw 1996). Over the last 3,000 years therehas
been progressivedeforestation,whichhas acceleratedtremendously dur-
ing the last century.Rapid populationgrowth, extensive forestclearing
forcultivation,overgrazing, movementofpoliticalcenters,and exploita-
tion of forestsforfuelwood and constructionmaterialswithoutreplant-
ing reducedEthiopia's forestarea to 16 percentin the 1950s and to 3.1
percentby 1982 (UNEP 1983). Furtherestimatesof the distribution of
forest and woodland areas based on informationfrom LANDSAT
imagery(1979) revealedthat2.8 percentoftheland surfaceis underfor-
est and woodland (Kuru 1990; MOA 1991; Table 2).

Table 2. Natural forest vegetation coverage of Ethiopia in 1990

Vegetation Area(millionha) Coverage(%)

Highforests 3.44 2.8
Riverainand mangrove 1.30 1.1
Bamboowoodlands 0.45 0.4
Mixeddeciduous 2.50 2.0
and
Acacia-Boswellia 20.00 16.0
woodedgrasslands

Subtotal 27.69 22.3

Otherlands 92.31 77.7
Total 120.00 100.0

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 and LandDegradation
Deforestation intheEthiopian
Highlands13

The highlandforestscan be broadlydividedinto dryand moistmon-

tane forests.The dry montane forestsare dominatedby hard-leaved
evergreens,while the moist montaneforestsare characterizedby large
broad-leavedand soft-leavedspecies (Bekele 1994). The dry montane
forestsare dominatedbyJuniperusprocera , Podocarpusgracilor.; and Olea
europaea, while the wet montane forestsconsist of such species as
Aningeriaadolfi-friederici,Olea welwitschii, O. hochstetter, and Croton
macrostachyus. Mountain cane (Arundinaria alpina ) stands are also
foundat humidhighlandelevationareas (2,500-3,400 meters)in scat-
teredbut large and compact stands (FAO 1981). However,because of
deforestation,muchofthehighlandsat presentare coveredwithwooded
grasslands in which secondarytreespecies,includingAcacia abyssinica,
Acacia negrii,and Acacia pilispina,occur (Friis 1992).
The remainingnaturalforestareas are located primarilyin southern
and southwestern Ethiopia.High forestsin theseareas have been identi-
fied and effortsare being made to conserve,protect,and manage these
resourceson a sustained-yield basis. At present,however,accessiblehigh
forestareas areexposedto variousdevelopment projectpressures,includ-
ing coffeeand tea cash cropping,human resettlement, grazing,and log-
gingoperations(MOA 1991).
Due to the immediatesignificanceand long-termimpact of these
problems,effortshave been made to identifythe remaininghighforests
designatedas 57 National Forest PriorityAreas (NFPA). These areas
would cover3.44 millionhectares,or 2.8 percentof the country(Table
2). Properprotectionand managementof these NFPA is questionable,
however,because of thelack of clear and efficientforestpolicy.
The influenceofhumans and theirdomesticanimals has profoundly
alteredboththevegetationand thelandscape,and littlenaturalhighland
vegetationremainstoday.Ecological degradation,includingdeforesta-
tionand erosion,is widespread,particularlyin the northernand central
highlands.Though not as severelydegraded,the southernpartsof the
highlandsare beingincreasinglyaffected(Getahun 1988; Hurni 1990).

Forest Plantations
Forestsplantationsare definedby FAO (1993) as foreststandsestab-
lished artificially
by afforestation
on land where forestspreviouslydid

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14 BadegeBishaw

on land
by reforestation
not grow,or foreststandsestablishedartificially
thathad supportedforestswithintheprevious50 years (or withinliving
memory)thatinvolvesthe replacementof theprevioustreesby new and
essentiallydifferenttrees.Julian Evans definesplantationssimplyas a
eitherby sowingor planting(cited
forestcropor standraised artificially
in Yirdaw 1996).
In Ethiopia,plantationforestrybegan near the turnof thenineteenth
century,when Emperor Menelik requestedthata fast-growingtreespecies
be plantedtoovercomethefuelwood shortagehe facedat thetime.During
the early1900s,mostof Addis Ababa was reportedly coveredby forests;
in 1964, eucalyptusplantationscoveredabout 13,500 ha (FAO 1985).
Today,thereare about 162,000 hectaresof plantationforestsand about
36,000 hectaresofurbanfuelwood plantations.These aremanagedbythe
state,and eucalyptusis themain plantationspecies (MOA 1991).
Ethiopia'sforestresourceconservation,development,and utilization
todayare not the productof a long-evolving process in which different
land-use planningmeasures have been devised to meet the changing
needs and variousecological conditionsof the country.The absence of
sound and comprehensiveland-usepolicies encompassingthe identifi-
cation,selection,and appropriationof suitable areas forforestrydevel-
opment, based on production and environmental protection, the
is
outstandingforestry problemin Ethiopia (MOA 1991).

Community Forestry and Soil Conservation

Community has been definedby FAO (1978) as anysituation
forestry
thatintimately activity.It embracesa
involveslocal people in a forestry
spectrum of situationsranging from woodlots in areas thatare shortof
wood and otherforestproductsforlocal needs, throughthe growingof
treesat thefarmand communitylevelto providecash crops,and thepro-
cessingof forestproducts.
Despite majorproblemsof deforestation and land degradation,mas-
sive soil conservationand afforestation programshave been ongoingin
Ethiopiasincetheearly 1970s (Hurni 1990; Gamachu 1988). These pro-
gramswere undertakenby variousgovernmentagencies with the assis-
tance of internationaland bilateral organizations. The Community
Forestry and Soil Conservation Department of the Ministry of

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 and LandDegradation
Deforestation in theEthiopian
Highlands15

Agricultureis themain government agencyinvolvedin theplanningand

executionofsoil conservationmeasuresand afforestation programs.The
department is involved mainly in three farm
activities: commu-
forestry,
nityforestry, and soil conservation.
In the Farm ForestryProgram,farmersare encouragedto establish
small privateplantationsaroundtheirhomes- usuallyvariousspeciesof
eucalyptus.In theCommunityForestryProgram,farmersare encouraged
to plant treeson communitylands. The CommunityForestryProgram
providestechnicaland financialsupportin theestablishment of nurseries
and theplantingofseedlings.The Soil ConservationUnitis involvedwith
terracing and other soil protection schemes. The Department of
CommunityForestryand Soil Conservationworks directlywithfarmers
who providelabor.
The WorldFood Programof the United Nations has been involved
in soil conservation,afforestation, and small-scale irrigationprojects
in Ethiopia since the mid-1970sand continuesto supporttheseefforts.
Its assistance is mainly throughthe Food for Work Program,where
farmerswho work on the projects are provided with grain and veg-
etable oil.
Various documentsof the CommunityForestryDepartment(CFD)
indicate thatby September1986, close to 500,000 ha of farmlandand
175,000 ha of hillside had been terraced,and 181,000 ha of land
afforested by theCommunityForestryProgramthroughoutthecountry.
Althoughtheachievementswere impressive,CFD reportsthatsoil con-
servationand afforestation activitieshave declined over the years,and
the enthusiasmmanifestedin the earlyyears of the programsseem to
have faded(Hurni 1990; Gamachu 1988).
The problemsseem to be relatedto disincentivesamongfarmersfor
soil conservationmeasuresand afforestation programs.These activities,
althoughpartof a "developmentpackage,"are not viewedby farmersas
ensuringan immediatereturn.Soil conversationmeasures take some
land out of production,placing more pressure on existingfarm-and
grazingland. This is particularlythe case in northernEthiopia,where
thereis a shortageof agriculturalland. Farmersare also requiredto pro-
vide theirlabor and timeforactivitiesthatfromtheirpointof view do
not generateimmediatebenefits.

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16 BadegeBishaw

Moreover,thereis no clear legal base fordeterminingownershipof

communityforests.Farmerstendto assume thattheforestsbelongto the
Stateand,therefore,thattheydo nothave therightto use and own these
forests. Additionally, the massive national soil conservation and
afforestation between 1976 and 1985 were oftenseen as govern-
efforts
ment-imposedactivities.Since these initiativeswere not accompanied
by educationand properincentives,farmersdid not perceiveindividual
benefitsto themselves(Gamachu 1988; Hurni 1990).

Strategy for Physical Recovery

Various internationalorganizationsand consultants,includingthe
WorldBank, in the Ethiopian HighlandReclamationStudy(Constable
1985); FAO, in PreparatoryAssistanceto ResearchforAfforestation and
Soil Conservation Potentialand
(Davidson 1988); ICRAF, in Agroforestry:
ResearchNeedsfortheEthiopianHighlands (Hoekstra,Torquebiau,and
Bishaw 1990), all have emphasizedin theirrecommendationsthe need
forconservation-based integrateddevelopmentas a strategy to overcome
the degradationof land resourcesand improveagricultureand forestry
developmentin Ethiopia. Moreover,prioritiesindicate that the initial
effortbe directedto areas where environmentaldegradationis highand
foodproductionreturnsare low.
To overcomedeforestation and land degradationin theEthiopianhigh-
lands and to providethepeoplewithfood,fuelwood, and fodderon a sus-
tainablebasis,threenaturalresourcemanagementstrategies areproposed:

1. Implementationof agroforestry in therural areas

and social forestry
wheresubsistencefarmingis practiced
2. Expansion of both industrialand non-industrialplantationforestry
uncultivatedand slopinglands
on currently
3. Conservationof theremainingnaturalforeststo conservespecies and
biodiversity
If properlypracticedand managed,these measureswill help achieve
sustainableproductionand environmentalprotectionin the Ethiopian
highlands.
In the subsequent sections,I will discuss the contributionsof agro-
to alleviatingfoodinsecurity,
and social forestry
forestry fuelwood, and

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 and LandDegradation
Deforestation in theEthiopian
Highlands17

fodder shortages while providing environmental benefits in the

Ethiopian highlands,as well as the potentialof plantationforestryto
provide wood and other benefits.Strategiesfor the conservationand
enrichmentof theremainingnaturalforestswill also be addressed.

Agroforestryand Social Forestry

Agroforestry is not a totallynew conceptin Ethiopia;rather,it is an
age-old practice whereby farmersmaintain trees in croplands. Such
woody perennialsare retainedfortheirmultipleuses and benefits,such
as theirnitrogen-fixing propertiesand soil improvementcapacity,and
the provisionof fodders,fuel wood, and fruits(Hoekstra,Torquebiau,
and Bishaw 1990).
The roleofagroforestry in satisfyingthebasic needs oftheruralpeo-
of is
ples Ethiopia large, but littleresearchhas been initiatedto identify
suitable agroforestry technologiesand appropriatetreespecies forspe-
cific areas. Based on the work done by the Technical Committeefor
Agroforestry in Ethiopia,however(Hoekstra,Torquebiau,and Bishaw
I
1990), proposethe followingagroforestry technologiesas appropriate
forland-use systemsin the Ethiopianhighlands.Even where the pro-
posed technologieshave notbeen implemented, theycan at least serveas
baseline information forfurtherdevelopmentof agroforestry.

1. Alleycropping. Alleycroppingis an agroforestry systemin whichfood

cropsare grownin alleysformedbyhedgerowsoftreesor shrubs.The
hedgerowsare cut back at plantingand keptprunedduringcropping
to preventshading and reduce competitionwith food crops. When
thereare no crops,thehedgerowsare allowed to growfreely. The pri-
mary reasons forintroducingalleycropping into the farmingsystem
are to improvesoil fertility,
producefodderand fuelwood,and aid in
soil conservation.
2. Fodder treeplantingon unproductive pastureand degradedhillsides.
Fodder treesand shrubs can be plantedas pure standson degraded
lands and/ormixedin different configurationswithgrassand herba-
ceous legumes on unproductivepasturelands. This practice will
involvea cut-and-carry systemfromstandsplantedon hillsides.The
main objectiveof this practiceis to supplementthelow quantityand
-qualityfeed sources available for livestockduringthe dry season

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18 BadegeBishaw

with high-qualitytree leaves and pods. This will substantially

increasetheproductivecapacityofpoor and scarcepasturelandscom-
mon in the Ethiopianhighlands.
3. Treeplantingin homegardensand woodlots.Tree plantingin home
gardensand woodlotson poor qualitysites and steepslopes is a com-
monpracticein the Ethiopianhighlands.Moreover,plantingof single
species and mixturesof species on micro-sites,such as steep slopes
and rockyor marshysites withinfarmlands,can be increased.The
main objectivesof this practiceare to produce fuel wood and con-
structionpoles for the community.Moreover,treesplanted around
homesteadscan serveas windbreaksand shelterbeltsforhumans,as
well as providefeed and shelterforanimals. Additionalfood supply
and cash income could be obtained by plantingfruittrees around
homesteads.
4. Treeplantingas livingfencesonfarmboundariesand roadsides.Both
internaland externalfarmboundariesmaybe used fortreeplanting
to producepoles, timber,fuelwood, and fodder.The design of this
plantingschemecan includeplantingtreesin lines or rowsin border
areas and along roadsides.The main objectiveof this practiceis to
providean alternativesource of cash to farmersand to supply fuel
wood, which is otherwisescarce.Such tree plantingscan also indi-
rectlyinfluencethe crop-livestock productionsystemby acting as
windbreaksand shelterbelts.
5. Treeplantingon contourstructures and insideand alonggullies. This
planting scheme has a wide range applicationsbecause it does not
of
competewith crop productionforland. Land scarcityis acute in the
denselypopulatedhighlands,where farmerstend to use everyavail-
able pieceofland withoutregardto soil conservation.Thus, treeplant-
ingon contourstructures and insideand alonggullieswill greatlyhelp
in soil and waterconservation.The main objectiveofthisschemeis to
aid benchterracesand gullystabilization,and helppreventrunoffand
soil erosion,all ofwhichare verycommonin thehighlands.The addi-
tionaluse of wastelandsfortreeplantingwill contributeto the eco-
nomic and natural resourcebase of communities.However, these
trees,especiallywhen standsare young,will not adequatelyprotect
soil unlessgroundvegetationis also managedproperly.

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 andLandDegradation
Deforestation in theEthiopian
Highlands19

Agroforestry and social forestry

as land-usesystemshavegreatpoten-
tial foralleviatingthe land degradationproblemsassociatedwith poor
traditionalfarmingpracticesin the Ethiopian highlands.They can also
improveagricultureand forestry productionon a sustainedbasis by pro-
vidingfood,fuelwood, and fodderforfarmfamilies.

Forest Plantations
Establishment of forestplantationsto providetimberand construction
materials,pulp and paper forindustryand publicuse, and fuelwood for
urban dwellersis essentialforEthiopia's futureeconomicdevelopment.
Plantationscan be establishedas pure and/ormixedstandswith appro-
priatesilviculturaltechniques.This can be achievedthroughthe private
sectorby establishingindustrialplantationsand nonindustrialprivate
forests.Encouragingprivatesectorinvolvementin developingindustrial
forestplantationspotentiallycan increase self-sufficiency in wood pro-
ductionand contributeto thenationaleconomy.Furthermore, encourag-
ingfarmers and smalllandownerstobe involvedin tree-growing schemes
will help themgeneratehouseholdincome.
In orderforplantationstobe successfulin checkingdeforestation and
to satisfythegrowingneed fortimber,theymustbe managedbased on
ecosystemprinciples.Improvement in forestlegislationconcerningplan-
tations and participationof the local population in forestplantation
workis essential.Plantationsshould not merelypromotetreecrops,but
also shouldhelp alleviateenvironmental problemsand promotethewell-
being of the local community.

Natural Forest Protection and Conservation

Protectedforestscan be definedas predominantly naturalareas safe-
guardedby law or custom where species and ecosystemsare conserved
for currentand futuregenerations.Since the best way to maintain
species is to maintain theirhabitats,protectedareas are an essential
means for sustainingdiversity.Protectedareas also help stabilize the
local climate,protectwatersheds,and preventerosion,and constitute
the most widespread mechanismfor conservingEthiopia's remaining
naturalforests.However,protectionof the presentnaturalforestis gen-
erallyinadequate,and conservationmustbe partof a broaderprocessof

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2O BadegeBishaw

managingthe whole landscape.Thus, protectedareas will contributeto

the conservationof Ethiopia's remainingnaturalforestsif theyare able
to meetthe legitimatedevelopmentalaspirationsof thepeople who live
in and around them (Sayer,Harcourt,and Collins 1992).
Protectionand conservationof the remainingnaturalforestsis criti-
cal to protectspecies and biodiversityin Ethiopia. The identification,
demarcation,and preservationof the remainingnatural forestsand
wildlifewill be beneficialto presentas well as futuregenerations.

Social, Economic, and Policy Issues

Deforestationand land degradationshouldbe seen as themostimpor-
tantissues threateningthe survivalof Ethiopia and her people. Floods,
drought,desertification,dryingof streams,and soil erosion are con-
nectedone way or anotherwith the process of forestexploitationand
destruction.Althoughvarious strategiesfor tree plantingand natural
resourceconservationin the Ethiopian highlandsare proposed, their
successfulimplementationwill be limitedunless the followingsocial,
economic,and policyissues are addressedproperly.

Participation of the Rural and Urban Population

The participationof the generalpublic in both ruraland urban areas
in treeplantingand conservationof the naturalforestsis veryimportant
to achieve the proposed strategies.Involvingfarmersand local people
who live around the forestsin treeplantingand naturalresourceman-
agementis critical for conservationand the developmentof forestry.
This can be done througha participatoryprocess where farmersand
local people are involvedin planning,design,and implementation of the
managementplan. This exchange of information and creation of part-
nershipswill help build confidenceand providereassurance that the
programsare relevantto theirneeds and ensure thattheyhave a sense
of responsibility to the project.
Attentionshouldbe givento thecreationofeffective local management
organizationsto mobilizefarmersin the conservation, development,and
appropriate use of forestsand agroforestiy
products.Institutional
arrange-
mentsat thecommunitylevelare oftenkeyelementsin naturalresource
conservation measuressuchas planningagroforestiy and treeplantingfor

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 andLandDegradation
Deforestation Highlands21
in theEthiopian

fieldimplementation.The FAO experiencewith small farmerdevelop-

mentprojectssuggestsorganizingfarmersintosmallhomogenousgroups
ofabout 10-15 farmersor heads of familiesso thepeoplecan moreeasily
obtaingovernment service.These informalgroupsworkbestwhen farm-
ershave similarincomes,problems,and aspirations(Rao 1986).

Economic Incentives
Wood should not be considereda freegood; rather,it should be con-
sidereda commodityrequiringland,labor,and capitalto produce.Pricing
wood based on capitaland resourcesinvested,as wellas demandand sup-
ply in themarketplace,will createincentiveforestablishingforestplan-
tationsand small privateforestsin the country.The governmentmust
createeconomicincentivesfortreegrowingand forotherwiseadopting
suitableagroforestry and tree-planting
practicesby ruralpeople.
Direct creditto farmersis anotherfinancialmatterto be addressed.
New mechanismsmustbe devised,as thereis littleexperienceorganiz-
ing creditfortree crop cultivationin developingcountries.Incentives
mayinvolvesupplyingseeds and seedlings,eitherfreeof chargeor at a
nominalprice.Ensuring an adequate supply of hand tools forplanting
and temporaryfood aid can encourage farmersto participatein tree
plantingand in the adoptionofagroforestry technology. Anotherway to
provideincentivesis forthe communityto providetheland and labor,
while the forestservice or NGO providesthe seedlings,fertilizers,and
technicalassistance.When thecropis harvested,thenetprofitis shared
on a proportionalbasis, dependingon input,as agreedupon.

Land and Tťee Tenure

Successfullong-termagroforestry and tree-plantingstrategiesrequire
land tenuresystemsthat guaranteecontinued ownershipof land. As
Nair (1990) indicated, the incentive for investing in soil-fertility
improvement forthe futureis low unless thebenefitsaccrue to the tree
planter.This holds true in Ethiopia today,where land is stillunder the
communalcontrol of the government.Unless land is redistributedto
individualfarmersand theyare guaranteedcontinuousownership,suc-
cess in the adoption of agroforestryand tree plantingin the Ethiopian
highlandsis unlikely.

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22 BadegeBishaw

Ethiopia's land and treetenurepolicyshouldtherefore be changedto

rewardfarmerswho investin agroforestry and forestplantations,which
requirelong gestationperiods.Land and treetenurepolicyshould give
landownersand farmersincentivesnot only forplantingbut forstew-
ardshipof the forests.Withoutclear policy,it is difficult
to offerincen-
tivesforfarmersand landownersto grow trees.Activelaws are needed
to save theland and theenvironment, and suitableinstitutionsto imple-
ment the laws. Commitmentfromthe governmentis also needed to
implementforestpolicy that will fullyconsiderthe crisis of environ-
mentaldegradationand thestagnationof agriculture.

Education and Research

Adequate forestryand natural resource education, research, and

extensionservice are needed to meet the demandforand challengesof
managingnatural resourceson a sustainablebasis. Strengtheningthe
country'seducation and researchinstitutionsto trainqualifiedforestry
and natural resource professionalswith appropriateknowledge of
forestry and agriculturein Ethiopia is required.
Researchin agroforestry in Ethiopia in generalshouldemphasizethe
developmentof appropriatetechnologiesto increase agriculturalpro-
ductivityand the reclamationof degradedhighlands.Researchin plan-
tation forestryshould also focus on productionof fiber and other
benefitswhile maintainingecosystems.Conservationof the natural
forestsshould be givenadequate attention,and researchin theseforests
should focus on improvingthe natural regenerationof the various
species and the conservationofbiodiversity.
A multidisciplinary approach is needed forsuccess in agroforestry
and naturalresourceeducation,research,and extension.All profession-
als concerned with agriculture,forestry, and naturalresourcesshould
come togetherand work toward developingstrategiesfor sustainable
agroforestry and natural resource managementthat will ensure food
security for the ruralpoor and long-termsustainability of the resource
base upon which otherdevelopmentsectorsdepend.

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 andLandDegradation
Deforestation intheEthiopian
Highlands23

Acknowledgments
I wouldlike to acknowledgethelate Dr. BartThielges,associate dean,
Collegeof Forestry, OregonStateUniversity,and Dr. David Brooks,for-
esteconomist,USDA ForestService,PacificNorthwestStation,fortheir
professionaladvice and encouragement, and forprovidingfinancialsup-
portto attendthe conferenceon which thispaper is based. I would also
like to thank the organizersof the conferenceon contemporarydevel-
opmentissues in Ethiopia forinvitingme to presentthepaper and facil-
itatingits publicationin NortheastAfricanStudies.

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