Module 002 Feedback and Control Systems

Feedback and Control Systems
1
Block Diagram Algebra and Transfer Function
Module 002 Block Diagram Algebra and

Transfer Function
At the end of this module you are expected to:

1. Be able to represent a control system with block diagrams
2. Be able to select controller parameters to meet design objectives
3. Understand the control theory for the analysis and design of a control
system
Frequency Domain Modeling

Signals are functions of time that represent the evolution of variables. There are two types
of signals, continuous-time signals and discrete-time signals. Continuous time signals are
functions of a continuous variable while discrete-time signals are functions of discrete
variable, that is, they are defined only for integer values of the independent variable (time
steps). It can be noted that the notation x(t) is often used to designate a continuous-time
signal and x(n) is used to denote a discrete-time signal.
A continuous-time signal x(t) is periodic if there exists a time T for which
Eq. 1 x(t) = x(t + T)
A discrete-time signal x(n) is periodic if there exists an integer N for which
Eq. 2 x(n) = x(n + N)
Exponential Signals
Exponential signals are of major importance in signals and systems analysis because
these signals are eigenfunctions of linear time-invariant system (as an input to an
LTI system, they are in invariant form).
Real Exponential Functions
Eq. 3 ( )
Case a = 0; The constant signal is taken x(t) = C
Case a> 0; The exponential tends to infinity as t →∞ (C > 0)
Complex Exponential Signals
( )
C, a complex,
( ) ( ) ( )
Eq. 4
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Using Euler’s relation
Eq. 5 ( ) ( ) ( )
For r = 0, a complex periodic signal or period whose real and
imaginary parts are sinusoidal is obtained
Eq. 6 ( ) ( ) ( )
For r < 0, a complex periodic signal multiplied by a decaying exponential
whose real and imaginary parts are “damped sinusoids” is obtained while for
r > 0, a complex periodic signal multiplied by a growing exponential is
obtained.
In control system design the most common mathematical models that are of interest are in
time domain, linear ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients and in the
frequency or transform domain, transfer functions obtained from time domain descriptions
through Laplace transform.
Derivation of the Transfer Function
Transfer Functions
“The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output Y(x) to the Laplace transform of the corresponding input
U(x) with all initial conditions assumed to be zero.”
From differential equations to transfer function: Let the equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
With some initial conditions
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) |
Describe a process of interest. Taking Laplace transform of both sides, the following
is obtained
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
Where Y(s) = L{y(t)} and U(s) = L{u(t)}. Combining terms and solving with respect
to Y(s) the following is obtained:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Assuming the initial conditions are zero.

( )
Eq. 7 ( )
( )
Where G(s) is the transfer function of the defined system.

The concern is the transfer functions G(s) which are rational functions, i.e., ratios of
polynomials s, G(s) = n(s)/d(s). The interest is in proper G(s) where ( )
. Proper G(s) have degree n(s) ≤ degree d(s).
3
In most cases, degree n(s) < degree d(s), which case G(s) is called strictly proper.
Considering the transfer function
( )
This is transfer function assuming that all initial conditions are zero, is the result of
taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the time domain equation.
Block Diagrams and Transfer Function

A system is described as “a mathematical relationship between an input signal and an
output signal.” This can be represented by an operator equation y = Hx, where H is an
operator that represents from a simple gain to a more complicated nonlinear differential
equation.
System Block Diagrams
Systems may be interconnections of other systems as in Figure 1, while Figure 2 is a
cascade interconnection and parallel interconnection is shown in Figure 3, the
feedback interconnection is in Figure 4.
(a) Interconnected Systems
(b) Cascade Interconnection
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(c) Parallel Interconnection
(d) Feedback Interconnection

Figure 1. Block Diagrams of Interconnected Systems
Source: Basic Dynamic and Control (4), by: Finn Haugen, 2014, Skein, Norway,
https://home.usn.no/finnh/publications/books/basic_dynamics_and_control/Basic_Dyn_Con_Textboo
k_free. Retrieved December, 2018
Manipulating Block Diagrams
A block diagram for a system can be manipulated into new forms. A block diagram is
developed for a system. This developed diagram is then simplified through a process
that is both graphical and algebraic. The following are equivalent blocks with its
algebraic proof.
5
r
G(D) c
+ -
H(D)
Is equal to
r 𝐺(𝐷) c
𝐺 (𝐷 )𝐻(𝐷)
Figure 2. A Negative Feedback Block Reduction
The algebraic proof would be:

( )
( )( ( ) )
( ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
[ ( ) ( )
]
( )
For a positive feedback block reduction, where the process would be ( ) ( )
the
algebraic proof is
c = G(D) e
c = G(D)(r+H(D)c)
c (1-G(D)H(D) = G(D) r
( )
[ ( ) ( )
]
The blocks can be reversed as in Figure 3.
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r c
Is equal to
c r
𝐺(𝐷)
Figure 3. Reversal of Function Blocks
The algebraic proof is

c = G(D) r
[ ]
( )
Figure 4a shows the branches are moved before the blocks while in Figure 4b, the
branches are moved after the blocks.
r c
r c
G(D) Is equal to G(D)
) G(D)
c c
(a) Before blocks
r c c
Is equal to r
G(D) G(D)
r ( )
(b) After Blocks

r
Figure 4 Moving Branches
Figure 5 shows the combining sequential function blocks, Figure 6 is moving the
summation functions before blocks while shown in Figure 7 is moving summation
past blocks.
r x b
G(D) H(D)
Is equal to
7
Figure 5. Combining Sequential Blocks
The algebraic proof of combining sequential blocks is

x = G(D)r
b = H(D) x
b = H(D)G(D) r
r ± e r ± e
G(D) G(D)
Is equal to
± ±
b
b
𝐺(𝐷)
c
Figure 6. Moving Summation Functions Before Blocks
The algebraic proof of moving the summation functions before blocks is

e = ±G(D)r ± b
( )[ ]
( )
r e
r e
G(D) G(D)
d Is equal to d
G(D)
Figure 7. Moving Summation Functions Past Block
And the algebraic proof of moving the summation functions past block is
e = G(D) (±R ±d)
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e = ±R(G(D)) ± d(G(D))
The Bode Plot

It is convenient to use a logarithmic scale to plot the magnitude of a frequency response.
This is because frequency responses can have a wide dynamic range which covers many
orders of magnitude. Some frequencies may be amplified by a factor of 1000 while others
may be attenuated by a factor of 10-4. It can also be that if log scale is used, the magnitudes
of the cascaded Fourier transforms can be added rather than multiplied making easier
graphically.
Eq. 8 ( ) ( ) ( )
The bel is the power amplification of |H(jω)|2 = 10 for a system. Thus, for the system with
power gain of 10 at frequency ω,
Eq. 9 ( )
But to measure the actual linear gain of a system the following identity is used
Eq. 10 ( ) ( )
Therefore, a magnitude plot of |H(jω)| is represented as 20log10|H(jω)| dB using a linear
scale in dB units. A log scale can be conveniently used for the frequency in the frequency
response which is spread over a wide frequency band.
Bode Plot
A Bode plot is defined as “the combination of a magnitude and phase plots using log
scales for the magnitude and the frequency, and a linear scales (radians or degrees)
for the phase.” However, positive frequencies are considered. This plot is useful
since the overall frequency response of cascaded systems is the graphical addition
of the Bode plots of the individual systems. This characteristic is used to hand sketch
a Bode plot of a rational transfer function in pole-zero form by considering each
first-order factor corresponding to a pole or a zero to be an individual its own Bode
plot.
Example of first-order: Consider the first-order system with transfer function
( ) { }
Which has the frequency response

( )
It is written as the product of a gain and a first-order transfer function with unity
gain at dc:
( )
The break frequency is 2 radians, the Bode magnitude plot is the graph of
9
( ) | | | |
| |
| |
For low frequencies, ω<<2

( )
For high frequencies, ω >>2
( ) | |
For ω = 10, -20dB is the result, for ω = 100, -40dB, etc. The slope of this asymptote is
therefore -20dB/decade.
With the asymptotes meeting at the break frequency 2 radians/s, the magnitude
Bode plot can be sketched as follows (the dashed line is the actual magnitude).
Figure 8. Bode Magnitude Plot for First-Order System
The Bode phase plot is the graph of
( ) ( )
The phase is 0 at ω = 0 and –π/2 at ω = ∞. The linear (log frequency scale)

approximation to the phase that helps to sketch is given by
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( ) [ ( ) ]
{
The rule of the thumb is; the phase is 0 at , at ω0 and - at 10ω0 where ω0 is
the break frequency. The Bode plot is as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Bode Phase Plot
The Bode magnitude plot of s + 2 (the inverse of H(s)) is the magnitude plot
in Figure 8, flipped around the frequency axis likewise its phase plot.
An example of the second-order system. Consider the second-order system
with transfer function
( ) { }
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
Which has the frequency response
( )
( )( )
The break frequencies are 1, 10 and 100 radians/s. The Bode magnitude plot
is the graph of
( ) | | | | | | | |
At low frequencies ω <<1,

( )
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The asymptotes of each first order term can be plotted on the same
magnitude graph and then they are added together to obtain the Bode
magnitude plot.
Figure 10. Bode Magnitude Plot
The same procedure is done to plot the Bode phase plot.
Figure 11. Bode Phase Plot
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Laplace Transforms
Along with the transfer function is the use of Laplace transform and the Fourier Transform
for continuous time signals.
The Laplace transform of a signal x(t) is defined as
Eq. 11 ( ) ∫ ( )
Where s is a complex variable. If x(t) is given, this integral may or may not converge,
depending on the value of � (the real part of s).
Example is the Laplace transform of ( ) ( )
( ) ∫ ( )
( )
∫
{ }
Inverse Laplace Transform

The inverse Laplace transform is generally given as
Eq. 12 ( ) ∫ ( )
The partial fraction expansion technique is used to find the continuous time signal
corresponding to a Laplace transform.
For example, it is assumed that no multiple order poles in the set of poles { } of
the rational transform X(s), and that the order of the denominator polynomial is
greater than the order of the numerator polynomial, X(s) can be expanded in the
form
( ) ∑
From the ROC of X(s), the ROC of each individual terms of the equation above can be
found and then the inverse transform of each of these terms can be determined from
the table of Laplace transform pairs. If the ROC is to the right of the pole at s = pi,
then the inverse transform of this term is ( ), a right-sided signal. However,
if the ROC is to the left of the pole at s = pi, the inverse transform of this term is
( ), a left-sided signal. Adding the inverse transforms of the individual
terms will give the inverse transform of X(s).
Convolution Property of the Laplace Transform
If ( )↔ ( ) and ( )↔ ( ) then
Eq. 13 ∫ ( ) ( ) ↔ ( ) ( )
This is a very useful property for Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system analysis. It is
important to note that the resulting ROC includes the intersection of the two original
ROC’s, but it may be larger, example, when a pole-zero cancellation occurs.
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The time shifting property of the Laplace Transform can be demonstrated as

follows: if ( ) ↔ ( ) , then ( )↔ ( ) .
The Fourier Transform
The Fourier transform or spectrum of a signal x(t) is defined as:
Eq. 14 ( ) ∫ ( )
The inverse Fourier transform is given by
Eq. 15 ( ) ∫ ( )
The Fourier transform describes the frequency contents of a signal. If the ROC of the
Laplace transform X(s) contains the imaginary axis, then the Fourier transform of
x(t) exists and is given by ( ) ( )|s=jω
Transfer Functions of LTI Systems
The convolution property makes the Laplace transform useful in obtaining the
response of an LTI system to an arbitrary input. The Laplace transform of the output
of an LTI system with impulse response h(t) is given by
Eq. 16 ( ) ( ) ( )
Also, the frequency response of the system is H(jω) = H(s)|s=jω. The Laplace
transform H(s) of the impulse response of an LTI system is known as the transfer
function.
Stability
Bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability of a continuous-time LTI
system is when the impulse response is integrable, wherein its Fourier
transform converges. In addition, the stability of an LTI differential system is
when all the zeros of its characteristic polynomial have a negative real part. A
causal system with rational transfer function H(s) is stable if and only if all its
poles are in the left-half of the s-plane, that is, all the poles have negative real
parts.
Transfer Functions of LTI Differential Systems
It was discussed that the transfer function of an LTI system is the Laplace transform
of its impulse response. For a differential LTI system, like the frequency response,
the transfer function of the differentiation operator s-1 represents the integration
operator.
Taking the general form of an LTI differential system
( ) ( )
∑ ∑
Using the differentiation and linearity properties of the Laplace transform to obtain
the transfer function H(s) = Y(s)/X(s)
∑ ( ) ∑ ( )
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( ) ∑
Eq. 17 ( )
( ) ∑
The differential equation used can have many different impulse responses. If it is
known that the differential system is causal, then the ROC is the right half-plane to
the right of the rightmost pole in the s-plane.
Transfer Function of LTI State-Space Systems
Assume the general causal continuous-time state space system is initially at rest
ẋ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
Taking the Laplace transform on both sides, the following is obtained
sX(s) = AX(s) + BU(s)
Y(s) = CX(s) + DU(s)
Solving for the Laplace transform of the output,
Y(s) = [C(sIn –A)-1 B + D] U(s)
The transfer function of the system is therefore given by
Eq. 18 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Poles and Zeros of the Transfer Function
Let ( ) ∑ be the numerator polynomial of the transfer function H(s) in
Equation 17 and let ( ) ∑ be its denominator polynomial. Then the
poles of H(s) are the N roots of the characteristic equation D(s) = 0 (or the N zeros of
the characteristic polynomial). The zeros of H(s) are the M roots of the equation
N(s)=0.
As an example, find the transfer function pole of the following causal differential LTI
system
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
√ ( ) √
Taking the Laplace transform on both sides, the result is
( ) √ ( ) ( ) ( ) √ ( )
Which will give
( ) √
( )
( ) √
The poles are the roots of √ . Identifying the coefficients with the
standard second-order denominator , the damping ratio can be
√
found to be and the natural frequency ωn = ωc. the poles of H(s),are
then
√ √
√
15
√ √
√
And its zeros are
√
The poles and zeros of a transfer function are signified with the symbols ‘X’ and ‘O’
respectively on a pole-zero plot in the s-plane.
References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Kirsten Morris; 2015; Introduction to Feedback Control; San Diego, California;
Academic Press
2. Endra Joelianto and Darrell Williamson; Transient Response Improvement of
Feedback Control Systems using Hybrid Reference Control; International Journal of
Control; Volume 82; Issue 10; 2017
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Introduction to Feedback Control Theory;
http://www.cds.caltech.edu/~murray/books/AM08/pdf/am06-
complete_16Sep06.pdf; December 2018
Online Instructional Videos
1. Introduction to Block Diagrams and Rules for their Reduction;
https://int.search.myway.com/search/video.jhtml?n=7849c587&p2=%5EBSB%5Exd
m071%5ETTAB03%5Eph&ptb; January, 2019
2. Deriving Transfer Function from Block Diagrams;
https://int.search.myway.com/search/video.jhtml?n=7849c587&p2; January, 2019
3. Laplace Transform Explained and Visualized in 3D;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MXMDrs6ZmA; January, 2019
4. How to Draw a Bode Plot; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=asJLLR1Cp5Q;
January, 2019
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Feedback and Control Systems

Module 002 Block Diagram Algebra and

At the end of this module you are expected to:

Frequency Domain Modeling

Assuming the initial conditions are zero.

Where G(s) is the transfer function of the defined system.

Block Diagrams and Transfer Function

(a) Interconnected Systems

(b) Cascade Interconnection

(d) Feedback Interconnection

Manipulating Block Diagrams

Figure 2. A Negative Feedback Block Reduction

The algebraic proof would be:

The blocks can be reversed as in Figure 3.

The algebraic proof is

(b) After Blocks

Figure 5. Combining Sequential Blocks

The algebraic proof of combining sequential blocks is

The algebraic proof of moving the summation functions before blocks is

Figure 7. Moving Summation Functions Past Block

The Bode Plot

Which has the frequency response

For low frequencies, ω<<2

Figure 8. Bode Magnitude Plot for First-Order System

The Bode phase plot is the graph of

The phase is 0 at ω = 0 and –π/2 at ω = ∞. The linear (log frequency scale)

Figure 9. Bode Phase Plot

Which has the frequency response

At low frequencies ω <<1,

Figure 10. Bode Magnitude Plot

The same procedure is done to plot the Bode phase plot.

Figure 11. Bode Phase Plot

Inverse Laplace Transform

The time shifting property of the Laplace Transform can be demonstrated as

References and Supplementary Materials

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