1. Explain the concept of influence function in structural static analysis of the wing.

Outline the
methods of obtaining the influence functions for a sufficiently long slender wing.

Ans- Influence coefficients and their matrices have the important property of symmetry. This
property is expressed by

Cij- Cji, kij - kji.

In addition, each matrix is equal to its transpose (Appendix A) as follows:

[C] = [C]’, [k]=[k]’

(2-28)

The symmetry properties are in accordance with the reciprocal theorem of Betti (Ref. 2-3). Let
us consider in some detail the properties of the [C] matrix which apply to Fig. 2-4 when n4. It
can be partitioned into four matrices, each containing different types of influence coefficients, as
follows:

The four different types of elements are

Cij𝛼𝛼 = linear deflection at i due to unit force at j,

Cij𝛿𝛿=angular deflection at i due to unit moment at j,

Cij𝛿𝛼=linear deflection at i due to unit moment at j,

Cij𝛼𝛿=angular deflection at i due to unit force at j.

In order for the [C] matrix to be symmetrical, the following reciprocal relations must hold:
These relations can be shown to follow by considering an elastic body loaded at two points i and
j by a force F, and a moment M, as illustrated in Fi <= 2 - 10 .

The strain energy in the body can be computed by two differ ent sequences: apply the force F,
first and then the moment M, or reverse the order of application. We have for the two orders of
load application:

Since the order of load application is immaterial, it can be equated to obtain the reciprocal
relation given by Eq.
Cij𝛿𝛼= Cij𝛼𝛿
2. With the help of Collar’s Aeroelastic triangle explain all the Aeroelastic problems associated.

The sides of the triangle represent the relationships among the particular pairs of forces
representing specific areas of mechanics, including aeroelasticity, whereas the triangle’s interior
represents the interference of all three groups of forces typical for dynamic aeroelastic
phenomena. Static aeroelastic phenomena that exclude inertial forces are characterised by the
unidirectional deformation of the structure, whereas dynamic aeroelastic phenomena that include
inertial forces are typical in their oscillatory property of structure deformation.
The aeroelasticity problems associated in an aircraft are as follows:
1. Divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the angle of attack of a wing
which further increases the force;
2. Control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic
moment that reduces, or in extreme cases, reverses the control effectiveness; and
3. Flutter which is the uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an
aircraft.
4. Buffetting Buffeting is a high-frequency instability, caused by airflow separation
or shock wave oscillations from one object striking another. It is caused by a
sudden impulse of load increasing. It is a random forced vibration. Generally it
affects the tail unit of the aircraft structure due to air flow downstream of the
wing.
a. Dynamic loads problems This class of aeroelastic problems has its primary
influence on structural design. In the prediction of design loads on an airplane
structure in an accelerated condition, it is usually assumed that the airplane is
perfectly rigid. Structural components designed by loads computed on this basis
may fail due to a dynamic overstress. External loads that are rapidly applied not
only cause translation and rotation of the airplane as a whole, but tend to excite
 vibrations of the structure. The additional inertial forces associated with these
vibrations produce the dynamic overstress. Dynamic stresses are usually
manifested in the form dynamic of increased bending and torsional stresses in the
wing and fuselage beams. The design of these beams must take account of
dynamic stresses by increasing the normal and shear carrying areas. Perhaps the
two most important dynamic amic response problems have been the gust and
landing problems. The gust condition is usually the controlling strength condition
in large gust aircraft. Aeroelastic effects may have an important influence on
design conditions. For example, the designer can expect that the dynamic
response of a straight wing in the gust condition may produce wing bending
moments at the root 15% to 20% of a slender flexible greater than those
calculated on the assumption of a rigid wing. Response swept wing when a gust is
encountered is a matter of considerable practical interest, particularly in the case
of large high-speed aircraft. Elastic deformations and vibratory response of the
wing have important and complicating effects upon the load distribution. Load
distributions predicted on the assumption of a rigid wing are often too much in
error to be useful, and swept-wing designers are compelled to consider the
principal aero elastic effects.

3. With the help of a neat sketch explain the flexibility of the structure on aerodynamics.
Ans- In addition to elastic and inertial forces, if there is interaction of aerodynamic forces, then
the flexibility effect of the structure will be drastically affected due to the air flowing on the
structure. The study of interaction of aerodynamic force, elastic force and inertial forces
contributes to the major study known as aeroelasticity.
 Fig 3: Displacement due to point load at the tip Fig 4 Beam Vibrating at particular
frequency

Figure (3) shows the displacement of the cantilever beam (y) when a point load ‘P’ is
applied on the structure. For the same cantilever beam if it is allowed to vibrate by the
application of constant periodic external force as shown in figure (4), then it will vibrate with a
particular frequency having diverging amplitudes.
1. Frequency : Number of vibrating oscillations per unit time having units
Hertz(Hz).
2. Time Period : Time taken to complete one full cycle of oscillation and it is the
reciprocal of frequency.
3. Amplitude : The maximum extent of a vibration or oscillation, measured from
the position of equilibrium.

4. Explain the importance of aeroelasticity and also write any five areas where Aeroelastic
problems are encountered.

Ans- Aeroelasticity is a division of applied mechanics, which analyzes the interaction of the
aircraft as an elastic system (or elastic aerial vehicle) with the atmosphere. Aeroelastic
phenomena appear in many engineering areas, for example, structural engineering when studying
the wind effect on bridges and skyscrapers, or in marine application and power-plant
engineering. Aeroelasticity analysis is especially important in aviation and rocket science.
Aeroelastic problems do not exist if airplane structures are made perfectly rigid. Modern airplane
structures are very flexible, and this flexibility is fundamentally responsible for causing various
types of aeroelastic problems. Aeroelastic phenomenon will arise, when the structural
deformations induce aerodynamic deformations and in turn the structure deforms further to
produce greater aerodynamic forces. Such interactions may tend to become smaller.
Aeroelasticity + Servo controls and smaller until a condition of stable equilibrium is reached,
otherwise they may tend to diverge and destroy the structure.
Aircraft are prone to aeroelastic effects because they need to be lightweight and withstand large
aerodynamic loads. Aircraft are designed to avoid the following aeroelastic problems:
1. Divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the angle of attack of a wing
which further increases the force;
2. Control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic
moment that reduces, or in extreme cases, reverses the control effectiveness; and
3. Flutter which is the uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an
aircraft.
Aeroelasticity problems can be prevented by adjusting the mass, stiffness or aerodynamics of
structures which can be determined and verified through the use of calculations, ground vibration
tests and flight flutter trials. Flutter of control surfaces is usually eliminated by the careful
placement of mass balances.

5. With the help of Collar’s Aeroelastic triangle, explain static and dynamic Aeroelasticity.
Ans-

Collar triangle- It is defined as the mutual interaction of aerodynamic (A), elastic (E) and
inertial (I) forces, as demonstrated by the classic Collar"s Aero elastic Triangle shown above.

Static aeroelasticity considers the non-oscillatory effects of aerodynamic forces, acting on the
flexible aircraft structure. It involves the interaction of aerodynamic and elastic forces only.
Static aeroelastic effects include divergence, control effectiveness, static stability etc. In contrast,
dynamic aeroelasticity is concerned with the oscillatory effects of the aeroelastic interactions i.e.,
interaction of aerodynamic, elastic and inertia forces. Various dynamic aeroelastic effects are
flutter, buffeting, dynamic response etc. Static aeroelasticity is the study that covers the
interaction of aerodynamic and structural forces on a flexible structure with the whole geometric
properties and the forces being time invariant.

Dynamic aeroelasticity- Dynamic response of aircraft structural components are developed due
to gusts, landing, abrupt control motions, moving shock waves, or other dynamic loads.Dynamic
aeroelasticity studies the interactions among aerodynamic, elastic, and inertial forces.
6. Write short notes on Flutter, Buffeting and Dynamic Loads.

Flutter (F) – It is the dynamic instability of an aircraft in flight, at a speed called flutter speed.
Here, the elasticity of the structure plays an important role in contributing to the dynamic
instability. Flutter has perhaps the most far-reaching effects of all aero elastic phenomena on the
design of high-speed aircraft. Modern aircraft are subject to many kinds of flutter phenomena.
The classical type of flutter is associated with potential flow and usually, but not necessarily,
involves the coupling of two or more degrees of freedom. The nonclassical type of flutter, which
has so far been difficult to analyze on a purely theoretical basis, may involve separated flow,
periodic breakaway and reattachment of the flow, stalling conditions, and various time-lag
effects between the aerodynamic forces and the motion. Preventive measures and eures usually
involve either increased stiffness or decreased coupling by adjustments in mass distribution, or a
combination of both. The most important stiffness parameter affected by flutter considerations is
wing torsional stiffness. It is not uncommon for the flutter condition to control the selection of
wing skin thickness. Of course, wing structural design is controlled by either a strength or a
stiffness criterion. For example, if the torsion carrying structure of a wing is designed by a
stiffness requirement, the wing would probably consist of a structure which carries its normal
stresses in the wing skin with a minimum of stringers and flanges. This type of wing structure
would require several spanwise webs in order to stabilize the heavily loaded cover skin. For a
wing designed initially by strength considerations to carry a given load factor, it is obvious that a
higher torsional stiffness and hence a higher flutter speed will result if the ratio of stiffener area
to skin area is reduced to a minimum. In addition, the use of higher strength alloys, which have
no corresponding increase in modulus of elasticity, tends to make flutter more critical for wings
designed for strength only.

Buffeting- A serious buffeting phenomenon confronting designers is encountered by fighter

aircraft during pull-ups to Cas at high speed. This often results in rugged transient vibrations in
the tail due to nero dynamic impulses from the wing wake. The principal problems are those of
reducing the severity of these vibrations, and the provision of adequate strength. Designing for
strength is very difficult. The problem of pre-dieting dynamic stresses due to a given buffeting
condition is still unsolved analytically. The principal obstacle has been a lack of knowledge of
the properties of the wake behind a stalled wing. Designers have alleviated their buffeting
problems up to the present time largely by proper positioning of the tail assembly and by clean
aerodynamic design.

Dynamic loads problems- This class of aeroelastic problems has its primary influence on
structural design. In the prediction of design loads on an airplane structure in an accelerated
condition, it is usually assumed that the airplane is perfectly rigid. Structural components
designed by loads computed on this basis may fail due to a dynamic overstress. External loads
that are rapidly applied not only cause translation and rotation of the airplane as a whole, but
tend to excite vibrations of the structure. The additional inertial forces associated with these
vibrations produce the dynamic overstress. Dynamic stresses are usually manifested in the form
dynamic of increased bending and torsional stresses in the wing and fuselage beams. The design
of these beams must take account of dynamic stresses by increasing the normal and shear
carrying areas. Perhaps the two most important dynamic amic response problems have been the
gust and landing problems. The gust condition is usually the controlling strength condition in
large gust aircraft. Aeroelastic effects may have an important influence on design conditions. For
example, the designer can expect that the dynamic response of a straight wing in the gust
condition may produce wing bending moments at the root 15% to 20% of a slender flexible
greater than those calculated on the assumption of a rigid wing. Response swept wing when a
gust is encountered is a matter of considerable practical interest, particularly in the case of large
high-speed aircraft. Elastic deformations and vibratory response of the wing have important and
complicating effects upon the load distribution. Load distributions predicted on the assumption
of a rigid wing are often too much in error to be useful, and swept-wing designers are compelled
to consider the principal aero elastic effects. As an illustration of the profound influence of
elasticity, consider the result given by Fig. 1-4. This figure illustrates a calculated result showing
the difference between fuselage and wing-tip acceleration. when a typical swept wing flying at
460 mph equivalent airspeed at 11,000 ft. altitude strikes a gust. The dotted curve indicates the
history of fuselage acceleration plotted in such a way that the peak value is one. The solid curve
gives the ratio of the history of wing-tip acceleration to peak fuselage. acceleration. The marked
difference in accelerations shown in Fig. 1-4. indicates the important role of wing elasticity in
determining correct wing load distributions on swept wings.
7.Explain in detail the effect of flutter speed, divergence speed and Aileron reversal
speed for a typical wing with variable sweeps.

Flutter: Typical aircraft wings that differ in aspect ratio or sweepback normally differ also
in other properties that influence the flutter characteristics. For the particular set
investigated, the ratio (angle of roll) : (angle of pitch) and the phase angle between roll
and pitch both increase as aspect ratio decreases. The rate of change of flutter speed with
aspect ratio appears to be independent of the wing modal frequencies, for the range
investigated, and is given approximately by :

where V : Is the flutter speed

V0 : Calculated flutter speed for infinite aspect ratio wing
AR: Aspect ratio.

Divergence Speed is defined as the speed at which the moment produced by the steady air load is
greater than the structural torsional stiffness of the wing. At this speed the wing will be twisted
off the vehicle.

aileron reversal speed, is at which the reduction in the angle of attack due to twist will nullify the
increase in the lift due to deflection of aileron. Beyond this speed a downward deployment of
aileron would actually decrease the lift. This is called aileron reversal.

8. Prove the important property of symmetry by deriving the influence coefficients [C]
and [k].
Ans- Influence coefficients and their matrices have the important property of symmetry. This
property is expressed by

Cij- Cji, kij - kji.

In addition, each matrix is equal to its transpose (Appendix A) as follows:

 [C] = [C]’, [k]=[k]’

The symmetry properties are in accordance with the reciprocal theorem of Betti (Ref. 2-3). Let
us consider in some detail the properties of the [C] matrix which apply to Fig. 2-4 when n4. It
can be partitioned into four matrices, each containing different types of influence coefficients, as
follows:

The four different types of elements are

Cij𝛼𝛼 = linear deflection at i due to unit force at j,

Cij𝛿𝛿=angular deflection at i due to unit moment at j,

Cij𝛿𝛼=linear deflection at i due to unit moment at j,

Cij𝛼𝛿=angular deflection at i due to unit force at j.

In order for the [C] matrix to be symmetrical, the following reciprocal relations must hold:

These relations can be shown to follow by considering an elastic body loaded at two points i and
j by a force F, and a moment M, as illustrated in Fi <= 2 - 10 .
 The strain energy in the body can be computed by two differ ent sequences: apply the force F,
first and then the moment M, or reverse the order of application. We have for the two orders of
load application:

Since the order of load application is immaterial, can be equated to obtain the reciprocal relation
given by Eq.
Cij𝛿𝛼= Cij𝛼𝛿