SHIPHANBLING

FOR THE MARINER

FOURTH EDITiON

BY DANIEL H. MACELREVEY
AND DANIEL E. MACELREVEY

ILLUSTRATIONS BY EARL R. MCMILLIN

C O R N E L L MARITIME P R E S S
Centreville, Maryland
Copyright 1983,2004 by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel E. MacElrevey For the ship mates and friends
ivho havc. shared thcir knowlcdge of the se a and ships
Ali righòs reserved. No pari of this book m a y be used or reproduced in anv so unselfishly through the years
m a n n e r whatsoever without w r i t t e n permission except in the case of brief
q u o t a t i o n s embodied in criticai articles a n d reviews. For information,
a d d r e s s Cornell Maritime Press, Inc., Centreville, M a r y l a n d 21617

L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s Calaloging-in-Publication D a t a

MacElrevey, Daniel H.
S h i p h a n d l i n g for tho n^ariner / by Daniel H. MacElrevey a n d Daniel E. MacElrevey ;
illuBtrations by Earl R. McMillin.—4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references a n d index.
ISBN 0-870.13-558-1}
1. Ship h u n d l i n g . I. MacElrevey, Daniel E. II. Title.
VK543.M23 2005
623.88—dc22
2004014453

M a n u f a c t u r e d in the United S t a t e s of America

First edition, 1983. F o u r t h edition, 2004
 CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiv

INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTEU 1 7

Arrival
M a s t e r s Trial; Hard Right Turn at 6 Knots; Hard Left Turn at 6 Knots;
Backing and Filling; llalf Astern to Dead in the Walor; Stopping While
Maintaining Control Over Ileading; Handling a Ship with Stcrnway;
Bow and Stern Thrusters; Turning with a Bow T h r u r t e r ; Most EíTective
Mancuver; Approaching Shallow Water; Directional Stability; Eflects of
Bottom Contour on Handling Characteristics; Handling o f L a r g o r Sl.ips
in Shallow Watcr; Approaching the Pilot Station; Stopping or Reducing
Headway; Picking up Lhe Pilot/Making a Lee; Estimating Speed
Through tlie Water by Ship's Propeller Wash; Wind Effeots on Steering;
Communications with Other Vessels; Pilot Aboard; Pilot-Master
Exchange cf Information; Posting of Maneuvering Characteristics

CHAPTER2 46

Shiphandling in a Channel
Bank Effects; Planning Ahead; Tide and Currcnt; Types of Rudders and
Propulsion Systems; Directional Propulsion Sysiems: Effect ofTrim on
Handling Characteristics; Making a Turn ir a Channel; V úng Aids to
Navigation VVhen Turning; Meeting Another Vessel or Tow; Ovcrtaking
Another Vessel or Tow; Using Shiphandling Instrumentation; The Ba-
sics of Squat; Undcrkeel Clearn-ice; Stopping and Maneuvering in a
Channel

vii
viii CONTENTS CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER 3 101 CHAPTER K 1G3

Use of Tugs Anchoring and Shiphandling

Making Up a Tug; Communicating with a Tug; U s i n g a Tug; Tug on a with Anchors
Hawser; L a s h i n g up a Tug Anchors for Anchoring; Know Your Ship; Again, Piau Ahead, Think
Ahead; Anchur in Stops; Planning; Wind and Current Effects; Depth of
Water; Maneuvering Room; Briefirg OíTicers; Navigate by Eye; Final
CHAPTER 4 - 115
Ileading; Anchoring üff the Final Heading; Basic Anchoring; The Ap-
Approaching the Berth proach; Placing the Anchor; Laying Out tho Chain; Bigging In;
Swinging Room at Anchor; Mooring and Anchoring with Two Anchors;
Good Bridge Practices; Discussing Docking P l a n s ; Tirning As- Stern Anchors; The Anchor as a Shiphandling Tool; Shiphandling with
rival—Holding in a Channel; Speed of Apprcach; Reducing Speed Anchors—How Much Chain?; Docking with an Anchor; Holding a Ves-
Early; The Approach; Bow-in Approach to a Pier; Stern-in Appioach to sel with the Anchor; Anchors to Assist Steering; Anchors to Break a
a Pier; Stemrr.ing t h e C u r r e n t at a Wliarf; Approaching a Wharf—Cur- Sheer: Emerger.cy Use of the Anchor; Lying Alongside a Bank; Going
rent Astern Astern with an Anchor

CHAPTER 5 128
CHAPrERO 204
Docking Special Maneuvers
Using Wind a n d C u r r e n t to Advantage; M e a s u r i n g Slow Rates of Canais and I-ocks; Single-Point Moorings; Ship-to-Ship Lighlering;
Speed; Detecting L a t e r a l Motion; Setting Up to Back; Quickwater; Five- and Seven-Point Moorings; Mediterranean Moor Williarnson
Bridge M a r k e r s ; Use Finesse, Not Force; Going Alongside; Ali Secure f u n i s ; Twin-Screw Ships; Maneuvering Twin-Screw Ships; Low
Length-to-Beam Ratio Ships; Moving Up to Larger Ships; Replenish-
m e n t at Sea; Helicopter Operations
CHAPTER 6 139

Undocking
P l a n n i n g t h e Undocking; Drafl and T r i m in Ballast; Singling Up; Using
Quickwater Wlien Undocking; Undocking from a W h a r f ; Backing from
a Slip; Corning Ahead from a Slip; Corning Off Parallel to a Berth;
Backing a Ship Toward a Hazard; L e f t - H a n d and Variable-Pitch Pro-
pellers; T u r n i n g to Sea; Dismissing the T u g s
CHAPTER 7
Departure
Dropping t h e Pilot; D e p a r t u r e Speed; M a n e u v e r i n g with Other Ships;
Course Card and Passage Planning; Ability to M a n e u v e r
CHAPTER 10 253
Training
Onboard Training of S h i p s OíTicers; Onboard Training of Pilots;
Shiphandling Simulators; The Rules of Threes; Simulators as Innova-
tive Training Aids; Types of Simulators; Scale Model-Based Simulators;
Scale—Is It Imporiant?; Computor-Based Simulators; Coinparison of
Model and Computer Simulators; Tools of Simulator Instruction; Simu-
156
lator Validation; The Simulator Instructor; Degree of Instructor In-
volvement; The Simulator Currciulum for Dock Ofíicers; Tho Simulator
Curriculum for Pilots; The Throe Steps of Simulator Training; Briefing
and Debriefing Sessions; The Future of Simalation; Computeis for
T e s t m g and Evaluation; Simulator versus Hands-on Experience
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER11 288

Masier/Pilot Relationship and

Bridge Resource Management PREFAOE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
The Pilot Aboard Ship; T h e M a s t e r s Responsibilities in
Pilotage Water^; "Release from Liability" Fornis; Some Practical Con-
siderations; Bridge Resource M a n a g e m e n t for S h i p h a n d l e r s ; T h e Cost
of Responsibility Piloting and shiphandling skills have roceived much greater attention in
the years since publication of the first edition of Shiphandling for the Mar-
inar. This is an exciting development for anyone interested in the urt a n d
CHAPTER 12 302
science of moving ships and, by ali indications, it is a long-term process
Vessel Operations that. will benefit both m a r i n e r s and the maritime industry in which t h e y
work.
Planning the P a s s a g e ; T h e Course Card; Bridge Design; Pilot Naviga-
This new interest in shiphandling skills has boen prompted by sevoral
tion Equipment; Bridge Height; N i g h t Versus Daylight M a n e u v e r i n g ;
Record Keeping facto rs including a greater awareness of the impact marine collisions a n d
groundings have on the environrnent, and new federal legislation and in-
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS 329 ternationa! conventions affecting ship operation, shipowners' liability for
m a r i n e casualties, vessel manning, and watch officer Iraining require-
BIB LIO GRAPHY 364 ments. Training is more technology-driven as sophisticated coniputer-
driven simulators become more readily availahle to teach shiphandling
INDEX 367 u n d e r tutelage of sénior ofiícers or pilota. Thanks to lho ubiquitous micro-
chip, it is possible to provide formal shiphandling, piloting, watchkeeping,
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 385 and bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t training ashore in a classroorn environ-
rnent.
Training is particularly important for ship's offioers serving aboard
larger, more deeply loaded ships on fast turnaround schedulês where it is
increasingly difficult to accumulate traditional shipboard training, mas-
ter to mate to cadet aboard ship. Now, several excellent facilities including
the Masters, Mates, and Pilots Maritime Instituto of Technology and
Graduate Studies facility, the Marine Engineers' Beneficiai Association
STAR Center, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, the state maritime
academies, the Seamen's Church Institute in New York, and the commer-
cial Simulator facilities operated by MarineSafety International and oth-
ers. are using rapidly evolving simulator tecnnology to provide t h a t
training.
Simulation has still not roached a levei where it replaces hands-on ex-
perience, b u t i t i s b e i n g u s e d effectively for ini J a l and specialized training
and as a fórum for experienced mariners to compare techniques and cvol-
u a t e their own performance. More advançed simulators are also boing

x i
xii PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xiii

used for license examination*, recertifications, and e v a l u a t i o n s of mari- each edition. Hopefully, others will send material for f u t u r o editions so
n e r s in speciaiized skills. Discussions of s h i p h a n d l i n g h a v e moved from this text remains as up-to-date and as useful as possible for soagoing pro-
coffee t i m e to class timo and the profr-ssional is b e t t e r ofTfor t h e rhr.nge. fessionals working to improve their shiphandling skills.
T h i s f o u r t h edition of Shiphandling for the Mariner is u p d a t e d to in- Lastly, photographs of new propulsion systems, bridge layouls, navi-
clude the l a t e s t c h a n g e s in training a n d vessel operation. C h a p t e r s on gation equipment, hull designs, and upgraded simulators have been
s h i p h a n d l i n g t r a i n i n g , voyage planning, s q u a t , bridge e q u i p m e n t , and added throughout the text. The photographs and new tables showing the
bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t have been expanded. Much of t h a t new ma- latest data on squat and underkeel clearance keep the book current.
terial is based on suggestions and papers contributed by C a p t a i n Paul Practice maneuvers are again included with the text. The exercises cari
Ives, C a p t a i n George Markham, Captain William McAuliffe, a n d instruc- be used with this book as a sell-taught shipboard shiphandling course or,
tors at t h e RTM STAR Center. The sections on s q u a t a n d u n d e r k e e l cleai - better yet, they can be part of a formal maritime academy or s i m u l a t o r
ance h a v e been r e w r i t t e n and expanded based on t h e volumes of'•esearch school program. In any case, training and books can explain the science of
g a t h e r e d by port authoriües, the P a n a m a Canal Authority, a n d various pi- shiphandling, but the a r t i s learned by doing. Hopefully, these m a n e u v e r s
lot associations including the P a n a m a Canal Pilots Association. Larry L. and this expanded fourth edition of Shiphandling for the Mariner will
Daggett, Ph.D., and J. Christian Hewlett, P.E., completed most of t h a t work help m a n y mariners become skilled in moving ships.
using survey grade D G P S to measure changes in ship d r a í t a n d the beha\ -
ior of ships in restricted channels. Material about n e w pilot navigation and
communications systems, new ship types and propulsion systems, corming
ships with omni-directional propulsion systems, and bridge resource m a r -
a g e m e n t for pilota and shiphandlers have been added. A diseussion of pas
sive versus active vessel traffic m a n a g e m e n t is included to encourage
d e b a t e on various trafíic management schemes. Hopefully, t h i s will lead to
a more effective vessel tracking system (VTS) through the use of the ad-
vanced differential global positioning systems (DGPS) such as the very ef-
fective OTAN eystsm now in use in the P a n a m a Canal.
A g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the use of s i m u l a t i o n in training—devel-
oped while visiting m a r i n e and aircrafl s i m u l a t o r facilities a n d reading a
two-foot-high stack of material supplied by t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h Council
M a r i n e Board, plus new material used by t h e RTM STAR C e n t e r and
other facilities for programs to evaluate a n d license m a r i n e r s and pi-
lots—is the basis for expanded sections on simulation for continuing edu-
cation a n d t r a i n i n g . T h e material provided by C a p t a i n C h a r l e s Pillsbury
of MITAGS, C a p t a i n Orlando Allard from t h e F a n a m a C a n a l training
facility, H a r r y Crooks from the RTM STAR C e n t e r , C a p t a i n Richard
Beadon from t h e S e a m e n ' s Church I n s t i t u t e school, P e t e r B a r b e r from the
S o u t h a m p t o n I n s t i t u t e , and Captains Robert M e u r n a n d George Sand-
burg from t h e U.S. Merchant Marine Academy C A O R F facility at Kings
Point on the s a m e subject has been r e t a i n e d .
C h a n g e s a n d suggestions sent to the a u t h o r by working m a r i n e r s and
i n s t r u c t o r s at various maritime academies a n d schools are added with

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
by Daniel H. MacElrevey
First, I w a n t to t h a n k my son, Captain Daniel E. MacElrevey, an experi-
enced m a r i n e r a n d first-class pilot for the Delaware Bay a n d River. Dan
provided the i n s p i r a t i o n to again u p d a t e Shiphandling for the Mariner
and collaburated on much of t h e new m a t e r i a l . Now, I hope, t h e book
passes to new h a n d s a n d another generation of contributors who wili keep
the m a t e r i a l f r e s h and p e r t i n e n t to the m a t e , m a s t e r , or pilot h a n d l i n g
ships.
I am very proud to h a v e a son who is successfully following family tra-
dition as m a r i n e r , shiphandler, and pilot. As everyone who enjoys w o r k i n g
on the w a t e r already knows, it is more t h a n a profession—it is a r e w a r d i n g
course t h r o u g h life.
Dan, welcome aboard. For the fifth edition, you will have t h e conn.
It. is a fact t h a t those who spend t h e i r life on or a r o u n d the w a t e r are a
special breed. T h e y are always willing to help a s h i p m a t e a n d pass on the
s e a m a n ' s skills from o n e generation to the next. This is f o r t u n a t e since no
one p e r s o n can write on a subject as diverse as s h i p h a n d l i n g , and only the
contributions of others m a k e this book possible.
T h e m a r i n e i n d u s t r y has provided much of the background m a t e r i a l
and m o s t of t h e photographs. I am indebted to, and g r e a t l y appreciate the
a s s i s t a n c e from Texaco Incorporated; Exxon Corporation; S p e r r y M a r i n e
S y s t e m s ; LOOP, Incorporated; Raven Industries; Concordia M a r i t i m e ;
K v a e r n e r M a a s ; Merwede Shipyard; t h e P a n a m a C a n a l A u t h o r i t y ;
S t a r l i n k Corp; M a r i n e S a f e t y International; American P r e s i d e n t Lines;
S e a w a r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l ; Black S t a r Publishing Company; t h e U.S. Mer-
c h a n t M a r i n e Acadeiny and the CAORF Simulator facility at the academy;
lhe M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e of Technology and G r a d u a t e Studies (MITAGS);
and t h e RTM S T A R C e n t e r .
 c k n o w l e d g m e n t is gratefully m a d e of t h e perinissions g r a n t e d by
publishers to q u o t e s h o r t passages from t h e i r books: H a r p e r and Row and
J. M. D e n t for J o s e p h Conrad's The Sccret Sharer a n d The Mirror of the
Sea, respectively; H a m i s h Hamilton Ltd. for J a n de Hartog's The Distant
Shore; A t h e n e u m for J a n de Hartog's The Captain; Dodd, Mead & Com-
xiv
ACKNOWI.El)GMENTS xv
puny for Guy Gilpatric's Mary, Q ieen of Scots; the Harvard C l a s s k s , Tive
Years Be/ore the Mast; and American He ri Lago Publishing Company for
Captain Charles p " r l e r L O V / Í "Recollections" quuted by Alexander Laing
in Siafaring America.
CapLain Earl McMiliin read every page oi previous editions and Lhe
new maLerial for this ecliLion. Ilis wriling skills and professional expertise
as m a r i n e r , \ ilot, and lawyer helped put the text into readable forin while
his cartoons makij a potentially dry subject a lot more iiiLeresLing.
Captain Brian Hope also read every page of previous editions and of-
fered professional advice between Lrips on the Chesapeake Bay where he
serves as a pilot. He also contributed photosofsome of his beautiful paint-
ings of m a r i t i m e scenes on Lhe Bay. The fruits of his much-appreciated la-
bors are sLill an important part of Lhis fourLh edition.
Many m a s t e r m a r i n e r s and pilots, including Captains Robert Boyd,
Dean Colver, William Deaton, Carl Dingler, Robin Erixon, Curtis Filzger-
ald, Eugene GuesL, Bill Lewis, Douglas Hard, Marshall Irwin, Warren
Leback, George M a r k h a m , J a m e s F. McNulLy, Áxel Munck, Philip TomlcL
III, George Quick, George SmiLh, Wilbur Vanline, and Albert Wilder con-
t r i b u t e d both time and material—irreplaceable information based upon
y e a r s of experience in some specialized arca of our profession. Raymond
LeLulle, Ivings P o i n t c l a s s m a t e and Philadelphia lawyer, gave some order
to the chapter on the master/pilot relationship.
Contributors to this edition include thesesame "shipinaLes" plus Larry
L. Daggett, Ph.D., and J. Christopher HewleLL, P.E.; Captain Paul Ives,
C a p t a i n William McAuliffe, and RTM STARCenter staff Brian Long and
C a p t a i n Joseph Lobo.
Larry Daggett and Chris Hewlett are principais and ofYicers of Water
Simulation Technology, Inc., a leader in lhe study of squat, ship behavior,
and Lhe calculaLion of underkeel clearance for ships in narrow channels.
They have compleLed in-depth studies on Lhis subject for Lhe P a n a m a Ca-
nal, SL. Lawrence Seaway, Delaware Bay and River, HousLon Ship Canal,
and elsewhere. The techniques developed by WST have made it possible to
study this import ant area of ship behavior with greater accuracy based on
t h e performance of actual ships in real-life operating condiLions in more
depth t h a n ever done before. Their conlribulions to the section on squaL in
Lhis Lext will interesL every pracLicing mariner and s h i p h a n d ^ r , and Lhe
seafaringcommunity appreciaLestheir willingness toshare t h a t r e s e : rch.
CapLain Paul Ives is a reLired Delaware River and Bay piloL. He is a
p a s t presidentof Lhal association and has been a respected voice for pilots
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

for half a c e n t u r y as a consistent advoc&te of applied technologv for pilot-

ing. P a u l v r i t e s on bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t a n d s h i p h a n d l i n g for
ir. as te rs a n d pilots, a n d he teaches t e c h n i q u e s for h a n c l i n g ships
equipped w i t h Azipods and othei advanced propulsion s y s t e m s at the
RTM STAR C e n t e r . H i s contributions to u p d a t e t h i s edition are i m p o r t a n t
because t h e t h e m e of h a v i n g material p r e p a r e d by t h o s e "who h a v e been
there" is an o v e r r i d i n g principie of this t e x t since it w a s first publ'shed.
Additional m a t e r i a l on simplifying Azipod operation a n d selecting ba-
sic m o d e s for s h i p h a n d l i n g was contributed from lecture notes a n d inter- SHIPHANDLING FOR THE MAI{INER
views with C a p t a i n J o s e p h Lobo who teaches s h i p h a n d l i n g a n d Azipod
s y s t e m s at t h e RTM STAR Center. Captain C u r t i s F i t z g e r a l d who teaches
a d v a n c e d s h i p h a n d l i n g a t the Maritime I n s t i t u t e for T r a i n i n g a n d Gradu-
ate S t u d i e s also provided additional information a n d p h o t o g r a p h s on
Azipods.
In reality, this t e x t does not represent the t h i n k i n g oí any one person
b u t i n s t e a d b r m g s together the exj>ertise of m a n y . T h e r e would be no
Shiphandling for the Mariner without these c o n t r i b u t o r s a n d t h e infor-
m a t i o n g l e a n e d from countlesn mariners while t h e a u t h o r s worked aboard
ship as deck officers a n d pilots.
Lastly, a conf inued special t h a n k s to Carolyn, my wife and s h i p m a t e in
life, for h e r s u p p o r t , help. and patience. Only t h o s e w h o h a v e been in-
volved in a project such as this can u n d e r s t a n d why t h e a u t h o r invariably
e x p r e s s e s those s e n t i m e n t s .
 INTRODUCTION

T h e abiliiy to handle a ship, especially in confined waters, is one of lhe

most demanding and satisfying of the mariner's ?kills. It is a skill both an
old as the first ship and as new as thelatest vessel to be launched, yet little
written material is available to the professional seafarer on s h i p h a n d l i n g
a n d much of what is available is either sparse or inaccurate. Hopefully,
this volume will help to fill that void so the master, mate, naval officer,
and Coast Guard ofíicer wiii be abie to gain some insight intó the tech-
niques used by the skilled shiphandler or pilot to move a vessel to her
berth.
No master or mate of any type of vessel can hc considered a íully quali-
fied mariner unless he can handle that ship in a competent and s e a m a n -
like manner. This is especially true when considering the classic m a s t e r /
pilot relationship, a relationship that makes it essential for the m a s t e r to
be able to judge whether a pilot's actions are proper and whether the s h i p
is being handled in a safe manner. Whileitcertainly is not possible for the
s e a m a n to read this short book and then do the work of a pilot who ha.-
s p e n t y e a r s refining shiphandling skills, the book will at least help mari-
n e r s to better understand the handling of ships.
Until recently, little significant stuoy was done on the behavior of
large ships in shallow water. The science of hydrodynamics is now being
applied to shiphandling and much is being learned t h a t will allow the
s e a m a n to better predict a ship's behavior. Ships do respond in a predict-
able m a n n e r to the forces ofwind, sea, and current, so these studies a r e
important.
Years of experience are needed before the shiphandler can put this in-
formation into a "real world" perspective. So many variables and so
m a n y learned techniques are involved when actually h a n d l i n g s h i p s
t h a t shiphandling remains more art than science—and this book's non-
mathematical presentation, stressing application over theory, reflects
t h a t fact.
No single volume can possibly cover ali the conditions that will h .i encoirn-
tered by the mariner when handling a ship n j r can any single technique be

3
4 INTROUUCTION
INTHODUCTION

a g r e e d upon by ali professionals as the "best way" to do a job. S h i p h a n d l i n g

cept t h i s convention as readily as another—lhe use of .s/n'/; a n d vesa^l to
is a l e a r n e d a r t a n d it is only possiblo to give a b a c k g r o u n d upon which to
m o a n a vessel of a n y kind or si/.c. A love of work on t h e v a l e r i= n o t re-
build tlie n o c e s s a r y skills.
s t r i c t e d to deep water, nor peculiar to nicn aione.
A s i n c e r o effort has b c e n made to s e p a r a t e fact f r o m fiction a n d ali t h a t
is c o n t a i n e d h e r e i n is based upon actual e x p e r i e n c e s of p r a c t i c i n g pilot. Okay, Mate.. notify theengiru roorn that there are ticu hourr, to arru ai.
and professional m a r i n e r s . There are too m a n y m y t h s a b o u t s h i p h a n -
dling, especiallj» in t h e use of anchors and t h e b e h a v i o r of s h i p s in narrow
c h a n n e l s , a n d where t h : s volume diíTers from c o m m o n l y held opinion
those d i f f e r e n c e s a r e b a s e d upon t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of m a r i n e r s who have
p e r f o r m e d such evolutions h u n d r e d s of t i m e s . It is u m e to replace the
m y t h s , born m o r e of an overactive i m a g i n a t i o n t h a n of e x p e r i e n c e , with
facts t h a t a r e applicable t o t o d a / s s h i p s a n d conditions. F u r t h e r , this terít
is w r i t t e n for tno p r a c t i c i n g m a r i n e r who a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e s s o m e degree of
professional k n o w l e d g e , experience, a n d t r a i n i n g In n a v i g a t i o n a n d sea-
manship.
M a t e r i a l t h a t is not original has been credited to its s o u r c e b u t t h e bulk
of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n has bcen gleaned from t h e c o m m u n i t y of s e a m e n and
h a s been p a s s e d aiong f r o m m a s t e r to mate, pilot to a p p r e n t i c e . It is not
possible lo c r e d i t t h a t i n f o r m a l i o n to any single source. T h e a s s i s t a n c e of
t h e m a n y m a r i n e r s a n d pilots who reviewed t h i s m a t e r i a l i s a p p r e c i a t e d
and tlie u n s e l l i s h m a n n o r in which t h e y d o n a t e d both t h e i r t i m e and ex-
p e r t i s e is indicativo of w h a t m a k e s t h e c o m m u n i t y of t h e soa different
from t h a t of o t h e r profer.sions.
J u s t as a voyage is a n a t u r a l progression of e v e n t s f r o m d e p a r t u r e to fi-
nal a r r i v a l at a portof d e s t i n a t i o n , so too is t h i s book o r g a n i z e d to follow a
vessel a n d h e r oíficers f r o m t h e time s h e is p r e p a r i n g for a r r i v a l until she
is again back at sea. T h i s should p u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n into a logical 01 der.
/Mier following t h a t hypothetical passage to its conclusion, special evolu-
tions t h a t a r e not often encountcred by t h e m a r i n e r a r e described in the
concluding c h a p t e r s . S i n c e it- is inevitable t h a t s u c h a list of evolutions will
ne incompleto, it ir. h o p e d t h a t others in t h e m a r i t i m e profession will put
aside t h e i r coffee cu ps a n d add to this collection; as p r o f e s s i o n a l s we would
ali a p p r e c i a t e t h e opportunity to lc-arn from t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s . It is time
l h a t m o r o is w r i t t e n by active professionals, as at p r e s e n t we a r e over our
m a r k s with t h e i n a c c u r a t e and unapplicable t h e o r i z i n g of t h e b u r e a u c r a t
a n d t h e tlesk-boi.nd s e a i n a n .
I n c i d e n t a l l y , for brevity, lhe pronoun hc is osed t h r o u g h o u t t h e text to
reler to an officcr or a cre .v m e m b e r s e r v i n g in a n y c a p a c i t y a n d obviousiy
m e a n s a professional m a r i n e r of e i t h e r gender. I t r u s t t h e r e a d e r will ac-

Departing the Pilot Boat Maryland on Christmas day. From an oil
painting by Maryland Pilot Captain Brian Hope.
CHAPTER ONE
AR Kl VAL
. . . the place to enlargc upon the sensation of íi man v.-r.
feels, for the first. time, a ship move under his foet, tu In •
own independent word.
—.Joseph Conrad, The Secrct Sharer
You are two hours from arrival at your first U.S. port, alter a throe-
month t rip that has been a good one for most of the crew aboard. The
m a t e on watch called you from your wann bunk about hall"an hour ear-
lier. After showering, and while savoring the morning's first cup of coffee
that lie had ready for you, you conteraplate the day that lies ahead. The
ship is starting to foel the shelving bottom as she comes on sounding.s.
and shortly the pleasant routine of life aboard a ship at sea will be ro-
placed with the activity, some might say the intrusion, normal to any
port ca 11.
The master has reviewed the appropriate sailing directions, light listt.
local notices, and charts of the aroa, and lias prepared a course card sh/ow-
ing courses and the distances between the significant navigational aids in
.ilace along the channel to the doek. Soou the gear will be tested and re-
quired log entries made, and the chief mate v.'i 11 bc calleo to stand by the
anchors forward. The mariner's duties of open .sea nuvigation and the
rnyriãd other tasks required of the deck ollker at sea will be replaced by
those of cargo handling, port administrative work, paying ofi", piloting.
and shiphandling—the latter being perhaps the most intoresling of ali
thesc duties.
MASTKR'S TR1AL
In preparation for those tasks, the prudent master has faniiliarized liirn-
self with the handling characteristics ofhis ship. This is best done by put-
ling the vessel through a series of maneuvers such as those proposed here
to give the master or mate the information needed to predict confidently
how the ship will behave in shallow water. Preferahly these tests will be
done in waterofdepth less than l.f) times the vcssel'sdraft(fig. 1-1) sn the
ry
I
8 ARRIVAL
IIARD RIGHT T U R N AT 6 KNOTS 9

agarn in sueh a manner as to simulate the loss of one engine, a steering

failure, or other casualty. L e a m howyour vessel responds to various com-
binations of rudder position and/or engine use. For jxample, try t u r n i n g a
twin-screw vessel to starboard with the port engine stopped, or practice
steering the vessel using only the engines. This will prove to be time well
spent when your ship sufiers one or more of these failures and, if you a r e
aboard for some period of time, you will lose an engine or there will be a
steering failure.
Ali these maneuvers should be done with a sufficient n u m b e r of m a t e s
on the bridge so the necessary data can be collected. These data will be an-
alyzed later and compared with information collected aboard previous
ships t h a t a master or m a t e has served in. With a little planning, the time
required to perform these maneuvers can be found withou'. interfering
with the ship's schedule. Since there is no other way to gain the "feel" for a
ship necessary to h a n d l e h e r in a professional manner, it is important that
these maneuvers be completed.
A sainple data sheet to be used by the person making these tests is
shown in figure 1-2. Let's discuss these maneuvers in detail and givesome
thought to the things to look for when doing the tests.

HARD RIGHT TURN AT 6 KNOTS

m a r k e d c h a n g e s in ship behavior t h a t occur in shallow w a t e r will be ap- This maneuver is made at 6 knots so a feel of the turning radius of the ship
p a r e n t . Tlie series of maneuvers should include cr n be gotten at normal maneuvering speeds rather than in the full sea

1. H a r d r i g h t t u r n at 6 knots.
2. H a r d left t u r n at 6 knots. Wealher Cond^ons

3. Backing a n d íilling maneuver s t a r t i n g f r o m dead in the water. SS/MV Wind

4. Half a s t e r n to bring the vessel dead in the w a t e r from 6 knots, \eav-
Shallow water d a l a Current
ing the r u d d e r amidships.
Ai
5. A series of backing maneuvers, u n t i l t h e vessel is dead in t h e w a t e r ,
u s i n g ',he r u d d e r and engine as required to keep the ship's head Date
within 10 degrees o f h e r inicial course.
Time Heacing Sceeti Telegrapa T u r r rate Rudder D e p t n of
6. Backing fo.- ten minutes, s t a r t i n g with l h e vessel dead in t h e water, íseccnds; ítrua) (knots)
RPM
throttli- •''/sec) (aeurees) w a t e r (It.)
keeping t h e r u d d e r amidsnins.
7. T u r n i n g with the bow t h r u s t e r , if fitted, to t h e r i g h t and left across
the wind. This should be done at 3 k n o t s a n d at 1 knot.

I f y o u r vesr.el is nonconventional ( t h a t is, equipped with twin screws or

an Azipod-type system), you should perform each of these m a n e u v e r s Fig. 1-2. Data sheet for trial maneuvers
10 ARKIVAL
speed conditions with which the seagoing m a r i n e r is more familiar. Dur-
ing t h e t u r n do not change engine speed, a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t the r a t e of
t u r n will be affected by both c u r r e n t a n d wind. Record the d a t a as shown
on t h e s a m p l e d a t a sheet. Àt the sarae time, observe t h e a r e a required to
m a k e this t u r n a n d compare it with a known reference length, such as the
distance from t h e bridge to the bow, for f u t u r e use w h e n j u d g i n g w h e t h e r a
vessel h a s s u f f c i e n t room to t u r n in an a n c h o r a g e or harbor.
K e e p in m i n d t h a t the depth u n d e r t h e keel will cause the t u r n i n g di-
a m e t e r to m c r e a s e until, in shallow w a t e r , it m a y be as much as twice the
d i a m e t e r found for the f a m e ship in deep water. Since for practical pur-
poses t h e r a t e of t u r n is about the s a m e w h e t h e r m a n e u v e r i n g in shallow
or deep w a t e r , the larger area required to complete a t u r n is not immedi-
ately obvious to an observer. For these r e a s o n s it is stressed t h a t the
s h i p h a n d l e r s h o u l d carefully observe t h e t u r n and compare the turning di-
ameter with a known reference for use when p l a n n i n g m a n e u v e r s in the fu-
t u r e (fig. 1-3).
HARD LEFT TURN AT C KNOTS
Make t h e s a m e m a n e u v e r but this time t u r n to t h e left a n d again observe
the t u r n i n g d i a m e t e r . When handling s m a l l e r ships, t h e s m a l l e r d i a m e t e r
and g r e a t e r r a f e of a low speed turn to t h e left is a p p a r e n t to the observer,
,?
'g. 1-3. Efioct of depth on turning r a d i u s at slow speeds.
B A C K I N G A N D K1LLINO 11
as compared to the turn to the right. These differences becoine less signifi-
cant, however, as ship size increases. Trial data for VLCCs and ULCCs in-
dicate t h a t the clilíerences betweer. the turns to the right anu t u r n s to t h e
left for these largest of vessels are insignificant.
However, there are disadvantages to turning to the left when m a n e u -
vering in confined waters that far outweigh this one advantage of slightly
reduced turning diameter. These other considerations, such as the ability
to back and fill, are discussed in following sections.
BACKING AND FILLING
For the purpose of these trials, this common maneuver is started with the
vessel dead in the water. The engine is brought to half ahead and the r u d -
der is put hard right. It will be immediately apparent as the ship moves
a h e a d t h a t the turning diameter for this accelerating t u r n is significantly
less t h a n for a turn using constant revolutions, and most ships will t u r n in
about half the diameter required for the hard right turn at 6 knots, a s s u m -
ing both t u r n s are made in the same depth of water (fig. 1-4).
Fig. 1-4. Accelerating turn diameter.
12 ARRIVAL
W h e n t h e vessel has picked up a good s w i n g a n d some h e a d w a y (the
a m o u n t of s w i n g depending on the searoom available for t h e turn), the en-
gine is p u t h a l f a s t e r n (or Ml a s t e r n for iow-powered or deaply laden
s h i p s ; . T h e r u d d e r becomes less effective as t h e ship loses h e a d w a y , so it is
f i r s t p u t a m i d s h i p s and then hard left as t h e ship begins to gain s t e r n w a y .
A g a i n , t h e d u r a t i o n of backing a n d a m o u n t of s t e r n w a y depend prima rily
on t h e s p a c e availaole for the t u r n , b u t t h e vessel can be t u r n e d in about
o n a - a n d - a - h a l f - t i m e s h e r own length if r e q u i r e d , by reducing the a m o u n t
of a h e a d a n d a s t e r n speed the vessel is allowed to develop (fig. 1-5).
Again observe t h e diameter required to m a k e t h i s t u r n , and get a feel
for t h e m a n e u v e r and the time required to reduce headway. The effectivc-
n e s s of t h e r u d d e r while the ship is going a s t e r n can also be a s c e r t a i n e d at
t h i s time.
Do not be fooled bj' the fact t h a t , d u r i n g both t h i s backing and filling
m a n e u v e r a n d t h e steady s t a t e t u r n s , t h e ship at first develops a good
s w i n g a n d t h e n a p p e a r s to be losing t h a t s w i n g as the r a t e of t u r n dc-
c r e a s e s . T h i s effect is somei imes m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d the s h i p h a r d l e r feels
t h a t t h e s h i p is going to stop swinging. T h e r a t e of t u r n will only decrease
1. Half a h e a d / h a r d right.
2. Half a s t e r n / h a r d right.
Fig. 1-5. B a c k i n g and filling m a n e u v e r .
HALK A S T E R N T O D E A D I N T H E W A T E R 13
until the forces affectingthe ship reach a state of equilibrium, after which
a constant rate o f t u r n is inaintained. Be patient!
Do not actempt to back and fill to the left unless you have no other al-
ternative, as a hhip will normally lose her swing in t h a t direction when ' he
engine starLs turning astern. An excessive number of engine maneuvers
are required to back and fill to the left, an J in many cases the ship simply
will not make the maneuver. Some of the uses of the backing and filling
m a n e u v e r are discussed in later sectious.
There is not much point in collecting data during this maneuver. T h e
r a t e of t u r n and the turning diameter required to reverse the vessel's
heading are more a factor of the shiphandler's skill than Lhe ship's charac-
teristics, so comparisons are ncL partieularly rneaningful.
HALF ASTERN TO DEAD IN THE WATER
The ship's behavior when backing can only be iearned by observaLion. Il i*
a characteristic of cach individual ship t h a t the master and mates aboard
m u s t have a feel for if they are to maneuver their ship properly.
While proceeding at 6 knots put the engine half a s t e r n a n d the r u d -
d e r a m i d s h i p s . Do noLhing f u r t h e r except collect required d a t a as Lhe
s h i p comes to a stop. The d a t a is most upeful if the m a n e u v e r is per-
forined when there is a m i n i m u m of outside influences and the wind is
^ s s t h a n force three. Use visual and r a d a r observalions Lo fix in y o u r
m i n d t h e distance required to bring your ship lo a stop using j u s l t h e en-
gine (fig. 1-6).
You will find t h a t the ship changes heading significantly, in some
cases as much as 80 to 90 degrees in shallow water and somewhat less in
deeper water, although she doesn'L Lravel a significanl dislance from her
original Lrack. Despile the differences in ship behavior in shallow water as
Fig. 1-6. Half astern to dead in the water.
14 ARRIVAL BOW A N I ) S T E R N THRuSTF.KS 15

compared to deeper w a t e r , t h e r e is not much difference in t h e stopping Keep in mind t h a t bottom configuration and the proximity of a hank af-
distance required. T h e data collected during this m a n e u v e r are useful fect this maneuver. A ship may back "the wrong way," especially if the
both for r o u t i n e and e m c g e n c y maneuvers- -you h a v e a b e t t e r fee! for the starboard q u a r t e r is close to the bank or a shoal arca at the edge of the
s h i p and can b e t t e r predict h e r behavior. channel, so t h a t the swing to the left is not checked. This effect is mini-
The ship's tendency to twist in this m a n n e r when backed directly af- mized if the ship is kept at or near midchannel whan backed.
fects her p e r f o r m a n c e of certain routine maneuvers. T h e g r e a t e r t h e mag- These posaible variations in ship's behavior make shiphandling inter-
nitude of this t w i s t i n g effect, the more eíTectively s h e can be backed and esting and ensure t h a t the handling of ships will always be an art r a t h e r
filled in an a n c h o r a g e or other confined area, but t h e m o r e difficult it if to t h a n a science.
stop in a n a r r o w c h a n n e l when it is necessary to keep the ship's h e a d i n g
w i t h i n reasonable limits. HANDLING A SHIP WITH STERNWAY
Depending on the ship's configuration, and especially t h e location of
W h e n the ship is dead in the water, put the engine half astern and back for
the house a n d any l a r g e objects such as containers on deck or an excep-
a period of ten minutes so good stei nway develops. Note ali the previously
tionally liigh freeboard, the backing and íllling mar.euver can be signifi-
discussed eíTects of backing and also note the degree to which the ship fol-
cantly distorted by t h e wind. I f y o u t h i n k ahead, t h o u g h , t h i s wind effect
lows her rudder—the ability or lack of ability of a ship to stec-r while going
can be used advantageously when maneuvering in t i g h t q u a r t e r s . Since
a s t e r n is quite important when moving in confined waters.
the ship moving f o r w a r d usually w a n t s to liead up into t h e wind once the
Collect the usual d a t a and note particularly the direction of the wind
r u d d e r ' s effectiveness ; s lost, and to back into t h e wind once s t e r n w a y de-
relative to the ship. Since the ship with sternway wants to back into the
velops, the t w i s t i n g effect t h a t occurs when backing t h e engine can be
eye of the wind it is especially important to be aware of the wind. Back
used to the shiphandler'^ advantage: plan to back when the wind will am-
first with the rudder amidships and then try to steer with the r u d d e r a f i e r
plify or d a m p e n this twisting effect to your a d v a n t a g e .
sufficient sternway develops.
STOPPING WHILE MAINTAINING CONTROL OVER HEADING
HOW AND STERN THRUSTERS
Again the ship is pro?eeding at 6 knots on a selected b a s e course. T h e rua-
der is p u t left a n d as t h e ship begins to swing to port, the engine is backed. Bow t h r u s t e r s a r e becoming increasingly common aboard m e r c h a n t ships
The s h i p loses h e a d w a y while the swing left decreases in r a t e and finally a r d stern t h r u s t e r s are also seen occasionally. The bow t h r u s t e r has its
reversos. When the bow s t a r t s swinging right. come a h e a d a g a i n with left a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages as does any other equipment.
r u d d e r to check and ieverse the swing. Repeat these m a n e u v e r s as re-
quired until the ship is down to the desired speed. Advantages Uisadiantages
It may bc necessary to p u t the r u d d e r amidships when t h e engine is go- Located at the extreme end of the ves- Beco/nes ineffective as speed in-
ing astern, so t h a t the ship loses her swing to the left as desired. T h i s can sel for maximum eíTectiveness. creasts.
only be determined by trial so it is iinportant to practice this m a n e u v e r at Available at ali times, unlike a tug. Less powerful than a racciern tug.
Gives good lateral control without af- Canaoí be used to slow a ship, or hold
every opportunity. Don't wait until the ship is proceeding u p a n a r r o w
fecting headway. against a current from ahead or
river on a rainy, windy night to learn how the ship b e h a v e s w h e n the en- Savcã some expensas by reducing the astern.
gine is put a s t e r n . need for tugs. Requires continuous inaintenanco to
This particular m a n e u v e r is ohviously important since it is used to stop ensure r"liahility.
or reduce a ship's speed so a tug can be made up, to s h a p e up for docking, or Unusable at very light drafts.
any n u m b e r of other i m p o r t a n t maneuvers in confined w a t e r s . T h e r e is lit-
tle need to collect d a t a during this maneuver since t h i s is p r i m a r i l y a T h r u s t e r s are used much like a tug to move Lho bow and stern laterally,
s h i p h a n d l i n g exercise t n a t y i e l d s little quantitative d a t a . s t e e r the vessel when going astern, hold the ship alongside a w h a r f o r pier.
16 ARRIVAL
a n d hold t h e ship into the wind at slow s p e e d s a n d when anchoring. The
t h r u 8 t e r ' s u s e s are more obvicus to Lhe searnan t h a n its shortcomings. The
t h r u s t e r is a useful too! to s u p p l e m e n t the a n c h o r ar>d t u g but certainly
does not replace a Lug in ali cases.
Keep in m i n d I h a t the thrusLer is inost u s e f u l at speeds of 2 knots and
less and should not be relied upun at h i g h e r speeds. This is very impor-
tant.
TURNING WITH A BOW THRUSTER
The bow t h r u s t e r ' s effectiveness can only be d e t e r m i n e d by experimenta-
tion. T h e m a n y d i a g r a m s t h a t show this e q u i p m e n t being eíTective at
s p e e d s of 6 k n o t s and more are a fignient of some n a v a l a r c h i t e c f s imagi-
n a t i o n . More t h a n one ship has a similar c a r e f u l l y d r a w n b u t incorrect
g r a p h posted in her wheelhouse. T h e person who developed this g r a p h ob-
viously never got beyond sailing model b o a t s in a t e s t basin a n d the graph
only d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e gap t h a t r e m a i n s b e t w e e n t h e theoretician and the
real world.
T r y your bow t h r u s t e r f r s t to the r i g h t a n d t h e n to the left, m a k i n g it a
point to orienn your s h i p so you bring her bow t h r o u g h the wind each time.
This is an i n t e r e s t i n g maneuver for the m a r i n e r since the d a t a collected
m a k e s it possible to predict wiLh coníidence t h e t h r u s t e r ' s effectiveness
when s t e a m i n g t h r o u g h a crowded a n c h o r a g e or holding t h e bow into the
wind while t h e m a t e drops the anchor.
P e r f o r m this m a n e u v e r firsLat 1 k n o t a n d again a t 3 . To see how f a r thf
theoretical d a t a is from reality try t h e t h r u s t e r a g a i n at 6 knots. It won't
h a v e the effect shown on the previously m e n t i o n e d posted card, and it
probably won't even be felt by the h e l m s m a n holding t h e ship steady on a
course!
CollecL Lhe u s u a l d a t a for later study in t h e comfort o f y o u r fo'c's'le. Pre-
p a r e a g r a p h of speed versus bow t h r u s t e r effectiveness (cnange of head-
ing in degrees per m i n u t e as m e a s u r e d by observation or rate-of-turn
indicator, if t h a t equipment is available) for botxi your own information
and for the use ofpilots. There «s no doubt t h a t t h e g r a p h prepared aboard
ship will be more accurate and useful t h a n t h e one supplied to the ship at
delivery.
R e m e m b e r t h a t it is not so much t h e power of t h e t h r u s t e r t h a t is of in-
t e r e s t in t h e s e tests b u t Lhe ship's speed t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r at which the
t h r u s t e r is effective. A few years ago a t a n k e r t u r n i n g in the Delaware
River collided with a n o t h e r t a n k e r at h e r b e r t h while t r y i n g to use the bow
APPKOACI11NG SIIALLOW WATER 17
thrusLer al 6 knots Lo assislin making «he Lurn. It is beller to learn the ca-
pabililies o f y o u r equipmenl during Lhis trial maneuver.
MOST LFFECTIVE MANEUVER
Professionalism in shiphandling entails looking Cor the most efftctivc ma-
neuver, nol j u s t a randorn series of maneuvers t hat will pui lhe ship in a
desired posilion using a minimum number of bells anc1 helm orders.
Having completed the trial maneuvers, the shiphandler has a feel for
t h e ship and is better able to anãcipate her behavior. It is therefore possi-
ble to choose the most effective action to Lake in a si.tua.tion.
The most effective maneuveraccomplishes several tasks sirnullaneously so
the ship is hcndled with the minimum of orders and is always under control.
For example, when il is necessary to alter a ship's heading to starboard
and reduce her headway, the less experienced shiphandler m i g h t first
m a k e lhe starboard turn, tnen check lhe s h i p s swing, and put Lhe engine
a s l e r n to reduce headway. The accoinplished shiphandler put.s lhe engine
a s t e r n first and the resulting starboard swing caused by the ship's ten-
dency to twist in Lhat direction when backed takes Lhe ship around the
t u r n while headway is sirnullaneously being reduced.
APPROACHING SHALLOW WATER
You have familiarized yourself with the local conditions of Lhe porl aí
which you are about to arrive, planned your passage from sea Lo berth, and
h a v e become confídent thatyou have a good feel for your ship and w h a t she
will do under various conditions. You now feel ready to bring your com-
m a n d into her first discharge porl.
The vibration felt throughout the ship's hull tells you the depth of wa-
ter under the keel is decreasing. Test gear, and lhen reduce speed to mini-
mize this vibration. Other changes lo expect include
1. Improved steering characteristics as the underkecl clearance de-
creases until, in shallow water, a directionally unstable ship be-
cumes easier to steer and l^ss unstable. This is true only if the ship
does not s q u a t so much forward that she goes by the head, in which
case t h e s l a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s o f t h e shallower v/ater are negated by the
change in trim.
2. The s h i p s lurning radius increases unlil, in shallow water (deplhs
of 1.2 limes tlie vessel's draft or less) Lhe radius can be as much as
double t h a t experienced at sea.
18 ARRIVAL D l R E C T I O N A L STABILITY 19

3. The vessel twists more when backed. directional stability. If she swings at increasing rates of turn when the
4. The trim of the ship changes, Lhe d r a f t increasing more at the bow or r u d d e r is amidships she has negative stability. A vessel with neutral di-
stern d e p e n d i n g primarily on the hull form. rectional stability continues swinging at the present rate, or conLir.;;^
along on her currenl heading until externai forces take charge. She ha.- nc
These changes are significant a n d m u s t be kept in m i n d as w a l e r depth tendency to eiLher increase or decrease her rate of swing when the rudder
decrea&es (fig. 1-7). is left amidships.
T h e ship's directional stabihty is especially important when proceed-
ing up a channel or attempting to steer with a minimum of rudder at sea.
Deep Water (at. SeaJ Shallow Water
More rudder for a longer period of time is needed to check the swing of a di-
Directional stability a function of Directional stability becomes more rectionally unstable ship than is required Lo start LhaL swing.
hull form and trim. positive (steering "improves"). It may not be possible to check Lhe swing of a directionally unstable
Rate of turn dependent on hull Rate of turn essentially the same as s h i p before she leaves the channel even though the rate of turn i.s quile
characteristics and diiectional for deep water. n o r m a l for an average ship. Large rudder angles and constanL attention
stability of vessel. a r e required to steer her, especially in confined waters and when making
Diameter of turning circle approxi- Diameter of turning circle increases course changes. As a greater number of full-bodied ships, and especially
mately three time ship's length. to as much as twice that of deep s h i p s with open sterns and full sections forward, are launched, the condi-
water turn. tion of negative directional stability becomes more common.
Speed loss significant when making Speed losses occur with large Because this condition is to a large extenL draft criticai, it is affectcd by
large course changes. changes in heading, but to a lesser even small changes in trim. A fcw feet of drag will change the entire per-
extent than in deep water. sonality of an otlierwise "cranky" ship and give her positive direcLional
Loss of headway in calm water, with Loss of headway with engine stability. An alteration in trim changes the underwater form of the hull,
engine stopp2d, a factor of dis- stopped, in shallow water, less s h i f t i n g Lhe greaLest submerged cross-sectional areas of the hull. For this
placement, trim, and hull form. than in deep water. (Ship carries reason, any ship significanLly trimmed by the head has negative direc-
her way longer in shallow water.) tional stability and a seaman finds t h a t Lhe characteristics of a ship with
Vessel'8 head falis off to starboard Head falis off in the same direction, inherenL negative directional stability are the same as Lhose always asso-
when engine goes astnrn. but at a greater rate, as depth ciated wiLh a ship Irimmed by the head. More time is required than usual
decreases. to s t a r t such a ship swinging, and very large rudder angles for longer peri-
ods of time are needed Lo check l h a t swing. If she gc.ls a way from Lhe
Figure 1-7. Shallow water effeets on vessel m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics. h e l m s m a n , watch out!
Directional stability is obviously a condition with which the mariner
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY h a s long been familiar, although t h a t term may noL have been used Lo de-
Directiona' stability affeets Lhe ship's steering characteristics, the degree scribe the condition. As more ships are constructed with bulis that are in-
to which she can be checked when swinging, and Lhe change in h e r rate of herenLly direcLionally unstable. it becomes increasingly important to be
t u r n when Lhe rudder is put a m i d s h i p s . A hydrodynamicist looks at direc- alert for Lms condition. You are better able to prodict your s h i p s behavior
tional stability i n other ways, a n d t e s t s for the degree of directional stabil- both when handling the ship yourself and when turning herover Lo a pilot
ity t.haL a ship possesses by p u t t i n g the ship t h r o u g h a series of "Z if s t e e r i n g behavior is considcred to be a funcLion of direcLional stability.
maneuvers. Because the changes in directional stability are significant as draft
A vessel can have positive, negative, or n e u t r a l directional stability. A a n d trim are altered, and because large, full bodied ships with large block
ship t h a t t e n d s t o s t e a d y up when t h e r u d d e r is p u t a m i d s h i p s h a s positive coeflicients often squat by the head, it is especially important Lhat these
 AilIUVAw E F F L C T S OF HOTTOM C O N T O U R ON HANDLING C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 2 1
20

The additional effect^ of specific changes ir boLLom contour are super-

imposed o.i these shallow water effeets and cause (fig. 1-9)

1. The ship's bow to move away from more shallow water. This well-
known "bank cushion" eíTect is caused by the pressure built up on
the arca of the bow, as seen in the raised watcr t h a t fornis between
the ship's bow a n d the shoal or bank.
2. The ship to move bodily sitíeways toward a nerrby shallow area, as
her parallel midbody passes t h a t area. This movement is caused by
the increase in velocity of the water flowing through the restricted
area between the ship and shoal, and the resultant reduction in
pressure on t h a t side of the ship.
3. The stern of the ship to move toward shallower areas or banks duo to
the reduced flow of water to the area behind tlie ship, and to tlie
ship's propeller on the side closer to that shaliow area.

Bank cushion is unfortunately often exaggerated in marine texts t h a t

describe hypothetical ships "smelling" shallow water and heading away
from it, saving themselves from grounding. These tales are untrue and
dangerousiy misleading and should be filed along with those about sea
Cap' n monsters and falling oíTthe e Ige of the world. It is more correct to say t h a t
"a ship tends to head away" from shoal water—the effect is not as strong as
potential c h a n g e s be given caroful consideration w h e n t r i m m i n g such often indicated in classic books on seamanship.
ships for arrival.
It is a p p a r e n t t h e n t h a t directional stability

1. Increases as t h e u n d e r k e e l clearance decreases.

2. Becoines more positive as length increases.
3. Becomes m o r e positive as d r a g increases.
4. Decreases as the block coefficient increases.
5. Decreases as t h e b e a m increases for a given length (length/beam ra-
tio decreases).
6. Decreases as t h e a r e a of the forward sections i n c r e a s e s relative to
the nrea of the a f t o r sections (as the pivot point shifts a h e a d ) .

EFFECTS OF BOTTOM CONTOUK ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS

Changes in ocean bottoin contour do not affect the s h i p s benavior until
shallow w a t e r conditions are encountered. Shallow w a t e r effeets as shown
Fig. 1-9. Eflects of changes in bottom contour or a near bank.
in figure 1-7 vury in m a g n i t u d e with changes in average depth.
22 ARRIVAL APPROACHING THE PILOT STATION 23

Bank suction is m o r e strongly felt t h a n bank cushion a n d causes a ship

to sheer away from a shoal or bank. T h i s is a significant effect t h a t can
m a k e steering difficult as the bottom contour changes in shallow water.
Ali t h e s e effeets r.re felt to some degree d u r i n g t h e arrival phase of a
voyage as w a t e r d e p t h decreases. The effeets are more pronounced as the
ship proceeds up a c h a n n e l a n d are dÍ3cuss3d more fully in applicable
chapters.

HANDLING OF LARGER 3HIPS IN SHALLOW WATER

A study was conducted by a group of shipping companies a n d organiza-
tions in J u l y 1977, u s i n g Esso Osaka to d e t e r m i n e t h e h a n d l i n g character-
istics of VLCCs in shallow water.' This s t u d y h a s been widely circulated
and used to r e f i n e previous theories. T h e d a t a were also used to improvo
computer p r o g r a m s for t h e various s h i p h a n d l i n g s i m u l a t o r s used to train
deck ofílcerf) (fig. 1-10).
While most of t h e information contained in tlie t e r t s is discussed in this
toxt, it should be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e tests proved t h a t , contrary to oft-stated
opinions, VLCCs r e m a i n liighly m a n e u v e r a b l e in shallow w a t e r and steer
quite well both with t h e engine t u r n i n g a h e a d and stopped. This now
well-documented fact, based on both t h e Esso Osaka s t u d y and on the ex-
periences of m a s t e r s a n d pilois who h a v e h a n d l e d t h e s e larger ships in
shallow water, should be comforting to t h e m a s t e r bringing a VLCC into
shallow w a t e r for t h e f i r s t time. In fact, large ships u s u a l l y s t e e r better in
shallow w a t e r with t h e engine stopped t h a n they do in deep water. There
is no need for a s h i p to move at excessive speed to m a i n t a i n steerageway.
It is encouraging to see greater a t t e n t i o n being given to real-ship/real-
time data on s h i p h a n d l i n g and m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics. T h e d a t a col-
lected d u r i n g t h e Esso Osaka trials, a n d several other shallow w a t e r tri-
als, such as those done by El Paso M a r i n e Company with liquefied n a t u r a l
gas carriers, can only r e s u l t in safer h a n d l i n g of p r e s e n t vessels and t h e
design of b e t t e r - h a n d l i n g ships in the f u t u r e .
APPROACHING THE PILOT STATION
It should be s t a n d a r d practice to station an engineer in tíie s t r e r i n g gear
flat when a r r i v i n g and m a n e u v e r i n g in restricted waters. It's toe late to
send someone to s h i f t to t h e trick wheel a f t e r steering is lost. The engineer
1
W. O. Gray, Esso Osaka Maneuvering Trials.
Fig. 1-10. The VLCC Esso Osaka. Courtesy Exxon Corporation.
assigned to stand by m u s t be trained in shifl ing ovor to the emergency sys-
tem and then steering by both cornpass courses and conning orders.
This operation m u s t be practiced at sea before an emergency arises. It
is difficult enough for an experienced helmsman to steer in a confined a r e a
with no visible horizon, let alone an untrained person under emergency
conditions with the noise of the steering gear machinery inaking it diffi-
cult to hear lielm orders. The half hour a month required for practice is
time well spent.
There must be a tested and reliable means of communicating between
t h e steering gear flat and the bridge. A good headset with a long cord t h a t
lc-aves the wearer free to inove about and use both hands is recomniended.
The headset cuts down on background noise no instruetions can be heard
Prepare the anchors for lettinggo with the claws and pawls off •• or olear
whatever gear you might have aboard your particular ship for securing
t h e anchors at sea). Break the anchors outof the hawsepipe to ensure t h a t
if needed they will r u n free, unless the ship is rolling too heavily to allow
this. The anchor may :ieed to be lowered to the wcter's edge if a large bul-
bous bow prevenis dropping it from the hawsepipe. (See chapter 8 for a
discussion of the uses of the anchor.)
24 ARKIVAL
STOPPING OR REDUCING HEADWAY
You now w a n t to reduce s h i p s speed so the pilot can be safely e m b a r k e d
a n d the s h i p m a n e u v e r e d among o t h e r traíYíc ar.d anchor ?d vessels. T h "
most common m e t h o d s to reduce a ship's h e a d w a y include
1. U s i n g the 3hip's engine a s t e r n . (See figure 1-6.)
2. Slewing a vessel aboui. a base course.
3. Large changes in heading, including a complete round turn (fig. 1-11).
The u s e of t h e engine a s t e r n to reduce a ship's h e a d w a y is the easiest
and most common method for slowing or s t o p p i n g a n y ship. It is also often
t h e least eíTective. A propeller is less eflícient a s t e r n t h a n ahead—a laigo
t u r b i n e p l a n t m a y h a v e as little as 25 percent of t h e power a s t e r n t h a n it
h a s a h e a d — a n d a s h i p becomes difficult to h a n d l e w h e n the engine is p u t
astern at higher revolutions. Time and searoom a r e required to back r.
ship to a stop—so with a large ship it is often impractical to use this ma-
neuver alone. This m a n e u v e r becomes more u s e f u l as headway is reducec
to lower speeds, and is generally carried out as described in t h e previous
C l i a n g a of h e a d i n g = 9 0 " C h a n g e of h e a d i n g = 1 8 0 °
S p e e d = 6.5 knots S p e e d = 4.2 knots
E l a p s e d lime = 4 M. SO S. R P M = 52
E l a p s e d t i m o = 9 M. 20 S.
STOPPING OK REDUCING H E A D W A Y 25
section o f t h i s chapter, so that the ship remains reasonably close to the de-
sired heading.
A preferred method for reducing headway, and with VLCCs ofton f.he
most practical method, is a series of course changes to starboard and porí.
of the base course. Using this slewing maneuver the ship loses a signifi-
cant. amount of headway each time she swings, yet m a k e s good her desired
track towards tlie pilot station or anchorage.
Keep in mind when other vessels are about t h a t this slewing maneuver
may b e c o n f u s i n g t o t h c m . They don'tknow ifyour change in heading is an
actual course change t h a t will aííect a meetingsituation between your two
ships, or only a teinporary heading change as you slew ship to reduce
headway. This is especially t m e at night when the watch aboard the other
ship sees your large tanker or containership showing first a green and
t h e n a red sidelight, and then sees both sidelights as you head directly for
them. Good seamanship dictates that you contact by VIIF any ship that
m i g h t b e c o n c e n e d and let her know your intentions when slewing ship to
reduce headway.
The round turn maneuver, or even a large change in heading, quickly
takes the headway offany ship, with thereduction being greater for larger
ships. This maneuver disputes the claim that VLCCs can't be handlcd
safely in crowded waters "because it requires miles to stop those big ba-
bies." A rule of tliumb is t h a t a VLCC loses 25-30 percent of her headway
for every 90 degree change in heading.' if the ship is proceeding at 12
knots, her headway is reduced to 2 to 3 knots at the completion cf a round
t u r n even though the engine continues to turn ahead for steerageway. The
ship completes this turn in about three times h e r l e n g t h in deep water, ora
bit less than six times her length in shallow water. (See figure 1-3.) That is
much less than the oft-claimed "several miles" stopping distance suppos-
ed'y required for these ships.
This round turn maneuver is useful
1. When in a crossing situation at sea it is necessary to maneuver to
nvoid collision.
2. To siovv a ship before arrival at a pilot station.
3. To make a lee for a pilot.
4. To stop a ship alter losing the engine.
2
Ship Performance Data for VLCCs.
26 ARRIVAL PICKING UP T H E PILOT/MAKiNG A LEK 27

T h e round turn m a n e u v e r used in a crossing situation at sea accom-
plishes several t a s k s ainiulianeously. Your ship is t u r n e d a w a y from the
other vessel a n d m a k e s a 360-degree course change while reducing head-
way. At t h e completion of t h e t u r n she is back on h e r original h e a d i n g at a
m i n i m u m speed, a n d you probably find t h a t the other s h i p h a s crossed
your cuurse lirie and is safely on her way.
If a '-ound t u r n is used to m a k e a lee fur a pilot, t h e ship both sweeps a
calm a r e a for b o a r d i n g and loses headway.
T h e round t u r n can be used to stop your ship a í t e r losing h e r engine,
since she will usually respond to h e r rudder if given a chance. T h e s n i p re-
m a i n s in t h e limited a r e a needed to make the t u r n while losing headway
until stopped or nearly so. While she m i g h t carry her way for an extended
period if moving s t r a i g h t a h e a d , she stops in a surprisingly short time
when p u t into a hard-over t u r n . It is stressed t h a t the s h i p does respond to
her r u d d e r w i t h o u t t h e propeller t u r n i n g a h e a d at even very low speeds.
A m a s t e r or deck ofPcer, accustomed to the ship's i m m e d i a t e response
to r u d d e r movements at sea, m i g h t feel t h a t she does not s t e e r effectively
when the engine is stopped. Often a m a s t e r advises me pilot t h a t the ship
does not s t e e r w i t h o u t the engine, or will not steer at less t h a n some exces-
sive speed, s u c h as 6 k n o t s . In watex-ways such as t h e P a n a m a C a n a l , or in
a port a r e a w h e r e speed i? n a t u r a l l y restricted, this lack of s t e e r i n g capa-
bility would create an i n t e r e s t i n g situation if it really existed. The Pan-
ama Canal locks certainly could n o t b e entered at such a speed and yet the
ship m u s t be steered ali the way into t h e j a w s of the lock. Ships do, in fact,
respond to r u d d e r s at very low speeds if given a chance.
This is a comforting fact as the world's m e r c h a n l fleet becomes almost
exclusively powered by diesel engines. The odds increase to some extent
t h a t t h e engine will n o t go a s t e r n if a ship is diesel propelled since it is
stopped and r e s t a r t e d a s t e r n in most cases—but you can still get t h e ship
safely stopped using a round t u r n . The round turn is usefu) in these and
other situatior.s and e v e r y m a s t e r o r w a t c h s t a n d e r m u s t k e e p t h e m a n e u -
ver in mind to reduce neadway and avoid casualties both in t h e open ser:
and when m a n e u v e r i n g .
with high-powered boats and special boarding facilities where it is pre-
ferred that the ship proceed at higher speeds. You are usually aware of
this requiremem cr the pilot will inform you cf it via VHF when you cai!
the station two hours before arrival. Unless informed otherwise, tlie
3-to-4-Knot speed is comfortable and yet not so slow that the boat has diffi-
culty staying alongside while transferring the pilot to the ladder.
Make your approach so as to give the pilot a good lee and remember
t h a t it is possible to knock down a short chop by putting a swing on your
ship j u s t before t h e pilot boards so the quaríer is swinging away from t h e
pilot boat. "Sweeping a lee" in this m a n n e r is especially helpful when
there is a cross sea and swell since you can block the swell with the ship's
hull and then knock down the contrary sea as the pilotbcards (fig. 1-12;.
Making a lee often requires some careful planning, especially when a
shoal area or traffic restriets maneuvering. llere again, a completo round
t u r n may be the best way to m a k e a good lee, even if it appears at first to be
very time consuming. Since the turn takes off a great deal of the s h i p s
headway, you can make up for some of the time required to make this
round turn by being able to approach the station at a greater speed than
would have been possible had you proceeded directly and then slowed with
t h e engine alone. More important, while it may not look rough from t h e

PICKINC UP THE PILOT/MAKING A LEE

As you approach the pilot station a f t e r several days s t e a m i n g a t sea speed,
a conscious effort is r e q u i r e d on the part of conning officers to reorient
themselves to t h e lower speeds nacessary for maneuvering. W h e n m a k i n g
a lee for the pilot, be s u r e speed is reduced to 3 to 4 knots. T h e r e are ports Fig. 1-12. Ship in hard-over turn "sweeps a lee" for the pilot.
28 ARRIVAL
bridge, it is rough d o w n t h e r e in t h a t small launch, and t h e t r a n s f e r will
often be h a z a r d o u s . Professionalism d e m a n d s t h a t you m a k e the situation
as safe as pcssible for t h e pilot, regardless of how l a t e you a r e arriving at
the terminal, or how m a n y gangs m i g h t be waiting at t h e dock.
To f u r t h e r a s s i s t in sweeping a lee w i t h o u t g a i n i n g excessive headway,
you can use the previously described backing and filling m a n e u v e r . Come
a h e a d to s t a r t the s h i p swinging to t h e right a n d t h e n p u t t h e engine
a s t e r n . The vessel t u r n s about h e r pivot point while h e a d w a y is simulta-
neously reduced so t h e m a n e u v e r does not require any g r e a t a m o u n t of
searoom. R e m e m b e r , though, t h a t ali the way m u s t n o t be t a k e n off the
ship as this m a k e s it difYicult for t h e pilot boat to stay alongside. It is also
i m p o r t a n t not to back so long t h a t the wash reaches the pilot ladder and
sweeps the pilot l a u n c h a w a y from the ship's side.
ESTIMATING SPEED THROUGH THE WATER
BY SHIP'S PROPELLER WASH
How, on a d a r k night w i t h o u t a Doppler log, do you tell w h a t speed you
a r e m a k i n g ? By w a t c h i n g t h e w a s h from the propeiier. W h e n t h e engint
is going a s t e r n , t h e s h i p ' s speed is down to about 2 k n o t s w h e n t h e wash
from the propeiier b e g i n s to move up t h e s t a r b o a r d side of t h e s h i p So
long as t h a t wash is b e i n g left b e h i n d t h e ship, you a r e m a k i n g some-
t h i n g in excess of 2 k n o t s . Of course, as every s c a m a r . knows, once the
wash reaches h a l f w a y up t h e ship's hull, the s h i p is dead in t h e water.
(See figure 4-2.)
Would you w a n t a good, sound l a d d e r to scale a two-to-four-story sway-
ing building? The pilot w a n t s at least as much w h e n b o a r d i n g your rolling
ship in a seaway.
Be sure a ciean piiot ladder m e e t i n g c u r r e n t IMO a n d U S C G s t a n d a r d s
is properly rigged u n d e r the supervision of a licensed deck officer. This of-
ficer must visually a n d physically inspect the l a d d e r as it is rigged and be
in a t t e n d a n c e while t h e pilot e m b a r k s or disembarks. Two s e a m e n must
also bc on h a n d at t h e s e timc-s. Use only a proper ladder, reserved for use
as a pilot ladder. t h a t is m e d e up so t h a t
1. The rur.gs are of one piece hardwood.
2. The bottoííi four r u n g s are of reinforced h a r d rubber.
3. The r u n g s h a v e a nonskid surface.
4. Rungs are at l e a s t 19 inches long, 4 inches deep, a n d 1 inch thick.
ESTIMATING S"EEI) THROUGH T h E WATER 29
5. The ladder i s h u n g by single lengths of Manila or prestrotched (low
stretch) Dacron.
6. There is a clear space 16 t.o 19 inches betweer. the hnes across each
rung.
7. 1 h- re are 12 to 15 inches between the ruiigs. 3
Have a heavingline available to handle the pilot's bag(it may contain
your mail, so handle the bng with care!) and a life ring with waterlight.
Maintain cominunications by walkie-talkie between the pilot ladder and
the bridge when the pilot is boarding cr leaving. Keep the ladder and the
deck area at the head of the laddur well lighted. Place a light afl but near the
ladder soitilluminates the ladder without blinding the pilot boat operator.
Coming aboard on a winter night is dangerous enough without having
to use an iced-up ladder. Keep the ladder on deck in icy weather and put it
over the side only when the pilot boat is alongside.
Spreaders are required if there are more than nine rungs in the ladder,
to keep the ladder from twisting. These spreaders m u s t be at least 70
inches long, placed at intervals not exceeding nine rungs apart, and bo se-
cured behind and in-line with rungs.'
The maximuin distance t h a t a pilot should have to cliinb is 9 metera (30
feet), and an accommodation ladder must be used in conjunction with the
ladder as shown in figure 1-13 when the distance from the water to the
deck exceeds t h a t amount.
Be sure to lash the accommodation ladder tight alongside ' h e ship with
the Irapping line B (fig. 1-14). This important line is often forgotten, leav-
ing the accommodation ladder free to swing away from the hull as the ship
rolls in a swell at the pilot station. The frapping line also holds the accom-
modation ladder alongside when the ship has a small list and, since the pi-
lot ladder is lashed to the accommodation ladder at point D, this in turn
minimizes the amount the long pilot ladder is free to swing.
The access to the deck m u s t be either through an opening in the bul-
wark or ovor the rail using stanchions at least 40 inches high secured into
the bulwark together with a sturdy set ofsteps down to the deck Too inany
pilots have been needlessly hurt trying to clirnb over the rail or gunwale
(fig. 1-15).
3
Malcolm C. Armstrong, Pilot Ixidder Safely, pg. 8-12.
4
Ibid., pg. 15.
30 AR RIA'AL WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING

WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING

As the ship slows, she begins to feel the wind and bccome more difficult to
steer i f t h e wcather is not the best. The freeboard or -sail area" t h a t the
ship p r e s e n t s will be the principal factor determining how much effect
the wind will have on steering, allhough the ratio of the ship's draft to

Fig. 1-13. "It'a a long way up." Courtesy Lee Klimo.

R i g m a n r o p e s o n each side of the ladder. Mákc s u r e the m a n r o p e s hang

free of the l a d d e r so they do not h i n d e r the p i l o f s climb. If the manropes
are swinging across t h e ladder, the pilot m a y r e q u e s t they be pulled up on
deck. Not ali pilots u s e t h e manropes b u t t h e y should be available to assist
a pilot in t r a n s f e r r i n g safely from ship to l a u n c h . Have the m a n r o p e s and
A M a t e in radio
ladder rigged well above the .vater so they clear the deck of t h e launch ly-
c o n t a c t with bridge
ing alongside. A l a d c e r lying on the launch deck m a y t r a p and i n j u r e the
pilot, while a ladder lying between t h e launch a n d the ship's hull may be B F r a p p i n g Iine to
l3Sh t h e a c c o m m c d a t i o n
pulled down f r o m the s h i p by the pitching launch. ladder alongside
If a pilot h o i s t is used, be sure a conventional l a d d e r is also rigged
C S e a m a n with a
alongside a n d available. Manv pilots have h a d enough bad experiences h e a v i g iine
with these h o i s t s t h a t they refuse to use t h e m , and even i f t h e hoist is used.
D Pilot l a d d e r l a s h e d
the ladder m u s t be a v a i l a b b in case a problem develops. to t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n
Rigs for p r o p e r boarding facilities with various combinations of frce- ladder
board and hull type a r e shown in figure 1-16. Titles of some useful books
and pamphle ts about pilot boarding techniques a n d facilities are included
in the Bibliography. Fig. 1-14. Use of combination of pilot and accoinniodation ladders.
32 ARRIVAL WIND EFFCCTS ON STEERING

Providing for
rounded hull

39-
1 r,

Ladder detaits
Piace 70-incn (i 8 m) s p r e a d e r s a: t r o a d s
a n o not b e t w e e n . Also, l e a v e not l e s s
than 12 inchas (0.31 m) a n d not m o r e t h a n
1G i n : h e s (0.41 m) b e t w e e n l h e t r o a d s while
making ali tread s p a c ig e q u a l .
117*
3 m
f—Í
o ;
C c . r e c tV3 Incorrect

Tread dimensions

59'
1.5 m
freeboard will also bo i m p o r t a n t . Needless to say, even if the a m o u n t of
sail a r e a is not great, if you are only d r a w i n g 10 feet forward, you will find
the wind a problem as you begin to reduce speed.
How much will your vessel feel the wind? As a rule of thumb, based on 39"
tests with various types of ships, at very low m a n e u v e r i n g speeds, a 1m Special n o l e s
4_i_ Waterline T h e entire tx)arding a r e a m u s t tx1
high-sided ship such as a passenger ship or a containership will feel the V e s s e l s with pilot hoists illuminsied by lights rigged over
wind significantly at a wind speed of t h r e e t i m e s t h e ship's speed. while a must a l s o h a v e pilot v e s s e l s side a n d directed inboard
ladders rigged. toward t/ie b o a r d i n g a r e a .
loaded t a n k e r will r e q u i r e a wind speed of at least five times the ship's
,/
Pilot hoist
speed before being affected to the s a m e degree. O t h e r types of cargo ships
will fali somewhero in between these t.wo ratios, d e p e n d i n g o n their house
confíguration, deck load, and freeboard and even ship types t h a t a p p e a r
similar at first glance may have different characteristics.' (See figure Pilot ladder temporarily
1-17.) For exampis, r.ew classes of p a s s e n g e r ships with deck after deck of l a s h e d c l e a r ol pilot
hoist a n d r e a d y for
closed balconies s e p a r a t e d by vertical b u l k h e a d s at right angles to the emergency use.

r
' Maryland Pilot Captain Brian Mope, K! Paso Consolidated Maneuvering
Trials, El Paso Marine Corn/>any, tiolomons, Maryland, 1978. Fig. 1-líi. Pilot ladder pointers.
34 ARRIVAL
hull seem to catch the wind. The s h i p h a n d l e r m u s t allow for more leeway
when a p p r o a c h i n g a b e r t h or anchorage for a given wind force. Appar-
ently, t h e w i n d c a n n o t pass smoothly down the ship's side as it would
aiong t h e hull of the conventional ship so t h e ship is pushed laterally at a
greater r a t e d u e to w h a t some pilots refer to as an "ice tray" due to the ap-
p e a r a n c e o r t h e s e s h i p s with their row a f t e r row of recessed boxes. An ex-
perienced s h i p h a n d l e r considers ship types and oddities such as the ice
tray effect t h a t d e t e r m i n e the effect of wind s t e e r i n g and t h e leeway re-
quired at íslow speeds.
Keep in m i n d t h a t a loaded containership, p a s s e n g e r ship, auto car-
rier, or high-sided liquefied gas carrier with 75 feet of freeboard presents
50,000 to 60,000 s q u a r e feet of side to the wind (fig. 1-17). A full rtgged
sailing ship carried aboiit 45,000 square feet of canoas. Obviously, the
wind direction a n d force is at least as i m p o r t a n t to a pilot or m a s t e r h a n -
dling modern motor s h i p s as it w a s to ship's m a s t e r s m a n e u v e r i n g ships in
the days o f s a i l . Ships m a y grow larger a n d look different but the wind and
sea haven't chaTiged a n d the basic principies of s h i p h a n d l i n g r e m a i n very
much the saxne, no m a t t e r how many í l a s h i n g lights and a l a r m s we put on
the bridge.
Ship's s p e e d in knots
r
I ig. 1-17. Speed of vessel at which wind t a k e s charge. (See footnote 5.)
WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING 35
Conversely, the ship's speed can be reduced to a puint determined by
t h a t satne ratio of wind force to ship's speed before you would begin to have
problema steering. This is not to sav t h a t you cannot steer at that point,
but r a t h e r that you will then need to use the engine to steer, giving a kio.k
ahead as the ship ctarts to come up into the wind. When you are trying to
stop the ship, this can obviously become a problem. By punehing tlie en-
gine ahead, t h a t is, significantly inrreasing the revolutions for j u s t long
enough to start the ship swinging back to the desired heading, you will be
able to control tlie ship without signiflcantly increasing her headway. You
should keep in mind that the wind will become an important factor in han-
dling the ship as you reduce speed when making arrival or slowing to pick
up the pilot, and consider this factor when planning your arrival.
How will the ship reacl as you reduce speed? Ships of most configura-
tions will nornially head up into the wind at increasingly iarger angies as
the ship loses headway. When finally dead in the water, Lhe ship will usu-
ally w a n t lo lie beam to the wind. With sternway, the ship will want to
back into the wind. Be aware, though, t h a t every ship will behave a little
diflerently. depending on the silhouette t h a t she presents to the wind,
t h a t is, the local ion of the house, deck cargoes, amount of freeboard, and
trim. Only you will know exactly how your ship will behave in a slrong
wind, and then only after extensive experimentation with her. Again, it is
stressed that you should g e t a s much experience as possible handling your
vessel under varying conditions. Don't let your natural reluctance caused
by lack of experience deter you from creating opportunities to handle your
ship and develop a feel for her at slow speeds. Any damn fool can handle
his ship at sea speed!
Here again, a potential problem such as a strong wind can be made an
aid once the shiphandler begins to appreciate his ship's behavior and
plans his maneuvers with t h a t behavior in mind. An example would be a
thip t h a t m u s t t u r n aroimd and head to an anchorage, or perhaps to sea. If
she is loaded with containers, it m i g h t n o t be possible to turn in a direction
t h a t requires the bow to come through the wind—she m i g h t b e bela on her
heading bv the wind much iiko a sailing ship in irons, and her speed would
increase without any signiíicant change in her heading. If the ship is in-
stead turned away from the wind (or back and filled around if the amount
of searoom available will not allow a normal turn), and her stern is
brought across the wind during the maneuver, the wind will assist the
ship in turning. As sternway develops the ship will turn easily as she
backs into the wind, so t h a t when she comes ahead again the wind, now on
36 ARRIVAL
the q u a r t e r , will assist h e r in t u r n i n g . This is t r u e even if due to t h e config-
uration of the c h a n n e l or anchorage the ship m u s t back a n d fill in w h a t or-
dmarily would be t h e "wrong way," to t h e left—since t h e normal tendency
o f t h e stern Lo go to port when the engine goes a s t e r n would be overcome by
the wind a= the ship g a i n s s t e r n w a y .
This? d e m o n s t r a t e s once a g a i n the value of appreciating t h e forces of
wind and c u r r e n t , a n d the need to add sail t r a i n i n g to the curriculum of
our m a r i t i m e schools. A p a r t from t h e i m p o r t a n t b u t more esoteric benefits
of sail t r a i n i n g such ay self-discipline, attention to t a s k s at h a n d , and ap-
preciation of the d e m a n d s of the ocean e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e r e aro i m p o r t a n t
direct benefits. The skills required to navigate and h a n d l e a ship being af-
fected by wind a n d c u r r e n t are as i m p o r t a n t today as they w e r e in t h e
years of the Down E a s t e r s , and t h e s e s e a f a r i n g skills can best be learned
by working a ship u n d e r sail. Sail t r a i n i n g should supplement t h e seago-
ing experience already given potential deck and engineering officers.
COMMUNICATIONS WITH OTHER VESSELS
With the a d v e n t of good radio voice communications, a n d especially t h e
universal use of VHF radio, it is possible to avoid m a n y d a n g e r o u s situa-
tions as well as a r r a n g e passing a n d m e e t i n g situations so t h a t those
aboard can enjoy a degree of peace of m i n d not possible when conning a
ship only a few years ago. F u r t h e r , t h e t h i r d m a t e no longer h a s to s t a n d
out on the bridge wing m a n n i n g the signal light on a cold, r a i n y winter
night arriving at Ambrose. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this also m e a n s t h a t t h i s s a m e
m a t e probably can't r e a d a m e s s a g e s e n t by flaslvng light when needed,
nor will h? or she enjoy t h e satisfaction of m a s t e r i n g t h a t skill so as to be
able to talk to a passing ship by f l a s h i n g light on the long night watch at
sea. Today, we instead suffer t h r o u g h long discussions on the V H F with
every p a s s i n g ship such as, "How w a s the w e a t h e r behind you?" a n d other
nonessential oommunication t h a t i n t e r f e r e s with i m p o r t a n t t r a n s m i s -
sions. Better we h a d etayed with t h e "What ship? Where bound?" of the
Aldis light days.
Be t h a t as it may, t h e V H F can be a g r e a t aid to the ship's officer if it is
used properlv. While t h e r e are good references available on proper radio
procedure, to e n s u r e t h a t the V H F is used to its best advantage, t h e r e are
also practices t h a t may not have been discussed sufTiciently.
1. Don't t r a n s m i t overly long messages, with tiresome and unnrces-
sary. repetitioi. of your ship's call letters after each transmission. It is
O O M M U N I C A T I O N ? WITH OTHEJt V E S S K I . S 37
necessary to give your call letters to anothcr ship only when making
an initiai transmission, and after the iast transmission of your dis-
cussion. Between the first and lasttransmissionsyou need only give
your call sign at ten-minute inieruals, although you will hopefully
keep radio communications shorter than that.
2. Call the pilot station, discuss the placement of the pilot ladder, up-
date your estimated time of arrival (ETA), and ask if there are any
special requirements for boarding facilities.
3. Use the VHF to contact the pilot services before arrival at t h e sta-
tion to discuss the traffic and weather that you might encounter as
you approach the station. This is often better information t h a n you
can obtain from a traffic control systeni, which we'll covcr in a later
chapter when we will discuss traffic movements and control in gen-
eral. SuiFice it to say t h a t the piiot is able to give you this informa-
tion and make your arrival safer and easier.
4. When talking to other ships, remember that while U.S.-flag ships
are accustomcd to discussing meeting situations according to thc-.ir
intentions for meeting and passing, ships of most nationalities dis-
cuss how they will change course to pass. Therefore, it is p r u d e n t for
the mariner to state any meeting arrangements in two ways to be
sure t h a t the other ship understands those arrangements. For ex-
ample: "Golden Gopher, this is the tanker Prudence. I will a l t e r my
course to starboard, to meet you port to port."
This will avoid any misunderstandings, even if there is little English
spoken on the other ship. If you are in U.S. inland waters, add "for one
whistle meeting." This p h r a s i n g of communications on the radio is com-
monly t.aught to apprentice pilots and should be adopt-id by ships' officers
as well.
Use the ship's whistle to supplement radio communications a n d fur-
t h e r clarify the plannod meeting, whether or not this is required by the
Rules of the Road. There is an unfortunate reluctance of deck officers to
use the s n i p s whistle today.
There was a collision sevüral years ago between a U.S. Navy mari-
ner-class supportship and a Liberian-flag, Chinese-manned, bulk carrier
at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. Itcould have been avoided if these
recommended procedures liad been followsd. The non-English-speaking
crew o f t h e bulk carrier thought the naval ship was going to alter course to
starboard, when in fact the naval ship had requested on the VHF radio a
38 ARRIVAL
s t a r b o a r d to s t a r b o a r d meeting. The only word clearly u n d e r s t c o d by the
Chinese m a s t e r was "starboard" and, since t h e rules t h a t most of the
world operates u n d e r outside U.S. w a t e r s discuss course changes. not
meeting situations, his mistake was n a t u r a l and quite common. T h e sea-
going community is i n t e r n a t i o n a l , s p e a k s m a n y tongues, a n d care is
needed when s p e a k i n g via V I I F to a r r a n g e meetings a n d passinge.
Lastly, do not call a n o t h e r s h i p by saying, "Ship on my s t a r b o a r d bow."
A call on VHF can be h e a r d at sea even u n d e r t h e worst conditions over an
a r e a of at least 1,400 square miles, so it is obvious t h a t you a r e certainly
not deílning t h e ship t h a t you w a n t to speak with. T h e r e are m a n y other
m e a n s of identifying t h a t ship, such as adding an appro::imate course t h a t
she is steering, or a geographic location, the ty pe of ship, or the hul i color.
Tecbnological a d v a n c e m e n t s such as the Automatic Identification Sys-
t e m (AIS), selectivo calling for VHFs, a n d the use of t r a n s p o n d e r s have re-
duced some of tlie confusion t h a t h a s been p r e v a l e n t when identifying
individual ships in congested w a t e r s . However, these aids do not elimi-
nate the need to coxTectly identify t h e vessel you a r e calling a n d impor-
lance of m a k i n g certain your communications are clear a n d precise.
It is also i m p o r t a n t t h a t m a r i n e r s appreciate and m a k e use of equip-
m e n t t h a t extends communications beyond the spoken word a n d radio
messages. Graphic p r e s e n t a t i o n s on a laptop used in two-way-based
DGPS systems such as the P a n a m a C a n a l innovative communications
tracking and navigation (CTAN) system are j u s t as m u c h a communica-
tion as spoken messages. In fact t h e "C" in CTAN s t a n d s for communica-
tions because designers of t h a t s y s t e m intentionally included f e a t u r e s
t h a t used the e q u i p m e n t for communications. A graphic presentation t h a t
includes AIS capability will. communicate more information in an i n s t a n t
t h a n a m a r i n e r or traffic coordinator could provide in two or t h r e e m i n u t e s
of spoken communications. This is especially t r u e in restricted w a t e r s
when experienced pilots relate lhe visual presentation to exieting weaíher.
currents, channel restrictions, a n d a developing situation to accurately
predict w h a t will happon a.s a vessel proceeds from the known point.
Successive g e n e r a t i o n s of m a r i n e r s h a v e relied on flags, biinker light,
and whistie signnls for communications. These visual and audible com-
munications were supplemented by verbal communications via V H F ra-
dio. Now, graphic p r e s e n t a t i o n s have developed as the next generation of
communications for m a n y purpose. This form of communications m u s t
now be considered when questions arise as to w h e t h e r ships and m a r i n e r s
have effectively t r a n s m i t t e d intentior.s a n d actions from ship to ship. T h e '
1'ILOT ABOARD 39
concept of graphic communications also extends to r a d a r and automatic
r a d a r plotting aid (ARPA) presentations although delays while making
calculations and the need for interpretation make tlien. less u&eful for
communications than high-definition, real-time DGPS-based systems
a n d systems that use graphic presentations in lieu of alphanumeric lists
a n d long, sometimes rambling radio communications. Changes and inno-
vations bring new forms of communications for each successive genera-
tion of mariners. Uses of these graphic presentations are evolvingas pilots
a n d m a r i n e r s find additional ways to use this tool.
This does not mean t h a t new systems always replace the old. Mariners
should use ali modes of communications as appropriate. The VIIF can be
used to tell others what you will be doing before it will be obvious to somc-
one inonitoring a radar or laptop, b u t the whistie signal is still appropriate
because it makes clear to everyone in the vicinity, including those not
monitoring a VHF or laptop, t h a t a ship is nlxmt to change course or p u t
t h e engine astern. Traditional tools are as useful as ever when maneuver-
ing relatively close to another vessel, but the new modes extend lho range
a n d speed of communications so shiphandlers can know w h a t is happen-
ing several miles away and arrange meeting and monitor progress of ships
even though they are not yet visible to each other. (See also chapter 12.)
PILOT ABOARD
A f t e r the ship's officer brings the pilot to the bridge, there are several
items t h a t should be covered before the ship's conn is turned over for the
passage up the channel. The first should not be to have the pilot write his
n a m e ; t h e r e are more important things to be taken care of, such as shap-
ing up for the channel and meeting other traílic.
Several pilols weregathered a r o u n u t h e table at the pilot slation, wait-
i n g f o r t h e arrival of their ships so t h a t they could begin their night's work.
Coffee w a s passed.
"Got myselfa Japanese containersb.ip tonight, which should niake for a
p l e a s a n t night's work. They wili be as efficient as bel], make their ETA.
a n d have a hot cup of coffee waiting for me when I get. up to t he bridge
"Yeah, and can't t h i n k o f a n y t h i n g I'd like more after boarding on a colá
night like this."
The júnior member of the group was to go aboard a German refriger-
ated ship. He joked t h a t the first thing the captain would say was, "Where
h a v e you been pilot? Wc have been waiting for ten minutes, and we do not
like b e i r g delayed like this."
40 ARRIVAL PILOT-M A S T E R E X C H A N G E O F I N F O R M A T I O N 41

T h i s observation h a s been m a d e by a t h o u s a n d pilots, on a thousand

niglits such as this, and always raised a l a u g h .
"I have an American ship, light d r a f t , a n d a long way to the bridge. Af-
ter going up 30 feet of icy ladder, a n d cPmbing six decks, 1*11 be p a n t i n g like
a race horse."
"Yeah, and the first thing you'11 be h a n d e d won't be coífee!"
"That's for sure. They'll stick t h e d a m n bell book in my h a n d and w a n t
me to writa my name!"
This brought a biçger laugh from ali in t h e room.
T h i s is a scene common to pilots from ali over t h e world. Before a pilot
can get a 'J.S.-flag ship headed fair, or even catch his b r e a t h , he is asked
for his name. No coffee, no sandwich, no "May I take your coat, pilot?" Pro-
fessionalism calls for something b e t t e r t h a n this. Keep it in mind the next
time you welcome a pilot aboard your vessel—let t h e m a n catcn his
b r e a t h , get the ship steadied up on course, h a n d h i m a cup of coífee, and
then ask for his name.

P1LOT-MASTER EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION

T h e pilot will n^ed information from t h e m a s t e r . While IMO regulations
now require a card to be posted in t h e w h e e l h o u s e s h o w i n g some of t h e
ship's particulars and m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics, t h i s card is not much
good on a d a r k night on a ship t h a t is u n d e r w a y . T h e s a m e information
will be much more useful if it is also c o n t a i n e d on a small pocketsize card
t h a t t h e pilot can look at with a f l a s h l i g h t while s t a r t i n g up the channel.
F u r t h e r , there is other information of m o r e use t h a n t h a t found on t h e ma-
neuvering card, which should be supplied by t h e m a s t e r . Is the engine in
proper operating condition? Does it respond quickly? Does the ship have
any steering peculiarities? Can she m a n e u v e r on heavy oil, or m u s t you
change to diesel prior to reducing to m a n e u v e r i n g tspeeds? Will there be any
problem letting go the anchor or m a k i n g up a tug due to deck cargo or the
ship's construction? This and m a n y other i t e m s m u s t be exchanged as it is
obviously to the m a s t e r 9 advantage t h a t t h e r e be no surprises for the pilot
a t a later time in the passage. The additional information required will vary Fig. 1-18. "Welcome aboard, Mr. Pilot. She's on full ahead, steady on
from ship to ship, imd voyage to voyage. It is here t h a t the professional 275, and ali yours."
knowledge o f t h e master alone can serve, and he m u s t give some thought
before arrival at the pilo.- station Lo m a k i n g up his own list of pertinent in- possible to design an cxchange t h a t will bc useful in every port. There is
formation, to supplement the nosted information required by regulation. some controversy regarding this pilot-master exchange and the amount of
T h e pilot should also provido several pieces of information to t h e mas- information that a pilot should provide to the master for what is, after a!l,
ter. Eveiy port is different with its own u n i q u e r e q u i r e i n e n t s so it is im- a fluid situation where much is subject to change as the ship transite from
42 \RRIVAL
dock to sea or vice versa, but the concerns are overblown and should be put
aside given the professional relationship t h a t exists b e t w e e n these two ex-
perienced m a r i n e r s .
In general, t h e pilot should provide tlie m a s t e r with a n y information
t h a t is relevant to the vessel's passage. At a m i n i m u m t his would include
• Reviewing the "pilot card" with the m a s t e r a n d discussing ship's
particulars and any peculiar h a n d l i n g characteristics.
• Fixing t h e c u r r e n t position a n d reviewing the general route from
t h a t point to the b e r t h or anchorage.
• Discussing the draft, trim, GM, a n d a n y considerations when speed
will be limiúed due to squat and u n d e r k e e ! clearance.
• Discussing any h a z a r d s to be encountered ( t h a t is, working dredges,
the possibility of reduced visibility, or recent shoaling).
• Reviewing traffic t h a t will be encountered e n r o u t e .
• Discussing limitations, special notice, m a n n i n g , a n d other m a t t e r s
affecting use of the engine.
• Communicating local regulations t h a t will affect t h e passage and
any required radio communications.
• Providing e s t i m a t e d call-out time for t h e crew, need for an anchor
watch, any special engine m a n e u v e r s .
• Discussing t h e berch, a r r a n g e m e n t of lines, a n d any special prob-
leins anticipated while docking.
• Anticipating w e a t h e r conditions a n d c u r r e n t s .
• Timing of pilot changes enroute.
• Establishing locations where tugs, if any, a r e expected including
special tug escorts.
• Reviewing special operating r e q u i r e m e n t s such as speeds, a r e a s
where ships cannot meet, t i m e a n d location to p u t out a l a d d e r for
docking pilots. readiness of anchor, need for lookouts.
• Discussing bridge e q u i p m e n t a n d its operation as well as t h e pilot
r e q u i r e m e n t s for deck officers to monitor the r a d a r and íix lhe
ship's position.
• Completing any special e q u i p m e n t tests and c o m m u n i c a t i n g any
other special information peculiar to a p a r t i c u l a r port.
This exchange can actually be completed in a few m i n u t e s . The entire
passage will be easier a n d safer for ali involved w h e n everyone on the
bridge has been properly briefed prior to beginning t h e passage. The pilot
PDSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS 43
can thon assume the conn with a definito, clcar s t a t e m e n t so ali on the
bridge know t h a t the conn has changed hands, m a k e anv socurity calls,
and proceed.
In the past, t h e r e have been attempts to rcgulate a long and ralhei
onerous exchange and even some consideration for requiring ships to an-
chor or otherwise ilelay proeeeding until t h a t exchange is completed.
These proposals by regulatoiy agencies are unnecessary if the pilot and
master provide a full and proper exchange for a given p o r t o u a voluntary
basis. Tt is in the best interest of the -ships officer, master, and pilot to
make sure complete information is passed relevant to the s h i p s passage.
Some pilot associations have adopted forms specific to the port to facili-
tate this information exchange. These pilot forms are generally more ef-
fective than the more generic company forms t h a t m u s t fit ali ports at
which the company's ships call. The pilot forms contain specific informa-
tion needed by the master and pilot for the intended passage. The Ameri-
can Pilots' Association and the state associations have been active in this
area so the pilot-master exchange is now widely accepted and common-
place.'
POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS
The applicable sections of the Code of Federal Regulations are excerpted
to show the information required on the posted card, and the minimum in-
formation t h a t should be presented to the pilot on the recommended wal-
let-size card. Several other items should also be included, such as the
ship's length, beam, displacement, horsepower; the distance from the
bridge to the bow and stern; distance from the bridge at which visibility is
restricted; the present draft; and a check-off list showing the operating
condition o f t h e engine, radar, and other navigational equipment; the bow
thruster; and any other items pertinent to your particular vessel.
The information required by law is general in n a t u r e and is for deeper
water than the pilot would ordinarily be interested in. Since the data is for
specific conditions and is too often based on analytical calculations or
modei tests, it is of limited use at best. Here again. it is obvious t h a t the
m a s t e r should eolleethis own data based on actual trials t h a t he will have
conducted at the earliest available opportunity after taking command of a
G
Mastcr-Pilot Exchange, A Position Paper, International Maritime Pilots"
Association, February 5, 1997.
44 ARRIVAL
new vessel. Since t h e r e have been so few actual trials u n d e r shallow water
conditions, any d a t a derived by calculation, or from simulations based on
such calculations, should only be considered as being a good approxima-
tion of a vessel's performance. As more tests a r e conducted, such as the
a f o r e m e n t i o n e d El Paso Marine C o m p a n y and Esso Osaka tests, there will
be m o r e valid d a t a available. Hopefully m o r e complete shallow water tests
will be conducted in the near f u t u r e for other classes of ships, as well.
As s t a t e d in the Code of Federal Regulations:
Aboard each ". . . ocean and coastwise t a n k s h i p of 1,600 gross tons or
over, t h e following m a n e u v e r i n g information m u s t be prominently dis-
played," etc. in the pilothouse on a f a c t sheet.
(1) For full and half speed, a t u r n i n g circle d i a g r a m to port a n d s t a r b o a r d
t h a t shows the time and t h e distance of a d v a n c e a n d t r a n s f e r re-
quired to alter t h e course 90 degrees with m a x i m u m r u d d e r angle and
c o n s t a n t power settings.
(2) T h e t i m e a n d distance to stop t h e vessel from full and half speed while
m a i n t a i n i n g approximately t h e initial h e a d i n g with m i n i m u m appli-
cation of rudder.
(3) For e a c h vessel with a fixed propeiier, a table of s h a f t revolutions per
m i n u t e for a representative r a n g e of speeds.
(4) For each vessel with a controllable pitch propeiier, a table of control
s e t t i n g s for a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r a n g e of speeds. -
(5) For each vessel t h a t is fitted with an auxiliary device to assist in ma-
neuvering, such as a bow t h r u s t e r , a table of vessel speeds at which
the auxiliary device is effective in m a n e u v e r i n g t h e vessel.
(6) T h e m a n e u v e r i n g information m u s t be provided for the normal load
a n d n o r m a l ballast condition for:
(i) Caim weather—wind 10 k n o t s or less, calm sea;
(ii) No c u r r e n t ;
(iii) Deep w a t e r conditions—water depth twice t h e vessel's d r a f t or
g r e a t e r ; and
(iv) Clean hull.
(7) At t h e bettom o f t h e fact sheet, the following s t a t e m e n t m u s t appear:
WARNING
The r e s p o n s e of t h e (name of vessel) may be d i l f e r e n t from those listed
above if a n y o f t h e following conditions, upon which the m a n e u v e r i n g in-
formation is based, are varied:
(1) Caim w e a t h e r — w i n d 10 knots or less, calm sea;
POSTING OF M A N E U V E R I N G CHARACTERISTICS 45
(2) No current;
(3) Water uepth twice the vessel's d r a f t or greater;
(4) Clean hull: and
<!5) Intermediate draíts or u n u s u a l trim.
* * *
(8) The information on the fact sheet m u s t be:
(i) Verified six months after the vessel is placed in service; or
(ii) Modified six months a f t e r the vessel is placed into service and
verified within three m o n t h s thereafler.
(9) The information that appears on the fact sheet may be obtained from:
(i) Trial trip observations;
(ii) Model tests;
(iii) Analytical calculaãons;
(iv) Simulations;
(v) Information established from another vessel of similar hull form.
power, rudder and propeiier, or
(vi) Any combination of the above.
The accuracy of the information in the fact sheet required is t h a t at-
tainable by ordinary sliipboard navigation equipment.
(10) The requirements for information for fact sheets for specialized crafl
such as semisubmersibles, hydrofoils, hovercraíl, and other vessels of
unusual design will be specified on a case-by-case basis.
When you are sure that the pilot is fully briefed, then, and only t h e n ,
can the conn be turned over to him. For some reason, it is the custom
aboard too many ships to have the ship on full ahead and on the general
heading for the channel when the pilot gets to the bridge. The turnover of
the conn then consists of, "She is on full and heading 330, pilot." Too m a n y
m a s t e r s think t h a t the faster the changeover takes placo, the more profes-
sionally it has been done. Ridiculous! And t h a t is just how the pilot in-
volved in such a turnover feels about it. Give the pilot sufficient time to get
his eyes adjusted to the night, g a t h e r ali the needed information, and t h e n
t u r n the -.-onr. over to hiin. A professional is never in i liurrv to do a n y t h i n g
aboard ship, yet more often than not aboard the merchant ships of most
nr tionalities this hurried evolution t a k e s place. It has taken you two
weeks to get to this port. What is five more minutes?

CHAPTER TWO
SHIFflANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Seamen, with their inherent sense of order. ser\ice, and
discipline, should really be running the world.
—Anonymous
The squall passeei as suddenly as it hacL arrived and ali that remaincd was
the misí rising off the hot, wet deck. Only a few minutes ago we had been
feeling our way up the winding river channel as the driving rain blinded
those on the bridge. The pilot. had navigated primarily by radar, alternat-
ing between that equipment and the forward wheelhouse windows where
he peerea through the heavy rain to verify what he was seeing on the scope.
Never was a uoice raised, as courses and engine speeds were given to keep
the ship in the channel, and this display ofskill and confidence was appre-
ciated by ali on the bridge.
The aura of professionalism that surrounded this pilot's actions is as
much a product of experience and attitude as it is the result of technical
training and skill. It is essential that ali seagoing professionals develop
this aspect of their work along with their technical snills. Professionalism
is a learned trait, qualitative in nature and difficult to define. We have ali
observed the shipmaster or pilot who is obviously in command of a situu-
tion, a person who is a professional, and the manner in which he performed
his work was, ofitself, a definition of professionalism.
Because of the uriqueness of the seagoing environment and of the sea
rnan's work, the "showboating" often resorted tú in other professions to
impress one's peers and superiors is out of place aboard ship. Decision-
making committees and the substitution of rhetoric for content are mecha •
nisms that can be used to hide inability in some fields. Not so aboard ship
Here you must be competrnt and confident about your work, and any lactt
of skill will become evident in a short time. Further, you must also appear
compctent to those you work with so they too have confidence in your skills
and respond without the delay or questioning that leads to confusion.
Since professionalism cannot be. learned from a book, those who teach
at the various maritime academies and schools, and more importantly, the
46
BANK EFFECTS 47
sênior officers aboard ship, have a responsibility to nurture its develop-
rr.ent amongyounger officers just starting out in their carecrs. This offers a
signifícant challenge in n» em when it is fashionable to denigratc tradi-
tional skills and quict competence. Dernand professionalism from ali
aboard. Ships cannot function properly without a singular high standard
of performance and sense of responsibility.
BANK EFFECTS
In the portion of a river where the channel narro ws, the ship begins feeling
t h e steep bank dose on the starboard hand. She wants to sheer to port as
t h e combination of suction on the starboard quarter and, to a lesser de-
gree, the cushion of water b u i l t u p between the ship's starboard bow and
t h e bank become more strongly felt. The problem is compoundcd when it is
necessary to siow the ship; tne rudder loses some effectiveness as the flow
of water is reduced, while the suction a t t h e stern, which is primarily a fac-
tor of the ship's speed through the water, remains s:rong. The ship mu*-t
be moved further from the bank and the rudder angle increased.
But w h a t if the ship gets so close to the bank t h a t she s t a r t s to sheer
across the channel? Don't redice engine speed, because at this point the
r u d d e r needs to be as effective as possible and any reduction in the ship's
speed t h a t might result from a change in engine revolulions will be negli-
gible in such a short period of time. Rather, let the head fali a few degrees
off course across the channel while maintaining some rudder angle to-
w a r d the near bank, and increase engine speed so the flow of water p a s t t h e
r u d d e r increases significantly. When the heading has changed a few de-
grees toward the center of the channel, increase the rudder angle toward
tlie near bank to first check the swing, and then to bring the ship back on
course as she reaches the center of the channel, or at least reaches a dis-
tance from the closer bank t h a t will allow her to be steered safely. Only af-
t e r gett:ng away from the bank should the engine speed be reduced so the
ship loses some headway and the tendency to take a shaer is reduced. It is
obvious that a ship should not proceed in a narruw channel at Iull maneu-
vering speed, since she would not have any revolutions in reserve should
tney be required.
Remembcr too t h a t a ship wants to move closer to a bank, due to the in-
crcased flow of water and the resullant reduced pressure along her side
closest to the bank. F'or reasons explained by Signore Bernoulli, a ship
w a n t s to move laterally toward a closer bank even though her heading is
parallel to it. Either keep the ship headed at some sinall anglo away from
48 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
the b a n k or hold h e r in the center of the c h a n n e l when not m e e t i n g another
vessel.
As is oointed out again and again in this text, t h e forces acting on a ship
can often be put to your advantage, m a k i n g an aid of w h a t seems to the
n o n m a r i n e r to be a hazard. When m a k i n g a t u r n , a b a n k can be put close
enough to the q u a r t e r to cause t h e ship to s h e e r in t h e direction of the t u r n
and t h u s m a k e a t u r n t h a t she otherwise could not n a v i g a t e , or at least
could not navigate at the speed t h a t is possible u s i n g t h e s e forces. As an
example, t h e r e a r e t u r n s in the Gaillard C u t in t h e P a n a m a Canal t h a t
theoretically cannot be negotiated by m a n y s h i p s w i t h o u t t u g assistance
and yet s h i p s have been m a k i n g these t u r n s easily througliout the life of
t h e Canal with the aid of bank suction. If your s h i p should t r a n s i t the P a n -
a m a C a n a l or a n o t h e r narrow w a t e r w a y , watch t h e r u d d e r angle indicator
and the position of t h e ship and you will find t h e ship going around m a n y
t u r n s w i t h t h e r u d d e r amidships. A s e a m a n r o u t i n e l y u s e s learned skills
to t u r n potential h a z a r d s into aids, both in close w a t e r a n d offshore.
This s a m e b a n k suction can also assist a ship to p a s s a n o t h e r vessel in
a n a r r o w channel, to locate the center of a c h a n n e l in t i m e s of limited visi-
bility, or to m a k e routine m a n e u v e r s , as long as it is p l a n n e d a n d allowed
for. Keep in mind, though, t h a t speed m u s t be r e s t r i c t e d so t h e ship can
come a h e a d if t h e sheer should become g r e a t e r t h a n desired.
Fig. 2-1. "The quiet m a n n e r in which t h e pilot w e n t a b o u t his work
Tl DE AND C f K R E N l 40
PLANNING AHEAD
Once again we soe the importance of planning a h e a d to use natural
forces to advantage. Thinking ahead and planning m a n e u v e r s based on
an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e forces acting on the ship. much like a chcss mas-
ter who wins by planning severa! moves at one time so they follow in a
logical order, is esscntial if a ship is to bc moved efficiently and safely.
T h e p r o : e s s of thinking several steps ahead underlies every maneuver
discussed in this text. Its importance in your development as an excel-
l e n t s h i p h a n d l e r , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t as an acceptable s h i p h a n d l e r , cannot
be exaggerated.
Understand ship behavior, properly reduce ship's speed, use existing
conditions and forces to advantage to assist the ship's rudder and ensino
in maneuvering and, most important. think ahead ofthe ship so that she is
reacting to your orders rather than your orders being given in reaction to
the ship's behavior—these are the basics of excellent shiphandling. Think
a h e a d of your ship at ali times.
TIDE AND CURHENT
Many rivers cannot be negotiated by larger ships without a fair tide since
a head current hinders them in making turns. As shown in figure 2-2, a
fair current helps the stern around a bend when it strikes Lhe quarter, so
the stern comes around at a greater rate. At the same time the bow is as-
sisted by the eddy currcnts reflected out of the bend and the lack of current
on the bow on the point side o f t h e bend. In conlrast, for a given speed over
t h e bottom, a ship stemming a tide has a greater fiow of water passing be-
tween her and the bank, retarding the stern's motion around a turn and
forcing the bow and ship bodily towards the bank (fig. 2-2).
Since a ship t h a t is closer to the bottom is more difficult to control, high
w a t e r makes the pilot's job easier—aside from just putting enough water
u n d e r a deep loaded ship to ensure that she is in the desirable state of be-
ing always afloat! By moving with a rising tide to ensure a fair current and
deeper water, a ship is using both tide and current to her best advantage.
The current changes at each area of a channel at a different time and is
affected by several factors such as freshets resulting from heavy rains
u p r i v e r and strong off- or onshore winds so tides may occur at significantly
different times than predicted. Keep a s e a m a n s eye on the current. Do-
velop the h a b i t of looking at pilings, buoys, and other fixed objecta to
check the actual current against t h a t which has been predict(;d until the
50 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
practice becomes as n a t u r a l as b r e a t h i n g . It's t h e difference between the
neophyte a n d t h e professional.
TYPES OF RUDDERS AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS
While the m a r i n e r h a s an academic i n t e r e s t in t h e characteristics of ali
the various t y p e s of r u d d e r and propulsion systemo used on ships today,
the s h i p h a n d l e r m u s t first be concerned with how t h e ship responds to the
system with which she is fitted. He can't c h a n g e t h a t r u d d e r or engine,
w h e t h e r or n c t '.he ship handles poorly, b u t m u s t live with t h e ship as she
is. A practiced s h i p h a n d l e r will know in a very s h o r t t i m e how effective the
r u d d e r is a n d how the ship will r e s p o n d to v a r y i n g a m o u n i s of rudder an-
gle. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the tendency t o w a r d s s m a l l e r r u d d e r s on larger ships
has made t h e shiphandler's t a s k more difficult.
Again, p l a n ahead so the r u d d e r a n d propulsion system can be used as
effectively as possible. Procesd at a modera te speed so greater engine rev-
olutions can be used as needed to increase t h e flow of water p a s t the rud-
der a n d t h u s increase t h e r u d d e r s effectiveness w i t h o u t creatir.g other
problems. By u s i n g the engine in this m a n n e r , for only as long as needed to
obtain t h e tie&ired results, the s h i p h a n d l e r can usually overcome any in-
h e r e n t deficiencies in t h e s h i p s design. This tactic is particularly eíTective
'1 Y P E S OF R U D D E R S A N D P R O P U L S I O N S Y S T E M S 51
with a diesel ship since immediate, large changes in revolutions can bocb-
tained; a steam turbine ship increases revolutions more slowly and more
caie is necessary to keep the sh:p's speed down while still controlling
steering. Obviously then, speed is important when steering a ship— suífi-
cient headway is needed to make steering possible, yet speed must be kept
down to minimize unwanted hydrodynamic eílects and to have suíficienL
engine speed in reserve to increase rudder effectiveness when required.
Ships fitted with balanced spade rudders often will not steer when
large rudder angles are used. A turbulent flow develops over the r u d d e r s
surface so its lifting effect is lost anu it stalls. Occasionally a ship is still
designed with such a rudder and ali those ir.volved in her design and con-
struction seem surprised when she goes aground early in her life while
trying to negotiate a normal turn. A few years ago, a class of largo German
c o n t a i n è r s h i p s was fitted with such a rudder and suffered several
groundings within a few months. Tug assistance was required so those
ships could m a k e turns that other ships of similar size navigated rou-
tinely. If a ship's profile drawings show a spade rudder, beware of turns iv-
quiring t h e use of more than 5 to 10 degrees of rudder anglo. The rudder
m a y stall, and the loss of effectiveness means t h a t the ship will just con-
t i n u e along her course as if she had no rudder until she fetches up at some
point where you never intended to be.
Propeiier design has a significant effect on Lhe handling characteris-
tics of a ship. The direction of rotation affeets the sln'p's behavior, Lhe di-
rection in which the vessel tends to twist when the engine is put astern.
and the diameter of the turning circle for right and left turns, as discussed
in chapter 1. The size of the propeiier affeets the stopping and steering
ability of the ship since higher revolutions are required to get a good llow
over the rudder at reduced speeds when the ship is fitted with a smaller di-
a m e t e r propeiier.
The handling characterisLics of a ship fitted with a variable-pitch pro-
peiier are significantly different from those of a ship with a fixed blade
propeiier. Variable-pitch propulsion systems have advantages since a die-
sel engine so fitted does not ha»e to be stopped and restarted to go astern,
a n d an almost infinite choice of speeds is available. Further, you cari go
a s t e r n indefmitely, which isn't possible with a turbine-driven ship, and,
u n l i k e a conventional motor ship, you can change the direction of pro-
pulsion repeatedly withouL being concerned about e x h a u s t i n g Lhe sup-
ply of sLarLing air. These a d v a n l a g e s have at Limes been used as a basis
for recommending t h a t VLCCs be fitted with this type of propulsion. The
52 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L DIHKCTIONAL P R O P U L S I O N S Y S T E M S 53

d r a w b a c k s should also he considored, however, belure deciding whether Advantages

variable-pitch propuision is as desirable as claimed:
This is primarily a texton handling oceangoing ships so this discussion of
omnidirectional propulsion will 1'ocus on the uses of a generic Azipod sys-
1. Wlien reducing the speed of a ship fitted w i t h a variable-pitch pro-
tein r a t h e r than other omnidirectional systems t h a t are more commonly
peller, the llow of water p a s t t h e r u d d e r is significantly disrupted
used on smaller vessels. There are more similarities than differcnces be-
u n l e s s the pitch is reduced very gradually. T h e adverse effect on
tween the various omnidirectional systems so, with a few exceptions, a n y
steering is significant. The propeller c a n n o t safely be put at zero
discussion of advantages, disadvantages, standardized terminology, and
pitch tc reduce the ship's h e a d w a y since t h i s completely disrupts
cominands for Azipod systems also apply to other omnidirectional propui-
the needed flow of water to tlie r u d d e r .
sion syslems.
2. A variable-pitch propeller going a s t e r n is less effective than a con-
There are some obvious advantages t h a t make omnidirecLional sys-
ventional propeller. This compounds t h e aforementioned steering
tems particularly attractive for passenger vessels and, to a lesser e x t e n t ,
problems since, because it is more difficult to d r i f t the way off a ship
some other special-purpose ships.
fitted with a variable-pitch propeller, it is often necessary to use the
engine astern for longer periuds of time to stop her.
• Electric generators power the Azipod sysíein and the drive motors
are located at the stern outside the hull. This gives the naval archi-
When approaching a berth, lock, or pilot station, it is therefore neces-
tect some freedom in design.
sary to s t a r t slowing a ship equipped with this type of propeller sooner than
• Machinery is located in more appropriate areas within the ship's
would be required with a conventional propeller, a n d to then use minimum
hull so high-revenue spaces are available for staterooms and pas-
pitch to steer at slow speed once headway is sufficiently reduced.
senger services.
Since a variable pitch propeller is normally t u r n i n g at high RPM, even
• A s h a f t is not required to transmit power to the propeller.
when in position and stopped at the b e r t h at zero pitch, be sure to keep
• The system is inhercntly q-iieter so noise is reduced in ali areas of
stern lines clear of t h e water when docking. I n f o r m l i n e h a n d l e r s on the
the ship.
dock t h a t this is necessary, as a Iine can become fouled in this rapidly
• The system is safer because the engine does not have to be stopped
t u r n i n g propeller in an amazingly s h o r t period of time. A t u g working at
and reversed to go astern. This eliminates the risk of losing engine
t h e s t e r n m u s t also be cautioned.
power that is always present when conventional diesel engines do
not restart while maneuvering ahead and astern.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
• Air compressora can be significantly smaller since the engine will
In collaboraHon with Captain Paul Ives and Captain Earl R. McMillin not be repeatedly stopped and restarted.
• The ships are highly maneuverable because the drives are variable
More ships and tugs a r e being built with n e w t y p e s of propulsion and r j d -
speed and directional with controls for twin drives t h a t can be split in
der configurations including the Voith-Schneider a n d Shottel systems
Harbor mode so power is applied in two directions simultaneously.
used primarily for t u g s and self-prupelled b a r g e s a n d Azipod propulsion
systems being used at this time primarily for p a s s e n g e r vessels, a fe*-
tankers, and some special-purpose vessels s u c h as ice breakers. These and other advantages are obvious to experienced mariners who
These omnidirectional drives m a k e a vessel highly m a n e u v e r a b l e and. m a n e u v e r ships fitted with Az ; pod propulsion and similar systems.
for ships, they make it possible to operate more safely in restricted waters
Concerns
and call at marginal ports u n d e r conditions not previously possible.
Schedule keepingis improvcd and operating e x p e n s e s for port calls are re- T h e r e are also potential problems stemming from the manner in which
duced since fewer t u g s are required. Azipods are sometimes operated. Those problems are not inherent to the
54 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
Azipod systern. T h e y stem primarily from i m p r o p e r application, and thev
can be m i n i m i z e d if shipowners and o p e r a t o r s accept the potential nega-
tives and deal with them in a constructive m a n n e r . Some o f t h e more im-
p o r t a n t concerns inciude:
• The power a n d maneuverability of Azipod s y s t e m s create the illu-
sion t h a t traditional shiphandling skills a n d the practice of good
s e a m a n s h i p a r e less important with these n e w systems.
• Termin.ology for various equipment, o p e r a t i n g modes, and maneu-
vers m u s t be standardizod i n d u s t r y wide so officers, crews, pilots,
a n d o t h e r s who m a i n t a i n and operate t h e s y s t e m s speak a common
language.
• T h e p l e t h o r a of Azipod configurations m a k e s t h e system unneces-
sarily complicated to operate if the s h i p h a n d l e r a t t e m p t s to use ali
possible positiors instead of adopting a few s t a n d a r d configura-
tions.
• T h e potential for single-person operation to s t e e r and m a n e u v e r
creates a very real risk t h a t the concepts of bridge resource man-
a g e m e n t will be ignored.
• C o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d operation of the Azipod s y s t e m can be used in-
a p p r o p r i a t e l y to dock, undock. and m a n e u v e r in restricted waters.
• T h e r e is also some expectation t h a t Azipod s y s t e m s will be more ex-
pensive to m a i n t a i n due to both the cost of r e p a i r s to t h e system and
lost t i i r e when a ship is out of service for m a i n t e n a n c e .
• T h e r e is a real concern t h a t traditional s h i p h a n d l i n g and s e a m a n -
ship skills will be lost as officers serve a b o a r d ships fitted with
highly powered and maneuverable omnidirectional systems.
Each of these points is discussed in more detail in t h e following par.v
graphs.
An Excellent Aid, but Recognize Limits
It is possible to use b r u t e power to m a n e u v e r Azipod vessels into situa-
tions t h a t no skilled shiphandler wculd accept. T h e problems t h a t i n e v i t a -
bly occur when high horsepower replaces good s e a m a n s h i p can be masked
when s h i p h a n d l e r s use the system continuously at full or near full oower.
This occurs most commonly when less experienced ship's officers operate
the system. It is particularly common w h e n u s i n g t h e joystick and corn-
p u t e r input. Skilled m a r i n e r s and pilots never work a ship at its maxi-
D I K E C T I O N A L PROPULSION S Y S T E M S 55
mum, and they always have options as they maneuver, dock, or undock
When the ship is put into situations that require continuous use of the
thrustor and engine at half and full enjii.o, the ship is at risk.
I 'nfortunately. less experienced shiphandlers often fail to recognize
when this point :s reached until wind or current increases further or the
ship is setting down on an adjacent vessel and they find they have no re-
serve power or options. Ali systems are operating at their maximum and,
very quickly, an apparently routine docking or undocking becomes a cer-
tain accident. Skilled shiphandlers would never do t h a t since they plan
ahead and always have options for maneuvering if the wind increases or
shifts, currents a r e s t r o n g e r than anticipated, or other conditions change.
Experienced masters and pilots bringingconventional ships alongside
a dock while repeatedly using engine revolutions for half and full ahead
and astern know instinctively there is a problein. Rapid and repeaLed
changes in engine and thruster at higher revolutions are often Lhe first in-
dication t h a t an Azipod vessel is at risk. The computer will a t t e m p t to ful-
fill any instruction, right or wrong, using every tool available until there
are no additional options available regardless of Lhe consequences. Rapid
changes,... higher power,..., use of every asset with m a x i m u m and rapid
rudder movements as the computer attempts to complete an order are ali
signs the ship is being put injeopardy.
Shiphandlers should reeualuate any maneuver if engines and
thruster must be used at half or full power for more than occa-
sional shortperiods oftinie as the ship approaches a dock or ma-
neuvers in close quarters.
This may sound like common sense but, unfortunately, anecdot.al in-
formation from pilots and mariners indicates Lhis practice is increasingly
common while maneuvering Lhis generation of Azipod ships. It is incuin-
bent upon shipowners and shiphandling instrucLors Lo stress that ships
are ships and the Azipod system is an itnproved shiphandling tool. The
same practices of good seamanship and shiphandling t h a t apply te other
types of ships also apply to ships equipped with Azipod propulsion sysLerns.
Design and Controls
The design and controls may differ from ship to ship b u t the design is basi-
cally the same. Pods conLaining elecLric drives are fitted at the stern of a
vessel. The pods are rotaled 300 degrees so the direction of thrust can be
56 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS

c h a n g e d and even reversed by rotating tlie pcd or reversing the direction helm stand, or by the officer on watch, or a conning officer operating t h e
a n d s p e e d of tlie propeller mounted at the forward end of the pod. T h e ex- system from a console, with or without compuler assistance (fig. 2-4).
t e r n a i electric drive receives power from the ship's diesel g e n e r a t o r s . A Use of Standard Tcrrninology
typical i n s t a l l a t i o n is shown in figure 2-3.
The systems have various operating modes. Terminology to desoribe the
Some i n s t f J l a t i o n s also have a iixed pod on the centerline. N a v a l archi-
arrangements and modes varies from one manufacturei- and vessel opera-
tect3 a n d buikicrs h a v e plans for other modifications of this Azipod design
tor to another although most can be broken down to an "open water" or
t h a t i n c l u d e h a v i n g a propeller on both ends, one p u l l i n g a n d one pushing.
"cruise" At Sea mode, a Harbo" or maneuvering mode, and a Docking
T h e r e a r e also designs t h a t use a conventional s h a f t a n d propeller with a
jpode for use when actually going alongside or loaving a berth. The modes
pod i m m e d i a t e l y a s t e r n of t h a t propeller. In port the pod acts as a stern
can be further categorized as automatic or manual.
thruster.
Typical modes and commands in use include:'
Azipods are controlled in seveial ways. Typical controls include non-
follow-up lever controls, conventional wheel with t h r o t t l e controls, large
Curnpany A Compa/iy li Cornpany C
k n o b s , a n d combination controls t h a t simultaneously rota te to d e t e r m i n e
1. Call Combi (Cruise) 1. Open Sea (At Se.») 1. Maneuvering high
t h e direction of t n r u s t and move forward and a f t to apply m o r e or less 2. Separate RPM (Cruise) 2. Maneuver DirectfAt 2. Maneuvering low,
power a n d d e t e r m i n e the direction of propeller rotation. Sea) port, or starboard
Most s y s t e m s also have a joystick control to change t h e orientation of 3. Call Azimuth (Maneuver) 3. Azimen—Port or 3. Joystick (Cruise or
t h e pod a n d the drive motor speed and thuí, the direction and t h r u s t of t h e starboard (Maneuver) Maneuver)
propeller. T h e s y s t e m s can be controlled by a h e l m s m a n at a conventional 4. Call Joystick Dynamic 4. Joystick—(At Sea or
Positioning (Maneuver; manouver)
a. High speed
b. Low speed

The language of the sea was developed out of nocessity so m a r i n e r s

could give orders, provide instruction, and operate systems safely and ef-
fectively as they moved from ship to ship and cornpany to company. Need-
less variations t h a t refiect the designers whim more than any actual
difference in operations serve no purpose. Some standardization of termi-
nology- is parlicularly important given the increasingly international mix
of s h i p s crews and owners. The ship's bow shouM be called the bow re-
gardless of which company operates the ship.
The sooner the industry accepts a standard nomenclature for this inno-
vative propulsion system, the better, since training and operations are
hindered when mariners refer to the same controls and modes by different
narnes as they move from one ship to another. There are enough similari-
ties in modes t h a t g e n e r a l t e r m s can be used in any discussion focusing on
these systems from the viewpoint of operation and shiphandling.

!
Fig. 2-3. Typical Azipod propelled ship. Courtesy K v a e r n e r - M a s s Yards. Information from chart bv Larry Reimer—RTM ST AR Center.
 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L D I R E C T I O N A L PROPULSION S Y S T E M S 59

For the purpose of this text, there are three mudes: "At Sea," "llarbor,"
and "Docking" with minimal configurations in each mode. The At Sea and
Harbor medes are fv.rthcr categorizcd cs auiomatic ot manual.

Minimize Aí odes of Operation

Fig. 2-4. A typical Azipod control console w i t h various steering, engine,
anci thi*uster controls plus instrumentation. Courtesy RTM STAR Center.
Good s e a m a n s h i p requires adopting s t a n d a r d modes of operation for most
situations and describing those modes using terminology accepted indus-
try-wide. Once t h a t is done, it is also possible to take the next step in the
evolving operation of Azipods and adopt standard conning orders so the
ship can be maneuvered from any location on the bridge by a s h i p h a n d l e r
or pilot no longer confined to s t a n d i n g ever the control console.
Modes and procedures for Azipod operation currently vary in severa!
ways from company to company. Forexample, some owners encourage t h e
systems be used in ali possible modes, positions, and power settings re-
gardless of how r e d u n d a n t some positions might be or how confusing t h e
operation might become. O t h e r shipowners and m a n u f a c t u r e r s ü m i t
Azipod position and power to a few options. The latter policy is based on
t h e premise t h a t many a r r a n g e m e n t s have the same n e t eílect on vessel
movement.
Operation can be kept simple without compromising the advantages of
the system. Some ship operators have already adopted the policy with
notable success. The validity of this approach is deinont trated when skilled
shiphandlers and pilots are training on bridge simulatois. Without coach-
ing or direction, these experienced shiphandlers quickly evolve to the s a m e
basic configurations for the Azipod drives because they recognize from ox-
perience the most eífective operation for a particular situation.

1 AUTOMATIC IDENTI FICATION At Sea Mode (Sornetimes Called the Cruisc or Open Sea Mode)
2 AZIPODS
When operating in open w a t e r in the "at soa" mode
3 Bow RADAR
^ D G P S AKJTENINA
5 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION • The rotation of the pod is limited to 35 degrees to port and starboard
6 STABILÍZEIRT, of t h e centc-rline.
7 STERN RADAR • Full po^ or is r-vailable.
3 "THRUSTERS x s X / ? • Pod movement is synchronized so pods inove in unison.
^ TV hoNlTORS
• The pods, and t h u s the ship, can be steered using the helm, wheel,
rnini-wheel, autopilot, or differential positioning system.

Fig. 2-5. "'No m a t t e r h o w m a n y bells and w h i s t l e s she has, lads, she is Power At Sea is about double the horsepower available while maneu-
still a ship." vering in the Harbor mode. The pods are synchronized to move together
60 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
and power is reduced to zero ifoperators a t t e m p l to rota tu tlie drives to an-
glos g r e a t e r t h a n .35 degrees from the centerline.
Harbor (or Maneuvering) Mode
There are some v a r i a t i o n s among systems b u t when most Azinods aro in
the "harbor" mode
• Power is r e d u c e d to approximately 50% of t h e power available at
sea.
• T h e pods can be rotated 360 degrees.
• T h e pods can be rotated independently and be used at diíTerent and
total v a r i a b l e angles (there a r e er.ceptions with s y s t e m s t h a t allow
only one pod to be rotated).
• S t e e r i n g is done by pod control, combi-controls, d i f f e r e n t i a l posi-
tioning system, joystick, nonfollow-up steering, a n d by v a r y i n g rev-
olutions of t h e port and starboard engines a h e a d a n d a s t e r n .
Basic Configurations
Based on w a t c h i n g t h e experienced s h i p h a n d l e r s at work, t h e r e is good
basis for l i m i t i n g Azipod operation to a few configurations, three-to-four
in m o s t cases. Those configurations are changed only periodically as con-
ditions c h a n g e , t h a t is, the s h i p h a n d l e r will use one configuration for open
channels, a n o t h e r for approaching the berth, a n d a t h i r d for going along-
side. They will probably a d o p t o n e or two others for special s i t u a t i o n s but,
in any case, t h e modes are minimized.
As previously stated, some basic configurations were adopted based on
pilots using t h e s y s t e m s in varying situations. Interestingly, these are the
same positions described in a pamphlet distributed by Electronic and Ma-
rine Research.' O t h e r configurations are described in t h a t publication b u t it
is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t experienced pilots auickly evolved to t h e s a m e configura-
tions described by Electronics & Marine Research I n d u s t r i e s (EMRI). This
is not a coincidence—there are good reasons to select these configurations.
Keep in mind while discussing these configurations t h a t t h e propeUer
i s on the f o r w a r d end of t he pod and t u r n i n g a h e a d as indicaied by the ar-
rows when the pods a r e operating in t h e normal position.
2
Steering Control Systems for Azipod, Electronic and Marine Research,
Ilerlev, Denmark, 1998, ng. 4.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS 61
Configuration itl (At Sea Mode)
In open water the pods are placed parallel to the centerline and moved to-
gether in a synchronized mode much as rudders are moved with conven-
tional ships (lig. 2-6).
Note that steering using Azipods is very similar to steering with an out-
board motor or tiller since the pod is turned to port to turn lhe ship to star-
board.
This takes some thought at first when using the lever or combi-control
since the wheel has been used for so long to steer a ship. Wheel commands
were standardized for merchant ships many years ago so a rudder com-
mand "right ten" means to p u t the wheel to the right to inove the ship's head
to starboard. With the Azipod system, the pod follows the control. The pod is
turned to port, which moves the stern to port and the ship's head to star-
board, so the ship t u r n s to starboard. This operation quickly becomes intu-
itive when the shiphandler accepts the concept that the steering control
and the pod are tiller controls so steering a ship with the Azipod in this con-
figuration is exactlv like steering a small boat with an outboard. The opera-
tor moves the handle of an outboard to port to turn the boat to starboard.
This is true in ali modes although the concept is first encountered in the
open channel when the pod configuration in figure 2-6 is being used.
Configuration 1*2 (Harbor Mode;
In this configuration, the pods are placed at 45 degrees in opposition to
eacii other. The propelier setting is changed to maneuver while lhe pod re-
mains in this fixed position. The arrangement is particularly useful at
slow speeds in open channels and anchorages (fig. 2-7).
3
STAR Center Azipod I^cture Material, Captain Paul Ives, lnstructor RTM
ST AR Center, Dania, Florida, February 2002.
62 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
Fig. 2-7. H a r b o r Mode configuration #2.
An i n s t r u c t o r at t h e RTM STAR Center, a facility w h e r e m a n v passen-
ger s h i p m a s t e r s and piloüs a r e trained, refers to this a r r a n g e m e n t as the
"bicycle mode." 4 T h i s t e m i ia quite descriptive of the m a n n e r in which
ships are h a n d l e d in this a r r a n g e m e n t . For example, the port control is
moved a h e a d a n d l h e starboard control is pulled back to t u r n the s h i p s
head to s t a r b o a r d . T h i s is t h e s a m e motion as the h a n d l e b a r s of a bicycle
where t h e left side m o v e s forward as the right side is moved back to turn
the bicycle to t h e r i g h t . The two handles are in line, t h a t is, t h e s e t t i n g of
both propellers is the s a m e , to move s t r a i g h t j u s t as t h e h a n d l e b a r s of a b ; -
cycle would be in line when moving s t r a i g h t ahead. The angle of t h e pods
also helps stabilize t h e ship at slow speeds and, by increasing t h e setting
of one pod only, the s t e r n can be held a g a i n s t a wind to a s s i s t in keeping
the ship on a desired h e a d i n g at slow speeds.
There is some dispute over the usefulness of this configuration. Ship-
handlers are using this arrangement less often and some companies are rec-
ommending" against using Azipods in this manner. Marineis report some
difficulty in maintaining course in narrow channels because Azipods have so
much power t h a t even small changes in settings can cause unacceptable
changes in headrng. At the same time, many pilots seem to like this configura -
tion when proceeding at slow speeds. The information is olfered so ship-
handlers can try this conílguration and decide for themselves whether the
configuration is useful, as has been the theory, or t h a t the parallel pod ar-
rangement with ronventional steering should be used ali the way to the berth.
Configuration #3 (Docking Mode)
The s h i p h a n d l e r o r d e r s the Docking mode at an a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e as the
ship a p p r o a c h e s the dock. The pod closest to the berth, t h a t is, t h e p o r t pod
4
STAR Center Azipod Lecture Material, Captain Joseph Lobo, Instructor RTM
STAR Centei, Dania, Florida, February 2002.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS 63
when docking port side to, is set parallel to the centerline. The pod away
from the berth, the outboard pod, is put in a threc- o'clock position relativo
to the centerline (fig. 2-8). In this position the fore and aft unit is used to
move the ship ahead and astern. The unit at right angles to the centerline
acts as a powerful stern t h r u s t e r to both steer and move the stern toward
or away from the berth by moving the stern to starboard or port. In con-
junction with the bow t h r u s t e r , the ship is turned, moved ahead toward
the berth ing position, and turned to move into the open dock area and to-
ward the berth Handling is simplified and intuitive and the ship is always
under control with this arrangement.
Standardizcd Commands and Conning
The multiplicity of pod configurations is an engineers dream but a
shiphandler's nightmare. It would beimpressivebutillogical to discuss ali
the configurations and nuances possible with Azipods or to try and use
thein. There are several advantages to limiting and standard izing the pod
position including the fact t h a t standard commands can then be adopted.
Pilots using Azipods at the RTM STAR Simulator tried various meth-
ods and commands for conning a ship while standing away from the con-
sole. In other words, they took the Azipod system to the final stage of
development by integrating the controls into propership operations. Two
methods were used to conn the ship. Both work well.
IR configuration #1, steering and engine commands are given in the
same manner as done for conventionai ships.
In configurations U2 and #3, the pods were positioned by degrees or
clock positions relative to the bow and engine orders are given in pp.rcent-
age of power ahead or astern.
For example, commands might be port engine at ten oclock, twenty
percent power ahead; starboard engine at two oclock, twenty percent
power ahead. The ship is then steered by increasing or decreasing power
64 SHIPHANDLING IN A C h A N N E L
on t h e two e n g i n e s as previously described. T h e ship would be t u r n e d to
s t a r b o a r d b> a c o m m a n d "port engine 50 percent aliead; s t a r b o a r d engine
ten p e r r e n t a h e a d . "
Some pilots use s t a n d a r d engine c o m m a n d s of dead slow, slow, iu.lf
a n d full a h e a d and a s t e r n while configuring the pods and t h u s t h e direc-
tion of t l i r u s t using relative headings. In t h a t case, t h e port engine is at
315 degrees, half power; starboard engine is at 45 degrees, half power.
More i m p o r t a n t t h a n the terminology used is t h e fact t h a t the orders are
s t a n d a r d i z e d and spoken. Once s t a n d a r d c o m m a n d s are adopted, it is no
longer n e c e s s a r y for the conning officer to s t a n d and o p e r a t e t h e controls
in a m a n n e r t h a t violates ali accepted principies of bridge resource Man-
a g e m e n t . T h e bridge cre .v and pilot work as a t e a m to safely move t h e -ship
once c o m m a n d s and configurations are s t a n d a r d i z e d .
A good ca.se can be made to usepercentage offullpower rather than con-
ventional engine orders since power applied t h r o u g h the electric drives in
t h e pods is tolally variable. At the same time, t h e r e a r e a d v a n t a g e s to us-
ing clock positions for Azipod configuration since relative h e a d i n g s for t h e
pod can l>e c o n f u s e d with compass and ship's h e a d i n g s while m a n e u v e r i n g
in r e s t r i c t e d w a t e r s .
Based on o b s e r v a t i o n s of pilots and experience using t h e Azipod sys-
t e m , r e c o m m e n d e d s t a n d a r d commands are
1. E n g i n e comm i n d s use percentage of power from zero to 100 in a for-
w a r d or reverso direction in both the At Sea a n d H a r b o r modes.
2. Conventional r u d d e r commands in degrees to port a n d s t a r b o a r d
are u s e d and executed using a s t a n d a r d wheel-type control at sea.
3. Pod configuration use clock settings relative to t h e ship's bow in the
H a r b o r modo w h e r e engines are used primarily in fixed positions.
Azipods evolve to t h e next levei for ship operation when s t a n d a r d com-
m a n d s a n d configurations are adopted. The conning officer is relieved
from d i s t r a c t i n g s t e e r i n g responsibiüties. The bridge crew is agair. work-
ing as a t e a m in compliance with i n t e m a t i o n a i l y accepted s t a n d a r d s f or
bridge resource i n a n a g e m e n t with lhe pilot or conning officer in contro» oí
navigation.
Computer Control
A computer-controlled option is available in ali modes. Controls for the au-
tomated or c o m p u t e i -controlled mode difTer from one s h i p o w n e r and man-
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS 65
ufacturer to another but ali are similar. Moei are controlled by a joystick
for input of desired r e s u l t a n t power, speed, and direction of vessel niove-
ment. The s y s t e m s computer translates joystick input lo engine speed,
pod rotation, and bow thru.^te- orders in the- manner determined by pre-
pregrammed algorithms.
Shiphandlers must remember they are controlling r e s u l t a n t power,
speed, a.ul vessel mnvenxent, not actuai revolutions and direction of
thruster, engine, and rudder movements.
Automated controls are not new foi open watcr since gyro-controlled
steering has taken ships from port to port for half a century. C o m p u t e r
control for Azipod operation in harbor conditions is obviously m o r e com-
plex and it should be used with some care.
Interestingly, experienced masters, mates, and pilots aro more cautious
about computer-controlled operation than less experienced ship's officers.
Skilled shiphandlers, be they shipmasters, officers, or pilots, a r e
trained to plan ahead and be proactive. Computer-controlled s y s t e m s a r e
reactive. This difierence is important. No mattor how quickly the s y s t e m
deteets and reacts to wind shifts or set. the system cannot anticipate and
plan ahead based on past experience and local knowledge. The best sys-
tems delect leeway and set almost instantly, but they are still roaotiiiK
rather than anticipating, as a trained shiphandler would do.
Experienced shiphandlers consider crew skills, anticipate e x t e r n a i
forces and known hazards, and know w h a t works and what does not work
in a particular situation based on experience over a period of years. They
also adhere to the concept of "most efficient maneuvers" and use a mini-
mum of commands and maneuvers to accomplish a task. Computer-con-
trolled systems will overwork engine and steering to power through a
maneuver t h a t experienced shiphandlers would avoid. In the computer's
r a t h e r simplistic universe, there are engines, thrusters, and existing ex-
ternai forces, period. Hign power and overuse of the engine and t h r u s t e r
compensate for the limitations of computer controls and, u n f o r t u n a í e l y .
create che previously discussed illusion that ships can move safely in re-
stricted waters with computer input and a joystick.
At the risk of being repeli tive, it is stressoü that shiphandlers m u s t
m a s t e r essential, specialized skills before docking a ship in close q u a r t o rs
regardless of the system used. Some will argue this point, j u s t as they once
argued t h a t bow t h r u s t e r s made tugs obsoleto and bridge control elimi-
nated the engineeron watch, bui time will prove that computer controls do
not make shiphandlers out of inexperienced deck officers with liitle
66 S H I P I l A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L DIRECTIONAI. PROPULSION SYSTEMS 67

s h i p h a n d l i n g experience and no local knowledge. At the s a m e time, in tho may change as programming and input to the systems becomes more so-
h a n d s of an exporioncod deck officer t h e s e are very helpful tools while phisticated.
moving t h e s h i p t o w a r d a berth. The computei- controls are an additional
Brid^e Resource Management and Azipod
aid to t h e s h i p h a n d l e r — a sophisticated tool, b u t an aid only.
Azipods are more than j u s t a refinement. They are a breakthrough tcch-
One Ship Length Rule nology t h a t reache3 its full potential when expectations are realistic and
Pilots and experienced m a r i n e r s are l e a r n i n g from experience to limit the sound shipboard practices are foliowed with minimal modifications. Hav-
use of co mputer-controDed systems with wide a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e systcm ing a singlr person standing at the console handling the engines, t h r u s t c r ,
should not be used n e a r docks and fixed objects. At a m i n i m u m , good sea- and steering to bring the ship directly to a berth or anchorage is clearly not
manship seemc to support a "one ship length rule" to accide when to chcinge one of those modifications. Unfortunately, this has become a common
from automatic to manual control. practice aboard too many ships where the pilot becomes an adjunct, an ad-
T h e c o m p u t e r often applies power in an unpredictable m a n n e r . Lines visor, to the bridge team and the mates stand aside while keeping records
a r e p a r t e d w h e n the c o m p u t e r a t t e m p t s to move a ship laterally r a t h e r and providing support with little or no knowledge of what is bcing dono or
t h a n at. one end only. Most systems allow t h e pivot point to be shifted to al- the details of anv passage or docking plans.
low for tliis m a n e u v e r , b u t the s y s t e m becomes progressively less auto- The practice totally disregards the importance of local knowledge and
m a t e d as t h e pilot m a k e s more of t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s . As one pilot with the principies of bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t when entering a channel,
experience h a n d l i n g Azipod vessels s t a t e d , "You find yourself t r y i n g to
o u t g u e s s a n d cor-ect t h e computer." 5
One pilot compared computer control to having an a p p r e n t i c e pilot
aboard. T h e a p p r e n t i o e handles the ship b u t the experienced pilot is con-
s t a n t l y m o n i t o r i n g the apprentice a n d using skills learned t h r o u g h expe-
rience to u n d o l h e m i s t a k e s of t h e apprentice. It is usually easier a n d s a f e r
to do t h e job yourself. T h e r e is a reason to do the extra work to train an ap-
prentice, b u t it is difficult to rationalize t h e s a m e effort to supervise a com-
puter. A u t o m a t i c controls are an advance in an anchorage or w h e n u s i n g
adaptive a u t o p i l o t a t s e a b u t the "one s h i p length rule" is good s e a m a n s h i p
w h e n docking or undocking.
As previously discussed, pilots see an increasing n u m b e r of s i t u a t i o n s
w h e r e ships a r e p u t into risky positions because the c o m p u t e r doe? not
know w h e n an ordered m a n e u v e r is u n s a f e or inappropriate. At some
point, profes-sionai skilis m u s t override the computer-assirted system,
and pilots and deck officer<? are l e a r n i n g t h a t point is reached early in a
maneuver.
T h e "one .ship length rule" for s h i f t i n g o f f computer controls s e e m s rea-
sonable except. in the m o s t basic cunditions. Obviously, pilots and ships' of-
ficers m a y w a n t to s h i f t to m a n u a l controls long before t h a t point. This

Fig. 2-9. T h e Captain says Azipods are m a j i c so we never know what

Captain Earl lí. McMillin, Canaveral Pilots' Association, December 6, 2003. tricks he is puiling out of his hat."
68 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
anchoring, docking, or undocking. tíridge Resource M a n a g e m e n t (BRM)
is based on s i t u a t i o n a l awareness, a s h a r e d m e n t a l model, a plan, the
l e a r n e d practice of t h i n k i n g a h e a d of the ship, and feedback from the en-
tire bridge teain t h a t has an active role in s u p p o r t of the conning officer or
pilot. T h e s e proven principies t h a t a r e so basic to safe, efTicient s h i p opera-
tion are b e i n g ignored aboard too m a n y ships with omnidirectional pro-
pulsion s y s t e m s .
Approximately 90% of ali m a r i n e accidents oncur in restricted w a t e r s
because t h a t is when ships are exposed to t h e g r e a t e s t hazards. Bridge re-
source m a n a g e m e n t practices a r e developed to si^nifícantly reduce the
h u m a n íactors t h a t , according t o t h e National T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Safety
Board, cause 75% to 80% of those casualties. This includes proper commu-
nications skills, situational a w a r e n e s s , stress, fatigue, and i n t e r r c t i v e de-
cision-making. Proper bridge orgnnization uses a team of officers to
navigate, monitor ship's progress, steer, a n d communicate in a m a n n c r
t h a t supports t h e m a s t e r and pilot who move about the wheelhouse and
bridge wings to m a n e u v e r the ship safely and expediently to or from the
dock. The m a s t e r m u s t get a w a y from the Azipod controls and end the cur-
r e n t o n e - m a n o p e r a t i o n t h a t d o m i n a t e s vesscl operation with at least tacii
e n c o u r a g e m e n t from shipowners.
BRM establishes m i n i m u m m a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s u n d e r various condi-
tions. (See c h a p t e r 11.) This does not m e a n t h e officers and crew should
simply be at stations. They m u s t also be d o i n g m e a n i n g f u l work. If ali par-
ties are N O T involved
• T h e one-person operation leads to operation based on a single indi-
vidual's perceptions of a s i t u a t i o n based on scanty information with
no inpuu from t h e officers or pilot at t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t person is
prone to m a k e e r r o r s due to being overloaded.
• There is no monitoring of the operator's actions so there is no way to
minimize one-person errors or break the certain to occur "error chain."
• Tliore is an i m b a l a n c e in the workload and no working orgamzation
to s u p p o r t t h e m a s t e r and pilot even t h o u g h it is impossible for one
per.ion to perform ali tasks involved in m a n e u v e r i n g to the b e r t h re-
gardlesr, of how m a n e u v e r a b l e t h e ship m i g h t be.
There is a direct relationship b e t w e e n situational a w a r e n e s s and
safety yet, w i t h o u t a traditional bridge organization and s t a n d a r d corn-
m a n d s for conning, t h e r e is no way for anyone on the bridge to Know what
DIRECTIONAL P R O P U L S I O N SYSTEMS 69
is being done to maneuver the ship. A.? a result, there is no way to check for
single-person errors or break the error chain as longas the master is inde-
pendently rr.c.-ing lever» and a d j u s t i n g controis without discussion with
anyone. There is good reason for giving and repeating conning orders be-
tween parties. Those practices are not anachronisms. They continue for
goud reason and the simplistic, unprofessional single-person operation
will result in preventablc accidents. It is no way to run a ship!
This excellent propulsion system will not deli ver to ils full potentia! as
long as operating policies conflict with sound BRM practices. Some claim
traditional 13 RM is outmoded because of a plethora of alternativo a r r a n g e -
m e n t s for the propulsion system and the lack of standard conning com-
rnands or commonly used terminology to describe Azipod modes a n d
operation. This is simply not so. Ships are ships so the practices of good
s e a m a n s h i p and shiphandling skills are as important when h a n d l i n g
ships fitted with directional propulsion systems as any other t.ype ofvesscl.
Pilot-Master Relationship
There is an additional consideration when discussing the increasingly
common but improper one-man operation that eííectively excludes pilot
control of the navigation and maneuvering of the ship. A state-licensed,
coinpulsory pilot is charged by the licensing authority with the d u t y ro
c ire for the safety ofthe vessel, its cargo and crew and, equally i m p o r t a n t ,
with a public responsibility to move the ship from point to point consistent
with federal and state laws and port regulations in a manner t h a t mini-
mizes risk ofcollision, oil spills, and environmenta! damage.
Public policy requires the pilot, as a citizen subject to the control a n d
laws of the host state, to protect the public's interest as well as to provido
shiphandling and pilotage services to the ship. This responsibility is
clearly established by law and precedent and it is inherent in the s t a t e pi-
lotage system. This aspect of the pilot's role has been reinforced in an era
when ships are susceptible to externai threa+s and use as a weapon in
modern terrorist-based warfare.
The pilot must be able to fulfill that responsibility by exercising h;.- ^.r
h e r final authority to control ship movement in pilot waters. This is not
possibie if officers at consoles do whatever theyfcel is appropriate. In real-
ity, the pilot is not conning when he or she has to find out after the fact
w h a t is being done by looking over the o p e r a t o r s shoulder. Pilots should
consider stopping the ship or going to anchor and reporting the s ^ u a t i o n
when they do not have effective and complete control.
70 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
S h i p h a n d l i n g and piloting are always subject to the traditional pilot-
m a s t e r relationship with the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t a m a s t e r may reli ove the
pilot for a p p r o p r i a t e reason but, on a daily basis a n d b a r r i n g cause, the pi-
lot has a legal responsibility and pulhority to control vessei movements—
not monitor the actions of others a n d provide communications.
There m u s t be s t a n d a r d c o m m a n d s a n d conning practices so the pilot
can fulfill this responsibility to the licensing a u t h o r i t y and play his or her
essential role in the pilot-inaster relationship. (See also chapter 11.)
Lost Shiphandling Skills
Lastly, t h e r e is a concern t h a t s h i p h a n d l i n g skills traditionally passed
from generation to generation will be lost since Azipod systems allow for
one-man operation with little or no involvement or discussion with júnior
officers. T h i s is particularly t r u e w h e n computer-controlled options a r e
selected d u r i n g the docking cr undocking. S h i p h a n d l i n g skills lost in a
fleet are lost forever and, when a system or system components fails, mas-
ters and pilots will no', have the skills needed to proceed using conver.-
tional skills. T a i s is not an academic problem. It is a real concern so it is in
the best i n t e r e s t of shipowners to e n s u r e t h a t m a r i n e r s m a i n t a i n tradi-
tional s h i p h a n d l i n g skills.
Deck officeis should also have an o p p o r t u n i t y to practice h a n d l i n g
ships with Azipod propulsion in the s a m e m a n n e r prescribed elsewhere in
this text for conventional ships. T h e y will h a v e n e e d e d skills to m a n e u v e r
when an engine or steering motor fails or s i t u a t i o n s arise where ship-
h a n d l i n g skills are needed. It will h a p p e n a n d officers m u s t b e prepared.
T h e r e is precedent in m a r i t i m e law t h a t a ship begins its voyage in an
u n s e a w o r t h y condition when officers did not receive training in less com-
mon equipinent found aboard t h a t vessei. In t h a t case, the impact on '.ia-
bility limitations m a k e s the additional cost of t r a i n i n g look like a b a r g a i n
even ignoring the benefits of having fully t r a i n e d a n d competent ofíicers
aboard the ship. More t r a i n i n g is needed for unconventional vessels of any
type.
EFFECT OF TRIM ON H.vNDLING CHARACTERISTiCS
As a ship's t r i m by the stern increases, she becomes more directionally
stable and h e r tactica) diameter increases. T h e l a t t e r change is r.iinor and
of no practical signifícar.ce to the s h i p h a n d l e r as long as the drag r e m a i n s
within practical limits. There is, however, a m a r k e d increase in the diam-
eter of the ship's t u r n i n g circle as t h e bow comes out of the water.
E F F E C T OF TUIM ON HANDLING C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S 71
From lhe shiphandler's point of view, assuming there is not an excessively
strong wind on the higher bow, a ship usually steers better as drag increases.
The s t e e r n g characteristics of a ship on an even keei vary tiepending
on the ship's hull forni. A ship with a lar^.o block cceificient steers poorly.
tending to be directionally unstable. This condition is anipliíied if the ship
trims by the head as she enters bhallow water. A ship with íiner lines may
be directionally stable. or have neutral stability when on an even keel. The
behavior ot a ship with moderate block coefficient can only be determined
by t ri ais smee there is insufficient d a t a availablc at present to allow an ac-
curate prediction of her steering characteristics.
A ship trimnied by the head is directionally unstable for almost ali hull
forms. When in this condition the ship requires large a m o u n t s of rudder
for excessive periods of time to check her swing. The vessei becomes
cranky and difiicult to handle. If she trims by the head in shallow water
the problem is compounded.
Why does a ship behave in this m a n n e r when the diffeience between
the forward and after drafts decreases? One must look at the immersed
sections of the ship to better understand this phenomenon, and especially
at the location of the sections having the maxinium submerged area.
l h e ship is turning as a result of couples formed at the rudder and
through the center of gravity. One of the forces fonning the latter couple is
t h e imbalance of pressures about the submerged portions of the hull (fig.
2-10). As the ship begins turning, there is a new increase in p r e s s u r e below
the waterline on the bow away from t h e center of gravity, t h a t is, the out-
w a r d b o w . This resultantimbalance offorces in that location, forward and
outside of the center of gravity, causes the ship to be directionally unstable.
AU ships experience the same imbalance in the initial stages of a turn.
If a ship is trimmed by the stern though, lhe pressures s h n t f u r t h e r aft
along the side of the hull as the ship stabilizes in the turn, while the corre-
sponding pressure drop on the q u a r t e r on the inboard side of the turn con-
t i n u e s to increase. The resultant couple has then shifted a f t of the center
of gravity so the ship becomes directionally stable.
Sh.'ps trimmed by the head experience a larger initial positive pressure
at the bow due to the increase in submerged area íorward, while the nega-
tivo pressure is reduced at the q u a r t e r due to the reduction in submerged
a r e a . The couple therefore r e m a i n s nhead of the center of gravity
t h r o u g h o u t the turn and the ship continues to be dircctional'v unstable.'
(>
John H. La Dage, Modern Ships, pg 203-4.
72 S H I P H A N D L I N C IN A C I Í A N N E L
N^; p r e s s u r t on s u b m e r g e d
hull is f o r w a r d o! CG-
(directionally unstable).
t r i m m e d b y s t e r n (directionally s t a b l e ) .
3. Tuming at constant rate—ship
t r i m m e d b y h e a d (directionally u n s t a b l e ) .
Fig. 2-10. Effect of t r i m on steering.
This condition 16 indicated to the s h i p h a n d l e r by the s h i f t forward of
the a p p a r e n t pivot point of the ship, so t h e s h i p s e e m s to pivot about a
point n e a r e r t h e bow t h a n normally expected, a n d by t h e ship w a n t i n g to
continue to s w i n g a f t e r the r u d d e r is placed a m i d s h i p s .
A large VLCC with full sections forward will experience the s a m e dis- j
tribution of p r e s r u r e s in a t u n i when on an even keel as a finer ship does
when t r i m m e d by the head. Obviously then, if a VLCC is t r i m m e d by ihe,.-í
head, she will be even more u n s t a b l e since the r e s u l t a n t couple is magni-
fied accordingly.
The effect of t r i m by the head on a vessel's s t e e r i n g can be anticipated
by referring t.o the curve of areas of the i m m e r s e d sections. This cu rve is
developed by the naval architect by m e a s u r i n g on t h e ship's line drawings
with a p l a n i m e t e r t h a t portion of the cross-sectional a r e a at each station
E F F E C T OF TRIM ON HANDLING CHARACTF.KISTICS 73
t h a t will be submerged at a particular d r a f t and trim. These a r c a s are
then put into the forni o f a curve by measuring outward from a basojjne a
linear dis'ance equf.l in u n i t s t o each station's submerged arca. Afit-r plol-
tin.g the corresponding point at each station, a curve is faired through -he
points. The curve will reach a maximuin at t h a t station having the greai-
est submerged area—rthe location o f a vcssel's center ofbuoyancy—and as
the vesscl is trimmed by the head, the apex of t h a t curve will shift progres-
sively forward. More use should be m a d e of this curve since it is one indica
tion of the changes t h a t can be expected in directional stability of a
particular hull as trim changes. Sample curves should be included with
the s h i p s stability and trim booklet for use by the s h i p s officers.
T h e value of this curve is unfortunately limited at present since, like
ali relative indicators, some norms m u s t be established against which the
m a r i n e r can compare the curves for bis own ship. Iiopefully, these norms
will be developed as part of f u t u r e model, Simulator, and trial testing.
L a r g e r ships are being built, with higher block coefficients and a g r e a t e r
percentage of their total submerged a r e a in their forward sections, so this
curve and the steering characteristics t h a t it indicates are becoming in-
creasingly important.
With this in mind, what stops m u s t a mariner take to safely handle a
potentially directionally unstable ship? First, she m u s t not be trimmed by
the head. Keep sufficient drag to ensure t h a t the ship maintains positive
directional f.tability, allowable d r a f t permitting. Second, on a ship with
marginal directional stability, the rudder will have to be used for a longer
period of time to start the vessel swinging, a f t e r which large a m o u n t s of
r u d d e r are needed for longer periods of time t h a n normally expected to
check a swing. The rudder is put back amidships as soon as the swing be-
gins since the rate of turn will increase even when the rudder is amid-
ships. If the rudder is kept on too long the ship will get away and it might
not be possible to check her swing in time to avoid leaving the channel.
Don't overlook the importance of having a trained helmsman v/hc is ex-
perienced in steeringyour particular ship. A directionally unstable ship re-
auires s p e r a l rreatinent and the hehnsman's experience can be invaluable.
Even this potentially unsatisfactory condition can be put to a d v a n t a g e
if the shiphandler watches the steering closely, since a directionally un-
stable ship can turn in a very sinall area. It is not suggested t h a t the ship
be purposely loaded to obtain this condition, b u t often the mariner m u s t
live with a ship "as she is" and in such a case he or she can at least t a k e ad-
v a n t a g e of the situation.
74 S H I P H A N D L 1 N C IN A C H A N N E L U S I N G AIDS TO N A VIG AT ION W H E N TUHN1NG 75

MAKING A TURN IN A CHANNEL

There a r e two basic considerations when m a k i n g a bend or turn in a ch:in-

nel—where to begin the t u r n a n d how m u c h r u d d e r to use.
It is impossible to m a k e a t u r n properly if t h e turn is s t a r t e d at the
wrong place in t h e c h a n n e l . Obviously, i f t h e t u r n is s t a r t e d too late, exces-
sive a m o u n t s of r u d d e r a n d engine revolutions a r e necessary to complete
the t u r n while r e m a i n i n g in the channel or in the desired location in an an-
chorage. A more common error, though, is to s t a r t the t u r n too soon, since
i t i s h u r a a n n u t u r e both to be conservative a n d to become i m p a t i e n t when
w a i t i n g to reach a desired point. This r e s u l t s in h a v i n g to check the ship's
swing a n d t h e n s t a r t t h e t u r n again at a later time. S t a r t i n g a t u r n too
early m a y not a l w a y s c a u s e a problem and is certainly preferable to start-
ing a t u r n too late, b u t if you have to check t h e ship's swing in a channel
where suction can be experienced, it may be difficult to s t a r t t h e ship turn-
ing again once t h a t swing ÍÍJ lost.
Begin the t u r n when t h e ship ! s pivot point is nearly at the turning point at
the end of t h e reach cr range, not the ship's bow or bridge (íig. 2-11). Remem-
ber t h a t ships turn circles, not corners. Since you have fixed the diameter and
advance of the turning circle in your mind during the previously described
trial m a n e u v e r s , you should be able to judge when to s t a r t a turn (fig. 2-12).
While it is possible to determine this point by constructing d i a g r a m s
based on c h a n n e l w i d t h s a n d the theoretical t u r n i n g radius of the ship, Fig. 2-11. Use the pivot point to position a ship in a turn.
such an a p p r o a c h to a r o u t i n e m a n e u v e r is not practical and encourages
the m a r i n e r to get invol ved with unworkable methods. It is better to learn USING AIDS TO NAVIGATION WHEN TURIHNG
t o h a n d l e t h e s h i p by i n s t i n c t a n d feel developed from experience and trial As the ship proceeds up the channel, numerous aids to navigation are
maneuvers. available to the pilot and master. While the primary purpose of these aids
If in doubt a b o u t the a m o u n t of r u d d e r r e q u i r e d , use a larger a m o u n t is to determine the ship's position relative to the axis of the channel, there
t h a n you feel n e c e s s a r y . Reduce t h e r u d d e r angle as needed to place t h e are other ways in which these aids can be used.
ship at t h e d e s i r e d point in the reach using t h e reference point method dis- A buoy at a turn can be used as a rate-of-turn indicator by aligning the
cussed in t h e next. section. Practice m a k i n g exact t u r n s at every opportu- buoy with a fixed point on the ship such as a stay. stanchion, or window
nity. even if a s h i p is in an open anchorage a n d t h e r e is no need to p u t t h e f r a m e (fig. 2-13).
ship in an exact location at t h a t p a r t i c u l a r time. A professional m a k e s
Lurrs neatly and with a m i n i m u m of helm orders. and it is only through 1. I f t h e relative bearing changes toward the bow, so the buoy is moving
practice t h a t the feel for m a k i n g precise t u r n s can be developed. T u r n s can forward relative to the reference point, the slup is turning at a rate
also be practiced with g r e a t benefit on a Simulator since you can get a very t h a t will bring her closer to that buoy. She will be clcser to the buoy
realistic feel for both r a t e of t u r n and relative m o v e m e n t when werking at at the completion of the turn than she is at present. If the rate at
such an i n s t a l l a t i o n . T h e s e are skills t h a t , like riding a bicycle, are never which the buoy is moving ahead of the reference point i- increasing,
iost once learned. then obviously the rate at which the sliiu is t u r n i n g is incrensing.
76 S H I P H A N D L T N G IN A C H A N N E L
and m a n e u v e r i n g .
2. If t h e buoy is remaining steady relative to t h e reference point the
ship is t u r n i n g at a fixed rate. She will m a i n t a i n h e r p r e s e n t dis-
tance from t h e buoy as she m a k e s the t u r n . In practice, t h e ship will
actually be a little f a r t h e r from t h e buoy w h e n t h e t u r n is completed,
since she is sliding sideways d u r i n g t h e t u r n at a r a t e relative to the
speed at which she is moving. For practical p u r p o s e s though, the
ship can be considered to be m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n s t a n t distance from
the buoy d u r i n g the t u r n .
3. If the bearing is opening away from the bow so t h e buoy is moving aft
relative to t h e reference point, then t h e ship's distance from the
buoy is increasing. If t h e rate at which t h e buoy is oper ing is increas-
ing t h e n t h e r a t e of t u r n is decreasing.
MF.ETING A N O T H E R V E S S E L OK TOW 77
D i s t a n c e Irom b u o y
Decreasing Increasing
r~Arft
i - — —
Fig. 2-13. Pivoting on a reference point when turning.
Using a buoy in this m a n n e r is especially eíTective when t u r n i n g in a
strong current since it is the vessel's movement relative to the buoy and
channel (the net movement resulting from the combination of vessel mo-
mentum, swir.g, and c u r r e n t effects) t h a t is of interest to the s h i p h a n d l e r .
This resultant rnotion is immediately apparent when the ship is t u r n e d
using a fixed reference. By adjusting the rudder to alter the buoy's r e l a t i v e
movement a shiphandler can position the ship in a turn with g r e a t accu-
racy.
The angle between t h e lines of buoys marking the port and s t a r b o a r d
sides of a channel can be used with great accuracy both to predict t h e
ship's f u t u r e position in a reach into which she is turning, and to know
t h e vessel's posi tion relative to the centerline a f t e r she has steadied up in
t h a t reach. F u r t h e r , the r a t e at which a vessel is sliding laterally can be
quickly determined by watching the change in angle of those buoys d u r -
ing a turr..
A range can obviously be used to determine the ship's position relative
to the channel, b u t do not overlook the fact that the rate at which a r a n g e is
opening or closing is of equal importance. This information is used in the
s a m e manner as the change in angle o f a line of buoys to position the ship
in a reach or channel.
MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW
If a channel is of sufficient width, meeting another vessel is simply a m a t -
ter of staying on your own side. The problem then is one of deterinining
w h a t "suíTicient width" is, this being primarily a question nf ship size a n d
especially of draft and beam.
78 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L M E E T I N G ANOTHEK VESSEL OH TOW 79

Ships routinely m e e t in t h e 5U0-foot-wide r e a c h e s of t h e P a n a m a Ca-

nal with no problems, when their combined b e a m s total up to 170 feet.
(The only exceptions a r e the P a n a m a x class vessels t h a t do not meet any
ship in those 500-foot-wide reaches d u e to t h e i r own i n h e r e n t handling
limitations.) This l i m i t was established b a s e d u p o n t h e operating experi-
ence of the pilots ir t h a t waterway a n d confirmed by Simulator tests and
can serve as a guideline, although ships do m e e t in c h a n n e l s of less width
t h a n 500 feet u n d e r t h e proper conditions.
As ships approach t h e 170-foot-combined b e a m limit it becomes ncce.s-
s a r y to meet i n the m a n n e r shown in figure 2-14. In s u c h cases the ships

1. Meet nearly head-on and, when a p p r o x i m a t e l y one-and-a-half ship

lengths apart, p u t their r u d d e r s to s t a r b o a r d to move to their own
side and pass safei}'.
2. When une ship's bow is a b e a m t h e bow of t h e other, h e r helm is
shifteó to move h e r stern to s t a r b o a r d u n t i l she is parallel to the
bank.
3. The r u d d e r is a g a i n put to the r i g h t to check t h e swing. Caution is re-
quired at this point, so watch t h e ship's h e a d closely. Your vessel
w a n t s to continue swinging due to a combination of the b a n k suction
on t h e s t a r b o a r d q u a r t e r a n d the effects of t h e other ship as h e r
q u a r t e r comes a b e a m your bow, t h a t is, your s h i p w a n t s to t u r n to
port ar. h e r bow passes the other ship's s t e r n . U s e sufíicient r u d d e r
to check th:'s swing and m a i n t a i n control d e s p i t e t h e effects of suc-
tion at t h e bow a n d s t e m .
4. Do not increase t h e right r u d d e r at this stage, b u t instead allow your
ship to sag slcwly to port so she is h e a d i n g a w a y from t h e b a n k once
again. It is now unlikely t h a t you could h i t t h a t ship if you tried since
she has passed y o u r bow a n d is moving a w a y . So long as you don't
come together laterally, which is unlikely u n l e s s ycu are close
enough to s h a k e h a n d s with the m a t e on t h e bridge cf the other ship,
you will pass safely.
5. Finally, as the s t e r n of the other ship p a s s e s your stern t h e r e is a
mutual suction effect t h a t moves your s t e r n a w a y írom the near
bank as the two ships pass clear and proceed on their way.

Again, the ship's speed is a key. The ship m u s t be moving at less than
full maneuvering speed so suction is minimized a n d sufficient engine
speed r e m a i r s to come a h e a d a n d increase t h e effectiveness of the rudder Fig. 2-14. Meeting in a narrow channel.
80 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
as needed. This p a s s i n g m a n e u v e r is not as difficult as it m i g h t sound, and
is probably besl deinonstrated in the Houston Ship C h a n n e l where the pi-
lots have perfected w h a t for t h e m is a r o u t i n e m c e t i n g m a n e u v e r .
A g r e a t deal of study is being done u s i n g b o t h s i m u l a t o r s a n d actual
ship trials to d e t e r m i n e the limits for safe n a v i g a t i o n a n d m e e t i n g in vari-
ous types of channels. The resulta of t h i s r e s e a r c h can bc used to safely
handle vessels in narrow channels as ship size c o n t i n u e s to increase with-
out a c o m m e n s u r a t e increase in c h a n n e l w i d t h a n d d e p t h .
Hopefully, t h e practice of u s i n g the services of experienced ship-
h a n d l e r s to perform these tests will continue. A g r e a t g a p still exists be-
tween theoretical hydrodynamics and t h e real world, which limits the
value of a n y tests not performed by c o m p e t e n t s h i p h a n d l e r s .
OVERTAK1NG ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW
T h e mechanics of h a n d l i n g a ship while o v e r t a k i n g a n o t h e r vessei are rou-
t i n e and safe as long as the s h i p h a n d l e r realizes t h a t it is the speed at
which t h e m a n e u v e r is performed t h a t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t . If the overtak-
ing ship is abeam of the other vessei or tow for a n y l e n g t h of time, she in-
creases t h e chances t h a t the overtaken vessei will become unmanageable,
particularly when h e r stern is a b e a m t h e bow of t h e vessei being over-
t a k e n . Give the overtaken ship as much room as possible a n d maintain a
m o d e r a t e speed to minimize t h e period of time t h a t t h e two ships ore
abeam.
The overtaken vessei reduces h e r speed as m u c h as possible before the
m a n e u v e r begins while still m a i n t a i n i n g s t e e r a g e w a y , to f u r t h e r reduce
the time required to complete t h e o v e r t a k i n g m a n e u v e r . While being
passed, t h e slower vessei increases revolutions as n e e d e d to increase the
flow past h e r r u d d e r and rnaintain steerage.
The Rules of t h e Road give the ship or tow b e i n g p a s s e d t h e responsibil-
ity for agreeing to a n y passing situation. It is obvious why this is so. It is
t h e overtaken vessei t h a t is most likely to h a v e a problem a n d will be the
most likely to go aground should any problem arise. No p r u d e n t mariner
agrees to be passed until the m a n e u v e r can be p e r f o r m e d u n d e r conditions
where he or she feels comfortable.
USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION
While the s e a m a n ' s eye remains the b e s t aid to s h i p h a n d l i n g a n d maneu-
vering in channels a n d restricted w a t e r s , other a i d s a r e available to sup-
plement experienced judgment. R a d a r a n d other electronic aids such as
USING SHIPHANDLING 1N STH UME N T AT I ON 81
DGPS-based navigation systems have become increasingly useful. These
tools have evolved in accuracy and operating features to the point where
they are cqually useful as offshore navigation equipment and aids to pilots
and mariners moving ships in restricted waters.
T h a t s a i d , i t i s a fact that thegyro and fathometer remain the essential
tools for shiphandling even though the n e v e r equipment a t t r a e t s more at-
tention. Pilots wisely navigate primarily by eye using the gyro for direc-
tional reference and fathometei to monito- depth u n d e r the keel. The
other i n s t r u m e n t s have become essential to safe navigation b u t in no way
do they replace the tools that provide direction and depth.
Navigation tools used by pilots include
1. Gyro
2. Fathometer
3. Radar including ARPA
4. ECDIS
o. Doppler Speed Logs
6. Rate-of-Turn Indicator
7. DGPS and CTANS
8. VHF
9. Console presentations of wind force and direction and other perti-
nent opsrating data
The gyro is used, of course, to m a i n t a i n direction, supplying the point
of reference for almost ali maneuvers. The gyrocompass also serves as an
uccurate audible rate-of-turn indicator as it clicks o ff the fractions of each
degree during a turn. It is surprising how accurately an experienced sea-
m a n c a n j u d g e the rate of turn and, of equal importance, whether a desired
or undesired swing has begun, without having to continuously watch the
gyrocompass. Hopefully, the solid-state era will not bring with it an "irn-
proved" silent gyrocompass.
The fatliometer provides the soundings t h a t lhe mariner n e e d s to pre-
dict when a ship might become diíuculi to handie due to shoaling, a n d to
know the clearance beneath the keel. Squat can then be anticipated as
well as the need to reduce speed as bottoxn clearances change. The fathom-
eter m u s t be routinely watched; the development of the digital f a t h o m e t e r
mounted on the forward bulkhead of the wheelhouse to supplement t h e re-
cording fathometer in the chartrooin has done much to increase ship-
handling safety. The fathometer seems too often forgotten on o the pilot is
82 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L USING S H I P H A N D L I N G INSTRUMENTATION 83

a b o a r d — t h i s is u n f o r t u n a t e since the d c p t h of w a t e r is a basic ship- e n a b l e the mariner to detect and control the ship's r a t e of swing in a t u r n .
handling parameter. A rate-of-turn indicator usually supplies turn information in t e n t h s o f a
D u e to t h e m a s s of todav's larger s h i p s a n d t h e g r e a t e r height from degree per secnnd, althou~h degrccc per rnii.uio are used occasionally,
t h e w a t e r a t which t h e pilot i s now working, i t h a s become m o r e difficult showing a ratp to the right or left that corresponds to the direction of t h e
to d e t e c t an e r r o r in j u d g m e n t a n d to recover f r o m t h a t e r r o r . It i? impor- movement of the ship's bow. This information in itself is not of g r e a t
t a n t t o h a v e a n a c c u r a t e m e a n s o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s h i p ' s movement— value (fig. 2-16j. It is. the relative indication t h a t is i m p o r t a n t — t h a t is,
both a h e a d a n d a s t e r n over the boUom, a n d h e r l a t e r a l m o t i o n a t t h e bow w h e t h e r the r a t e is increasing or decreasing, and by w h a t a m o u n t . It is
a n d s t e r n . T h e ship c a n then be a c c u r a t e l y p o s i t i o n e d at a pier or at the
single-point m o o r i n g s commonly used by V L C C s , a n d also s t e e r e d at the
low s p e e d s involved w h e n the bow a n d s t e r n a r e m o v i n g at a fraction of a
k n o t . W h i l e a single-point Doppler log is u s e f u l at sea, t h e complete
D o p p l e r p r e s e n t a t i o n showing a h e a d a n d a t h w a r t s h i p movement i s
n e e d e d t o s u p p l y t h e information r e q u i r e d i n m r n e u v e r i n g situations
with l a r g e s h i p s (fig. 2-15).
On l a r g e r ships a n d ships with restricted visibility f r o m the bridge,
such as confcainerships, it is i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a r a t e - o f - t u r n indicator to

Fig. 2-15. Conning station with centralized r e a d o u t s of fore/aft Fig. 2-16. This fuily integrated bridge includes a helrn station
a n d l a t e r a l speed, r u d d e r position, h e a d i n g , w i n d direction a n d containing gyro repeater, rate-of-turn indicator, and ali appropriate
s t r e n g t h , vessel position, and other n a v i g a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n . steering options suitable for the ship's steering system. Courtesy
C o u r t e s y Concórdia Maritime. M a r i t i m e Instituto of Technology and Graduate Studies.
84 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
b o t h i n t e r e s t i n g a n d instructive to watch a h e l m s m a n do h i s first trick
a b o a r d a s h i p íltted with a rate-of-turn indicator. A f t e r a s h o r t time, he be-
gins to s t e e r bv u s i n g t h e indicator. as well as w a t c h i n g t h e j a c k s t a f f m o v e
across a point of reference as h e l m s m e n h a v e done for centuries. While
h o l d i n g t h e s h i p s t e a d y on a compass h e a d i n g t h e r u d d e r is u s e d to keep a
zero r a t e of swing. As soon as swing is indica ted t h e h e l m s m a n uses suíTi-
cient r u d d e r to check t h a t swing, often applying t h e r u d d e r before any
m o v e m e n t of t h e bow to the right or left can be d e t e c t e d by eye.
W h e n a s h i p is directionally u n s t a b l e d u e to h e r h u l l f o r m or t r i m , t h e
r a t e - o f - t u r n i n d i c a t o r becomes essential, m a k i n g it possible to n a v i g a t e
r e s t r i c t e d c h a n n e l s safely. By accurately k n o w i n g t h e r a t e of t u r n t h e
s h i p h a n d l e r c a n l i m i t t h a t r a t e t o a k n o w n s a f e m a x i m u m a n d ahvays
k e e p t h e s h i p u n d e r control. As an example, a c u r r e n t class of liquefieo
n a t u r a l g a s c a r r i e r s , which h a v e to be t r i m m e d to an even keel to m e e t
t h e d r a f t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e i r t e r m i n a l port, a r e safely h a n d l e d i n spite
of b e i n g d i r e c t i o n a l l y u n s t a b l e at t h a t t r i m . By l i m i t i n g t h e i r r a t e of
s w i n g to l e s s t h a n %o of a degree per second it is a l w a y s possiole to eas-
ily check t h e i r s w i n g . While t h e r e a d o u t is b a s i c a l l v a r e l a t i v e indica-
t i o n , t h i s r a t e of t u r n of of a degree p e r second is c o m f o r t a b l e u n d e r
m o s t c o n d i t i o n s . A r a t e of t u r n of % 0 of a d e g r e e p e r s e c o n d is a s a f e max-
i m u m for a n o r d i n a r y t u r n , t h a t is, a 3 6 - d e g r e e c h a n g e i n h e a d i n g i n one
minute.
THE BASICS OF SQUAT
In collaboration with Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D
and Christopher Hewlett, P.E.
As a ship begins to m a k e way through the w a t e r she u n d e r g o e s a change in
m e a n d r a f t k n o w n as sinkage. This change m a y occur equally forward and
a f t or m a y be g r e a t e r at the bow or the s t e r n r e s u l t i n g in change in trim
as well as a c h a n g e in m e a n draft. The combination of s i n k a g e and trim is
called s q u a t .
T h e r e h a v e been some inconsistencies a m o n g definitions as used to de-
scribe the c o m p o n e n t s of squat in various s t u d i e s a n d n a u t i c a l publica-
tions. B e c a u s e r e s e a r c h is providing more detailed i n f o r m a t i o n about this
subject, a n d b e c a u s e from the shiphandler's viewpoint t h e subject is more
complex t h a n previously thought, a few basic, common definitions are pro-
vided for t h e p u r p o s e of this text. These definitions would seein useful for
ali discussions of s q u a t if the most recent research is accepted.
T H E HASICS OF SQL'AT 85
Sinkage is the bodily increase in draft, that is, the increase in mean
draft due to the effeets of moving in a restricted channel.
Trim or, more accurately, dynaniic trim is the rota tion about the trans-
verse axis due to the change in pressure and the resulting change in draft
along the length of the ship with the greaitst change in trim being at the
bow or stern depending on hull form.
Squat is the combination of sinkage and trim, the largest change and
location of t h a t change along the ship's hull depending on the location of
maximum change in trim.
In practical t e r m s , the m a r i n e r will say the ship s q u a t s some num-
ber of f e e t or m e t e r s by t h e head or stern since it is the n e t r e s u l t of the
sinkage and t r i m t h a t is of most interest to the s h i p h a n d l i n g moving a
ship in shallow w a t e r . In fact, more attention should be paid to ali t h r e e
components—sinkage, t r i m , and squat—because they ali affect ship-
handling. T h i s is becoming more obvious as ongoing r e s e a r c h provides
a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e causes of squat and c h a n g e s in underkeel
clearance.
Squat is a n a t u r a l phenomena as a ship moves through a restricted
channel. The ship displaces an amount of water oqual to her own weight.
This water m u s t move outward from and around the hull in ali directions.
The water so displaced moves primarily along and u.ider the hull and re-
turns a s t e r n of the ship to "fill" the space left by the ship as she moves on.
Naturally, the faster the ship is moving, the greater the velocity of this
flow under and along her hull, and t h e greater the corresponding pressure
drop as a result of t h a t increased velocity.
This is a basic principie of physics known as the Bernoulli Principie.
Depending upon where the greatest drop in pressure occurs along the
length of the hull, this reduced pressure will result in greater sinkage (in-
crease in draft) at the bow or stern, although the d r a f t increases to some
degree ali along the length of the ship.
As the ship enters shallow water the flov. of water becomes increas-
ingly i estricted due to the reduced clearance under the hull. I f t h e channel
i? shaüow and narrow. the ílow of water becomes restricted both under
and on one or both sides of t h e huli depending on the ship's location in the
channel. The effect of this restriction or "blockage factor" is dependent
upon several variables:
1. The speed of the ship through the water.
2. Ratio of the ship's d r a f t to the depth of water.
86 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L T H E BAS1CS OF SQUAT 8 7

3. Ratic of t h e ship's cross-sectional area to t h e cross-sectional a r e a of MAJESTIC MAEF1SK - NORTHDOUND, G A I L L A K D CUT

t h e c h a n n e l (fig. 2-17).
4. T h e ship's block coeíficient. (The previously explained effects on
d r a f t a n d h a n d l i n g characteristics of a high block coeíficient a r e am-
plified in s h a l l o w water.)
5. T h e ship's displacement, which d e t e r m i n e s t h e a i n o u n t of water
t h a t m u s t p a s s around and u n d e r the ship's hull at a given sp^ed.
6. T h e r a t e a n d period of acceleration as t h e s h i p increases speed.

Consider f i r s t t h e effect of ship's speed since t h i s is t h e factor ovrr

which t h e m a r i n e r h a s the g r e a t e s t control. I t h a s been found, based upon
observations of both actual ships a n d models, t h a t s q u a t v a r i e s in propor-
tion to the s q u a r e of t h e speed. If ship's speed is doubled, s q u a t increases
by a factor of four. W i t h today's large ships a n d m i n i m a l u n d e r k e e l clear-
ances it becomes immediately obvious why speed a n d r e s u l t i n g s q u a t 1»00 1SM 160U 1710 1800 1900 2000 Jl(»

m u s t be very m u c h on t h e shiphandler's mind. It s h o u l d be noted t h a t the CHANNEL STATION (HUNDREOS Of R)

ship's speed liere r e f e r s to the speed of t h e ship t h r o u g h w a t e r and no'; the
ground speed so, if t h e ship is moving a g a i n s t a c u r r e n t , t h e speed effe:t
will be increased. Fig. 2-18. This graph shows Lhe relationship bctwcen speed and squat.
Note t h a t the s q u a t (lower lines) increases as the speed (upper line)
increases. This fine hull containership triins ty the stern due to the
Blockage (actor f B =
effect of squat. Courtesy Waterway Simulation Technology.

The m a x i m u m cross-sectional area of the submerged portion of t h e

ship's hull, as seen by looking at the midships section in the ship's file of
drawings, is significant when compared to the cross-sectional area of a
n.irrow channel. The ratio of these two areas, referred to as the blockage
factor, determines the clearance through which the displaced water m u s t
flow. Obviously, the less area available the greater the velocity at which
the water m u s t flow for a given ship's speed—and the greater the resul-
t a n t pressure drop around and under the hull.
The other variables listed also afiect the flow in a similar manner a n d
their importance will be obvious to the mariner.
The formula most often used by mariners was contributed by C. B.
Barrass, Ph.D.' The total squat in open water can be calculated with suíTi-
cient accuracy for a VLCC using the formula

Fig. 2-17. Blockage factor in restricted channels. 7

C. B. Barrass, Ship Squat and Its Calculation, pg. 11.
88 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L T H E I3ASICS OF SQUAT 89

S (meters) = C b x V 2 / l 0 0 or tive mcdel presented by Eryuzlu et al. produced ? mean error of -0.02
S(feet) = C h x V / 3 0 2 meters and a standard deviation of 0.07 meters for a VLCC in the Dela-
ware 3 a y and River.
Comparison of predicted and measured squat in the PC studies has yet
where
to be conducted on a vessel-type basis or on a fully combined databuse;
S = squat
however, comparisons for individual ships have yielded some useful re-
C b = vessel's block coeíficient
sults. After generating comparisons for several of the albrementioned
V = vessel's speed in knots
published numerical methods, three forinulationí. were found to provido
the best agreement with the measured data from the Gaillard Cut.
S q u a t in sliallow, confined waters is double the q u a n t i t y S found by the
That said, ic is obvious that there is no single best formula for ali condi-
above formula, t h a t is, in shallow, confined w a t e r s t h e s q u a t equals 2 x S
Hons and the Barrass formula does, as stated earlier, consistently provi de
W h e n aboard a ship with a block coeíficient of 0.8 proceeding in shal-
an important margin of safety.
low w a t e r at 10 knots, she will sink approximately 1.6 m e t e r s (5.33 feet). If
The Barrass formula has been discussed. The two other formulas refer-
the speed is l e d u c e d by half, to 5 knots, the same vessel sinks onlv 0.4
enced are
m e t e r s (1.3 feet) or one quarter the s q u a t experienced at the h i g h e r speed.
Tuck/Huuska:
It should be noted t h a t this formula for predictirg squat generally over-
V
estimaces t h e s q u a t and thus provides a margin of safety. In some caser Sh - 2.4 • • K.
where this f o r m u l a h a s been compared to m e a s u r e d squat, the margin of nh
safety was found to be too large for practical operations. In those cases,
other predictive f o r m u l a s have been found to fit m e a s u r e d s q u a t more ac- St = bow sinkage in meters
curately w h e n a more accurate prediction of s q u a t is required. Many of the V = ship volumetric displacement in meters 3
available predictive models are described in a PIANC publication 8 . Lpp = ship length between perpendiculars in meters
Recent m e a s u r e m e n t s of ship s q u a t using high-accuracy differential Ks = 7.45S, + 0.76 for S, > 0.03
GPS equipment h a v e shown t h a t the most accurate predictive model is de- Ks = 1 for S, < 0.03
p e n d e n t on t h e ship type and waterway characteristics. For example,
where S, = As/Ac/K;
m e a s u r e m e n t s of twenty-six ships on the St. Lawrence Seaway" demcn-
A, = ship underwater cross-sectional area
s t r a t e d t h a t s q u a t could be predicted with m e a n errors of 0.08 meters or
A; = cross-sectional channel area
less a n d s t a n d a r d deviations of less t h a n 0.13 m e t e r s using f o r m u l a s sug-
I\ = 1 Channel-type parameter for canal with no overbanks
gested by Tuc.k, E r y u z l u et al., Barrass, and Tothill, depending on the ship
type and w h e t h e r t h e transit was in a canal or lake. However, Tuck was of- F . = Froude number based on the undisturbed water
ten nearly as good for predicting s q u a t as an estimate m a d e using the depth = VKghY1
"best fit" technique. Recent m e a s u r e m e n t s demonstrated t h a t the predic- where V" = ship speed through the water in m/s
g = acceleration of gravitv in mVs
- Approach Ch.anr.eii: A Guidc for Design. Appendix C, Final report ol the joint h = water depth in meters
working group PIANC and IAPH, in cooperation with IMPA and IALA,
published as a supplement to Bulletin 95, June 1997. Eryuzlu and Hausser:
s
Larry L. Daggstt, J. C. Hewlett, David Stocks, Maximization of Ship Draft in
the St. Lawrence. Volume 1, Squat Study, Fleet Technology Limited and rr\*V
Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc., Transport Canada TP 13888E, Sb = 0.1131 — J ; T = ship draft; B = ship beam
December 2001.
 I
90 SHIPHANDLING IN A C H A N N E L T H E BASICS OF SQUAT 91

For fully loaded tankers in u n r e s t r i c t e d shallow w a t e r : 1.08 < h/T
< 2.75
It would be appropriate at this point to also discus3 the effect that
blockage a n d speed have on h a n d l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a ship. Since a ship
in conflned w a t e r s can be compared to a piston in a cylinder, it is obviously
moro diffícult tn drive the ship a h e a d as t h e blockage factor increases.
T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e a practical limit to t h e speed at which a ship can proceed
up a c h a n n e l — t h e ship that m a k e s 16 k n o t s at eighty revolutions in open
w a t e r m i g h t m a k e only 9 or 10 knots w i t h t h e s a m e n u m b e r of revolutions
in shallow w a t e r . This limit is reac.hed w h e n t h e w a t e r is flowing at rela-
tively high velocities so the ship becomes diffícult to steer, experiences
heavy v i b r a t i o n s throughout t h e hull, a n d g e n e r a t e s a m u c h g r e a t e r wave
p a t t e r n a s t e r n . The wake becomes s h o r t a n d s t e e p , b r e a k i n g along its
length a n d moving outward at a g r e a t e r a n g l e f r o m t h e ship as t h e point of
m a x i m u m flow a r o u n d the hull is reached. T h e s h i p is novv said to be "pu!l-
trim by the bow. Generally speaking. ships with finer lines such as con-
I tainerships with a block coefficient (Cb) ofless than 0.7 have been found to
t r i m by the stern (fig. 2-19).
S q u a t becomes increasingly important as ships get larger and load to
deeper drafts. It is imperative t h a t the m a r i n e r s allow for squat when
I loading and reduce the speed at which the deeply loaded ship navigates in
a shallow channel. This requires a conscious eíYort on the part of m a n y
m a r i n e r s since the operation of ships of this size is a relalively nsw phe-
nomenon and most ship's officers have served in the past in ships w h e r e
s q u a t is not a significant consideration. Ships exist «o carry cargo and by
limiting speed to minimize squat, a ship can lií't the maximum possible
deadweight.
GLOBAL CHALLENGER - N O R T H B O U N D , G A I L L A H D CUT

ing a lot of w a t e r . "

D e p t h of w a t e r , t h u s underkeel c l e a r a n c e also affeets t u r n i n g and
s t e e r i n g a n d u n d e r k e e l clearance is directly r e l a t e d to s q u a t . When a ship
is m a n o u v e r i n g in shallow water t h a t r e s t r i e t s w a t e r flow, generally when
the u n d e r k e e l clearance is less t h a n 0.5 of t h e s h i p d r a f t , t h e ship wil1 be-
come m o r e s t a b l e and, therefore, m o r e diffícult to ';urn. G r e a t e r care
should be t a k e n as t h e shiphandler decides w h e n to begin a t u r n and the
a m o u n t of r u d d e r to use to m a k e a t u r n .
S q u a t , d e p t h , trim, hull form, speed, a n d o t h e r factors affecting steer-
ing a n d t u r n s a r e interrelated. T h e effeets of n e a r b a n k s a r e also impor-
t a n t in a n y discussion of steering a n d t u r n s . T h e s h i p h a n d l e r should
review discussions of bank effeets e l s e w h e r e in t h i s text when considering
t h e factors p r e s e n t e d in this section.
Will t h e s q u a t occur by the head or by t h e s t e r n ? This can only be deter-
1700 1800 1900
mined w i t h accurac}- by observation b u t a commonly accepted rule of CHAHNEL STATION (HUNOHEDS OF FT)
t h u m b is t h a t a ship with a large C b ( g r e a t e r t h a n 0.75) will tend to =quat
| —— 9 Oxft-o • • • V—«4—*0 |
by the h e a d . Vessels having such block coefficients a r e generally iarge
t a n k e r s a n d bulk carriers that are very full in t h e i r forward section-:. The Fig 2-19 r 'uil hull, high block coefficient bulk carriers such as MV
previously discussed curve of submerged cross-sectional a r e a s is therefore Global Challenger trim by the head. Note t h a t the difference between
also helpful in predicting squat by t h e h e a d or s t e r n . If t h e curve reaches sinkage at the bow and stern decreases and speed decreases at station
its m a x i m u m point at a more forward s t a t i o n , t h e s h i p can be expected to 1600. Note also that squat increases in narrower reaches of the
t r i m by t h e head. l l u l l s having forward sections of v a r y i n g fullness should P a n a m a Canal for the same speed such as between stations 1700 and
be tested so some criteria can be developed a n d published to determine 1800 where the blockage factor was greater. Courtesy Waterway
how f a r f o r w a r d this peak in the curve can be located before a ship will Simulation Technology, Inc./Fanama Canal Authority.
92 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L UNDERKEELCLEARANCE 93

UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE
T h e s q u a t p h e n o m e n a , as discussed to t h i s point, h a s been well known and
u n d e r s t o o d for m a n y y e a r s to the extent it affects a single ship and so fa*-
as s h i p ' s d r a f t changes for a given channel coníiguration, hull forni, and
speed t h r o u g h t h e water. Additional discussion is needed of factors other
t h a n s q u a t t h a t aífect underkeel clearance a s l a r g e r ships load t o greater
d r a f t s . P o r t s a n d c h a n n e l s t h a t once w e r e considered suitable for deep
d r a f t s h i p s a r e now m a r g i n a l as larger ships load to deeper d r a f t s and un-
d e r k e e l c l e a r a n c e is reduced to the m i n i m u m considered safe for the port.
In t h e p a s t , some research was done to predict s q u a t a n d underkeel
c l e a r a n c e u n d e r more complex conditions s u c h as w h e n multiple ships
p a s s in n a r r o w c h a n n e l s b u t the findings a n d accuracy of the d a t a w a s
q u e s t i o n a b l e . Much of t h e research was conducted in t e s t t a n k s so practi-
cal c o n s i d e r a l i o n s including the impact of s h i p stability, changes during
periods of acceleration, and effects of s h i p i n t e r a c t i o n on s q u a t were rarely
a p p l i c a b k ; to day-to-day maneuvers in shallow w a t e r .
M o r e a d v a n c e d t e s t s have been conducted in t h : p a s t decade using sur- Fig. 2-20. Ali the effects expected in a confined channel can be seen in
vey g r a d e D G P S to m e a s u r e changes in d r a f t a n d t r i m of ships u n d e r w a y t h e Gaillard Cut.
in n a r r o w c h a n n e l s u n d e r dynamic conditions. T h e s e t e s t s have focused
on u n d e r k e e l clearance (UKC), which is t h e p r i m a r y concern for m a r i n e r s work, because of its scope, expands significantly on past theory r e g a r d i n g
h a n d l i n g s h i p s i n shallow water a n d n a r r o w c h a n n e l s . I n the past, s q u a t and UKC requirements in shallow water. The opportunity to mea-
s h i p h a n d l e r s often considered s q u a t a n d U K C as basicully synonymous sure these conditions in the Panama Canal was unique. The t e s t s were
a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e actua lly something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a n d t h a t difference is performed in a controlled operating environment so conditions a n d mea-
i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t as more ships a r r i v e at a port loaded to the maxi- s u r e m e n t s could be repeated and confirmed in a rehable m a n n e r . These
m u m s a f e d r a f t I n fact, factors including acceleration, ship/ship interac- conditions and the extremely close cooperation between the p a r t i e s in-
tion, a n d rolling in t u r n s are at least as i m p o r t a n t as s q u a t in any volved in the tests created a situation t h a t canie as close as may ever be
discussion on u n d e r k e e l clearance. Ali factors a r e d y n a m i c since ship possible to h a v i n g test tank conditions using actual ships and full size test
speed, s t a b i l i t y , hull coníiguration, and c h a n n e l profiles are i n t e r r e l a t e d t a n k s within the very accurately surveyed P a n a m a Canal c h a n n e l for
a n d a c h a n g e of a n y one of those factors aífects U K C . M a r i n e r s and pilots weeks at a time. The results afiect not only the P a n a m a Canal but. also
t e n d to focus on s q u a t when they discuss U K C b u t t h e s e other factors were ship movements and operating parameters in ali waterways and routes
found to be at l e a s t as important when n a v i g a t i n g in some a r e a s of the with shallow w a t e r and restricted channels.
P a n a m a C a n a l a n d o t h e r waterways (fig. 2-20). The PCC ( P a n a m a Canal Commission) invested tho time and work
D e f i n i t i v a tes';s w e r e conducted by W a t e r w a y Simulation Technoiogy, necessary to conducl these tests and rc-AIS-SSS CILÍSÍC squat and UKC theory
Inc. (WST; for the P a n a m a Canal Commission (PCC) in 1998 when
d r o u g h t conditions m a d e d r a f t and s q u a t criticai. 10 " 1 2 This landniark 11
Ibid, May S, 1998.
12
Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D., P.E., and J. Christopher Hewlett, P.E., Panamax
10
Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D., P.E., and J. Christopher Hewlett, P.E. Study of Ships Mccting in the Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation
Ship Squat in the Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. for Technology, Inc. for the Panama Canal Commission, Balboa, Republic of
the Panama Canal Coininission, Balboa, Republic of Panama, March 20, 1998. Panama, September, 10, 1999.
94 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L U N D E R K E E L CLEARANCE 95

b e c a u s e t h e w a t e r w a y , by its very n a t u r e as an i n t e r n a t i o n a l w a t e r w a y P a n a m a Canal; huwever, it was found that specific predictive formulas for
s e r v i n g world shipping, must be particularly sensitive to t h e needs of ali particular ship types and channel characleristics provide more a c c u r a t e
P a n a m a C a n a l u s e r s . There is a real need to m a x i m i z e carrying capacity e s t i m a t e s of squat than lhe Barrass formula. Basea on these waterway-
of s h i p s t r a n s i t i n g t h e Canal consistent w i t h safety. T h e tests w e r e con- spccific measurements, the predictive model, and updated channel survey
ducted for t h e P a n a m a Canal b u t t h e r e s u l t s are a n i m p o r t a n t contribu- data, a UKC calculator can be developed tor use in analyzing UKC fwr a
tion to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of ship behavior in a l i ' n a r r o w a n d shallow planned transit. •
channelu. To s u m m a r i z e test findings, it was confirmed that
F o r t h e P a n a m a Canal study, pilots m a n e u v e r e d ali t y p e s of ships
while t h e W S T personnel m e a s u r e d r e s u l t s u n d e r v a r i o u s o p e r a t i n g con-
1. Speed through the water is the most criticai factor when deterinin-
ditions. O p e r a t i n g procedures and regulations w e r e modiíied based on the
ing and maximizing UKC.
t e s t r e s u l t s for ali s h i p types in various situations. Survey-grade D G P S
2. S q u a t increases for a given block coc fficient as speed increases, with
e q u i p m e n t w a s i n s i a l l e d on the bow, s t e r n , a n d bridge wings to m e a s u r e
t h e increase in squat being greater for ships with higher block coeffi-
vertical d i s p l a c e m e n t and the d r a f t a n d t r i m c h a n g e s w e r e recorded. T h e
cients.
r e s u l t i n g h a r d copy g r a p h s and tables d o c u m e n t e d t h e findings t h a t were
3. T h e rolling effect for various ship types turning in narrow c h a n n e l s
at t i m e s surpxising. T h e findings m i g h t n o t h a v e been accepted if t h e mea-
is significant and, for wide-beam ships where draft increases signifi-
s u r e m e n t s w e r e n o t well documented.
cantly for each degree of roll, may limit UKC more t h a n squat at
T h e t e s t s provided a basis for predicting u n d e r k e e l clearance a n d ex-
lower speeds. This is especially true for containerships since they
p a n d i n g t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s q u a t effeets a n d c h a n g e s in d r a f t u n d e r i
sometimes discharge water ballast to reduce draft in restricted
wider r a n g e of situations. Practical applications for the d a t a include re-
c h a n n e l s and thus have a lower GM.
vised d r a f t r e s t r i c t i o n s for various ship types in Gaillard C u t in P a n a m a
4. In general, ship type is a factor when predicting changes in UKC in
and s p e e d l i m i t a t i o n s in various w a t e r w a y s for ships at or n e a r m a x i m u m
n a r r o w channels.
draft.
5. S q u a t may be as much as double the calculated squat for constant
It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t the t e s t results s u p p o r t t h e application of classic
speeds when high-power ships accelerate from a stop or increase
s q u a t t h e o r y as developed by Dr. B a r r a s s , Ph.D., for t h e P a n a m a Canal
speed quickly.
Gaillard C u t to t h e e x t e n t s q u a t is affected by speed, blockage factor, a n d
6. T h e effect of "crabbing" due to bank suction that causes a ship to pro-
block coefficient u n d e r the less complex conditions for which t h e B a r r a s s
ceed at some angle to the axis of the channel does not seem to in-
f o r m u l a is m o s t often used. Equally i m p o r t a n t , t h e t e s t s also increase the
crease s q u a t although more research is required in this area.
knowledge b a s e for t h e squat p h e n o m e n a in a r a n g e of conditions for light
7. S q u a t varies as ships pass through channels with changing symme-
a n d loaded d r a f t s at various speeds including a few conditions not previ-
try as the blockage factor changes.
ously d i s c u s s e d in professional literature. For example, t h e s t u d y docu-
8. S q u a t generally increases 50% as two ships pass in a channel or
m e n t s s q u a t and c h a n g s s in UKC as ships m e e t a n d p a s s in narrow
other restricted area but can increase by as much as 100% depend-
channels, accelerate in shallow water. t u r n a n d roll in twisting channels,
ing on the ships approach speed and separation distance.
a n d move b e t w e e n a r e a s with varying and i r r e g u l a r c h a n n e l cross sec-
tions. Tu t h a t extent, the P a n a m a Canai t e s t s provide g r e a t e r knowledge
of h y d r o d y n a m i c s affecting s q u a t and d r a f t t h a t m u s t be d i s s e m i n a t e d to Safe Speed for Mini/num Underkeel Clearance
the i n d u s t r y . T h e PCC s q u a t sr.udy verilied the classic principies for calculating s q u a t .
Similar t e s t s conducted in other w a t e r w a y s including the St. Law- T h e c h a n g e in s q u a t is geometric. Basically, for the same conditions,
rence S e a w a y , H o u s t o n Ship Channel, and D e l a w a r e Bay a n d River veri- s q u a t v a r i e s approximately as the square of the speed. Double the speed
fied t h e res;ult.s of t h e Waterway Simulation Technology s t u d i e s in the a n d you increase squat by a factor offour. This is especially i m p o r t a n t in
96 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
shallow w a t e r w h e r e the tests d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t , as a r u l e of t h u m b , 6
k n o t s is a p r a c t i c a l s p e e d limit for s h i p s in c h a n n e l s w h e r e U K C is 5 feet
or l e s s c o n s i d e r i n e v a r i a b l e s su^h as acceleration and rolling in t u r n s in
addition to s q u a t effects. Of course, good s e a m a n s h i p s h o u l d prevail at
ali tiines.
T h e s h i p h a n d l e r will always consider factors such as a rocky vs. mud
bottom, t h e quality of c h a r t s a n d accuracy of r a n g e s a n d buoys, t h e type of
ship, its stability, a n d other factors t h a t affect concerns with g r o u n d i n g in
a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a . T h e y m a y routinely navigate a c h a n n e l with a m u d bot-
tom at a h i g h e r speed. At the s a m e time, they m a y proceed at a slower
speed to h a v e g r e a t e r clearance when t h e bottom is rocky. Pilots m a k e
these a d j u s t m e n t s routinely a n d often proceed at higher speeds because of
t h e i r local k n o w l e d g e of channel s y m m e t r y a n d bottom type t h a t p e r m i t
h i g h e r s p e e d s with safety. This is the essence of piloting a n d t h e reason pi-
lotage a n d local knowledge are irreplaceable in t h e safe h a n d l i n g of ships
regardless oí c h a n g i n g technology.
In any case, absent specific local knowledge to the contrary, the
6-knot speed limit for 5 feet of UKC is a useful rule of thumb for
shiphandlers that is suitable for safe navigation in almost ali
conditions.
Effects of Stability on UKC
T h e r e is an a p p a r e n t contradiction between points 2 a n d 3 (on t h e previ-
ous page) as d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e D G P S m e a s u r e m e n t s . O r d i n a r i l y ,
wide-beam, fuli-hull ships such as t a n k e r s and bulk c a r r i e r s a r e expected
to experience g r e a t e r increases in d r a f t because s q u a t is g r e a t e r for ships
with a g r e a t e r block coefficient. Those ships would ordinarily require a
g r e a t e r UKC for a given speed. In fact, at slow speeds, wide-beam ships
with finer h u l l s may r e q u i r e g r e a t e r UKC because GM is leds a n d they will
roll more for a given speed t h a n t h e ship with large block coefficient. For
example, t h e deep d r a f t of a 106-foot beam P a n a m a x s h i p increases ap-
proximately 11 inches for every degree of roll.
T h e reality when considering changes in UKC for various s h i p types is
often d i f f e r e n t from w h a t might initially be anticipatod. Bulk c a r r i e r s and
t a n k e r s u s u a l l y have larger block coefficients (above 0.8), less horsepower
(6,000-14,000), a n d g r e a t e r stability (GM more t h a n 3 feet). They are
more likely to s q u a t by the head and accelerate more slowly. Due to hign
U N D E R K E E L CLEARANCE 97
GM, this ship type will usually roll less due to rudder-induced rolling in a
turn. These ship types are relatively similar i.n hull forni regardless of
owner and place of construction, so squat, sinkage, and changes of drafr.
are generally more predictable for these ship types.
Car carriers, containerships, and passengcr ships usually have lower
block coefficients (less than 0.8), greater horsepower (15,000-65,000), a n d
less stability (.GM commonly less than 2 feet). They are more likely to
squat by the stern and accelerate more quicklv. These ship types will rnll
more in t u r n s in narrow channels, and there are greater dispa ri ties in hull
forms among ships of this type. For these reasons, squat and changes in
d r a f t while underway are l e s j predictable.
General cargo and ships carrying specialized cargoes have characteris-
tics t h a t are somewhere between the aforementioned ship types.
The WST trials m a k e a good case for allowing less underkeel clearance
for t h e more predictable b u l k carriers and tankers than for other types of
vessels, which is quite the opposite from what would otherwise be ex-
pected foi high block coefficient ships based on squat alone. They heel less
in a turn. They heel less d u e to rudder-induced rolling. They accelerate
more slowly and have less horsepower so speed changes will have less ef-
fect on draft.
Acceleration
Ship acceleration is an i m p o r t a n t consideration when handling ships in
shallow water Changes in engine revoiutions have a greater effect on
U K C than previously anticipated. The tests indicate that initial s q u a t
while accelerating is approximately double the squat as calculated by the
classic formula. T h a t formula assumes constant speed so a high-powered
ship p u t on full ahead may strike the bottom while accelerating even
though there would be sufficient clearance under the keel once a specific
speed is reached. Pilots a n d ships' officers must accelerate in incre-
menta—dead slow, slow, a n d then half— instead of going directly to half
ahead when UKC is less t h a n double the squat calculated for constant
speed. A modera containership increased draft more than 4 feet in the ini-
tial lew minutes as the ship accelerated from a dead stop using revoiutions
for half ahead. In this particular test, the squat decreased to 2 feet or less
when the ship reached normal half ahead speed even though revoiutions
remained constant throughout the period the ship was gaining headway
in shallow water. This increase was due primarily to an induced heel to
t h e starboard during the acceleration.
98 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L U N D E K K E E L CLEARANCE 99

EVER REFINE - N O R T H B O U N D , G A M B O A REACH, MEETING WITH NEOLLOYD DEJIMA

T h e W a t e r w a y S i m u l a t i o n Technology (WST) t s s t s s h o w e d t h a t un-
derkeel clearance v a r i e s when a ship moves between c h a n n e l s of d i f f e r e n t H=« -4— _1_ - I ^0—
formation in a s y m m e t r i c a l channels w h e r e t h e slope of t h e b a n k is differ- I !
I I
ent on one side of t h e s h i p t h a n the other. T h e change occurs each t i m e the CONTAINERSHIP, LOA c 935. BEAM . 100 D R A F T . ?9.S
l
symmetry of t h e c h a n n e l changes. The cause of this change is n o t obvious
although it m a y be d u e to changing blockage factors or to d i s r u p t i o n of
NOTE VlHUCAlMlSSCAlECKA-VCf
w h a t is otherwise a s t a b l e condition as t h e ship proceeds along t h e chan-
nel. There is little t h a t can be done to minimize this effect o t h e r t h a n re-
ducing speed a n d allowing for t h e increase in d r a f t each t i m e t h e c h a n n e l «/>

cross profíle changes.

V
Tests showed t h e d r a f t for a 612-foot-long by 95-foot-beam b u l k carrier
changed by as much as 2 feet while proceeding at a m o d e r a t e speed when - V"
r rV J \Jd\
the s h a p e of a 1,000-foot-wide channel changed so t h e effect of c h a n g i n g
channel s y m m e t r y on d r a f t can be significant. A ship could g r o u n d if the 1475 1460 1*65 1 4 9 0 1 4 9 S 1500 1 5 0 5 1510 1515 1520 I S » 1530 1535 1540
• Ml
15*í
« . . . . . . . 4I«»
,, J
1 5 5 0 1 5 S 5 1S60 1 5 6 5H 1 S 7 0 1 5 7 5
pilot does n o t m i n i m i z e speed when channel width a n d s y m m e t r y are C M A N N d L S T A T 1 0 N ( H U N D R E D S O F FT)

changing from one a r e a to a n o t h e r . "

Meeting and Passing

Squat also i n c r e a s e s significantly as two ships m e e t in a c h a n n e l or other
restricted a r e a . T e s t s were conducted by W S T to m e a s u r e t h e effect of
ship/ship i n t e r a c t i o n on squat. T h e t e s t s w e r e done at a r a n g e of s p e e d s ir.
the thoroughly s u r v e y e d P a n a m a C a n a l channels w h e r e t h e c h a n c e of
grounding w a s m i n i m a l . S q u a t w a s additive a s t h e ships m e t a n d passed.
A ship s q u a t t i n g 4 f e e t m e e t i n g a n o t h e r ship s q u a t t i n g 3 f e e t a n d moving
in the opposite direction would experience a c u m u l a t i v e s q u a t of approxi-
mately 7 feet as the two ships passed in a n a r r o w channel.
Obviously, the d i s t a n c e between ships and t h e c h a n n e l w i d t h h a s an
effect on the increase in squat. In t h e tests, the c h a n n e l w a s approxi-
mately four t i m e s t h e combined b e a m s of the two ships. T e s t s w e r e re-
peated for several days with fairly consistent results a n d t h e increase in
s q u a t was consistently mere t h a n m i g h t be anticipated prior to t h e s e de-
finitive trial r u n s . In ali cases, s q u a t generally increased by about 50%,
with increases from 60% to 100% occurring, w h e n two ships p a s s e d in a
channel depending cn speed a n d distance between ships. T h e i n c r e a s e is
greater at higher s p e e d s and for larger ships. Sinkage w a s g r e a t e r for bulk
Fig. 2-21. Ships meeting in restricted channels will experience a
significant increase in s q u a t as the ships pass. Note t h a t sinkage
nearly doubled to 7 feet when this vessei passed approximately 150
feet from the containership Nedlloyd Dejima. Consistent with
findings, this low block coefficient vessei trimmed by the stern due to
s q u a t . Courtesy Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc./Panama
C a n a l Autbority.
carrier/tanker type vessels than containerships. Increased hecl was also a
primary factor for changes in the vertical for typical containerships in
meeting situations (fig. 2-21).
Shiphandlers must not underestimate the effect of this ship/ship inter-
action on squat and draft. The increase can be drastic and rapid so ships
moving at high speeds in narrow channels could ground immediately as
they meet. It is noteworthy t h a t a 900-fooL containership rraveling at 11
knots in an otherwise safe 700-foot channel immed:at°iy 'ncreased d r a f t
by more than 7 feet as the ships passed."

13
Study of Sh ip Squat in the Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation 1-4
Technology, Inc., pg. 34. Ibid, p&. 41.
100 S H I P H A N D L I N G IN A C H A N N E L
Overtaking
O n e would e x p e c t t h a t s q u a t would be g r e a t e r for two vessels in an over-
t a k i n g s i t u a t i o n t h a n f o r a single vessel in t h e c h a n n e l . O n e would also ex-
pect s q u a t to be g r e a t e r for two vessels in an o v e r t a k i n g s i t u a t i o n t h a n for
two vessels w h e n m e e t i n g a n d p a s s i n g a n d t h e i n c r e a s e would l a s t longer
since t h e s h i p / s h i p i n t e r a c t i o n c o n t i n u e s for a longer period d u e to t h e
lower speed d i f f e r e n t i a l b e t w e e n o v e r t a k i n g s h i p s .
T h e r e is a l a c k of d a t a on t h i s s i t u a t i o n so it is n o t possible at t h i s t i m e
t o s a y w i t h a n y c e r t a i n t y t h a t this a s s u m p t i o n i s correct. For safety rea-
sons a n d u n t i l t h e r e i s d a t a available t o s u p p o r t o r r e f u t e t h a t a s s u m p -
tion, i t s e e m s p r o p e r f o r s h i p h a n d l e r s t o a s s u m e t h e i n c r e a s e i n d r a f t
when ships o v e r t a k e in a narrow channel is t h e same or greater as when
ships m e e t a n d t h a t it l a s t s for a longer period.
S q u a t , u n d e r k e e l c l e a r a n c e , ship stability, speed, h u l l f o r m , c h a n n e l
form, a n d ali t h e o t h e r f a c t o r s discussed in t h i s section could c a u s e a s h i p
to g r o u n d in an o t h e r w i s e safe channel. Also, in a d d i t i o n to grounding, re-
cent r e s e a r c h c l e a r l y s h o w s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c o n s i d e r i n g ali factors af-
fecting i t e e r i n g a n d s h i p h a n d l i n g i n n a r r o w a n d shallow c h a n n e l s .
STOPPING AND MANEUVERING IN A CHANNEL
T h e b e r t h is r.ow in s i g h t b u t t h e t u g s a r e n ' t y e t available, so it is neces-
sary t o s t o p y o u r s h i p d u r i n g h e r p a s s a g e u p t h e c h a n n e l a n d hold h e r i n
t h a t location u n t i l t u g s arrive. It would of course h a v e b e e n b e t t e r to h a v e
h a d t h e t u g s m a d e f a s t before n e e d i n g to stop, b u t it is c e r t a i n l y n o t a prob-
lem to stop w i t h o u t t h e m . The m a n e u v e r for s t o p p i n g y o u r s h i p while
m a i n t a i n i n g h e r h e a d i n g is discussed in t h e section on m a s t e r ' s trials in
c h a p t e r 1, a n d since you h a v e k e p t t h e ship's speed m o d e r a t e at ali times,
you a r e in control of t h e s i t u a t i o n with or w i t h o u t t u g s .
T h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d d u r i n g t h e m a s t e r ' s t r i a l s helps you j u d g e
w h e t h e r t h e s h i p can b e stopped i n t h e d i s t a n c e a v a i l a b l e u s i n g only rou-
t i n e m a n e u v e r s . R e m e m b e r t h a t it is often possible to p e r f o r m two or more
m a n e u v e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , such a s u s i n g t h e t e n d e n c y for t h e bow t o
swing to s t a r b o a r d w h e n t h e engine is p u t a s t e r n to both m a k e a t u r n to
the right and reduce headway.
CHAPTER THREE
U S E O F TUGS
We maneuvereà in the outer harbor until it was dark.
When we put in the Chiei*came to the bridge, wiping his
hands with a wad of cotton waste and his furehead with
his sleeve. "Bliiney, Skippcr," he said, "you certainly
kept us busy." I had . . . í found out that she was indeed
a lovely ship; you couldn't expec1. her to do more and FtilI
be called a tugboat.
—Jan de Hartog, The bistant Shorc
The heavily bearded ducking master burst through the wheel/iuuse door,
grabbed the old man's hand, and welcomed him to the port in a voice tico
tones deeper than our whistle. Taking the radio in hand, he instructed the
two tugs that would be assisting us to the dock to corne alongside and make
up.
How do you like your coffee, CapT'
"Black please. Just black and hot will be fine," the docking master re-
plied to the captain.
"Cali the standby and have him bring up a pot of coffee, Cadet."
"Vllget it, sir. It will only take me a secorid togo downstairs for it," re-
plied the cadet.
The docking master glowered at the cadet, but said nothing until he had
left the wheelhouse. Obuiously, he didn't like the young man's reply.
Downstairs! Downstairs! Where thehell does that kid think he is, "bel-
lowed the heretofore jovial docking pilot.
"They don't go down below any more, they go downstairs. Decks ara
floors, lines are ropes, and the other day one of these kids called a mooring
wire a cable."Hepaused longenough tocatch his breath but ii was còrioi s
that he had hardly begun his dissertation on thepreservation ofthe seafar-
ing language and the use ofprcper shipboard terminology. In fact, u-e were
lectured on that subject for the rest ofthe docking.
Unfortunately, it is true that the vocabulary of the manner is often ig-
nored end those who have been working around ships for any length of time
are not happy about it. Perhaps this is because so rnany landsmen rush to
101
102 USE O F T U G S
the water on weekends to play, and most of what is written and fdmed in
the United States about living and working on the water is directed to-
ward, and produced hy, these neophyie admirais who do not under st c nd
that the language ofthe sea is steeped in tradition. Nautical vocabulary al-
lows those aboard ship to communicats orders and ideas clearly and con-
cisely in a manner that is not open to misinterpretation. For this reason it is
important tf.at the shiphandler use proper and accepted shipboard termi-
nology when giving orders.
While practitioners in the medicai, legal, engineering, and scientific
fields have and use a specialized vocabulary peculiar to their profession,
the language ofthe sea is now being misused with regularity. This is sad
since seafaring is not just ajob, it is a way oflife, and the seaman's vocabu-
lary captures the very essence and spirit oflife on the water.
The argument has been rnade by some that the seafarer should "mod-
ernize" nautical language so it could be immediately understood by ali,
even though this would actually mean that it would be clearly understood
by no one. Without a unique nautical vocabulary it would be impossible to
accurately express ideas ordescribe conditions in the marine environment.
A whole series oflong and ambiguous sentences would be needed to express
the same thoughts that the seaman can now convey with but a few words.
Consider theparagraph ofinstructions that would have to begiven to a sea-
man tending the spring line to get the same reaction that the mariner gets
from the three words: "Check the spring."
Just as doctors or lawyers would not bastardize the language of their
professions, nor tolerate others in their field who do not master that lan-
guage, neither should the mariner accept the misuse ofthe language ofthe
sea. It is another aspect of professionalism.
After being properly chastised the cadet went forward to assist in the
docking, having assured the docking master that his point had been made.
The work of the t u g m a s t e r is a subject u n t o itself, a n d it is beyond the
scope of this t e x t to discus.s that work. Only t h e use of t u g s to a s s i s t in the
movement a n d b e r t h i n g of ships will be covered h e r e (fig. 3-1 <.
There a r e several types of tugs, each of which h a s its l i m i t a t i o n s and
advantages. T h e single-screw harbor tug is still p r e d o m i n a n t in m a n y
ports and will serve as the basis for this chapter. It's e s s e n t i a l t h a t the
s h i p h a n d l e r u n d e r s t a n d the tug's work, and her l i m i t a t i o n s a n d capabili-
ties, so t h a t he can do t h e best possible job without e n d a n g e r i n g t h e assist-
ing boats.
MAKING UP A TL"G 103
Fig. 3-1. Tugs alongside, arriving Ballimore Harbor. From an oil
painting by Maryland Pilot Captain Brian Kopc.
MAKING UP A TUG
Having proceeded to within sight of the bertn and taken the docking mas-
t e r aboard, the crew m a k e s the tugs fast and gels reaay to go alongside.
T h e tugs can be made f a s t in several ways depending on where they are to
be placed and the work t h a t they are going to do.
If t h e tug is to assist in a routine docking or undocking and is to be
m a d e f a s t on the bow or quarter, she generally pucs up two lines. The first
line s e n t aboard, to be led forward and put on a bitt on the ship's deck, is
the backing line. This line is made fast to a bitt on the tug^s foredeck. Since
this line will take a heavy strain as the tug backs against it to pull the bow
or stern, it must be put on a bitt aboard the ship. Too often, the m a t e on the
bow or stern puts the backing line on a small cleat on the bulwark, or on
some other unsuitable fitting t h a t is oui of lhe tug master ! s line of sight.
When the tug later backs on t h a t line for the first time, the cleat pulls off
t h e bulwark with the very real danger of injuring or killing someone
aboard either vessei. The second line sent aboard from the tug is led from
t h e t u g s foredeck to her bow, and then up to the ship. This come ahead line
is led aft on the ship's deck and used by the tug to work against a n d get into
position to push (fig. 3-2).
If the ship will be backing into or from a slip, a stern line m a y also be
rigged so the tug does not fali around as the ship gathers sternway. The
ship's speed m u s t then be kept to a miniinum since the tug is at nearly
r i g h t angles to the ship while backing, with the full length acting as a drag
and putting a heavy strain on t h a t line that increases geometrically as
104 USE O F T U G S U S I N G A TUG 105

The patented drive tugs usually keep their working line on a winch
with sufficient power to shorten or lengthen the line while working
against it. The tug is t h u s able to change position without losing effective-
ness and to work at more t h a n one location around the bow or stern with-
out having to s h i f t lines.

COMMUNICATING WITH A TUG

While virious tug signals have been developed that are peculiar to a p o i l
or even to a particular berth, certain basic signals and maneuvers a r e
common to almost ali ports at which you will call in Lhe United States. Sig-
nals to be given with a h a n d whistle or the s h i p s whistle include:

One blast If pushing or backing, stop. If stopped, come ahead

with normal power.
Fig. 3-2. M a k i n g f a s t a single-screw tug.
Two blasts Back with normal power.
One long blast Come ahead dead slow.
Series of short, Increase to full power, ahead or astern, depending on
ship's speed increases. Two of the ship's crew m u s t s t a n d by to let the line rapid blasts the direction in which the tug is presently working.
go p r o m p t l y on signal from the tug and slack it with a messenger to the tug. One long and Tug is dismissed. Let go the tugs lines.
two short blasts
If t h e line is n o t let go promptly the tug is e i t h e r u n a b l e to get in position to
work or t h e line is p a r t e d by the s t r a i n as t h e t u g a n d s h i p inaneuver. Now t h a t the radio is supplementing the whistle, the shiphandler can
T h e r e is a v e r y real r i s k of getting t h e s t e r n line in t h e t u g ' s propeller if the verbally instruct the t u g to perform these same maneuvers. T h e use o f t h e
m e s s e n g e r is not u s e d and properly tended w h e n s l a c k i n g t h e stern line radio h a s resulted in safer and more professional work since it is possible
down to t h e boat. to specify a tug by name, a n d to give more precise instruetions to the tug.
Twin-screw tugs, d u e to their ability to m a n e u v e r , will often give the When using a radio to work more t h a n one tug, good practice dietates t h a t
ship only a b a c k i n g l i n e since they can use t h e i r two e n g i n e s to get at right t h e name of the t u g b e repeated twice so that there is no m i s u n d e r s t a n d -
angles to t h e ship to p u s h without a come a h e a d line. ing about which tug should follow a particular order: "(name of tug) Come
T u g s h a v i n g one of t h e various p a t e n t e d drives t h a t allow m a n e u v e r - ahead full (name of tug)."
ing in ali d i r e c t i o n s will need only to send a h a w s e r to t h e ship, which al-
lows t h e t u g to work w i t h greater freedom a n d to be m o r e u s e f u l to the USING A TUG
s h i p h a n d l e r . P a t e n t e d drive tugs such as t h e V o i t h - S c h n e i d e r can do ev- Rule one—don't use the tug.
e r y t h i n g t h a t t w i n - s c r e w tugs can do with t h e a d d e d a d v a n t a g e of being Make the needed tugs f a s t b u t plan the job so as to deliberately mini-
able to w o r k (to direct t h e i r t h r u s t ) at r i g h t a n g l e s to t h e s h i p when the mize their u^e. Let's iook at the reasons for this. The tug is simply a n o t h e r
ship h a s h e a d way. Obviously, the closer t h e t u g is to b e i n g at r i g h t angles toei available to the s h i p h a n d l e r to accompiish the task at hand, supple-
to t h e ship, t h e more of h e r power is being u s e d to inove t h e ship in t h e de- menting the engine, rudder, bow thruster, anchors, and mooring lines.
sired direction. T h e s e p a t e n t e d drive tugs can also w o r k closer to the Use the tug only when these other tools will not by themselves accompiish
stem or s t e r n of t h e s h i p because of t h e i r ability to m a n e u v e r a r o u n d the t h e task. There are several reasons for this.
flare of t h e bow or c u r v a t u r e of the ship's r u n a f t . T h e closer to t h e ends of
the s h i p t h a t t h e tug is able co work, t h e more effective it can be in moving 1. The only way to develop a skill in and a feel for handling ships is to
the ship. do the work. If a ship is pushed and pulled into position primarily
106 USE OF TUGS U S I N G A TUG 107

u s i n g t h e tug, you aren't developing any skill in s h i p h a n d l i n g , you in fact having more than one effect and to use these effeets t o y o u r best ad-
a r e only l e a r n i n g to push and pull with tugs. vantage (fig. 3-3).
2. If a job is p l a n n e d to minimize t h e need for t h e tug, then +hose tugs Other t h a n the pushing and pulling effeets on Lhe s h i p s bow, t h e bow
a r e available as additional tools if r e q u i r e d — a n ace up t h e ship- tug can also be used to follow a ship which is going astern, working stern to
h a n d l e r ^ sleeve. If t h e job is done in a m a n n e r t h a t m a k e s the use of stem to steer the ship by pushing on either bow as required. The tug t r a i i s
t u g s essential, this backup capability is lost. By m a k i n g the t u g s the stem a n d comes ahead a g a i n s t the port bow to move the stem to s t a r -
f a s t , a n d t h e n working as if they weren't available, t h e t u g s can be board and t h u s t u r n the ship to port. Pushing on the starboard bow h a s t h e
u s e d to correct a n y problem t h a t m i g h t arise. opposite effect.
The bow tug is used to hold the ship alongside in position after a r r i v i n g
T h e r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y seems to be an inverse r e l a t i o n s h i p between at the berth until mooring lines are out and tight. By keeping the tug at
s h i p h a n d l i n g ability a n d the availability of powerful tugs. No g r e a t skill is some angle to the ship, t h a t ship can be held against a flooding or ebbing
r e q u i r e d to b e r t h a s h i p u n d e r n o r m a l conditions w i t h a little common current as well as alongside her berth until she is secure. Other uses of t h e
sense a n d a few powerful tugs to push a n d pull t h e s h i p into position. It is a bow tug are covered in sections on approaching the berth in c h a p t e r 4. a n d
p l e a s u r e , t h o u g h , to w a t c h a skilied pilot or m a s t e r move a s h i p u s i n g only going alongside in chapter 5.
h e r engine a n d r u d d e r , m a k i n g h e r perform w i t h o u t f u s s o r confusion. The
only w a y to develop t h a t degree of skill is by h a n d l i n g a s h i p w i t h mini-
m u m assistance.
T h e tug'3 power, w h e n working alongside, is u s e d p r i m a r i l y to move
t h e s h i p latere.lly although a properly m a d e - u p t u g can direct forces in ali
directions a n d move t h e ship a h e a d , or slow t h e ship a n d hold h e r in pesi-
tion. T h i s flexibility is one of t h e reasons a pilot will s o m e t i m e s use a tug
on a s h i p even t h o u g h she is equipped with a t h r u s t e r . A s h i p h a n d l e r
should n e v e r h e s i t a t e to use a t u g in a p p r o p r i a t e s i t u a t i o n s even t h o u g h
t h e m a s t e r insista t h e t h r u s t e r will be sufíicient. T u g fees are, at times, a
n e c e s s a r y coât of safe docking or undocking.
Keep in m i n d , w h e n using a tug to m a n e u v e r , t h a t ship's speed h a s a
crucial i m p a c t on t h e tug"s effectiveness. T h e t u g h a s only a limited
a m o u n t of power available and, as the speed of t h e ship i n c r e a s e s , more of
t h a t power is needed j u s t to "keep up" with t h e ship a n d t h e r e f o r e less
power is available to assist the ship's m a n e u v e r s . Keep t h e ship's speed to
a m i n i m u m for m a x i m u m tug effeets w h e n m a n e u v e r i n g .
As s t a t e d , backing a t u g also slows t h e forward speed of t h e ship, and
simply d r a g g i n g t h e tug along with its deep hull at some angle to t h e ship's
centerline will h a v e some slowing effect. Keep in mind t h a t t h e opposite
effect occurs w h e n t h e tug comes a h e a d . The tug^s force increases t h e
speed of t h e ship since some of h e r power is p u s h i n g t h e ship a h e a d . It is
possible to compute by vector d i a g r a m the p e r c e n t a g e of the total force
being g e n e r a t e d by a t u g t h a t is acting in the desired direction u n d e r a
given s i t u a t i e n , b u t in t h e real world it is sufficient to know t h a t t h e tug is headway.
108 USE OF TUGS
T h e a f t e r t u g or s t e r n tug, if placed on the q u a r t e r , is m a d e f a s t in the
s a m e m a n n e r as a t u g on the bow, t h a t is, with a backing line a n d a come
a h e a d line. T h e t u g b a c k s and pushes a g a i n s t t h e hull i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r
and w i t h t h e s a m e eíTects as t h e bow tug, with two i m p o r t a n t differences:
1. T h e a f t e r tug a c t s as a drag, reducing the eílectiveness of t h e rudder,
especially at slow speeds when t h e s h i p h a n d l e r is t r y i n g to move the
s t e r n l a t e r a l l y w i t h o u t any significant increase in speed.
2. T h e s t e r n t u g t e n d s to set the s t e r n away from t h e side on which she
is m a d e f a s t , l o w a r d the pier or wharf in a docking s i t u a t i o n , which
c r e a t e s an additional problem for the s h i p h a n d l e r . T h i s effect in-
c r e a s e s as t h e a n g l e at which t h e tug lies to the s h i p i n c r e a s e s , since
t h e t u g is a c t i n g as a r u d d e r of t h e dimensions of t h e tug*s underwa-
ter profile (fig. 3-4).
For t h e s e r e a s o n s it is best to have t h e s t e r n tug s t a n d off u n t i l actually
needed to a s s i s t t h e ship, a n d to be let go a f t e r u n d o c k i n g at t h e earliest
practical t i m e .
Occasionally a t u g will be secured on each bow w h e n t h e ship is ap-
p r o a c h i n g a b e r t h or lock, or holding a position in a c h a n n e l (fig. 3-5). Ei-
Fig. 3-4. Effect of a t u g m a d e fast on t h e q u a r t e r .
U S I N G A TUG 109
Fig. 3-5. Using a tug on each bow.
t h e r tug can then back or come ahead, alone or together, to move the ship's
bow as required. More importantly, when both tugs are backed simulta-
neously the ship's heading is maintained while reducing the ship's speed,
as t h e tugs back against the ship's headway. The ship's engine can also be
used as required, so t h a t she is both steered and stopped with m a x i m u m
control.
A tug can be placed a s t e r n of the ship and made fast with one or two
lines (fig. 3-6). In this position t h e tug backs to slow the ship or comes
a h e a d to either the right or lefl to move the stern, acting much like an ac-
tive rudder to supplement the ship's own rudder. The tug can also be used
to steer without the ship's engine, controlling the ship without developing
excessive headway. It is claimed in some shiphandling texts, and occa-
sionally by pilots in ports t h a t do not normally use tugs in this m a n n e r ,
t h a t there is some hazard to a tug made fast on the stern. This is simply
u n t r u e . For example, tugs have been used astern to assist literally thou-
s a n d s of ships through the Gaillard Cut in the Panama Canal at speeds of
6 to S knots wUhout any problems. Often texts recommend using a tug on a
n a w s e r ahead of the ship to assist the ship to steer. This arrangemen* ;s
both less c-ffective and potentially more hazardous. A conventionai U.S
h a r b o r tug working ahead of a ship with any significant headway is al-
.vays in danger of being tripped or rolled over.
The ship should always keep an oflicer and two crew members stand-
ing by the tug lines, especially when they are led through the ship's quar-
ter chocks, in case the tug should have to let go on short notice. Too often,
110 USE OF TUGS LASHING U P A TUG 111

There are occasions when a cmventional harbor tug can be put on a

hawser, most commonly when handling a dead ship or a ship with such a
light draft that it is not possible to makc up alongside. In this case, keep
the ship's speed and the use of the ship's engines to a minimum to aveid
getting the harbor tug in irons, abeam the hawser, and rolling her over.
When working a tug in this manner, it is common to use radio commu-
nication to give the tug a speed and direction to pull, and othenvise to use
t h a t tug in much the same way as has been previously described for a tug
alongside. Tugs on a hawser can also be used in opposition to one another
to incre ase or reduce the way on a ship, or to hold a ship in a particular po-
sition in a stream or at berth. In chapter 4, other uses of tugs on hawsers
when approaching a berth a r e discussed.

LASHING UP À TUG
When a ship is moved in a confined area or as a dead ship it is often effee-
tive to lash up a tug at her bow or stern. The tug lies alongside and p u t s up
a head line, stern line, and an aft leading spring line to the ship. The head
and stern lines are kept as short as possible, leading as much like breast
lines as the situation permits, and heaved up very tighl. It. is important

ship's crews m a k e a t u g f a s t a n d t h e n walk off, giving t h e t u g on t h e stern

no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t to let go the lines from h e r end should it be n e c e s s a r y to
break away. T h i s leaves the lines in t h e w a t e r ncur t h e ship's propel-
ler—not a desirable situation!

TUG ON A H A W S E R

Although it is not as common to see a t u g work on a h a w s e r in t h e U n i t e d

States as it is in o t h e r p a r t s of t h e world, which m i g h t be cailed t h e "Euro-
pean style" of s h i p h a n d l i n g , t h e use of a h a w s e r should be considered.
There is no point in discussing t h e relative m e r i t s of t h e E u r o p e a n and
U.S. systems, since t h e design of the t u g used, the experience a n d h a b i t s of
the s h i p h a n d l e r , a n d t h e phyaical layout of the port ali d e t e r m i n e t h e style
of working.
As Shottel a n d Voith-Schneider t u g s become more widely u s e d in the
United States, t h e r e will be a correspcnding increase in t h e a m o u n t of
hawser work seen by t h e m a r i n e r . These tugs a r e designed to be u s e d on a
hawser, h a v i n g winches t h a t are properly located relative to t h e tug's
pivot point so t h e y can work safely in this m a n n e r . This is not generally
t r u e of conventional U.S. h a r b o r tugs. Fig. 3-7. "The pilot wants a tight lash-up, Harry, so . . ."
112 USE OF TUGS LASHING UP A TUG 113

t h a t t h e s e lines be t í g h t so the ship and t u g work as a u n i t , or t h e lash-up

will be m o r e of a h i n d r a n c e than a help Do not allow t h e ship to be moved
if it is not possible to get a tíght lash-up d u e to t h e ship's d r a f t , hull config-
uration, or t h e location of her rhocks a n d bitts.
T h e t u g or tugs m a y be lashed up on t h e s t e r n a n d u s e d in place of the
ship's e n g i n e and/or rudder. If a t u g is lashed on each q u a r t e r , t h e ship is Tug l a s h e d up to
h a n d l e d m u c h like a twin-screw vesssl. In s h e l t e r e d w a t e r s a large ship t a k e s h i p s t e r n first
from a b e n h .
can be m o v e d significant distances quickly a n d safely in this m a n n e r .
W h e n u s i n g t u g s in t h i s m a n n e r h e l m a n d engine o r d e r s s i m i l a r tu those
u s e d a b c a r d a twin-screw ship are appropriate.
W h e n only one t u g is lashed up, t h e off-center location of t h e t u g i? felt
u n t i l t h e s h i p h a s s o m e headway, so the ship initially t e n d s to move later-
ally a w a y f r o m t h e t u g . It is more effective to back t h e t u g to t u r n the ship 1. Tug backs against
to t h e side on which t h e tug is lashed up, t h a t is, back a t u g lashed to the s p r i n g to liít s h i p ' s
s t e r n off l h e d o c k .
port q u a r t e r to t u r n t h e ship to t h e left ( s t e r n to right, bow a n d ship to the 2. Tug c o m e s ahead, rudder
left). Once it h a s h e a d w a y a small ship can be moved eííiciently with only h a r d left. to litt t h e
ship"s
one t u g l a s h e d up. 3. Tug's
T h e o t h e r cominon type of lash-up places t h e t u g on t h e ship's bow to ste

h e a d i n g a f t . T h i s m i g h t be done w h e n only one t u g is u s e d to back a ship

from a b e r t h a r o u n d another ship docked a s t e r n or to b a c k a dead ship
from a b e r t h . A f t e r b e i n g lashed up (fig. 3-8), t h e t u g is backed to move the
ship's s t e r n off t h e dock to get clear of t h e b e r t h a n d a r o u n d any ship
a s t e r n . W h e n t h e s h i p has sufficient angle t o t h e b e r t h , t h e t u g comes Fig. 3-8. Undoeking with a lashed-up tug.
a h e a d as n e e d e d to s t e e r the ship from t h e berth. ríelm o r d e r s are used
t h a t a r e s i m i l a r to t h o s e used to move t h e s h i p from a b e r t h u n d e r h e r own
power.
W h e n l e a v i n g t h e berth stern íirst, left r u d d e r is u s e d by t n e tug to
move t h e s h i p ' s bow to port and t h u s h e r s t e r n to s t a r b o a r d . T h i s can be
Tua ahead,rudder
confusing, so face a f t in the direction in which t h e ship is moving, a n d giva . , h a r d left.
helm o r d e r s to t h e t u g . The m a n e u v e r is i m m e d i a t e l y simplified and the Ship s e n g i n e a h e a d ,
r u d d e r h a r d right.
helm o r d e r s needed a r e obvious. Once clear of t h e b e r t h . w i t h s t e r n w a y on
the ship, t h e t u g is given a course or steadied on a h e a d i n g a n d the tug
m a s t e r s t e e r s the vessel much as a h e l m s m a n would.
A ship w i t h a tug lashed up can be stopped by backing t h e tug. If the tug
is lashed up on t h e s t a r b o a r d q u a r t e r when moving a h e a d , or lashed up on
the port bow w h e n moving stern íirst, the ship will t w i s t a n d can be han-
dled like a single-screw ship with a right-handed propeller.
A lashed- up tug c a n often do the work of two t u g s w h e n u s e d together
with t h e s h i p ' s e n g i n e moving a ship l a t e r a l l y w i t h o u t developing
114 USE OF TUGS

h e a d w a y . U s e of a t u g in this m a n n e r r e q u i r e s close cooperation between CHAPTER FOUR

the s h i p h a n d l e r a n d t u g m a s t e r , a3 well as a good t i g h t lash-up. The tug
lashes up at t h e bow h e a d i n g aft. She comes ahead with h e r r u d d e r h a r d
over in t h e direction of the pier while t h e ship uses h e r engíne a h e a d a n d A P P R O A C H I N G T H E BERTH
r u d d e r h a r d over, also in the direction of t h e berth. T h e s h i p a bow and
s t e r n t h e n move t o g e t h e r away from t h e b e r t h , the ship's engine working
in opposition to t h e t u g so the ship gai.is no way a h e a d or a s t e r n (fig. 3-9).
There are many old pilots, and many fast pilots, but
there are few old, mst pilots.
—Traditional

The docking master hadn't left the center window ofthe wheelhouse since
beginning the approach to the pier. He continued togiue hehn orders slowly
and quietiy, signaling with his hatids to the right or left as he gave the rud-
der commands to the helmsman. With a strong northwesterly breeze setting
us toward the dock it certainly was not going to be a routine docking and yet
he showed no signs oftension or concem. Ifthe docking masters demeanor
was any indication, the docking apparently was not going to be as diffícult
as those of us on the bridge had expected.
As the ship came up to the pier the docking master walked out on the
bridge wing where he stayed until we were in position alongside the berth.
Even when the bowfell off the wind toward the berth the orders carne slowly
and deliberately, and ifthe docking master had any apprehension about
the euolution it neuer showed. Docking on this blustery afternoon was un-
eventful—about as exciting as watching grass grow—jiist the way it was
supposed to be.

GOOD BRIDGE PRACTICES

Several important aspeets of the shiphandler's work have been touched
upon here, ali of which are as important as the technical skills involved in
docking a ship.

1. The docking master did not move about the bridge while working.
2. Iiand signals were given to clarify ali helm orders.
3. The pilot remained calrn and unexcited throughout the docking.

Select one location to work from when handling a ship and don't move
from the position until nearly alongside. Too oflen the shiphandler will
move from wing to wing and back again to the wheelhouse at a frantic pacc

115
116 APPROACHING T H E BERTH
t h a t increases as the ship gets closer to t h e dock. Ostensibly, this is done
so it is possible to get an unobstructed view of t h e approach but, in fact, it
onlv m a k e s it very difficult to a p p r e c i a t e distance, speed. and motion. The
ship's h e a d i n g is immediately obvious f r o m a n y v a n t a g e point, b u t less ob-
vious is h e r motion both a h e a d a n d a t h w a r t s h i p s . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t the
s h i p h a n d l e r pick one location, generally a m i d s h i p s , a n d stay t h e r e until
close to t h e dock. When nearly alongside, w h e n cargo a n d s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
block t h e s h i p h a n d l e r ^ view, a move can be m a d e to t h e bridge wing w h e r e
t h e s h i p h a n d l e r should remain u n t i l t h e docking is completed.
Helm orders m u s t be supplemented by h a n d signals to right a n d left to
avoid a n y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g d u e to l a n g u a g e differences or inattention. It
is quite common, especially d u r i n g a long passage, for a h e l m s m a n to re-
p e a t an order correctly a n d t h e n p u t t h e wheel in t h e opposite direction. If
t h e s h i p h a n d l e r points in the desired direction w h e n t h e order is given,
t h i s roistake is rarely m a d e by t h e helmsmar..
The pilot's m a n n e r of working e n s u r e s t h a t a calm a n d orderly atmo-
s p h e r e prevails t h r o u g h o u t t h e docking. O f t e n , if a m i s t a k e in j u d g m e n t
or action occurs, it is because people become excited—and excitement is
eontagious. Even when a problem develops, if t h e s h i p h a n d l e r , be he pilot,
m a s t e r , or deck officer controls emotions so his concerns a r e not obvious to
others, t h e r e will be none of t h e s h o u t i n g a n d r u n n i n g about t h a t only
DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS 117
complicates a bad situation. The shiphandler controis the mood of the
bridge as well as the movement of the ship.
DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS
Discuss Lhe approach and docking plans well beforc reaching the berth.
The docking master appreciates the opportunity Lo briefyou and to be as-
s u r e d t h a t the ship and crew are ready to respond as required. Don't ex-
pect him to predict each bell and helm order in detail buL do geL an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of:
1. T h e approach, including any special maneuvers or engine require-
ments.
2. The placement of tugs.
3. The configura tion o f t h e berth, including any special problems s u c h
as poorly located dolphins, ships to be maneuvered around or be-
tween, and any unusual space restrictions. This is the time to learn
of potential problems and to cancel the docking if you don't feel it can
be done safely. Don't wait until the ship is halfway up the slip a n d
being set down on the vessel in the b e r t h astern.
4. Any special requirements such as a need for the anchor or for a n y
u n u s u a l leads for the mooring lines.
5. The current and wind to be expected at the berth. This is often differ-
ent from t h a t indicated in t h e c u r r e n t tables and can best be ascer-
tained from the docking master who has the local knowledge required
to m a k e accurate predictions.
In turn be sure to give ali the same information to the docking pilot t h a t
is describcd in chapter 1 for the channel pilot. Too often the docking m a s t e r
is not properly briefed since the "passage is almost over." It's at least as i m-
p o r t a n t t h a t the docking master be as fuily informed as the channel pilots.
Don't h a n d the docking m a s t e r a two-page preprinted form asking for a
detailed description of the "docking plan," including the engine bells t h a t
will be required and lhe heading o f t h e approach. The docking m a s t e r can-
not do this, nor would you want Lo restrict h i m io any such predicted set of
m a n e u v e r s . Such forms and procedures only reflect the lack of profes-
sional background of the originatir.g party, and create an embarrassing
situation for both the master and the pilot who m u s t deal v/i th such absur-
dities. An intelligent discussion between two professionals to ascertain
the general plan for the docking will sufiice.
118 APPROACHING T H E BERTH
If you don't agree with the proposed p l a n , let t h e docking m a s t e r k r o w
a b o u t it. Don't wait until the middle of t h e evolution.
TIMING ARRIVAL—HOLDING IN A CHANNEL
For a n u m b e r of reasons it may be n e c e s s a r y to plan a vessel's p a s s a g e to
arrive at a b e r t h , t u r n i n g basin, or lock at a specified time. T h e m a s t e r or
pilot m a y wish to dock at slack w a t e r , or t h e t u g s or b e r t h m a y not be avail-
able u n t i l a p a r t i c u l a r time. This is a r o u t i n e navigational problem.
W h e n t i m i n g arrivals, the m a r i n e r o f t e n a t t e m p t s to a r r i v e exactly as
scheduled a n d allows no time for u n f o r e s e e n delays. Any reluctance to ar-
rive early a n d have to m a n e u v e r t h e s h i p to hold h e r in position in a chan-
nel for some period of time is n a t u r a l b u t u n n e c e s s a r y . T h e ship can easily
t a k e an h o u r to go t h e last mile to a d e s i r e d point so t h e r e is no reason not
to allow some extra time when p l a n n i n g a passage.
T h e m a s t e r or pilot can
1. A n c h o r to a s h o r t scope of c h a i n w i t h a h e a d tide.
2. S t e a m on an anchor at slow engine s p e e d s and hold a position and
h e a d i n g in the channel even if t h e r e is a m o d e r a t e wind from abeam.
3. Hold with a t u g on each bow, u s i n g t h e engine as needed while the
t u g s minimize headway.
4. Back a n d fill as necessary w i t h s u r p r i s i n g l y little a d v a n c e up a
channeL
F u r t h e r , b y a r r i v i n g early t h e m a s t e r h a s a n opportunity t o practice
a n y or ali of these m a n e u v e r s to s h a r p e n s h i p h a n d l i n g skills a n d develoo
confidence. Arriving early p r e s e n t s no problems b u t a r r i v i n g l a t e causes
t h e m a r i n e r to use excessive s p e e d — t h e s h i p h a n d l e r ' s worst enemy.
SPEED OF APPROACH
T h e m a j o r difference between t h e n e o p h y t e a n d the experienced ship-
h a n d l e r is t h e speed at w hich t h e y work. The less experienced shiphandler
generally works too fast. Don'tequate increased speed with increased ability.
W h e n beginning an approach to a b e r t h , speed should be reduced to
b a r e steerageway. This is much slower t h a n m o s t m a r i n e r s realize and it
is a r a r e s h i p t h a t , u n d e r calm conditions, will not s t e e r at speeds of less
t h a n 2 k n o t s if given a chance to r e s p o n d to h e r r u d d e r . F u r t h e r , by using
t h e engine in s h o r t b u r s t s or kicks with h a r d - o v e r r u d d e r , even t h e worst
h a n d l i n g ships will respond. If additional r e s p o n s e is needed, u s e the tug
S P E E D O F APPROACH 119
or work against an anchor rather than increase headway. If u n s u r c of
speed take ali headway off the ship—you are now certain of her speed
through the water—ano then come ahead as required to steer and make
m i n i m u m headway to the berth
T h e r e a . e several methods available by which the mariner can judge
speed: j ,
1. Doppler log and/or GPS giving direct rcadout.
2. Fixes by r a d a r or visual bearings.
3. Position of the ship's quickwater.
4. Observation of passing objects and comparisons with known dis-
tances.
T h e Doppler log gives direct readout of speed over the bottom (or speed
t h r o u g h the water when the ship is offshore and the log is indicating speed
referenced to water rnass). Both single-point and three-point Doppler logs
h a v e proven to be extremely valuable shiphandling tools, especially when
moving larger ships where speed is criticai and tolerance for error small.
G P S units, especially those with a differential or wide area augmenta-
tion system (WAAS) correction, provide an extremely accurate indication
of speed over the bottom. Bear in rnind t h a t the speed shown is t h e resul-
t a n t speed at which the GPS unit's antenna is moving. Even when a u n i t is
interfaced with the vessel's gyro, the speed provided by the GPS becomes
less useful once the vessei begins to swing.
Fixes by r a d a r or visual bearings are neither convenient nor suíTl-
ciently accurate for determining speed in a docking situation.
T h e position of the ship's quickwater, t h a t is, the wash from her propel-
ler as the engine goes astern, is extremely useful to the shiphandler at low
speeds. If t h a t quickwater falis behind the ship when the engine is put
a s t e r n , the vessel's speed is 3 knots or more. When the quickwater begins
to move with the ship, the speed is about 2 knots. When the w a s h reaches
the midsection the ship is dead in the water. Since 2 knots is a comfortable
approach speed for an average size ship, it's convenient to be able to put a
iight on the water at m g h t and then go astern until you see by the position
of the ship's quickwater t h a t the speed h a s been reduced to the desired
2-knot speed (fig. 4-2).
Some experience is needed before the relative motion of passing objeets
can be used to estimate ship's speed, although it is possible for an experi-
enced seainan to judge speed visually with surprising accüracy. IIow does
120 APPROACHING T H E BERTH
Fig. 4-2. Estimating headway when backing. Note: This figure depicts
the quickwater from a right-hand propeller. T h e location of quickwater
at various speeds is reversed for a left-hand t u r n i n g propeller.
an experienced s e a m a n becomo experienced? By practice! E s t i m a t e your
ship's speed of approach at every opportunity a n d compare it with the
speed shown on a Doppler log, or t h e speed indicated by t h e t i m e required
to advance aiong a pier of known length, or by c o m p a r i n g your estimate
v/i th t h a t of a more experienced s h i p h a n d l e r such as t h e docking master.
Apprehension is usually t h e r e s u l t of u n c e r t a i n t y , a n d t h e ability to judge
your ship's speed with reasonable accuracy will do m u c h to m a k e yuu a
confident and eapable shiphandler.
When estimating ship's speed look at objects a b e a m or a little abaft the
beam since an optical illusion occurs when looking a h e a d . Objects forward
R E D U C I N G S P E E D EARLY 121
of the beam do not seem to be moving and if you use them as a reference
you'll find your ship is going too fast when she reaches the berth. Try an
experiment to satisfy yoursclf t h a t this is so. Stand in the wheelhcuse at
night when the s h i p s speed is most difficult to judge and, while watching
an ouject ashore located forward of the beam, slow your ship to a minimal
speed. Now look abaft the beam and see how fast you are actually moving.
Judging absolute speed visually can be difficult, but it is possible to de-
velop some rules of thumb to improve your accuracy. For example, at the
P a n a m a Canal the pilots use the long fiuorescent lights t h a t illuminate
the banks at night to judge a ship's speed. By aligning the after edge of the
light with some point on the ship, such as the wheelhouse window, and
counting the number of seconds required for the entire light to pass t h a t
point of reference, a surprisingly accurate estimate of speed can be made:
t h e light passes in 2 seconds at 2 knots. It is because of aids a n d skills such
as this t h a t the pilots in the canal, where scheduling and timing are so im-
portant, are able to move ships as efficiently as they do.
The shiphandler must differentiate between speed over the ground and
speed through the water. Obviously the speed over the ground determines
the speed at which the ship arrives at the pier, while speed through the wa-
ter affects the ship's response to her rudder. Docking while stemming the
current is an advantage since the shiphandler can steer 3ven when moving
at minimal speeds relative to the berth; docking with the current from
astern creates the opposite situation and requires a greater degreeofskill.
Ali of the aforementioned ineans ofjudging speed give ship's speed over
the bottom except the use of her quickwater.
REDUCING SPEED EARLY
Speed is especially important during the approach since a ship is less con-
trollable when her engine is used astern to reduce headway. If speed is
kept to a ininimum it is possible to use the engine as needed without arriv-
ing at the berth with excessive headway. If speed is not reduced early in
the approach, the shiphandler finds himself with a tiger by the tail—need-
ing to reduce speed and vet having to use the ship ! s engines ahead to con-
trol the vessel when shaping up for docking.
Many shiphandlers make it a practice to stop a ship completely about
ene ship length from the berth, especially at night when it is more difficult
to estimate a vessel's speed. They are then certain of the speed—it is
zero—and can use the engine as required without concern about arriving
at the berth at an excessive speed.
122 APPROACHING T H E B E R T H BOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER 123

THE APPROACH
li
Bridge
Dridge
location
A good docking actually begins lo:ig before t h e s h i p comes alongside the location

pier. T h e a p p r o a c h is at least one third of t h e docking. Tf lhe speed is re- • I

duced, t h e s h i p properly lined up with t h e pier or w h a r f , a n d then steadied
up so t h a t ali lateral motion is elirninated, she practically docks herself.
W h e n b e r t h i n g s t a r b o a r d side to the pier, a s s u m i n g t h a t the ship has a
r i g h t - h a n d t u r n i n g propeller, the ship a p p r o a c h e s at only a small angle to
li
O ça
<U Vi
cn ai
t h e dock. W h e n the engine is put a s t e r n to t a k e t h e l a s t h e a d w a y off the c c
< Sê
ship, the s t e r n moves to port, so if t h e ship is a l r e a d y at a significant angle
to t h e b e r t h , it will be t h a t much more diffícult to get t h e ship flat along-
side. It is n a t u r a l for a ship to behave in this m a n n e r at any time when
backed, a n d t h i s behavior is amplified by t h e q u i c k w a t e r t r a p p e d between
t h e hull a n d b e r t h moving up the ship's side. F o r t h i s reason a deeply
loaded ship will n o r m a l l y require a tug a f t to hold t h e s t e r n up to the pier
w h e n docking s t a r b o a r d side to.
T h e s a m e ship approaching to dockporí side to the pier m u s t maintain
a g r e a t e r angle to the berth, approximately 10 to 15 degrees to t h e dock in
m o s t cases, w i t h the bow heading for t h e a r e a of t h e pier t h a t will be amid-
Fig. 4-3. Bow-in approach to pier.
ships w h e n t h e ship is fínally in position alongside (fig. 4-3). After the en-
gine is p u t a s t e r n to s t o p the ship, the s t e r n will move to port and reduce
the angle of approach so t h a t t h e ship comes f l a t alongside. By using left cal to a t t e m p t to cover each step of a particular docking in a cookbook-like
r u d d e r a n d e. kick a h e a d with the engine to check t h a t s w i n g to port as the fashion. By understanding the basies of shiphandling and approaching
ship comes alongside, t h e ship can be stopped in position w i t h o u t needing the pier in a proper m a n n e r , the mariner can use good s e a m a n s h i p to ad-
a t u g aft. j u s t to a given situation.
T h e r e will be some modifications to t h e basic angle of approach for a Ships generally approach either a pier constructed at an angle to the
s t a r b o a r d or port side to docking, depending on channel or a wharf t h a t parallels the channel. The ship may dock either
bow or stern in at the pier or heading upstream or downstream at the
wharf.
1. Wind s t r e n g t h a n d relative direction.
2. Set a n d d r i f t of t h e current. BOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER
3. Ship's d r a f t and freeboard. A ship docking bow in should turn and line up at the greatest possible dis-
4. Ship's power a n d steering characteristics. t a n c e from the pier. This simpliiies the docking and minimizes any lateral
5. W h e l h e r the pier has an open or solid face. motion as the ship approaches the berth. The angle of approach described
6. Physicai configuration of the berth. for starboard or port side dockings is increased or decreascd to aliow for
7. Availability of a d e q u a t e tug assistance. set and leeway toward or away from the pier due to current and wind. If
8. Presence of other vessels in the b e r t h or slip. these forces are too strong to permit a safe docking, the ship can land on a
camel or a cluster of pilings at the outboard corner of the pier and then ei-
T h e s e factors ali affect the docking of a ship. Modifications will be dis- t h e r come ahead on a bight led as a spring line or have a tug push on the
cussed brieíly in s u b s e q u e n t sections, Dut keep in m i n d t h a t it is impracti- bow to bring the ship into the slip. As ships bc-come larger it's increasingly
124 APPROACHING THE BERTH S T E R N - I N A P P R O A C H TO A PIER 125

impractical to come a h e a d a g a i n s t a spring in the classic m a n n e r to w a r p a \

ship into a slip or b e r t h . Tugs are generally required in t h e s e cases (fig. Position pivot point —

Vé \
s o s t e r n s w i n g s clear
4-4). a n d s n i p lines u p
with slip.

• A

©!
n
a

Tug may be used on

STERN-IN A P P R O A C H TO A PIER
W h e n docking s t e r n in, use the location of t h e ship's pivot p o i n t as a refer-
ence when e s t i m a t i n g both t h e distance t h a t you should p a s s off t h e end of
the pier, a n d t h e point at which you should t u r n a w a y f r o m t h e pier a n d be-
gin b a c k i n g (fig. 4-5). T h e angle of approach is less i m p o r t a n t w h e n back-
ing into a slip since t h e tugs a r e used to steer. Because t h e s t e r n t e n d s to
w a l k to port w h e n t h e engine is backed, it is desirable to h a v e a small an-
gle t o w a r d t h e b e r t h w h e n docking s t a r b o a r d side to. If t h e t u g s h a v e a
problem holding the s h i p at t h e desired angle, the engine a n d r u d d e r can
be used to assist, coming ahead for suíficient t i m e to move t h e s t e r n in the
desired direction but n o t so long th at t h e ship gains h e a d w a y . While figure
4-5 shows t h e t u g s m a d e up on the bow a n d q u a r t e r , t h e a f t e r t u g can also
be used at t h e s t e r n on a h a w s e r when b e r t h i n g t h e s h i p s t e r n in. T h i s he.s
m a n y a d v a n t a g e s . T h e ship's engine can be used w i t h a h e a d revoiutions
t c g e t h e r with t h e r u d d e r to s t e e r the ship, while the t u g c o n t i n u e s to keep
h e r moving a s t e r n by pulling in opposition to t h e ship's engine. Consider
u s i n g a t u g on a h a w s e r in this situation.
®
hawser astern instead
of on s h i p ' s q u a r t e r .
I I
Fig. 4-5. Docking stern in at a slip.
Always avoid pushing with the tugs so long that excessive lateral mo-
tion is developed towards the oerth, causing the ship to land heavily
a g a i n s t the stringpiece. It is the lateral motion t h a t the less experienced
s h i p h a n d l e r has the most difficulty detecting and controlling, and a mari-
n e r will never become a shiphandler without being able to appreciate
sideward motion.
T h e importance of having the stern tug stand off until actually needed
w a s discussed in the previous chapter. This is especially i m p o r t a n t when
p l a n n i n g a stern in docking. The stern tug must not make fast until the
ship h a s turned to bring her stern toward the slip and is dead in the water.
Until then, the tug aft is of little help and may fali around undc-r t h e coun-
ter a n d have an efiect opposite to t h a t desired. Preferably, the a f t tug does
not come alongside until t h e ship is entering the slip, since once fast, Lhe
a f t e r tug—by her weight and underwaLer profile alone—sets the stern to-
w a r d t h e pier as the ship comes astern. This eflect is amplified when dock-
ing port side to since the stern ter.ds to move to port any way when the
engine is goir.g astern.
126 APPROACHING T H E B E R T H APPROACHING A W H A R K - C U R R E N T ASTERN 127

T h e bow t u g is best made up with only a b a c k i n g line so she simply fol- Ship sioppert ielative lo lhe botlom.

lows t h e s h i p into the 3lip, trailingon t h e line in a position bow to bow with
t h e ship. Ghe comes ahead on either bow to s t e e r t h e ship into the slip as
r e q u i r e d , w i t h o u t h a v i n g the eífect of s e t t i n g t h e s h i p t o w a r d s the berth
t h a t would r e s u l t from being made up on one bow.

STEMMING THE CURRENT AT A WHARF

B e r t h i n g s t a r b o a r d or port side to a w h a r f while s t e m m i n g t h e c u r r e n t is a Ship making sternway through the water.

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d job t h a t should be a p p r o a c h e d ac described earlier, with
some a d j u s t m e n t for the prevailing w i n d a n d c u r r e n t . T h e r e is usually Fig. 4-6. Approaching wharf, current from astern.
some s e t off t h e w h a r f as the ship comes alongside, in a direction contrary
Once alongside, the tugs hoid the ship against the eddy current t h a t
to t h e c u r r e n t in the stream, which is r u n n i n g n e a r l y parallel to the ship's
exists at the wharf. The m a t e on the stern must keep the propeller clear
h e a d i n g . T h i s s e t off t h e pier is caused by a c o m b i n a t i o n of the eddy cur-
while r u n n i n g stern lines since the engine is usuu continuously to hold t h e
r e n t t h a t f o r m s along the shore or shoal a r e a , which exists in almost oi.
s h i p in position a g a i n s t t h e current. The tugs can also help to hold the s h i p
cases u n d e r t h e w h a r f , and the hydraulic c u s h i o n t h a t i s created between
in position by keeping an angle into the current r a t h e r t h a n being at r i g h t
t h e hull a n d t h e shallow area u n d e r the w h a r f . T h i s cushion is quite signif-
angles to the ship's hull. Their thrust holds the ship alongside and up to
i c a n t w h e n t h e face of the wharf is solid, or n e a r l y so, as is often t h e case
t h e c u r r e n t (fig. 4-7).
w h e n a w h a r f is constructed using a b u l k h e a d to contain t h e b a n k behind
t h e stringpiece. This s e t off the wharf s h o u l d be p l a n n e d for so the ship can Berthing with the current from astern is not a problem as long as it is
k e p t in mind t h a t the ship is effectively backing stern first into position. By
be b r o u g h t alongside a n d held t h e r e u n t i l m a d e f a s t . Tools available to the
a d j u s t i n g the angle t h a t the r.hip inakes to the current—stern toward t h e
s h i p h a n d l e r to accomplish this include t u g s , s t e a m i n g a g a i n s t an anchor,
dock to move in t h a t direction, stern parallel to the dock to check the lat-
or good b r e a s t lines. Do not expect to s i m p l y b r i n g t h e ship alongside and
eral motion toward the pier or move away from it—the ship can be eíli-
h a v e h e r lie t h e r e w i t h o u t some a s s i s t a n c e u n t i l t h e lines are r u n ashore.
ciently and safely berthed. Any problems t h a t a r i s e when docking with t h e
AFPROACHING A WHARF—CURRENT ASTERN c u r r e n t from astern usually result from trying to push the ship alongside
v i t h t h e tugs, r a t h e r than letting the current set the ship onto the berth.
Docking at a w h a r f w i t h the current r u n n i n g f r o m a s t e r n r e q u i r e s greater
T h e vessei gets away from the shiphandler because the current t a k e s
p l a n n i n g a n d skill. T h e ship comes up to t h e b e r t h w i t h t h e i n t e n t of back-
charge. Use the tugs only to assist to keep the needed angle as the ship is
ing into position since she will be m a k i n g s t e r n w a y t h r o u g h t h e water
set alongside.
w h e n stopped in position relative to t h e w h a r f . If t h e s h i p h a n d l e r t h i n k s of
t h e job in t h i s way, that the ship is coming stern fírst into the current to the
berth, t h e m a n e u v e r becomes much m o r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
Come a b e a m o f t h e assigned b e r t h w i t h two t u g s m a d e f a s t and take
^ ^ 7
ali h e a d w a y off t h e s h i p . Continue b a c k i n g t h e e n g i n e while keeping the TV
s t e r n a n g l e d slightly toward t h e w h a r f a n d , a s t h e s h i p g a i n s s t e r n w a y
\\ \\ .
through the water (while stopped or n e a r l y s t o p p e d relative to the bot-
tom), t h e c u r r e n t on t h e ship's offshore side m o v e s h e r l a t e r a l l y toward
t h e w h a r f (fig. 4-6). U s e only enough s p e e d to hold t h e ship in position
Tf r
Fig. 4-7. Tugs work at an angle to hold ship alongside and into current.
a n d u s e t h e t u g s as required to control t h e s h i p as s h e is set alongside by
the current.

CHAPTER FIVE
DOCKING
Captain Ball, on the bridge, heaved a sigh. "Ring oíT the
engines," he directed; and somewhero down below, the
telegraph jingled. Suddenly, disturfcingly, the decks
ceased to throb and the stanchions to tremble. After
eighteen pulsing days the ship seemed no longer to be
alive. Silence, torrents of silence poured in from ali
sides.
"Hell's bells!" remarked Captain.Ball, unbuttoning
his overcoat and taking a cigar from his nightshirt
pocket, "What a trip that was!"
—Guy Gilpatric, Mary, Queen of Scots
"It's been a pleasure to watch your crew work, Cap', a real pleasure. They
know what is needed andgo to it without a lot oftalk on the danin radio."
The expression on the old man's face made it obvious that he agreed
with the docking master's observations and wasproud ofhis ship and crew.
"It's true Pilot. They do work well—probably because most of them are
permanent aboard and know what is expected of them,"replied the captain.
"They rotate as a team—mates and engineers, and most of the unli-
censed crew—so they know the ship and each other. Makes for a safer and
more effic.ient operation, that's for sure."
"How come more ships aren't manned this way, Cap"?"
It is o. subject the captain felt strongly about and he went into a lengthy
explanation, interrupted only by an occasional engine or rudder order as
the deep laden bulk carrier slowly approached the berth.
"Toe few owncrs appreciate the importance of a trained and organizeá
crew, and ofkeeping a crew aboard ship as a unit. The same shoreside man-
ager who cries like hell ifhe has three personnel changes in his office in one
year thinks that the staff aboard ship can be shuffled from vessel to vessel at
random and still be well-trained, know their ship, and work efficiently."
"Well, il's obvious from the way that everyone aboard your ship works
like a team that it makes a difference,'' replied the docking master. "Were
getting close—better move out on lhe wing."
128
USINCJ W I N D ANI) CUHHICNT T O A D V A N T A G R 129
They moved to the port wing and continued tiie discussion.
"Another benefitofhaving everyone in the crew stay tugether is that they
take a lot more pride in their work and the operation of their .<hip. Guesi
that's the key—since they keep coming back to a permanently assigned
ship, ihey feel an interest in her and it shows in their work."
"I see a lot of this on the better run ships such as yours, Captain. They
have bridge teams that are trained together, and permanent unit crews,
shipboard managenient schernes, and a lot of other good ideas."
The subject was clropped as the first heaving line snah 'd ashore; the
docking operation now required their full attention. After the ensine was
rung off the captain invited the pilot to his cabin for a lie ave ahead before
going to his next job '.
"Yep, this unit crew business should be started on more ships, Cap'. I
sure see a difference when I move ships set up that way. Things go much
smoother, and it makes shiphandlingand docking a lot easier and safer."
"Hopefully, more companies will begin to appreciate that it's the key to
efficient and safe operation of ships, Pilot. This crew even trained as a unit
in navigation, bridge procedures, and shiphandling, and there would be
no point in ali that training ifthey were split up after their first vacation."
As theyparted with a handshake, the captain added, "l'ue been going to
seafor over twenty years and I know that having permanent, well-trained
crews makes a difference in the star.dard of ship operation."
USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE
Too often t h e s e a m a n brings a ühoreside mentality aboard ship and Lhus
leoks upon wind and current as hindrances to be ovcrconie, íather t h a n as
aids to be used with the rudder, engine, tugs, and anchor to put the ship
alongside a b e r t h in a safe and seamanlike manner. A powerful tug can
combat a moderate wind and current, although at best the docking will be
sloppv, b u t even the íinest tugs do not make it possible to fight a strong
wind or current. Nor is it necessary for them to be asked to.
Before s t a r t i n g the docking, get out on the bridge wing and feel the
wind and w e a t h e r on your face. Look up at the stack and down at the wa-
ter. Look out to the horizonand check whac the future weather conditions
m i g h t be. Constant awareness of wind, weather, and current is essential
to effective shiphandling.
How do Lhe effects of wind and current compare? Air is about nine hun-
dred times less d e n s e than water, so for a given. velocity wind has much
less eífecLon Lhe ship than current. An increase in the velocity ofeiLher Lhe
I
130 DOCKING
wind or c u r r e n t will increase its effect on t h e ship, both v a r y i n g as the
s q u a r e o f t h e velocity. T h e relationship o f d e n s i t y a n d velocity to prer.sure
is e x p r e s s e d :
P = PXl
2g
where
P = resultant pressure
p = d e n s i t y of t h e fluid (air or w a t e r )
V = velocity of the fluid
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n due to gravity (32.2 ft./sec') 1
A 3 0 - k n o t w i n d e x e r t s the s a m e force on an equal a r e a as a 1-knot cur-
r e n t . T h i s r a t i o is a l t e r e d by variables such as the Burface a r e a of t h e su-
p e r s t r u c t u r e , t h e r a t i o of the ship's d r a f t to h e r freeboard, a n d t h e vessel's
trim. W h i l e t h e s h i p h a n d l e r should not apply this f o r m u l a to every dock-
ing s i t u a t i o n , t h e r a t i o 30:1 can be used as a b a s e to help u n d e r s t a n d the
relative e f f e c t of w i n d a n d current.
As a s h i p ' s s p e e d is reduced, the m o m e n t u m of t h e ship a n d t h e effec-
tiveness of h e r r u d d e r a n d engine decrease while t h e wind a n d c u r r e n t re-
m a i n t h e s a m e . W h e n t h e ship i s dead i n t h e w a t e r , only t h e wind and
c u r r e n t act u p o n h e r , although at some prior point t h e s e outside forces
have become d o m i n a n t ^f t h e docking h a s been properly p l a n n e d , t h e ship
is so positioned t h n t as the wind and current "take charge" they assist the
shiphandler in docking the vessei. Until t h a t time, t h e ship's angle of ap-
proach and s p e e d a r e a d j u s t e d to compensrate for wind a n d c u r r e n t , and
anchors a n d t u g s a r e u s e d a s necessary.
Let's look at s o m e of t h e ways in which the wind a n d c u r r e n t m a y assist
the ship:
1. A wind blowing off the b e r t h can be used to overcome a ship's lateral
motion t o w a r d t h a t berth, instead of using the t u g s a n d engine.
2. A wind blowing on the berth can ease a s h i p alongside if the
s h i p h a n d l e r s t o p s her a few feet off t h e berth.
1
R. S. Crenshaw, Jr., Naval Shiphandling, pg. 15.
USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE 1 3 1
3. A current t h a t runs across the end of the berth acting on the ship's
q u a r t e r can assist the ship in turning into a slip. She is landed and
pivoted nn a cluster of pilings or a camel rather than being steamcd
into the slip while fighting the current. (See figure 4-4.)
Don't fight a wind blowing off the berth. Position your ship at a g r e a t e r
angle to the berth and deliberately give the ship more lateral motion as
she comes aiongside. The engine is kicked ahead with the rudder h a r d
over to move the stern towards the berth and the ship is then held along-
side by tugs. The larger angle of approach compensates for the wind's ef-
feets while the ship has headway. As she slows, the lateral motion
overcomes the wind (fig. 5-1). In stronger winds put an anchor down as de-
scribed in chapter 8 to check up the bow and amplify the lateral motion as
t h e ship comes alongside into the wind.
The tugs a n d rudder move the ship toward the berth, the anchor holds
h e r up to the wind, and the wind checks the lateral motion that develops.
A strong wind on the berth causes the ship to land with too much lat-
eral motion, so it may be necessary in such a situation to back the tugs or
ease alongside with an anchor as described in chapter 8. Plan so tugs a r e
Kick s t e r n t o w a r d d o c k
t o c r e a t e lateral motion
into t h e wind b e f o r e
backing.
Wind
-<^s
A p p r o a c h at a g r e a t e r
angle to c o m p e n s a t e
for l e e w a y .
Fig. 5-1. Don't fight externai forces—work with them.
132 DOCKING
in position to p e r f o r m this work, or h a v e t h e anchor on the bottom a n d
ready to use.
W h e n t h e wind is q u i t e strong onto t h e b e r t h , p u t t h e ship alongside
earlier in docking. Don't flght a strong wind: let t h e ship go alongside and
slide up t h e s t r i n g p i e c e into position. T h e ship can't be olown heavily
a g a i n s t ihe dock a f t e r stoppiug in position if she is a l r e a d y alongside.
These are b u t a few e x a m p l e s of ways in which m a r i n e r s use wind a n d cur-
r e n t as toeis r a t h e r t h a n allowing t h e m to become problems.
MEASURING SLOW RATES OF SPEED
The m i n i m a l speeds u s e d while docking can be accurately m e a s u r e d with-
out i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n or complicatien u s i n g t h i s rule of t h u m b :
"A ship moves 100 feet per minute at 1 knot."
If in doubt of a ship's speed, note t h e t i m e on your watch a n d t h e ship's
position r e l a t i v e to a bollard on t h e pier. A f t e r a n y convenient interval of
time (say t h i i ty seconds), again note t h e relative positions a n d you will im-
mediately k n o w t h e ship's speed.
You don't k n o w t h e distance b e t w e e n bollards or other convenient ref-
erence points? It can be e s t i m a t e d w i t h sufficient accuracy by comparing
t h e distance b e t w e e n points with t h e ship's beam.
H a v i n g moved in one r.iinute b e t w e e n two bollards placed 150 feet
a p a r t , you k n o w t h e s h i p is m a k i n g 1.5 k n o t s .
W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g ship's speed, don't ignore t h e obvious. E n g i n e revo-
lutions e q u a t e to s p e e d through t h e w a t e r . This is so obvious t h a t it is of-
ten forgotten d u r i n g t h e approach to a pier or when proceeding in pilot
w a t e r s , yet engine revolutions a r e n e a r l y as good an indication of speed
when m a n e u v e r i n g a t low R P M a s w h e n a t sea.
L e a r n y o u r ship's RPM/speed ratio. If 10 revolutions equals 2 knots,
t h e n 60 revolutions e q u a l s 12 knots—it isn't necessary to continuously
consult a detailed t a b l e to d e t e r m i n e ship's speed t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r .
DETECTING LATERAL MOTION
It quickly becomes s e c o r d n a t u r e for an experienced m a n n e r , who lives
and works more closeiy with the e l e m e n t s t h a n p o r h a p s any other profes-
sional, to .-nake allowances for wind a n d c u r r e n t . It is equally i m p o r t a n t
t h a t t h e s h i p h a n d l e r also develop an appreciation for the less obvious lat-
eral motion t h a t r e s u l t s from:
1. T u r n i n g as the s h i p is approaching t h e berth.
S E T T I N G l i ! ' TO BACK 133
2. Extended use of tugs.
3. Checking or holding the lines before the ship is alongside.
These actions cause sideward motion independem of any motion
caused by the wind and current, even when the ship is making no head-
way. If not checked, the ship moves laterally toward or away from the
berth or comes alongside with excessive force. Lateral motion may be de-
sirable at times and is not so much an effect to be avoided as a factor to be
watched for and used to advantage.
Lateral motion is easier to detect when working from the centerline of
the ship because you have a better view of the vessei and her heading.
Watch objeets ashore located ahead or astern. Use their change in align-
ment as a range to detect latera' motion, and note when the distance from
the pier increases or decreases independent of heading, wind, and current.
T h e ability to detect this sideward slide through the water and m a k e
use of it is a m a r k of an accomplished shiphandler because it is one of the
effeets that is least appreciated by an inexperkneed pilot or master.
SETTING UP TO BACK
Prior to going astern, especially when docking without a tug aft, a sin-
gle-screw ship should be set up so h e r inherent twisting eíTects are an aid
r a t h e r than a hindrance. Since the approach is planned toallow for this ef-
fect, only one additional maneuver is required.
When going starboard side to the berth, p u t the rudder to port and kick
the engine ahead until the stern develops a slight swing to starboard. Note
t h a t it is necessary to considei the rudder's effect on each end of the ship
- a t h e r than simply on the ship as a whole. N e a r the berth the rudder is of-
ten used to move the stern r a t h e r than to change the ships heading. After
this slight swing of the stern to starboard has begun, go astern to alow or
stop the ship. While backing, the stern checks up and probably moves to
port as the propeller and quickwater take over, but any movement of the
stern to port is minimized since you shaped up to back prior to pultmg the
engine astern. The maneuver is repeated as required so the ship is
stopped in position and parallel to the pier or wharf (fig. 5-2).
When berthing port side to, the ship is set up to allow for the same
swing of the stern to port. Since the ship's angle of approach decreases
each time the engine goes astern, the initial angle of approach is greater
for a port side to docking. The rudder and engine are used to check the mo-
tion tc port as necessary so the ship does not come parallel to the berth
134 DOCKING
1 . "Kick" t h e e n g i n o a h e a d , r u d d e r h a r d left,
swinging the stern toward tho dock a n d
c o u n t e r i n g t h e twisting e f f e c t a s ( s e e n o . 2 )
2. The engine is p j t astern. The swing is
c h e c k e d by the K,cpeller's t o i q u e a n u
the quickwater as the ship stops
untii she is in position. T h e q u i c k w a t e r p a r t i a l l y checks the swing so the
ship lar.ds easily.
Knowing t h a t the s h i p swings in this m a n n e r , it is logical to use a s t e r n
bells to change her h e a d i n g to s t a r b o a r d r a t h e r t h a n only t h e r u d d e r . T h i s
provides an opportunity to s i m u l t a n e o u s l y slow t h e ship a n d change h e r
heading (fig. 5-3).
Don't overuse the r u d d e r when docking. T h e r u d d e r can often r e m a i n
hard left d u r i n g the final stages of a docking m a n e u v e r w h e t h e r docking
port or s t a r b o a r d side to, since it has so little effect at these slow speeds. T h e
hard-over r u d d e r is in t h e position in which it will most likely be needed,
and having it in this position saves t i m e required for the steering engine to
move the r u d d e r should it be needed to check the ship's swing. Do the s a m e
when backing t h e engine in an anchorage or d u r i n g other m a n e u v e r s when
the ship has little or no headway—the r u d d e r need not be shifted w h e n
backing the engine unless the ship develops significant sternway.
QUICKWATER
Quickwater develops w h e n the flow f r o m t h e engine going a s t e r n s t a r t s
moving up t h e ship's side. This occurs first on t h e s t a r b o a r d side at a b o u t 2
knots a n d by t h e time t h e ship h a s little h e a d w a y t h e r e will be consider-
able flow up b o t h sides of t h e ship. T h e q u i c k w a t e r strikes first on t h e
q u a r t e r so the s t e r n moves away a n d t h e bow h e a d s toward the b e r t h , and
its effect is m o r e pronounced when docking s t a r b o a r d side to. The quick-
water eventually moves up the full l e n g t h of t h e ship so she is affected
equally fore a n d aft, t h e cushion being u s e d by t h e s h i p h a n d l e r to reduce
the ship's lateral motion or inove the s h i p a w a y from the dock.
Like other forces t h a t aífect a ship, q u i c k w a t e r is planned for a n d used
as an aid by t h e c o m p e t e n t s h i p h a n d l e r . Q u i c k w a t e r afTects a docking or
BRIDGE MARKEKS 135
U s e the twisting effect
w h e n backing to
simultaneously turn
a n d stop t h e ship.
Fig. 5-3. Coming alongside—port side to the dock.
undocking ship but is strongest when there is shoaling or a bulkhead un-
der the berth. This contains the flow and increases the pressure acting
upon the hull. If the ship approaches with excessive speed, it is necessary
to back more strongly than desired for a greater length of time, and rcsult-
ing excessive flow of quickwater becomes a problein in spite of the best
planning. This is one more reason for approaching at the minimum possi-
ble speed.
BRIDGE MAKKERS
Common sense dictates t h a t a m a r k e r or light be placed on the stringpiece
to show the location of the bridge when the ship is in position. Unfortu-
nately, this is rarely done. Too often the ship is alongside with the first lines
run before someone on the dock decides that she should shift 50 feet ahead
or 30 feet astern. Aside from being both annoying and unprofessional. this
practice cost c both "he ship and the terminal a great dcai of time and
money. The stevedore or terminal operator knows where the working hatch
or manifold should be spotted, and every shipmaster knows the distance
from the bridge to the bow or manifold, so the bridge location can easily be
marked on the dock prior to bringing the ship alongside.
Shipmasters and pilots inust work to make the use of bridge markers
a n d lights more common.
136 DOCKING
USE FINESSE, NOT FORCE
Keep in m i n d when going alongside t h a t you a r e bringing a moving object
of considerable mass alongside ar. unforgiving a n d immovable piei or
w h a r f , an evolution t h a t requires some degree of fir.esse. B e w a r e the
s h i p m a s t e r or pilot w h o tells in most graphic t e r m s how t h e ship was
"forced" i n t o a berth a g a i n s t wind a n d c u r r e n t , h a v i n g been "belted" full
a h e a d a n d full a s t e r n until she was "driven" alongside t h e b e r t h within
feet of c e r t a i n c a l a m i t y . This is no professional speaking!
Shiphandling, like lovemaking, is a subtle art: t h e s h i p is n o t driven by
t h e s h i p h a n d l e r , she is caressed, and this m u s t be foremost in your mind
as you give t h o s e l a s t c o m m a n d s to ease t h e ship alongside.
GOING ALONGSIDE
It is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e ship is f l a t to t h e stringpiece as she co-
m e s alongside. This Í3 t r u e for several reasons:
1. T h e f r a m e s t h r o u g h the entire inidbody of t h e s h i p can absorb t h e
i m p a c t o f landing, r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g t h e impact ccncentrated
w i t h i n a small a r e a of t h e hull.
ALLSECURE 137
2. A parallel landing traps the maximum quantity of water between
the hull and the pier or wharf, and t h u s develops the maximum
cushioning effect.
3. The eddy current acts equally along the entire length of the ship,
slowing her lateral motion and easing the landing.
4. I f t h e ship is docking with any current, having the ship's upstream
end hard alongside keeps the current from geóting inside the ship
and forcing her back off the berth.
5. The m a x i m u m cushioning effect is gained from the ships quick-
water when the ship is parallel to the berth.
When the impact of landing is spread over the entire length of the flat
parallel midbody, and several hundred feet of nearly incompressible wa-
t e r cushions t h a t landing, the ship can go alongside with surprising force
without damage. The reverse is true when the ship lands at any angle to
t h e berth. It is common to see water trapped between the hull and a
solid-faced pier or wharf go several feet into the air as the ship comes
alongside, indicative of the energy t h a t this hydraulic.cushion is absorb-
ing. If the hull has any angle, the water rushes toward the end that is far-
t h e s t off the pier and the cushion is lost.
ALL SECURE
T h e ship is alongside and the lines are being run ashore one after the other
to niake her fast. The number and placenient of these lines varies with the
location and construction o f t h e pier, the type and size ofthe ship, and the
w e a t h e r and current conditions t h a t are expected.
Ships usually r u n sufficier.t head, spring, and stern lines t h a t keep
t h e ship from moving forward and aft. Unfortunately, tiiese lines are of-
ten a hindrance r a t h e r than an aid in keeping the ship alongside in a
strong current—especially after the ship lias been allowed to get off the
pier at one end. The tidal current çets on the inshore side of the hull at
the bow or q u a r t e r , an eddy current develops to f u r t h e r increase the
s t r a i n on the lines, and the ship moves ahead or a s t e r n into the current.
T h e ship rides outward and ahead on the lines, pivoting on them much
like a wf.terskier at the er.d of a towline, while the lines at the opposite
end of the ship pull her in so she begins surging up and down the pier.
T h i s surging occurs because there is a greater s t r a i n on th a upstream
lines than on those leading downstreain, and causes shock loading t h a t
p a r t s lines.
138 DOCKING
B r e a s t lines, t h e lines t h a t aro m o s t effective in keeping t h e ship along-
side, a r e too often overlooked a h h o u g h t h e y should be doubled up like any
others. If t h e r e are sufYicieiit b r e a s t lines to keep t h e shiD along.«id?, the
s t r a i n on the lines leading forward a n d a f t r e m a i n s equal a n d t h e ship
does not begin surging.
T h e surging is a g g r a v a t e d by passing ships whose hydrodynamic
forces move the b e r t h e d vessel first a w a y from and then ioward t h e mov-
ing vessel, while also pulling the docked ship off t h e wharf. A p r e s s u r e
wave move3 a h e a d o f t h e a p p r o a c h i n g ship, a n d t h e r e is a decrease in pres-
s u r e between the two ships due to t h e flow-of w a t e r as they pass. I t i s espe-
cially i m p o r t a n t t h a t the ship be k e p t h a r d alongside, with sufficient
b r e a s t lines r u n a n d ali lines up tight, at b e r t h s exposed tD p a s s i n g ship
traffic.
R e m e m b e r too, Mate, to call t h e ship t h a t is approaching at. excessive
speed on t h e V H F radio a n d tell h e r to slow down. No longer is it necessary
to s t a n d by a n d watch a c a t a s t r o p h e develop because you c a n n o t commu-
nicate. Look over t h e side a n d m a k e s u r e t h e ship is alongside, t h e n go to
the V H F radio a n d tell the passing ship to p a s s at m i n i m u m speed w i t h the
engine stopped to e n s u r e t h a t your vessel is not pulled off t h e pier.
C H A P T E R SIX
UNDOCKING
Many are the boys, in evcry seaport, who are drawn
away, as by an almost irresistible attraction, from their
work and schools, and hang about the docks and yards
of vessels with a fondness which, it is plain, will have its
way. No sooner, however, lias the young sailor begun his
new life in earnest, than ali this fine dra ery falis off,
and he learns that it is work after ali.
—Richard Henry Dana, Two Years Before the A fast
Cargo operations complete, the ship lies quiet for the first time in many
hours. The shore staff are gone, leaving you with a desk heaped full of
memos, magazines, and unopened mail. The short stay in port was hectic
but you enjoyed it both because it marked the erul of one uoyage and the be-
ginning of another. Perhaps it is just because your work has these begin-
nings and endings, rather than going on interminably as jobs ashore seem
to do, that you stay at sea.
The telephone interrupts your reuerie.
"The pilot is on the bridge, Captain."
Another uoyage has begun.
PLANN1NG THE UNDOCKING
Take t h e same care when brieíing the undocking pilot as was t a k e n with
the pilot who docked the ship; exchange '.he same information and d a t a
card. Be sure to inform t h e pilot of the s t a t u s of the anchor in adaition to
ali the other items outlined in previous chaptero, especially if they are
backed out of the hawsepipe or if one was left on the bottom after docking.
It is surprising hcw cften the docking pilot fmds out that there are two
shots of chain in the water after letting go the last line.
As you did before docking, get out on the wing and feel the wind, check
its direction by looking up at the stack gases, and look over the side to check
the current. No matter how many instruments you might have to supply
such information, it's still important that you use your own senses and get a
feel for oxisting conditions before planning this or any other maneuver.
139
140 UN DOCKING
Too often, the less experienced s h i p h a n d l e r looks upon undocking as a
relatively simpls operation and does n o t properly plan the evolution.
The ship is usuallv undocking s t e r n first from a berth, so she steers
poorly if at ali. Since she is s t a r t i n g from alongside, t h e s h i p h a n d l e r has
fewer options available t h a t m a k e u s e of t h e wind a n d c u r r e n t as t h e ship
begins ba cking from the berth. D u r i n g a docking, wind a n d c u r r e n t are folt
w h e n the st.ern is in clear w a t e r a n d t h e angle of approach can be a d j u s t e d
to m a k e use of these forces. This is not t h e case w h e n undocking.
Even t h e ir.ost careful plans m a y h a v e to be a l t e r e d a f t e r t h e lines are
let go since it is diffícult to d e t e r m i n e which of several conflicting forces
will most affect the s h i p leaving t h e b e r t h . O f t e n t h e s h i p h a n d l e r lets go
expecting to be set ofí the pier by wind, only to r e m a i n h a r d alongside due
to s u b s u r f a c e current. I f t h i s occurs, t a k e t i m e to r e p l a n t h e undocking be-
fore touching the telegraph. T h e s h i p isn't going anywhere—more acci-
dents occur because of inappropriate action than delayed acticn.
DRAFT AND TRIM IN BALLAST
The directional stability and h a n d l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a loaded ship
were discussed in previous c h a p t e r s , so it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e ship is now
in ballast a n d light. Ideally, she is b a l l a s t e d to at l e a s t a m o d e r a t e d r a f t to
s u b m e r g e t h e propeller, rudder, a n d bow t h r u s t e r , a n d to reduce windage.
Give her a few feet oi drag. T h e amount. of t r i m by t h e s t e r n depends on t h e
h a n d l i n g characteristics of the ship, b u t it is b e t t e r to h a v e a bit too much
d r a g t h a n not enough. Try to at l e a s t get t h e stern well down if s t r e s s or
loading conditions limit ballasting since:
1. The ship has excellent directional stability w i t h good drag.
2. The propeller a n d r u d d e r a r e t h e n m o s t effective. With a deeper
d r a f t a f t the s h i p steers b e t t e r , r e q u i r e s less distance to stop, t w i s t s
less when t h e engine is p u t a s t e r n , a n d r e q u i r e s less r u d d e r to coun-
ter t h e torque of the propeller w h e n going a s t e r n .
3. It is preferable t h a t the bow also be b a l l a s t e d to at l e a s t a m o d e r a t e
d r a f t to reduce windage a n d s u b m e r g e t h e bow t h r u s t e r so it. is ef-
fective.
If a choice m u s t be made, however, b e t w e e n g e t t i n g t h e bow down or a
proper d r a f t aft, choose the latter. It can be a challenge to hold a light bow
into the wind until h e a d w a y develops, b u t it can be done using a t u g or the
USING QUICKWATER W H E N U N D O C K I N G 141
anchor. In most situations, the advantages of having the stern down out-
weigh this disadvantage.
SINGLING UP
Alter undocking ships for many years, pilots and seafarers alike tend to be-
come compiacent about singling up mooring lines. Too often it becomes a
h a b i t to single up a t a particular berth in the same manner with every ship.
"Two and one forward and a stern line aft, Mate," and without further
t h o u g h t the docking master heads for the coffee maker.
Singling up is usually a routine operation until the night when from a
w a r m , quiet wheelhouse you underestimate the force of the wind or cur-
r e n t . It took several lines to hold the ship alongside. Yet, when singling up,
the ship is left hanging off a few parts stret^hed íiddlestr: ig tight. Walk
out on t h e wing, feel and see the conditions, and really think about how
m a n y a n d which lines should be taken in.
Ideally t h e lines are taken in systematically while the ship is held in
position without overloading the remaining parts. Which lines should be
left u n t i l last? This depends on the existing conditions, hence no rule of
t h u m b can suffice. Basically, it is preferable to leave short lines until last,
t h a t is, a short headline and spring forward, a short s t e m line and breast
line a f t . Run a bight or two in place of a single line if the wind and/or cur-
rent are strong. It requires only one winch to heave t h a t bight abeard when
t a k i n g in the last lines, but the bight provides twice as many parts to h a n g
on while waiting to let go. Use tug assietauce to hold the ship alongside
a n d reduce the strain on remaining lines while singling up.
S h o r t lines hold the ship alongside more effectively and still keep her
from moving forward or aft, and they can also be brought aboard quickly—
especially important aft since the propeller should be cleared as soon as
possible so the engine can be used.
As ships get larger, winches are geared down to handle the higher
loads a n d thus are slower. It is therefore important t h a t the crew be in-
formed if the last lines must come aboard particularly fast. The mate can
leave t h e shortest line until last, ar.d lead it to the winch bofore letting go
to get t h e propeller clear quickly.
USING QUICKWATER W H E N UNDOCKING
T h e ship's quickwater can be an effective tool during the undocking, espe-
cially when backing froin a wharf or pier, since the ship is passing through
t h e quickwater as she moves astern.
142 UNDUGKING
Leaving a s t a r b o a r d side berth the q u i c k w a t e r forces t h e s t e r n away
from t h e dock or wharf, then moves the s h i p l a t e r a l l y a n d , when there is a
good flow s t r i k i n g the hull forward of t h e pivot point, checks up t h e swing
oi t h e bow toward t h e pier. The more r e s t r i c t e d t h e flow of quickwater
along t h e inboard side of the ship, w h e t h e r d u e to s h o a l i n g u n d e r the berth
or to t h e pier or wharf having a solid face, t h e m o r e effect it h a s on the ship.
Q u i c k w a t e r h a s less effect when leaving from a port side b e r t h since it
is i n h e r e n t l y iess strong on the port side of t h e s h i p a n d is .icting in more
open w a t e r d u e to the ship's angle to t h e pier as s h e s t a r t s to back.
Q u i c k w a t e r h a s a minimal effect b u t does reduce t h a t angle to t h e berth as
it s t r i k e s t h e f o r e p a r t of the hull.
With s o m e planning, the quickwater can be u s e d to n e a t l y move a ship
with the m i n . m u m of bells and r u d d e r orders. F o r e x a m p l e , a ship can be
s t a r t e d a s t e r n until t h e stern begins to lift off t h e pier. T h e engine is then
s t o p p e d a n d t h e s h i p d r i f t s a s t e r n while t h e q u i c k w a t e r m o v e s forward
to s t r i k e t h e h u l l a h e a d of the pivot point. T h e s w i n g of t h e bow toward
t h e pier i s checked a n d the ship b a c k s s t r a i g h t a s t e r n , c l e a r i n g t h e berth
in a n e a t a n d s e a m a n l i k e m a n n e r . Q u i c k w a t e r is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r in
chapter 5.
UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF
T a k e a d v a n t a g e of a n y current from a h e a d w h e n u n d o c k i n g from a wharf.
Delibei a t e l y get t h a t current inside t h e s h i p a n d c r e a t e t h e situation you
h a v e been avoiding while the ship w a s b e r t h e d . T h e c u r r e n t moves the
bow off t h e w h a r f as you use the engine a n d r u d d e r to lift t h e s t e r n without
developing a n y h e a d or sternway over t h e g r o u n d (fig. 6-1). T h e ship
moves l a t e r a l l y off t h e berth.
A c e r t a i n feel is needed when a d j u s t i n g engine revoiutions so the ship
m a k e s n o h e a d w a y b u t sets away from t h e b e r t h i n t h e c u r r e n t . U s e suffi-
cient e n g i n e revoiutions to keep t h e ship a b e a m of a selected point on the
w h a r f while w a l k i n g h e r laterally a w a y f r o m t h e b e r t h . W h e n wind and
space l i m i t a t i o n s m a k e tug assistance n e c e s s a r y , t h e t u g is backed as re-
quired to m a i n t a i n t h e ship's angle to the w h a r f while the current takes hei
off the berth.
G r e a t e r l a t e r a l force and control a r e n e e d e d w h e n ships a r e berthed
close a h e a d a n d a s t e r n , or a wind blowing on t h e w h a r f overcomes t h e cur-
r e n t . E i t h e r u s e a second tug or back t h e bow t u g while t h e ship's engine
t u r n s a h e a d w i t h more power and hard-over r u d d e r (fig. 6-2). In t h e latter
case, t h e t u g a n d engine work against each other to p r e v e n t h e a d r e a c h i n g
UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF 143
j 1. Current hfts bow (and ship bodiiy)
away Irom lhe whart. R u d d e r a n d
engine move tne stern.
2 . R P M s a d j u s t e d s o the sí.ip m a k e s n o h e a d w a y
over t h e bottom while moving laterally.
Fig. 6-1. Undocking—current from ahead
while moving the ship off the dock laterally. The ship maintains an angle
to the wharf so the current can assist the tug and engine in moving t h e
ship off the dock. A more detailed discussion of this technique is found
later in this chapter.
W h e n the current is from astern, the ship is undocked in much t h e
s a m e m a n n e r as she was docked under the same conditions. Work the bow
t o w a r d t h e wharf using the tug, engine, and mooring lines, and then back
into t h e stream. If a vessel is berthed astern, use the engines as necessary
to m a t c h the current as the ship works laterally off the wharf. Again,
m a i n t a i n a speed through the water t h a t matches the drift of the c u r r e n t
so the ship moves laterally over the ground.
A steam-turbine-powered ship can easilj' maintain the required speed.
Communicate with the engine room by telephone r a t h e r than telegraph to
obtain specific revoiutions instead of using standard maneuvering speeds.
A motor ship requires more attention since a nigh-speed diesel h a s a
dead slow t h a t often exceeds the required speed. The engine m u s t be
stopped intermittently to make good the needed speed, a maneuver t h a t
r e q u i r e s .ícme practice. A variable-pitch-propelled motor ship has ar. ad-
v a n t a g e in this situation since the pitch can be reduced to exactly m a t c h
t h e d r i f t of the current.
144 UNDOCKING BACKING FItOM A SLIP 145

T ug's power oppose.- the ship's engine. 1. S h i p b a c k i n g froin a berth.

S h i p m o v e s a w a y f r o m t h e b e r t h but m a k e s 2. C o m e a h e a d . rudder hard lett, to
pivot ship. Don't kill sternway.
\ ' w m

v
A
&
\
Pivot point —

\
WIjfy \»
\ .

To t a k e a ship off a clear wharf at slack w a t e r , p u t h e r bow at a small

angle to t h e b e r t h a n d steam a h e a d . U s e t h e r u d d e r w i t h care, lifting the
s t e r n while m a i n t a i n i n g the ship's angle to t h e wharf. If t h e w h a r f is not
clear a h e a d , t h e ship is either worked off u s i n g t h e engine in opposition to
a tug, or t h e bow is p u s h e d in toward t h e pier a n d t h e ship backs off as de-
scribed l a t e r for a port side undocking f r o m a pier.
BACKING FROM A SLIP
T h i s common undocking situation h a s a s m a n y v a r i a t i o n s a s t h e r e are
piers. Ali h a v e some basic similarities though, a n d t h e s h i p h a n d l e r u s e s a
knowledge of s e a m a n s h i p to a d j u s t m e t h o d s to suit t h e local conditions.
A ship b e r t h e d starboard side to n e e d s no angle w h e n b a c k i n g from a
pier, since t h e torque of the propeller a n d t h e q u i c k w a t e r move h e r stern
to port, clear of t h e dock. It may be necessary to use t h e bow t h r u s t e r or tug
to check up t h e r e s u l t a n t starboard swing of t h e bow so it clears the
stringpiece, or tc i n t e r m i t t e n t l y come a h e a d with hard-over r u d d e r to
s t e a d y up t h e ship before continuing to back. If t h e ship is to back to star-
board a f t e r clearing t h e slip, go a s t e r n u n t i l t h e pivot point is well clear of
the pier a n d t h e n come ahead with h a r d - p o r t r u d d e r to w a l k t h e s t e r n to
s t a r b o a r d as the bow swings clear (fig. 6-3). If t h e t u r n is b e g u n before the
pivot point clears the pier, t h a t p a r t of t h e ship a f t of t h e pivot point will
close on the pier as t h e stern moves to s t a r b o a r d . This is so w h e t h e r the
s h i p is t u r n e d with t h e engine alone or with t u g a s s i s t a n c e , as a t u g does
not lift t h e ship bodily—it pivots the hull about t h e pivot point—a point
t h a t s h i f t s a f t to a b o u t midships as t h e t u g p u s h e s or pulls on t h e bow.
HV'-
Fig. 6-3. Think "pivot point" when turning.
Before backing from a port side docking, work the bow in and get the
ship at a good angle with the stern well off the pier. This can be done by:
1. P u s h i n g with the bow tug.
2. Heaving on the headline while holding the forward spring.
3. Backing a stern tug, if used.
4. Coming ahead dead slow against the spring line with the r u d d e r
h a r d over toward the deck.
It is becoming less practical tc work against mooring lines as ships in-
crease in size and power. Diesel-propelled ships often have a dead slow
speed of 6 to 8 knots and are especially diffícult to undock by working
a g a i n s t ship's lines.
The torque of a propeller going astern walks the stern to port so the
ship comes back parallel to the berth as sternway develops. She then co-
m e s easily out of the berth and is turned as required once the pivot point
clears the pier (fig. ü-4).
W h e t h e r backing from a port or starboard side berth, the bow.tug ei-
t h e r backs along with the ship, using a stern line as required, or falis
146 UNDOCKING BACKINÇ? FROM A SIJI' 147

safest maneuver when there ia no tug assistance since the ship is

alongside at ali times until clear and thus cannot be blown against
the pier and damaged. She mav Iose some paint while sliding along
but this is inconsequential since "paint comes in buckets while steel
comes in shipyards."
2. P u t t i n g the ship at a good angle to the berth by working a g a i n s t the
spring line and then backingclear. Ilowever, the entire ship body, or
more likely the ship's bow, may be blown back down on the pier and
damaged when undocking in this nianner.
3. Breasting the ship off with one or two tugs.

T h e ship's behavior once she develops sternway is primarily a factor of

h e r superstructure and freeboard. She may set back on the pier bodily, or
the bow oniy may set down toward the pier as the ship backs into t h e wind.
The shiphandler m u s t be prepared for either situation unLess the ship is
being slid along the stringpiece.
Another situation develops when the shod doors on the pier are closed.
An eddy often forms as the wind refleets off the closed doors and the ship is
Fig. 6-4. U n d o c k i n g — b e r t h e d port side to.
s e t off tne dock r a t h e r than on it. This sunplifies the undocking. Since t h e

a r o u n d a n d follows t h e ship while hanging on a single line. W h e n t h e r e is

sufficient r o o m b e t w e e n the hull and berth, a t u g line t r a i l i n g s t e m to stem
can w o r k a g a i n s t e i t h e r side of t h e ship to lift the bow a n d s t e e r t h e ship as or
V
she b a c k s from the slip (fig. 6-5).
It would seem q u i t e simple to back from a slip w h e n a s t r o n g wind is
blowing off t h e pier b u t this is not always the case. W h e n t h e s h i p is dead
in t h e w a t e r t h e wind tends to move h e r bodily off t h e pier; t h i s eílect is
modified by a large s t a c k or forward or after house, which c a u s e s the bow
or s t e r n to come a w a y more quickly. As the ship develops s t e r n w a y , she of-
ten b a c k s into t h e wind so the stern usually moves t o w a r d t h e b e r t h , over-
coming t h e t o r q u e of t h e propeller during s t a r b o a r d side undocking or
a c c e n t u a t i n g t h e twisting effect in a port side undocking.
A wind blowing on the pier holds the ship alongside. W h i l e more eso-
r.eric m a n e u v e r s can be used—the ship can be pu'led off t h e deck with an
a n c h o r deployed d u r i n g docking, or a lashed-up t u g can be used—more
common options available for undocking in this s i t u a t i o n include:

1. Sliding along t h e stringpiece until the s t e m clears t h e o u t b o a r d cor-

n e r of t h e pier a n d the s h i p is turned fair in t h e c h a n n e l . T h i s is the Fig. 6-5. Tug working at the bow—backing from a berth.
148 UNDOCKING COMING O F F PARALLEL TO A CEKTH 149

ship will lie some distance oíT the stringpiece r a t h e r t h a n h a r d a g a i n s t it

in this situation, t h e s h i p h a n d l e r is a w a r e of the condition a n d can plan
accordingly.
In any case, t h e m a r i n e r again uses the wind r a t h e r t h a n r e a c t s to it.
Anticipate wind effects and a d j u s t the ship's angle to t h e b e r t h so t h e wind
hslps her m a i n t a i n a desired heading. A s h i p h a n d l e r w h o w a i t s u n t i l
t h c s e effects occur a n d then responds to t h e m soon feels like a c a t chasing
its tail.

COMING AHEAD FROM A SLIP

This s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d simple m a n e u v e r can generally be performed
with m i n i m u m assistance. In a clear slip it's often possible to d e p a r t with-
out tug assistance u n l e s s there is a s t r o n g wind or c u r r e n t holding t h e ship
on the berth. Even u n d e r these conditions a s h i p can sail w i t h c u t a t u g if
there is good m a n e u v e r i n g room oíT t h e end of the pier.
Undocking w h e n t h e wind is off t h e dock is a simple m a n e u v e r , the ship
s t e a m i n g clear until t h e stern h a s room to swing and t h e n t u r n i n g fair in
the channel. A t u g m a y be required if t h e channel off t h e pier is not wide
enough to p e r m i t t u r n i n g unassisted. T h e anchor or spring line can also be
used to work t h e s h i p around the end of t h e pier as describea in previous
chapters.
A wind blowing on t h e berth p r e s e n t s some problems to a s h i p docked
stern in. Usually a t u g is used to lift t h e bow while t h e r u d d e r a n d engine
move t h e s t e r n a w a y f r o m the stringpiece. T h e ship m a y d e p a r t w i t h o u t a
tug though, even in a moderate wind, if t h e job is p l a n n e d to m a k e u s e of
existing conditions. L e t go ali lines a n d s t e a m t h e ship at slow s p e e d up the
stringpiece keeping t h e rudder about 10 degrees toward t h e pier to hold
the ship lightly alongside. If the ship were to come off t h e pier a n d then
blow back down again she could be d a m a g e d . As the pivot p o i n t clears the
end of the pier, i n c r e a s e the revolutions and r u d d e r angle, t u r n i n g the
ship across t h e end of t h e pier a n d lifting the stern clear. T h e s h i p m u s t
have enough speed to overcome leeway when she clears t h e end of the
stringpiece—2 to 3 k n o t s usually being sufficient. T h e s t e r n lifts neatly
away from the stringpiece as the ship clears t n e b e r t h a n d t u r n s to head
fair in the channel (fig. 6-6).
The only safe m a n e u v e r when the ship is stern in and h a s to t u r n away
from the pier with limited m a n e u v e r i n g room is to wait for a tug. T h e r e a r e
m a n e u v e r s t h a t can be used but t h e y depend on so m a n y th: n g s going well
t h a t the risk of accident is excessive.
Fig. 6-6. Undocking bow out from a slip.
COMING OFF PARALLEL TO A BERTH
O f t e n a ship m u s t come off a berth while reinaining parallel to t h e
stringpiece, such as when she is berthed in a narrow slip, or docked star-
board side to with a ship astern, or berthed at a wharf with ships close
a h e a d and astern. There are several ways to accomplish this:
1. Use a second tug made fast a f t to liíl and control the stern during the
undocking.
2. Lash up the bow tug facing aft and use that tug against the ship's en-
gines as discussed in chapter 3.
3. Make the bow tug fast in the usual manner and back t h a t tug to lift
the bow while the ship's engine is coming Í head with the r u d d e r
hard over toward the dock to lift the stern. Sufiicient engine revolu-
tions must be used to counter the tug , s power as they work a g a i n s t
each other, so tiie ship maintains her position over the bottom, t h a t
is, relative to the berth, but moves laterally away from the string-
p : ece. (See figure 6-2.)
These techniques can be used alone or in combination with other previ-
ously discussed methods for undocking to turr. a ship around in a limited
space, or to accomplish work with one tug that might ordinarily require
two. Such options a u g m e n t the more common backing and pushing work
W i t h tU£'S.
150 UNDOCKING
BACKING A SHIP TOWARD A HAZARD
Given a choice, a s h i p h a n d l e r never p r e s e n t s t h e s t e r n of a ship to dan-
g e r — n e v e r b a c k s toward a shoa 1 or anothor ship if t h e r e is a n y option. It is
n r e f e r a b l e to b».ck into clear water even if t h i s m e a n c t u r n i n g the iong way
a r o u n d to go to sea.
A s h i p c a n go bow first into a b a n k or shallows w i t h o u t d a m a g e , but p u t
h e r r u d d e r into t h e b a n k and she will probably be s p e n d i n g t i m e in a ship-
y a r d . Back t o w a r d a n o t h e r ship and have an e n g i n e f a i l u r e (an event suffi-
ciently coramon with motor ships t h a t it should be p l a n n e d for), and
c e r t a i n e n i b a r r a s s m e n t will result. Back t o w a r d open w a t a r , though, and
h a v e an e n g i n e failure, and you j u s t back a little f u r t h e r t h a n planned be-
fore g e t t i n g an a n c h o r down and the ship stopped.
M a k e it a r u l e — w h e n handling a ship, back t o w a r d open water.
LE.FT-HAND AND VARIABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
Keep in inind t h a t t h e raaneuvers described h e r e i n a r e for a ship fitted
with a r i g h t - h a n d or clockwise t u r n i n g propeller. T h e r a r e ship having a
l e f t - h a n d t u r n i n g fixed propeller is h a n d l e d in a m a n n e r opposite to t h a t
described, t h a t is, a s t a r b o a r d side undocking (or docking) of a ship fitted
Fig. 6-7. "Rule n u m b e r one, gentlemen. Always back away from danger."
TURNING TO SEA 151
•vith a left-hand turning propeller is done in the manner previounly de-
scribed for a port-side undocking (or docking).
Variable-pitch ships often have right-hand turning propeiiers. These
propellers turn in the same direction whether the ship is going ahead or
astern and only the pitch is reveryed to back down. The propeller is t h e r e -
fore t u r n i n g clockwise when going a s t e m , j u s t like a conventional fixed
pitch left-hand propeller, so such ships are handled like vessels w i t h
left-hand turning propellers when docking and undocking. Variable-pitch-
propelled ships should be otandardized, ali being fitted with left-hand
t u r n i n g propellers so they back like other ships t h a t the shiphandler is ac-
customed to handling. There is no standard at present, so the s h i p h a n d l e r
m u s t check the direction of rotation of every variable-pitch-fitted ship be-
fore p l a n n i n g the docking or undocking.
TURNING TO SEA
T u r n i n g in relatively open water is a straightforward job as long as t h e
s h i p h a n d l e r minimizes the ship's speed. The basic behavior of ships w h e n
going astern, a n d during the backing and fiíling maneuver, are discussed
in chapter 1. There are, however, additional points to consider if the s h i p
is to be t u r n e d in a restricted area.
It is possible to both turn a ship around and control her position in a
channel or t u r n i n g basin while she lias sternway. While moving a s t e r n ,
the ship can be steered using the engine ahead, shifting the rudder to di-
rect the p r o p e l l e r s flow in the needed direction much like a thruster. T h e
flow acting on the ship's stern is the resultant of both the a s t e r n a n d
a t h w a r t s h i p vectors of this flow. While moving astern remember
1. To reduce or kill sternway, put the rudder amidships, and direct tliis
flow aft.
2. To continue moving astern while going to starboard or port, put t h e
r u d d e r to the s ide opposite t h a t to which you wish the stern to move,
t h a l is, to move the s t e m to starboard, put the rudder to port and t h e
engine ahead.
3. To c h a r g e the magnitude of this turning and stopping force, in-
crease or decrease the engine revolutions.
Think of these changes as one maneuver, much as you increase, de-
crease, or stop a bow thruster, rather than as several separa te and distinet
m a n e u v e r s (fig. 6-8).
152 UNDOCKING
The s h i p h a n d l e r w h c finds the ship carrying h e r s t e r n w a y longer t.han
desired often i n c r e a s e s engine revolutions b u t leaves t h e r u d d e r h a r d
over. The r u d d e r s h o u l d be put a m i d s h i p s to direct t h e increased flow from
t h e propeller directly astern. After t h e speed h a s decreased sufficiently,
t h e r u d d e r is s h i f t e d back to the r i g h t or left to r e n e w tlie stern's swing.
Face inthe direction of ship mouement—if going a s t e r n , face aft, it*^
w h e r e t h e action is. This simple change of position d:>es much to improve
the m a r i n e r ' s s h i p h a n d l i n g technique; seagoing professionals, mates, and
m a s t e r s s p e n d so m u c h time looking a h e a d at sea t h a t t h e y tend, out of
habit, to h a n d l e s h i p s in confined w a t e r while w a t c h i n g only the bow.
If the s h i p is to be turned in a b a s i n
1. T u r n in the direction t h a t keeps the stern in t h e best water.
2. T a k e n e a r l y ali s t e r n w a y off the ship before s t a r t i n g to swing her.
3. Ali factor8 b e i n g equal, t u r n the ship to t h e r i g h t to take a d v a n t a g e
of t h e ship's b e t t e r t u r n i n g characteristics backing and fnling in
t h a t direction.
4. Position t h e ship's pivot point so t h e s t e r n swings clear.
5. Fix t h e d i a m e t e r of the basin in your mind before s t a r t i n g to t u r n .
/ \
Put enginü a h e a d
to r e d u c e or kill I n c r e a s e revolutions
sternway. to i n c r e a s e turning
To m o v e stern
a n d stopping forces.
to the side,
shift t h e r u d d e r .
Fig. 6-8. T u r n i n g a s h i p with s t e r n w a y .
TURNING TO SEA 153
6. When possible, p u t the end of the ship to be swung in the a r e a of
maximum favorable current.
7. Put the ship at the end of the basin from which the current is flowing
when starting the maneuver.
Discusr the depth and profíle of the basin with the pilet, as the location
of any shoaling depends on local conditions. Lacking bettei information
you can estimate the location of shoaling based upon the basin's proximity
to t u r n s in the channel (fig. 6-9). The deepest water in a basin at location
"A" will usually be in the bend away from the point, and the stern should
be swung in that direction. Above or below the turn, at location "B," the
deepest water lies on the side n e a r e s t the path of the ebb tide as it flows
from one bend to the next. Midway between the turns the deepest w a t e r
would generally be in midchannel so the ship can probably t u r n in t h e
most convenient direction. Do iiot present the stern to potential dangers.
It may be impressive to watch a ship performing several m a n e u v e r s si-
multaneously in the basin as she is both stopped and swung but, if the ship
is not nearly stopped before being t u r n e d , there is little margin for e r r o r s
\X
\
v*
\< . * \ ^ N
' V
'X- . \A'_ !
\ " \
1
Fig. 6-9. Common bottom configuration in bends and reaches.
154 UNDOCKING DISMISSING THE TUGS 1; 5 5

ir. j u d g m e n t or for any u n k n o w n current. Reduce t h e ship's s t e r n w a y , then
t u r n her.
The stem can be p u t in the mud and the ship pivoted a r e u n d on the bow
if the c u n e n t s t r i k e s t h e q u a r t e r in a favo rabie direction. T h e anchor can
be used in the s a m e m a n n e r , either alone or in conjunction with the b a n k ,
to swing the ship ,'fig. 6-10).
Watch n a t u r a l r a n g e s ashore, both ahead and a s t e r n to d e t e r m i n e if
the ship is being set along the axis of t h e channel, and a b e a m to check t h a t
the ship does not develop u n w a n t e d headway or s t e r n w a y over t h e bottom
as the tugs and engine a r e used. Don't be in a h u r r y to come a h e a d with the
engine after t h e m i d p o i n t of the t u r n is passed—wait u n t i l t h e t u r n is
nearly completed before s t a r t i n g to come a h e a d over t h e bottom.
Wliile swinging, t h e banks ahead and astern a p p e a r closer from the
bridge than they actually are so it is important that you fix in your mind the
basin's dimensions before starting the maneuver. When t h e b a n k s s t a r t to
appear close, remind yourself of the clearance t h a t you know is available, and
you will avoid t h e apprehension t h a t causes unnecessary maneuvering.
DISMISSING THE TUGS
Dismiss the s t e r n tug as soon as her work is done. Do n o t carry t h e stern
tug along a f t e r c l e a r i n g t h e slip since, as previously discussed, she is only
a hindrance.
Keep the fonvard tug as long as it might possibly be cf assistance. Even
if the ship has a bow t h r u s t e r , a tug that has been used coming into the .slip
should be kept fast iintil the ship is headed fair, clear of ali obstructiuns
a n d any traffic t h a t might be a problem. You have paid for Lhe tug's ser-
vices, so make her earn h e r money. The bow thruster may quit or r e f u s e to
stop when used, or a problem inay arise t h a t requires more effective power
than the bow t h r u s t e r can develop as the ship's speed increases.
When dismissing the tug, lower her lines with a messenger. Dcn't d»-op
t h e m from the ship's deck since a line in the water may foul the tug's screw
or your own. Dropping the line also makes unnecessary work for the tug's
crew since the line could have been lowered on deck rather t h a n having to
be dragged wet from the water. Listen for the tug*s signal, often a long
blast un her whistle followed by two short blasts, so she can be let go
promptly as the ship s t a r t s to come ahead. Keep at least two crew mem-
bers and a mate s t a n d i n g by a tug at ali times, even if she is to be held for
some period after clearing the berth.
The ship now t u r n e d and headed fair, the docking mast. r wishes ali a
good voyage and climbs down the ladder to the waiting tug belo-'.

Current

1. S h i p d e a d in t h e w a t e r ,
let go a n c h o r (apDrox.
2 x deptn).
2 a n d 3. S l e a m a r o u n d a n c h o r ,
making no h e a d w a y .
4. Drop back to current—
h e a v e up.

Fig. 6-10. T u r n i n g s h o r t on an anchor.


CHAPTEK SEVEN
DEPARTÜRE
Captain N. B. Palmer was a rough old sailor. He 'vas de-
terinined to sec me get along, and helped ire more than
any other man to know my duty as an officer and to f.t
me for a Master.
—Captain Charles Porter Low, Recollections
Downbound and líght, she made good time despite the flood tide. The old
man, tired from the short, hectic stay inport, left his chair only toglance oc-
casionally at the chart on the wheelhouse logdesk. He had little inclination
to make conversation with the pilot, now ten minutes into a monologue to
which only the third mate was really listening.
Fresh coffee in hand, the mate returned to the iog desk. She noted the
time on t)ie chart as the ship swung onto the next range, comparing the
course that the pilot had giuen to the helmsman with the preuiously inked
and Labeled courses on the chart.
"Right to one, five, four."
Checking the swing, the A.B. on the wheel repeated the new course,
"One, five, four, Sir."
"Very well, steady so."
"Trouble is, Mate, they always have to be looking for problems, and if
there ar2n't any they create some. It's part oflife today but it sure is hurting
the marine industry."
The mate had heard ali this before, and always some mysterious "they"
werc causing the problems.
"Who are 'they,' Pilot'?" she queried.
"Industry groups, gouernment agencies, the Coast Guard—and why do
we have a military service regulating and policing professionals in a com-
mercial industry anyway? The Air Force doesn't regulate the airlines!"
The captain sat back in his chair and tooh ali this in. He had heard
many such discussions recently and, while the Coast Guard was often the
target of the seafarer's frustrations, the problem obviously went beyond
that agency. What the mariner basically objected to was lhepreponderance
156
DEPARTÜRESPEED 157
of often irrelevant regulations that interfered with his work, and the exclu-
sion ofthe active marineprofessional from theprocess that deueloped those
reguiations. Some representaíion from the active seagoing community, ai
botli the national and International leveis, was long overdue. The captair.
appreciated and sharcd these conçerns.
"There is a lot of expertise on the water today, Mate, and. the standards
in the industry suffer when active professionals are cxcluded from discus-
sions of rnatters affecting the marine industry."
Picking up the phone to instruct the standby to rig the pilot ladder, the
third mate nodded her agreement.
"You 're right, Pilot, we're letting Lhe tail wag the dog in our industry."
"Wsagood way oflife, Mate, and u>e can't let others usepolitics to down-
grade it. We have to become more involved in rnatters affecting our profes-
sion. (Note: This was written in 1983. The situation has not improved.)
DROPPING THE PILOT
Well before arriving at the pilot station, the masterand the m a t e on watch
discuss inbound and outbound trafiic with the pilot. Ali ships are identi-
fied by n a m e and their intentions clariíied 30 there is a smooth transition
of the conn from pilot to master. It's easy for the pilot to discuss any poten-
tial problem situations with the other ships before lie leaves since he has
radio contact with both the other pilots and the pilot station. They know
t h e destinations, drafts, nationalities, and intentions of the ships moving
in the area, and are able to assist the master in making safe meeting ar-
r a n g e m e n t s before the pilot disembarks.
Until the m a s t e r is fully coníident t h a t there will be no problems as the
s h i p departs from the port area, he should not release the pilot. Being a re-
sponsible professional, the pilot has no objection to perforining this last
service before leaving and the m a s t e r must not hesitate to require it.
DEPARTÜRE SPEED
A lee is m a d e and the pilot boards his boat to go ashore. The ship r e t u r n s to
h e r heading and proceeds to the departure point at a speed t h a t m a t c h e s
t h e flow of outbound trafiic. Moving at that speed obviously reduces by
half the a m o u n t of traíYio that m u s t be dealt with since now only crossing
a n d meeting ships present any potential problems. Time saved does not
j u s t i f y excessive speed, and any fool can engage in false heroics with a ship
t h a t belongs to someone else.
158 DEPARTURE
boat?"
Speed is also limited by depth of w a t e r . Tiying to p u s h a s h i p at a speed
f a s t e r t h a n proper for t h e depth of w a t e r causes excessive s q u a t a n d suc-
tion and, since t h e flow of w a t e r to the r u d d e r is r e s t r i c t e d by t h e
u n d e r k e e l clea rance, t h e ship becomes h a r d to steer. I n c r e a s e d difficulty
in s t e e r i n g a n d t h e pronounced vibration t h a t can be felt t h r o u g h o u t the
ship a r e c e r t a i n indications of excessive speed.
T h i s r e r a a i n s t r u e u n t i l the s h i p leaves shallow w a t e r conditions, not
j u s t while t h e s h i p is in a h a r b o r or channel. As the ship r e a c h e s deeper
w a t e r , h e r speed should be increased incrementally, r a t h e r t h a n being
b r o u g h t to s e a speed u p o n d e p a r t u r e . This is increasingly i m p o r t a n t as
ships get l a r g e r , not only because of the inherently g r e a t e r d r a f t s of
VLCCs, b u t b e c a u s e of t h e higher horsepower and tendency of t h e larger
hull to develop h a r m o n i c vibrations u n d e r shallow w a t e r conditions. As
ship size increases, t h e m a s t e r m u s t a d j u s t s h i p h a n d l i n g h a b i t s .
Make every eífort to inove with the flow of traffic w h e t h e r t h e r e is a for-
mai traffic s e p a r a t i o n s c h e m e o r n o t . If a problem develops, do n o t h e s i t a t e
to stop the s h i p a n d let t h e situation clear itself up. Since t h e m a s t e r and
m a t e s have developed their s h i p h a n d l i n g skills, m a n e u v e r i n g while
m a i n t a i n i n g h e a d i n g a n d position should present no problem. Too often,
the less experienced s h i p h a n d l e r t e n d s to increase speed to "get away
from a potentially d a n g e r o u s situation"—the experienced m a s t e r or pilot
MANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS 159
uses the opposite tactic and slows or stops the ship. The other ships a r e
moving ahead to create the potentially dangerous close quarters situa-
tion. If you stop, you "avoid reaching the problem area until the situation is
resolved. Stopping, not rushing on, is the action of the professional.
MANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS
Make your actions known to other ships by whistle signals and by use of
t h e VHF radio. Make any changes in course or speed large and obvious. By
m a k i n g larger t h a n required changes in your heading, especialiy at night,
you are efTcctively talking to t h a t other ship with your lights—showing
h e r your sidelight—and t h e r e can be no doubtaboutyourintentions. Refer
to the section in chapter 1 concerning the proper use of VHF radio, and es-
pecialiy keep in mind t h a t ships of other nationalities do not arrange pass-
ing situations, but primarily discuss alterations in heading. If no one on
either meeting ship speaks English fluently, there is a chance for misun-
derstanding when you discuss a port to port passing since this may be in-
terpreted by the other vessel as a request for an alteration of course to port.
To effectively m a n e u v e r a ship and continually assess traffic, the con-
ning master or m a t e m u s t be relieved of other navigational and adminis-
t r a t i v e tasks. The pilot develops an intimate knowledge of local waters
a n d is able to navigate mainly by eye, so full attention can be given to traf-
fic and shiphandling. The s h i p m a s t e r visits many ports and cannot possi-
bly develop the pilot's working knowledge of any particular port; another
person is therefore needed to do the navigating so the master can give suf-
ficient attention to m a n e u v e r i n g the ship.
It's true t h a t the m a s t e r alone can do other work when traffic is light
a n d conditions good, but as soon as any one task requires more than pass-
ing attention, it is necessary to corrpromise the major duties of assess-
m e n t and shiphandling unless additional help is available on the bridge.
It. is not suggested t h a t the m e r c h a n t ship resort to having a horde of peo-
ple on the bridge performing nonessential and redundant tasks, as is toe
often found on naval vessels (and p e r h a p s the latter will find they can op-
e r a t e more effectively if their n u m b e r is signifícantly reduced), but there
should be one additional person to compensate for the local knowledge
t h a t disappeared when the pilot w e n t down the ladder.
The mate on watch continues to carry out the tasks that were being
done while the pilot was aboard, while the additional mate plots traffic as
necessary and navigates. The information obtained is passed to the mas-
ter, who needs only to check the work often enough to be sure t h a t it is
160 DEPARTURE
being done correctly. T h e additional officer should be the chief m a t e when
possible, since he is generally the most experienced as well as b e i n g the
one who wiil m o s t beiiefit from the opportunity to be involved as t h e ship
e n t e r s a n d leaves port. Too often the m a r i n e r s p e n d s several y e a r s as chief
mate, shufiling papei s in the sliip's office d u r i n g a r r i v a l s a n d d e p a r t u r e s ,
only to be promoted to m a s t e r and t h r u s t back into the world of n a v i g a t i o n
and shiphandling. By assisting the m a s t e r , the chief m a t e is g a i n i n g t h e
knowledge required for t h a t m o s t responsible of positions, a n d acquiring
the skills required to be an effective s h i p m a s t e r a n d s h i p h a n d l e r .
The plethora oí bridge e q u i p m e n t h a s not relieved t h e m a s t e r of any
traditional t a s k s , a n d in fact often creates distractions for t h e o t h e r offi-
cers so t h a t essential t a s k s r e q u i r e d by good s e a m a n s h i p a r e overlooked.
Any impression t h a t t h i s e q u i p m e n t m a k e s it possible to conn a s h i p with
a bridge t e a m t h a t is one third smaller t h a n t h e m a s t e r - p i l o t - m a t e t e a m is
illusory—bring an additional officer to the bridge u n t i l t h e s h i p is at sea,
clear of navigational h a z a r d s a n d traffic, so the m a s t e r can in f a c t be the
s h i p h a n d l e r r a t h e r t h a n the navigator.
Fig. 7-2. "Ya see, M i s t e r Mate, if you come up to sea speed tao soon she
may vibrate a little."
COURSE CARD AND PASSAGE PLANNING I6 1
Fig. 7-3. The pilot departs off Cape Henry. From an oil painting by
M a r y l a n d Pilot Captain Brian Hope.
COURSE CARD AND PASSAGE PLANNING
T h e passage outbound should be as carefully planned as the passage in,
with a chart in the wheelhouse available for consultation, courses inked i ri
with pertinent information labeled, and a course card inade up by the mas-
ter.
T h e course card minimizes distractions and allows the master to re-
m a i n at the centerline window to conn the ship. The pilot is able to draw
t h e c h a r t of the port from memory yet oarries a course card; how can the
m a s t e r eíTectively conn the ship without one? The card should contain the
reaches or ranges in order, with the course, length of the reach, and turn-
ing point at the end of each reach noted. This information can be put on a
three-by-five card and kept in the shirt pocket, eliminating the need for re-
p e a t e d trips to the chartroom to pick off each course. The shiphandler can
t h e n spend t h a t time watching the tug and tow that may be çrossing the
bow, while being more certain as the ship is brought to each new heading
t h a t t h e r e will be no errors in course.
The course card should be made up for the entire run from the dock to
sea, not j u s t for the portion of the passage ailer the piiot has disembarked.
T h i s efíort. will be especially appreciated should a rain squall or fog set in
midway to rea since the master will need only to glance at the course card
to check the heading as the ship feels her way.
Too often the term "passage planning" conjures up the vision of
m a t e s laying out pages of detailed courses, distance, navigation aids, and
162 DEPARTÜRE
estimated r u n s at various speeds. This is fine for voyage planning, b u t a
form-based p a s s a g e plan alone is not suitable for n a v i g a t i n g in restrictad
pilot waters. Indeed, a r.hiphandler working from pages of detailed infor-
mation alone, w i t h o u t m a r k e d up c h a r t s and a proper course card, is much
like an actor r e a d i n g from a script cLuring a performance. This is distract-
ing. It tends to p u t m e n t a l limits on the m a r i n e r w h e n s i t u a t i o n s arise
t h a t are not provided for in the original plan. P u t complete information di-
rectly on the c h a r t a n d course card prior to arrival or d e p a r t u r e to elimi-
n a t e the chance of e r r o r i n h e r e n t in t r a n s f e r r i n g information from the
plan to t h e c h a r t to t h e q u a r t e r - m a s t e r while a c t u a l l j conning t h e ship in
traffic a n d rosti*icted waters. A passage inked in advance on t h e c h a r t with
t u r n i n g be&rings, courses, a n d distances noted, together with t h e pocket
course card, a r e very much a p a r t of any proper p a s s a g e plan.
With a proper p l a n . properly m a r k e d chart, a course card, a n d effective
bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t , t h e m a r i n e r can give t h e m a x i m u m atten-
tion to handling the ship. A more complete discussion of t h e course card
a n d passage plan can be found in c h a p t e r 12, a n d excellent t e x t s on pas-
sage planning and bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t a r e included in t h e Bibli-
ography.
ABILITY TO MANEUVER
Do not be too quick to change to h e a v y oil when h a n d l i n g a motor ship t h a t
can m a n e u v e r only on light diesel fuel, or to bring a s t e a m t u r b i n e ship to
sea speed when t h i s m e a n s t h a t you cannot t h e n reduce speed w i t h o u t de-
lay. The pilot s t a t i o n is t h e wrong place to increase to sea speed, or to be
unable to stop or go a s t e r n on s h o r t notice, since at t h a t point ships are
converging from ali directions r a t h e r t h a n moving in a predictable m a n -
n e r within a f a i r w a y or traffic scheme. The inbound ships are e a g e r to get
into port, a r e p r e p a r i n g to t a k e t h e pilot, a n d probably a r e in t h e highest
risk location of t h e e n t i r e passage. P e r h a p s t h e h a s t e to increase speed is
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , since those aboard w a n t to get t h e s h i p to sea w h e r e the
routine will settle down a n d life will r e t u r n to normal, b u t w a i t a little lon-
ger until traffic is a s t e r n .
Yes, contrary to t h e l a n d s m a n ' s opinion. the s e a m a n does consider life
at sea normal!
CHAPTER EIGHT
ANCHORING AND
SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
I had no means of knowing that what had happened to
me was a manifestation of the sixth senso possessed by
every born seaman. You can traiu a man in navigation,
seamanship, celestial observation and the computing of
tide, current, speed, wind, and drift, and yet he will
never be a sailor unless, at the moment of Lruth when he
is forced into a corner from which there is no way oul ex-
cept by instant intuitive action, he unerringly makes the
right move.
—Jan de Hartog, The Captain
Too often a mate is promoted to aposition for which, throug'' nofault ofhis
own, he is not ready. The principal cause of this is inadequate onboard ex-
perience, especially "hands-on" experience for júnior officers under the su-
peruision of more experienced officers. This lack of experience is especially
significcnt in the area of shiphandling, including the conning of a ship in
restricted waters and the use ofanchors, although it is important that such
experience be gained in ali the shipboard skills. In an industry that oper-
ates in an environment alien to the novice, it's imperative that knowledge
be passed from one generation ofseamen to the next if professional stan-
dards are to be maintained. The fine training schools and maritime acade-
mies that serie the seafaring community offer an excellent theoretical
beginning, but it is only that—a beginning. There is much that can be
passed to a new officer only by example or instruetion.
Pride in profession, appreciation of the relatiue irnportance of various
tasks, and acquisition of that intangihle thar svparates the exceptional sea-
farer from the average—sea sense—can only be gieaned by observation of
others experienced in uiorking ut sea. The planning and effort required to
give júnior officers onboard experience is cs important as any other ship-
board iask and deserves the same attention from the seasoned master, mate,
or chief. Hands-on trainingensures both better operating ships and a con tin -
uation of seafaring traditions and ekills. Let the chief mate conn the ship
163
164 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH ANCHORS
and pick up the. pilot; have the second mate plan a cargo loading under the
superuision of the mate; andgive the third mate a chance io handle the ship
during Williarnson turns and other maneuvers at sea. Insist that these and
other tasks be carried cat properly. To enswe that high standards of seago-
ing life are maintained, it is necessary that the master be a stern taskmaster
and demand that those working for hirn perforrn to the highest standards.
In no area is hands-on experience more important than in shiphandling.
It is possible to watch a shiphandler work foryears and still not acquire a
feeling for that art. Arrive at the pilot station a bit early andgive the mates
an opportunity to perforrn the maneuvers described in chapter 1. Let those
officersput the ship to anchor. While maneuvering, explain whyyou choose
a particular heading to allow for wind and current. When one of these
mates later has to alter course on the mid-watch for a fishing boat not seen
until close at haad and is able to maneuver without hesitation or mistake,
the effort put into training will suddenly be worthwhile.
As a young mate, didn't you appreciate the master or chief mate who
took time topass along a hint or to recount a sea story with a lesson at coffee
time? You have the skills now, and a pride in whatyou do—it is your turn to
pass them along!
ANCHORS FOR ANCHORING
T h e m a s t e r ' s m o s t c o m m o n s h i p h a n d l i n g t a s k m a y b e simply p u t t i n g a
s h i p to anchor. T h e s k i l l s involved a r e so basic, so e s s e n t i a l , t h a t no m a r i -
n e r is q u a l i f i e d for c o m m a n d u n t i l he c a n p u t a s h i p to a n c h o r safely, expe-
diently, a n d w i t h confidence u n d e r ali c o n d i t i o n s .
On a l m o s t e v e r y voyage a m a s t e r a n c h o r s f o r s o m e reason. Done well,
t h e t a s k i s completed w i t h o u t f u s s o r c o n f u s i o n . D o n e poorly, i t becomes
a n u n n e c e s s a r i l y complicated a n d d a n g e r o u s e v o l u t i o n a s t h e ship works
a g a i n s t n a t u r e a n d t h e a n c h o r , r u s t a n d m u d ílying, t h e chain s t r a i n i n g
a n d j u m p i n g across t h e wildeat. T h e s k i l l s o f t h e m a s t e r o r officer a t t h e
conn m a k e t h e d i f f e r e n c e and, f o r t u n a t e l y , a n c h o r i n g skills a r e easily
m a s t e r e d w i t h practice a n d p l a n n i n g .
A t f i r s t glance t h e r e seem t o b e m a n y d i f f e r e n t , u n r e l a t e d w a y s t o an-
chor b u t t h a t reaiiy i s n ' t t h e case. T r u e , a s h i p m i g h t u s e one anchor or
two, placed in line or s p r e a d , f r o m bow or s t e r n , w i t h equal or u n e q u a l
a m o u n t s of c h a i n s t r e t c h e d out or u n d e r f o o t , b u t in e v e r y case t h e t a s k is
basically t h e s a m e . A s h i p a p p r o a c h e s an a n c h o r a g e , m a n e u v e r s as closely
as possiblo to t h e d e s i r e d final h e a d i n g , slows or stops, a n d drops the an-
chor or a n c h o r s to the b o t t o m .
KNOW YOUK SHIP
On the other hand, there is no one anchoring t e c h n i q u e "for ali sea-
s o n s " because t h e r e are an infinite n u m b e r of combinations of w e a t h e r ,
s h i p tvpes. anchorage locat;or.r>, and other factors tu consider; so it is both
impossible and unnecessary to try to discuss every conceivable a n c h o r i n g
m e t h o d as a distinet and different evolution. Instead, this text discusses
only the most coinmon anchoring situations and basic a n c h o r i n g tech-
n i q u e s t h a t any reasonably skilled s h i p h a n d l e r can t h e n a d a p t to m o s t an-
choring situations.
KNOW YOUR SHIP
It is impossible to plan an approach properly w i t h o u t some knowledge of
y o u r ship's m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics. Perforrn as much o f t h e m a s t e r ' s
t r i a i s recommended in chapter 1 as possible now, if you h a v e n t a l r e a d y
done so. The hands-on experience of m a n e u v e r i n g t h e ship d u r i n g t h e s e
t r i a l s gives the shiphandler a feel for the ship's response to r u d d e r a n d en-
g i n e and confidence in his skill and his ship's ability to complete t h e ma-
n e u v e r s safely within the confines of a p a r t i c u l a r anchorage. Ships a r e too
valuable to maneuver by a wing and a prayer, and it's essential to h a v e this
knowledge and experience before having to anchor in a difficult situation.
Knowing the ship's m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics m e a n s u n d e r s t a n d -
i n g both w h a t a ship can do and w h a t it c a n n o t do. Knowing w h e n not to
a n c h o r is probably more i m p o r t a n t t h a n how to anchor. When the a n c h o r -
age is crowded or the weather adverse so the ship cannot be safely an-
chored, consider ali alternatives including ordering a t u g to assist, and if
t h e job can't be done safely, lay off a n d wait for conditions to improve.
R e m e m b e r too t h a t maneuvering characteristics are not static and a
p a r t i c u l a r loading condition such as a very light d r a f t , or g r e a t e r t h a n nor-
m a l drag, or reduced underkeel clearance, m a y signiíicantly alter a s h i p ' s
n o r m a l behavior. Some ship types are more affected by these c h a n g e s
t h a n others: a high-sided ship or a heavily loaded ship m a y h a n d l e m u c h
differently in strong winds t h a n in light airs, and a loaded t a n k e r is a con-
siderabiy different ship from a t a n k e r in ballast. Ships change, conditions
c h a n g e , and the w e a t h e r chances, so don't fali into t h e t r a p of t r y i n g to do
t h e job the same way every time. E a c h anchoring is a new task: plan ac-
cordingly.
A bow t h r u s t e r signiíicantly changes a ship's h a n d l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
d u r i n g m a n e u v e r s at slow speed in an anchorage. M a n e u v e r i n g is simpli-
fied if the t h r a s t e r is used to t u r n a ship to her final heading, set up to
b a c k , position and hold the bow, and perforrn the other s h i p h a n d l i n g t a s k s
166 ANCHOPING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH ANCHORS
as t h e ship goes to anchor. Most ships do not h a v e bow t h r u s t e r s , though,
and t h r u s t e r s aren't really efíective u n l e s s s h i p s a r e moving at speeds o f 2
k n o t s or less, so the assuir.ption is m a d e in t h i s c h a p t e r t h a t no t h r u s t e r is
avaiiabie.
AGAIN, PLAN AHEAD, THINK AHEAD
H e r e again, t h e s a m e basic principies for s u c c e s s f u l s h i p h a n d l i n g and ma-
neuvering apply. Plan the overall m a n e u v e r prior to arrival using infor-
mation from the charts, pilots, a n d your local knowledge about the port
based on p a s t experience. Apply your u n d e r s t a n d i n g of basic shiphandling
principies a n d your appreciation for your ship's m a n e u v e r i n g charactcris-
tics learned cluringthe master's trials. R e d u c e speed early. Adjust the ini-
tial plan to u s e existing conditions a n d forces to a d v a n t a g e to assist the
ship's r u d d e r a n d engine in m a n e u v e r i n g , t h e n t h i n k a h e a d of the ship,
a d j u s t i n g t h e original plan as e v e n t s develop, p l a n n i n g several steps
a h e a d of t h e ship's maneuvers. P l a n t h e a n c h o r i n g as a series of simple
steps, and a l w a y s think ahead, think ahead, think ahead.
Consider anchoring in two p h a s e s b e c a u s e a n c h o r i n g is an exercise in
both basic s e a m a n s h i p and shiphandling. Decide h o w t h e ship will be an-
chored, and t h e n how she must be h a n d l e d to accomplish t h a t task. Any
good s e a m a n s h i p book dir.cusses the first p h a s e fully, so t h e r e is no point in
repeating t h a t discussion. The assumption is m a d e h e r e t h a t the reader is a
knowledgeabie m a r i n e r who is aware of t h e s e a m a n s h i p aspects of anchor-
ing and h a s already correctly planned t h a t p a r t of t h e evolution, so this
chapter will s t r e s s primarily the second, s h i p h a n d l i n g p h a s e of anchoring.
ANCHOR IN STEPS
Keep the s h i p h a n d l i n g phase of a n c h o r i n g simple. Look at anchoring as a
series of four steps: approach, p l a c e m e n t , laying out, a n d fetching up. Plan
each step s e p a r a t e l y as a series of s m a l l b a s i c t a s k s r a t h e r t h a n trying to
plan the entire anchoring as one long, complex evolution a n d think ahead
of t h e ship 30 each step leads more smoothly to t h e next.
A ship m i g h t need to enter an a n c h o r a g e , r e d u c e speed, back and fill
around to t h e final heading, m a n e u v e r to t h e selecued anchoring location,
stop, and t h e n move slc v/ly astern, ali as p a r t of w h a t m i g h t a p p e a r at first
to be a complex approach and anchoring evolution. In fact, reducing speed
is one s e p a r a t e , basic task, as is backing a n d filling, a n d stopping while
controlling t h e ship's head, and most of t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l t a s k s have al-
ready been discussed in some context in t h i s book. Consider each task sep-
PLANNING 167
arately, as you proceed step by step to anchor, and even relatively
complex, challenging anchoring jobs become einiply a series of small jobs
t h a t most mariners have mastered.
PLANNING
Every mariner studies the charts, sailing directions, predicted weather
conditions and, as the ship gets closer to the anchorage, the r a d a r presen-
tation of the anchorage, looking for several types of information, including
1. Direction and strength of wind and current.
2. Depth of water.
3. Type ofbottom.
4. Location of lee shore, shoals, or other hazards.
5. Maneuvering room for approach.
6. N u m b e r and location of ships already at anchor.
7. Conditions affecting visibility, weather, and currents.
8. Local customs and practices of the port.
9. Swinging room after anchoring.
Unfortunately, mariners too often weigh these factors only to decide on
t h e best location for anchoring, the a m o u n t of chain, a n d the number and
placement of anchors. They forget t h a t shiphandling is an inherent part of
anchoring and t h a t this same information m u s t also be used to plan the
shiphandling phase of the anchoring evolution. Look at the situation
a g a i n and plan each step of the task using existing conditions to advan-
tage to help r a t h e r than hinder the work as much as possible.
It is as important to have an alternative "bail out"plan in mind as it is
to have a primar}' plan of action, before entering the anchorage, in case
t h i n g s don't work out as expected. Generally, such a plan consists of leav-
i n g the anchorage until conditions improve or, if it is too late or impossible
to leave, putting down an anchor and riding to a short stay while you sort
t h i n g s out. Remember, having those two anchors hanging at the bow is
like having two tugs standing by forward ready to liold your ship and pre-
v e n t accidents. Bailout plans vary widely depending on conditions, and al-
ternativos are discussed in appropriate sections of this chapter.
Keep in mind too that any plan must be flcxible since ali too often an-
o t h e r ship will be anchorcd in your selected spot or in t h e way of your ap-
proach The plan is only a starting point: Use your shiphandling skills to
a d j u s t to existing conditions as they develop.
168 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S
Let's look at some of the factors to be considered w h e n a ship is going to
anchor.
WIND AND CURRENT EFFECTS
Wind a n d c u r r e n t determine the preferred direction for approaching the
anchorage, t h e final heading after anchuring, a n d to some extent the
ship's behavior while maneuvering in t h e a n c h o r a g e .
S e t and leeway increase and the ship's t u r n i n g circle becomes elliptical
b e c a u s e of t h e wind a n d current, the longer axis of t h e ellipse lying in the
direction of t h e wind a n d current. The effeets of w i n d a n d c u r r e n t on navi-
gation and s h i p h a n d l i n g increase dramatically as a ship's speeddecreases.
T h e m a r i n e r , accustomed to navigating at full s e a speed w h e r e set and lee-
way a r e m u c h less signiíicant, has to plan m o r e carefully and make
g r e a t e r allowances for wind and c u r r e n t effeets w h i l e moving through an
a n c h o r a g e at reduced speeds.
Don't fight t h e wind and current. Review p r e v i o u s discussions on their
effeets as a s h i p slows, stops, and then moves a s t e r n , a n d p l a n the maneu-
ver to use t h e s e e x t e r n a i forces, not j u s t to c o m p e n s a t e for t h e m . Current
can be a problem, s e t t i n g a vessel toward other s h i p s a n d shoals, b u t it can
also move a s h i p away from hazards. Wind c a u s e s leeway b u t it can also
a s s i s t t h e s h i p h a n d l e r , helping to t u r n a s h i p a r o u n d short, for example,
as a s h i p with s t e r n w a y backs into t h e wind. Think ahead and use these
e x t e r n a i forces to advantage.
P l a n to p a s s d o w n s t r e a m and to leeward of s h i p s , buoys, and hazards
to navigation, or, if t h a t isn't practical, allow p l e n t y of searoom and sev-
eral degrees for set a n d leeway to be s u r e to p a s s well clear. The two or
t h r e e degrees allowed for set and leeway at s e a j u s t i s n ' t enough in an an-
chorage; t h i n k in fives a n d tens, when m a n e u v e r i n g at slow speeds.
Don't, u n d e r a n y circumstances, pass close u p s t r e a m or to windward of
buoys, obstacles, or s h i p s at anchor. It is a m o s t h e l p l e s s feeling to be pass-
ing close across t h e bow of a ship at anchor as t h e c u r r e n t sets you swiftly
t o w a r d h e r s t e m . There is little t h a t can be done in t h a t situation except
come full a h e a d , p u t t h e rudder hard over to t r y to m o v e your ship's stern
a w a y from t h e other vessei, and pray you pass c l e a r — a n d t h a t m a n e u v e r
isn't very effective if you are in real d a n g e r of colliding.
A n d how í a r is f a r enough to pass clear? T h a t d e p e n d s on c u r r e n t and
wind s t r e n g t h , a n d the speed at which t h e ship is moving. In a n y case, par-
ticularly at t h e very low speeds at which a ship is u s u a l l y moving in an an-
chorage, it is probably f a r t h e r t h a n you m i g h t expect. T h e 100-foot rule
WIND AND CURRENT EFFECTS 169
discussed in chapter 5 applies in this situation just as elsewhere. when
calculating the effect of both wind and current and estimating the dis-
t a n c e a ship will move in a speciíic period of time. By using t h a t rulo, and
t h e length cf your ship as the basic unit of distance, you can easily esti-
m a t e a safe passing distance. For example
A ship moving at 3 knots is moving ahead at approximately 300
feet per minute. A 600-foot-long ship will take two minutes to
move ahead one ship length and pass clear of a fixed point. A
2-knot c u r r e n t on the beam will set that same ship 400 feet, or
two-thirds of a ship length, during that time.
The distance of one ship length that looked quite sufficient when ap-
proaching an anchorage is not a safe clearance for a 600-foot-long ship to
pass clear of another ship at anchor at that speed in this situation when
t h e r e is a strong c u r r e n t or wind on the beam. If you are the master stand-
ing or the bridge, maneuvering under these circumstances, the approxi-
mately 200-foot clearance after passing in this example will be too close for
comfort.
The term "sail area" gains new meaning when maneuvering high free-
board and light d r a f t ships in a strong wind in an anchorrge. Passenger
ships, containerships, car and gas carriers, and other similar ship types
p r e s e n t a significantly larger profile to the wind relative to their draft and
m a k e much more leeway t h a n average ships as they move slowly through
an anchorage. It is even more important t h a t these types of ships don't at-
t e m p t to pass close ahead, to windward or upstream, of other ships and ob-
stacles.
Both ships with large sail areas and common ship types at light drafts,
moving at slow speeds in an anchorage, may be difficult to t u r n to wind-
w a r d when strong winds retard the bow's upwind movement. It is often
b e t t e r co back and fill the "long way around" to a new course, backing the
ship's stern into the wind, if the bow won't come through a strong wind di-
rectly to the desired heading. Too ofter, the master stubbornlv fights the
wind, repeatedly working the engine full ahead and full astern to bring
t h e bow through the wind, forgetting that the longest way around is soine-
t i m e s the quickest and safest when maneuvering in adverse conditions
(fig. 8-1).
There will be times when winds and currents are so strong t h a t even an
e x p e r t shiphandler cannot maneuver to the final heading before letting
170 A N C H O R I N G AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S
go, y e t it is u n d e r t h e s e very s a m e conditions t h a t a m a s t e r most w a n t s to
be on t h a t h e a d i n g to minimize the s t r a i n on g r o u n d taclile and ship's
gear. P u t d o w n one anchor and a shot or two of c h a i n a n d t u r n on the an-
chor u n d e r t h e s e conditions, as described f u r t h e r on in t h i s chapter, or call
for a tug, or s t a n d off until conditions m o d e r a t e . C o n s i d e r these alterna-
tives well b e f o r e a r r i v a l at the anchorage, n o t w h e n t h e situation arises, so
contingencies can be a r r a n g e d in advance.
DEPTH OF WATER
Shallow w a t e r affects t h e ship's m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y . A s t h e depth decreases,
t h e ship's t a c l i c a l d i a i n e t e r increases a n d she becomes m o r e directionally
stable. T h e s h i p m a y need as much as twice t h e room for large course
c h a n g e s in shallow w a t e r as she would in deep w a t e r , so it becomes in-
creasingly i m p o r t a n t to approach a shallow w a t e r anchorage at slow
speed, in a position to back and fill to a s s i s t in t u r n i n g t h e ship as re-
q u i r e d . R e r n e m b e r also t h a t the ship will t w i s t s o m e w h a t more in shallow
w a t e r whi1.© going a s t e r n during a m a n e u v e r . M e n t a l l y review t h e section
on shallow w a t e r effects while going a s t e r n d u r i n g t h a t m a n e u v e r . Review
the section on shallow water effects in c h a p t e r 1 a n d figure 1-7 for a more
detailed a i s c u s s i o n of ihese changes.
Deep w a t e r also affects anchoring because t h e a n c h o r h a s to be p u t
down d i f f e r e n t l y in an unusually deep anchorage. In d e p t h s g r e a t e r t h a n
about 100 f e e t t h e b r a k e may not be able to stop t h e chain if t h e anchor is
let go f r o m t h e h a w s e , because the chain's v e i g h t a n d t h e m o m e n t u m de-
veloped as t h e a n c h o r and chain free-fall t h a t d i s t a n c e exceed t h e capacity
MANEUVERING KOOM 171
of Lhe brake. The anchor should be walked out in such deep anchorages by
engaging the wildcat and backing the chain out of the locker using t h e
windlass. lowerinethe anchor nearly to the bottom before d i s e n g a g i n g t h e
wildcat, and letting the anchor fali free the last few fathoms to the b c t t o m .
D u r i n g these operations the shiphandler must hold the ship in position for
an extcnded period of time, even in strong winds and currents, a t a s k
m a d e easier if the ship can first be brought to her final heading.
MANEUVERING ROOM
The n u m b e r and location of ships at anchor, nearby shoals, a lee shore,
and other hazards to navigation limit maneuvering room and m a k e it
more difficult for a ship to enter, maneuver in, and depart from an anchor-
age. T h e shiphandler has to make plans that match the ship's m a n e u v e r -
ing characteristics to the avaiiable space in an anchorage, a d j u s t i n g his
game plan to the size of the playing field.
Consider ali options before entering so your ship and crew are pre-
pared for whatever is required; once again, don't hesitate to maneuver on
the anchor if there isn't enough space to turn or back and fdl unassisted. A
t u g can be ordered to assist your ship when maneuvering room is limited,
b u t a shiphandler who is reasonably skilled in anchor work can u s u a l l y
t u r n and position the ship without a tug.
On occasion, there j u s t i s n ' t enough searoom in a crowded or small an-
chorage to t u r n to the final heading before letting go, and there will be no
option b u t to let go, heading with or across the wind and current as dis-
cussed later in this chapter. Adjust anchoring plans to the real world when
you arrive and find the anchorage smallei or more crowded than expected;
use your shiphandling skills to adapt the ship's maneuvering characteris-
tics to the maneuvering room in the anchorage or—if there just isn't enough
room—don't go. Even the handiest ship may, under some circumstances,
have to anchor elsewliere or stand oíf and wait for conditions to change.
M a n e u v e r i n g room is as much a consideration when leaving an an-
chorage as it is when arriving. There may not be enough m a n e u v e r i n g
room to t u r n and depart from an anchorage, even though there was suffi-
cient room when your ship arri ved. Other ships may anchor a f t e r yours, or
your ship may swing to a new heading so there is no longer suflicient room
to t u r n and depart. The same techniques t h a t are used to maneuver at ar-
rival—including backing and filling, using wind and current to a d v a n -
tage, heaving short and steaming around on the anchor, or t u r n i n g with a
tug—can be used to t u r n a ship departing a small anchorage.
172 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S FINAL HEADING 173

BRIEFING OFFICERS Visual navigation is preferable when goiiig to anchor because the ship
Discuss t h e a n c h o r i n g plan, including the i n t e n d e d a p p r o a c h a n d t h e loca- will usually be following a circuitous routc rather than a s t r a i g h t track
tion for l e t t i n g go, with the mate on l h e bow. t h e m a t o on t h e bridge, and, if line, backing and filling and turning as needud to round up into tho wind
u n c o m m o n m a n e u v e r i n g is involved, the e n g i n e e r on w a t c h to be s u r e and current. If visible m a r k s and aids are not used, you have to continu-
tliey ali k n o w their responsibilities as the ship is p u t to anchor. Be s u r e t h e ously i n t e r r u p t your shiphandling work to refer to the ship's charts.
mate knows Accurate navigation is fine and important but it can, at times, be over-
done. Pilots routinely anchor while navigatingby eye, and calmly and qui-
1. Which anchor or anchors to use. etly place the anchor at least as precisely as a team of navigators shouting
2. W h e t h e r the s h i p will t u r n to t h e final h e a d i n g before l e t t i n g go. bearings and distances to go and distracting the shiphandler from the im-
3. How m u o h c h a i n will be put o u t initially. p o r t a n t work of maneuvering the ship to anchor. In most cases, a few
4. Direction, a h e a d or astern, a n d a p p r o x i m a t e speed cf t h e ship over well-chosen leading m a r k s and an abeam reference visible to the ship-
t h e bottom w h e n the anchor is let go. handler, together with a m i n i m u m of fixes and some shiphandling skills,
5. W h e t h e r t h e s h i p will be t u r n e d on t h e anchor. a r e more than sufficient to position the ship as accurately as t h e often re-
ô. W h e t h e r t h e anchor should be held at s h o r t stay for m a n e u v e r i n g . u u n a a n t distance circies and continuous cross bearings t h a t a r e too olten
7. If m o r e t h a n one anchor is used, how t h o s e a n c h o r s will be laid out. relied upon while going to anchor. Quite simply, it is a m a t t e r of profes-
8. F i n a l a m o u n t of chain to be used. sionalism.

FINAL HEADING
T h i s briefing is i m p o r t a n t because n e i t h e r you n o r the m a t e nor t h e en-
gineer n e e d s a n y surprises. A neat, s e a m a n l i k e m a n e u v e r will be spoiled The term "final heading" has been used several times in discussing a n -
if t h e m a t e slacks out too much chain when you i n t e n d to m a n e u v e r on t h e choring plans, but j u s t w h a t does the term rnean and why is it i m p o r t a n t ?
a n c h o r or t u r n short in a crowded anchorage, or holds t h e c h a i n too £ oon so The final heading is the direction in which a ship will lie when at a n c h o r
t h e a n c h o r d r a g s a n d t h e ship is set beyond t h e p l a n n e d a n c h o r i n g spot.
P l a n n i n g completed, it's time to go to anchor, so let's look at t h e m o s t com-
mon m e t h o d for anchoring a ship.

NAVIGATE BY EYE
S t u d y t h e c h a r t s a n d publications carefully, well before arrival, a n d com-
m i t i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n to memory. Select some p r o m i n e n t l a n d m a r k s ,
aids, a n d r a n g e s to l e a d the ship to h e r selected a n c h o r a g e a n d p r e p a r e a
pocket c o u r s e card showing these leading m a r k s as well as t h e approxi-
m a t e c o u r s e s to t h e anchorage. D e p e n d i n g on the situation, t h e pocket
card m i g h t h a v e t h e courses and aids listed on one side. as described in
c h a p t e r 12, a n d a sketch of the anchorage showing t h e intended t r a c k a n d
p r o m i n e n t aids and h a z a r d s on the other.
N a v i g a t e by eye as the ship approaches the anchorage, conning t h e
ship t o a n c h o r using l a n d m a r k s and aids t h a t form n a t u r a l r a n g e s a n d
leading m a r k s . The m a t e will navigate as u s u a l , as a b a c k u p to keep t h e
m a s t e r or c o n n i n g officer informed of the ship'? progress, u s i n g c h a r t s on
which t h e i n t e n d e d courses are laid down in advance. Fig. 8-2. "Aren't you overdoing this 'navigr.te by eye' business, Jerry?"
174 A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING WITH A N C H O R S
h e a d i n g into t h e r e s u l t a n t of ali externai forces, p r i m a r i l y the wind and
c u r r e n t a c t i n g on h e r superstructure a n d u n d e r w a t e r hull, a f t e r the an-
chor has f e t c h e d up a n d the ship h a s s w u n g a r o u n d to b r i n g ali those
forces into e q u i l i b r i u m .
T h e r e a r e several reasons why it's b e t t e r to let go w h e n the ship is on
her final h e a d i n g , a n d the advantages of doing so m o r e t h a n compensate
for any additional t i m e spent m a n e u v e r i n g to t h a t h e a d i n g . W h e n the an-
chor is let go on t h e final heading
1. The chain will lead clear of the hull as it's slacked out.
2. W e a r a n d s t r a i n on the chain, stern, w i n d l a s s , a n d t h e m a t e ' s paint
b u d g e t a r e minimized.
3. The c h a i n is laid out along the bottom n e a t t y a n d quickly.
4. The s h i p can be positioned among o t h e r s h i p s a n d obstructions
w i t h o u t concern about swinging clear a f t e r t h e anchor fetches up
since your vessel is already on t h e s a m e h e a d i n g as those ships.
T h e m o r e r e s t r i c t e d or crowded t h e a n c h o r a g e , or t h e stronger the
wind or c u r r e n t , t h e m o r e important it is to a n c h o r on t h i s heading.
In some instances it is essential to anchor on the preferrecl heading.
L a r g e b u l b o u s bows can be d a m a g e d by a c h a i n l e a d i n g u n d e r and
a r o u n d t h e b u l b w i t h a heavy s t r a i n a n d , even m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , the
c h a i n itself m a y be d a m a g e d in such c i r c u m s t a n c e s . N a v a l vessels often
h a v e s e n s i t i v e s o n a r domes and other e q u i p m e n t p r o t r u d i n g from the
bow t h a t c a n be e a s i l y damaged by t h e c h a i n . H e a v y w i n d s , swell, and
s t r o n g c u r r e n t s e x a c o r b a t e the problem a s t h e c h a i n w o r k s a n d surges
m o r e heavily a g a i n s t t h e wildcat, and t h e s t e m , b u l b , a n d any p r o t r u d i n g
ship's gear.
Obviously, it isn't always possible to m a n e u v e r to t h i s final h e a d i n g be-
fore letting go, especially when the a n c h o r a g e is s m a l l or crowded, or the
wind or c u r r e n t is q u i t e strong or from t h e w r o n g direction, or visibility is
restricted. It isn't a l w a y s necessary to do so e i t h e r since a ship may anchor
on any h e a d i n g in light airs or slack w a t e r — i n a calm, e v e r y ship in the an-
chorage probably lies at a different h e a d i n g a n y w a y . A real professional,
though, t r i e s to b r i n g t h e ship to h e r final h e a d i n g before letting go in even
a light breeze or w e a k current and, in practice. a r e a s o n a b i y skilled
s h i p h a n d l e r is u s u a l l y successful in doing so. T h e r e a r e m e t h o d s for an-
choring to m i n i m i z e t h e strain and problems w h e n it is impossible to let go
to t h e final h e a d i n g , a n d they are discussed l a t e r in t h i s chapter.
ANCHORING OFF THE FINAL HEADING 175
How is the final heading determined? L c e k a t other ships and boats un-
chored in the area t h a t are already lying to the wind and current or esti-
m a t e the heading if there are no ships in an anchorage. Sea seiise and
some experience with a particular ship are invaluable in the lattnr case
since t h e final heading is affected by the ship's draft, her freeboard, the
s t r e n g t h of the wind and current, and the location of the ship's superstruc-
t u r e and deck load, if any. Ir. practice, this presents little problem since
t h e ship only needs to be on the approximate heading before letting go;
h a v i n g the wind and current a few degrees on one bow o r the other, r a t h e r
t h a n dead ahead, won't significantly affect the ship or strain her gear.
A m a s t e r could also compute the final heading by vector analysis, b u t
t h e calculation would be complicated and iinpractical in day-to-day work,
a n d t h e r e would be no point in doing so when such exact information is not
needed anyway. A practiced seaman's eye, current tables, the knowledge
t h a t a 1-knot current has approximately the same effect as a 30-knot wind
overagiven surface area, and some seafaring experience are really ali t h a t
a r e needed to determine this heading with reasonable accuracy.
ANCHORING OFF THE FINAL HEADING
U n d e r some circumstances, it may be necessary to anchor heading across
or away from t h e resultant of wind and current. In a light breeze or weak
c u r r e n t this presents no problem since the ship can turn to her final head-
ing a f t e r the anchor fetches up. In stronger winds or currentt,, though, it is
u s u a l l y best to let go an anchor and one-to-two shots of chain only, an
a m o u n t equal to about twice the deptli of water, while the ship moves
slowly ahead. The chain is lield while the ship makes a controlled t u r n on
h e r anchor to the final heading, in the least possible space, as the anchor
a l t e r n a t e l y digs in and breaks free with little strain on the vessel and h e r
gear;
When letting go on or near the reciprocai ofthe final heading, s t a r t the
s h i p t u r n i n g to starboard and let go the starboard anchor, to take advan-
tage o f t h e twisting effect if the engine is neoded astern to assist in turning
t h e ship.
W h e n letting go with the final heading on the port or starboard side,
t u r n up into the wind or currer.t toward the final heading and use the up-
s t r e a m or windward anchor so the bow comes up into those forces and the
c h a i n leads clear of the hull. In both cases, turning in this fashion mini-
mizes strain on the g2ar and ship while the wind and current assist the
s h i p in t u r n i n g (fig. 8-3).
1 7 6 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS THE APPROACH 177

Come a h e a d with the rudder h a r d over in the direction in which the

s h i p is to t u r n , backing and filling if r e q u i r e d , as t h e ship swings around
on t h i s slowly dragging anchor to the final h e a d i n g . Stop t h e e n f i n e when
f\ Wind/current a s t e r n
1. Put d o w n s t a r b o a r d a n c h o r .
2. Turn to s t a r b o a r d on liw
a n c h o r t o final h o a d m g a n d
t h e s h i p is on cr n e a r her final heading. E a s e t h e anchor's b r a k e a n d slack 3 . E a s e out a d d i t i o n a l c h a i n
t h e c h a i n to b r i n g t h e ship to anchor as the wind a n d c u r r e n t check the © to a n c h o r ,

ship's h e a d w a y and t h e n move her a s t e r n . Don't j u s t open t h e brake wide

as the s h i p falis back before the wind and c u r r e n t , e a s e it so the chain is
laid o u t slowly or the wind and c u r r e n t will t a k e c h a r g e and bring the ship
up h a r d a g a i n s t the chain and gear, possibly d a m a g i n g tha ground tackle
or pulling t h e anchor free.
T h i s t e c h n i q u e for anchoring off t h e final h e a d i n g is especially useful
w h e n t u r n i n g in a s t r o n g current such as is f o u n d on t h e Mississippi River
a n d o t h e r e s t u a r i e s or in a strong wind or h e a v y swell t h a t would put.
heavy s t r a i n cn the ground tackle.
BASIC ANCHORING
A n c h o r i n g is a l m o s t always a "plain vanilla" r o u t i n e . The ship e n t e r s the
a n c h o r a g e , t u r n s as nearly as possible to t h e f i n a l heading, and backs
down u n t i l s h e s t a r t s moving slowly a s t e r n over t h e bottom. One anchor is
let go a n d t h e chain is slacked until t h e desired a m o u n t is in the water.
T h e e n g i n e is t h e n kieked ahead, if necessary, u n t i l t h e ship loses nearly
ali s t e r n w a y , t h e b r a k e is tightened, a n d t h e a n c h o r fetches up. Port after
port, voyage a f t e r voyage, the ship u s u a l l y will a n c h o r in this simple man-
n e r , so, for t'ne s a k e of clarity, we'll discuss t h i s r o u t i n e in some detail and
t h e n briefly m e n t i o n some of the less common a l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d s for an-
choring.
THE APPROACH
T h e m a s t e r or conning officer approaches a l o n g t h e p l a n n e d track, navi-
g a t i n g by eye u s i n g leading ranges a n d selected aids as previously dis-
cussed a n d progressively reducing speed. Less speed m e a n s more time—
t i m e to plan, t i m e to respond, and t i m e to stop t h e ship if a problem
a r i s e s — a n d w h e n speed is reduced, t h e engine can be used a h e a d and
a s t e r n as n e e d e d to m a n e u v e r without concern about being over speed
when t h e final anchoring location is reached.
Detect your ship's m o v e m e n t over t h e bottom u s i n g the a p p a r e n t mo-
tion b e t w e e n o t h e r ships or objeets in t h e a n c h o r a g e a n d more d i s t a n t ref-
erences afloat a n d ashore. Closer ships a p p e a r to move across, in f r o n t of,
b a c k g r o u n d references because cf the differences in perspective between
Wind/current to s i d e
1 . Let g o a n c h o r o n s i d e
toward final h e a d i n g .
2 . M a n e u v e r o n l h e a n c h o r into
the wind/current a n d
3 . E a s e out c h a i n t o a n c h o r s h i p .
LJ
Fig. 8-3. Anchoring off tlie final heading.
closer and more distant objeets. The apparent movement of references
a h e a d and astern of your ship indicates lateral motion while references
a b e a m or nearly abeain show headway or sternway. Your ship's move-
m e n t can be detected by eye with surprising accuracy, using this method,
long before any change in position is shown by traditional methods of navi-
gation. Use this technique by day and by night, during each stop of the an-
choring evolution, especially when moving at very slow speeds and when
backing down and laying out the chain.
When should a ship start to turn in the anchorage? The master or officer
conningknows the ship's tactical diameter at slow ápeeds from the master"?
trials and, allowing for any possible set and leeway, estimates by eye and in
some cases by fixes, tlie point to start the turn or turns. It is best to sirnplify
maneuvering by making any large changes in headir.g well before reaching
the location where you plan to anchor since you then only need to stop the
vessel prior to letting go. This isn't essential, and in a restricted or crowded
anchorage, it isn't always possible, but it sure makes the task easier.
178 A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
As a r u l e of t h u m b , a ship t u r n i n g at a c o n s t a n t engine speed in deep
w a t e r , t h a t is, w a t e r more t h a n one a n d a half times t h e ship's d r a f t , will
be a b c u t t h r e e to t h r e e and a half ship lengths a h e a d of h e r s t a r t i n g point
and about o n e a n d a half ship lengths to port or s t a r b o a r d a f t e r t u r n i n g 90
degrees, a n d a b o u t o n e ship length a h e a d of h e r s t a r t i n g point and t h r e e
and a half s h i p l e n g t h s to port or s t a r b o a r d a f t e r t u r n i n g 180 degrees.
These distances are signiflcantly redured in an accelerating turn using in-
creased revolutions. In shallower w a t e r , t h e t u r n i n g circle will increase
until, w h e n t h e w a t e r depth is nearly the s a m e as t h e ship's d r a f t , the dis-
t a n c e s r e q u i r e d to t u r n are approximately doubled. T h e s e d i s t a n c e s are
not exact, b u t t h e y a r e close enough for day-to-day work, especially if you
m a k e any n e e d e d s m a l l a d j u s t m e n t s to the e s t i m a t e s to allow for m a n e u -
vering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a p a r t i c u l a r ship a n d for t h e wind a n d c u r r e n t
t h a t m a k e t h e ship's t u r n i n g circle more elliptical as previously discussed
(fig. 8-4).
The following h i n t s should prove useful in m a n e u v e r i n g into, around,
and o u t of an a n c h o r a g e :
1. S e a r o o m p e r m i t t i n g , a large course change as t h e ship swings
a r o u n d to h e r final heading, as described in c h a p t e r 1, will signifi-
c a n t l y r e d u c e h e a d w a y a s t h e ship a p p r o a c h e s a n anchorage.
2. T u m s to s t a r b o a r d are preferable to t u r n s to port, to t a k e a d v a n t a g e
of t h e t w i s t i n g effect as the engine is backed to reduce h e a d w a y and
stop t h e ship.
Conditions: R u d d e r hard over, e n g i n e
s p e e d c o n s t a n t , w a t e r d e p t h o v e r 1.5
times ship's draft.
R e s u l t s : (1) 9 0 ° f r o m t r a c k , 3 ! 6 s h i p
lengths a h e a d , a n d 1 s h i p length.; t o
port or s t a r b o a r d of s t a r t p o i n t ;
(2) 1 8 0 ° f r o m t r a c k , 1 s h i p l e n g t h a h e a d .
a n d 3Yt s h i p l e n g t h s t o p o r t o r
s t a r b o a r d of s t a r t point.
As w a t e ' depth d e c r e a s e s . distances
increase. Wh6n depth almost equais
draft, the d i s t a n c e s a r e d o u b l e d .
Fig. 8-4. A p p r o x i m a t e t u r n i n g circles in deep water.
PLACING THE ANCHOR 179
3. A kick ahead will accelerate the rate of turn, reducing the t u r n i n g
circle without a signiíicant increuse in speed. Be careful, though,
t h a t speed isn't signiíkantly increasedb} successive kicks ahead, as
if might be impcssible to stop the ship at the selected anchoring loca-
tion.
4. Backing and filling near the anchoring area, as described in chapter
1, is usually preferable to successive kicks ahead when about to an-
chor. as the ship can be turned and simultaneously slowed and
stopped.
From the trial maneuvers, the m a s t e r knows approximately how m a n y
ship lengths the vessel will advance a f t e r the engi is put astern and t h u s
at what point the ship must go astern to be dead in the water at the se-
lected anchorage. For safety's sake, back down at least once before reach-
ing t h a t point to check the slr'p's speed, using the location of the ship's
quickwater as described in chapter 4. (See figure 4-2.) Too often, a m a s t e r
reduens to what, after several days at sea speed, seeins like a slow speed in
an anchorage, only to find that the ship is actually moving much faster
t h a n anticipated when he backs down to let go.
P u t the engine astern well before reaching the selected anchoring loca-
tion when anchoring at night, or in a crowded or restricted anchorage,
when speed is both more difficult to estimate and more criticai, and back
until the ship is dead in the water. There is then no doubt about the ship's
speed: it is zero. Come ahead again, slowly move the last few ship lengths,
and let go.
PLACING THE ANCHOR
T h e ship slowly moves the last few hundred feet to the selected anchorage,
on the final heading if possible, using the leading marks and ranges to
navigate by eye while the mate checks the s h i p s position. Convert dis-
t a n c e to the selected anchoring location from}'ards or fractions of a mile Lo
s h i p lengths or feet, units of measure the shiphandler navigating by eye
can use most effectivcly to estimate stopping and turning distances dur-
ing the last few ship lengtho of the approach.
The anchor drops from the bow, not the bridge. IL is the bow's location
t h a t rnatters when letting go. Too often shiphandlers overlook this simple
fact and estimate distances from the bridge to the shore and other ships.
This can cause signiíicant errors when anchoring VLCCs or other large,
bridge aft ships in restricted or crowded anchorages where the stern may
180 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S LAYING OUT THE CHAIN 181

be as much as a q u a r t s r - m i l e from the anchor, or when anchoring car car-

riers or other bridge forward ships when the s h i p h a n d l e r is n e a r e r t h e an-
chor b u t 700 to SOO feet. from t h e stern. P u t t h e bow, not t h e bridge, whôre
you want. t h e a n c h o r to lie before letting go.
Do no» r o u t i n e l y anchor in the middle of an open anchorage, so f a r from
other ships a n d obstructions t h a t you swing clear by several s h i p lengths
no m a t t e r how t h e wind and c u r r e n t m i g h í t u r n your ship. It is un-
s e a m a n l i k e to w a s t e space in t h e anchorage; it causes problems for other
ships a n c h o r i n g a f t e r yours a n d it also causes problems for you, since incorrocl: A n c h o r lei go
other vessels a r e forced to anchor closer to your ship t h a n m i g h t be safe be-
cause they h a v e to u s e w h a t e v e r space you leave. It is also u n n e c e s s a r y be-
cause m o s t s h i p s s w i n g to new h e a d i n g s at t h e s a m e time, s t a y i n g clear of
each other, u n l e s s t n e i r draft, freeboard, or size are so d i f f e r e n t t h a t some
swing before t h e others. So t h e r e is no need to, at ali times, be able to swing
clear over an are of 360 degrees.
Anchor only as f a r from other ships and obstructions as n e c e s s a r y for
your ov/n ship's safety and p u t t h e anchor closer to ships a h e a d t h a n
a s t e r n . Your s h i p lies back from t h e anchor a n d t h e ship a h e a d and, as the
Correct: Anchor lei go
ships t u r n to c u r r e n t or wind, the ship a h e a d swings away from you. T.n closer l o s h i p a h e a d
print, t h a t m a y sound like common sense, b u t it is a m a z i n g how often ex-
Fig. 8-5. Anchor closer to ships ahead t h a n astern.
perienced m a s t e r s a n d pilots p u t t h e anchor in t h e c e n t e r of an open a r e a
a n d find they a r e anchored too close to ships a s t e r n w h e n t h e chain
stretches out. T h i s can be an even g r e a t e r problem when t h e tide or wind Masters too often stop the engine when the quickwater reaches a m i d -
changes a n d t h e s h i p astern becomes t h e ship ahead. Place t h e anchor ships because the flow ofw ater moving up the ship's sides creates the illu-
closer to t h e s h i p a h e a d , not in t h e center of an open a r e a , w h e n letting go sion t h a t the ship is moving astern when actually she is then j u s t dead in
(fig. 8-5). t h e water. The chain will only pile up on the bottom and stop r u n n i n g out if
T h i n k a h e a d of t h e ship as you place t h e anchor. Set up to back and t h e anchor is let go without some sternway. Continue backing until t h e
m a i n t a i n control at ali times when t h e engine is going a s t e r n . W h e n an- quickwater is forward of amidships so the ship is moving astern, open l h e
choring a s h i p fitted w i t h a right-hand t u r n i n g fixed propeller. u n d e r most brake, and let go.
conditions, on or near the final heading, kick t h e engine a h e a d w i t h the
LAYING OUT THE CHAIN
r u d d e r h a r d left to s t a r t the bow swinging to port a n d t h e n p u t t h e engine
a s t e r n . Back u n t i l t h e quickwater r e a c h e s amidship3 a n d t h e n continue The brake is tightened and eased as necessary to conirol the chain as t h e
backing u n t i l t h e ship 3tarts moving a s t e r n . Ideally. when anchoring close ship moves slowly astern, laying the chain evenly over the boitom r a t h e r
to th» final heading, t h e bow should s t e a d y up as the engine goes a s t e r n if t h a n in a pile t h a t could foul the anchor or damage the gear as the s h i p
t h e s t a r b o a r d a n c h o r is to be dropped , or begin swinging slowly to star- falis back, until the chain is brought up tight against the anchor with a
board if t h e p o r t a n c h o r is to be used. W h e n anchoring at some large angle heavy strain.
away from the final heading, t h e bow should be swinging a w a y from the The mate on the bow m u s t keep the bridge informed of the lead a n d
anchor, ar» t h e c h a i n p a y s out, as previously described in t h e section "Final w e i g h t o n the chain at this point. The mate is the m a s t e r s eyes as he m a -
Heading" i n t h i s c h a p t e r . neuvers t j move t h e ship slowly astern at the best speed and h e a d i n g .
182 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
keeping a light strain on the chain at ali times so it is laid along the bottom
clear of the s t e m and b u l b o u s bow. T h e m a t e notifies t h e bridge as soon as
the ordered length of c h a i n is out so the engine can be p u t a h e a u to reduce
s t e r n w a y , if necessary, before the anchor fetches up hard. Everyone gets
back to bed m u c h sooner if the m a t e keeps the bridge well i n f o r m e d with-
out h a v i n g to be repeatedly asked how the chain is leading.
Tighien t h e b r a k e enough to check the chain a n d control it, b u t don't
set t h e b r a k e so tight t h a t t h e chain is held a n d t h e anchor llukes dig in
p r c m a t u r e l y . W h e n t h e flukes dig in too soon, before t h e s h a n k is nearly
p a r a l l e l to t h e bottom, the anchor m a y b r e a k free a g a i n - -so balled with
mud t h a t it c a n ' t dig in when the full scope of chain is out. T h i s is less of a
problem when t h e a n c h o r is intentionally dragged, because it is less likely
to h a v e dug in so fully t h a t it comes free with mud a n d rock j a m m e d be-
tween t h e f l u k e s and s h a n k .
Keep in m i n d t h a t it is m o v e m e n t over the bottom t h a t ' s i m p o r t a n t
when letting go, not speed t h r o u g h the waier. When drifting with a strong
c u r r e n t from ahead, t h e ship will have sufficient s t e r n w a y over the bottom
to lay out the chain w h e n t h e quickwater reaches amidships, since she
would then be moving over t h e bottom at the speed of t h e c u r r e n t . Obvi-
ously, if t h e r e is a 1 - k n o t c u r r e n t from a h e a d a n d you back un til t h e w a t e r
is m i d s h i p s , you will be m a k i n g 1-knot a s t e r n over the bottom a n d the
chain will lay o u t nicely.
T h e aforem antioned a p p a r e n t motion of ships at anchor relative to
background references afloat a n d ashore is the best indication of ship's
m o v e m e n t once the s h i p s t a r t s moving a s t e r n . T h e quickwater forward of
midships only tells you t h e ship h a s s t e r n w a y , while t h e Doppler log often
becomes useless once t h e quickwater moves up u n d e r t h e hull. W a t c h the
m o v e m e n t of vessels a n d objects a g a i n s t the background shoreline and
move t h e ship slowly a s t e r n over the bottom.
DIGGING IN
Tighten t h e b r a k e w h e n the required a m o u n t of chain is out and, if the
ship still h a s signiíicant sternway, p u t t h e engine a h e a d one l a s t t i m e so
the chain isn't parted d u e to excessive s t e r n w a y as t h e anchor fetches up.
You m i g h t use h a r d - o v e r r u d d e r while kicking t h e engine a h e a d at this
point, if required, to b r i n g the ship closer to her final h e a d i n g a n d to keep
tne anchor chain clear of the stem, bulb, and any u n d e r w a t e r gear. Re-
m e m b e r t h a t t h e r u d d e r directs propeller t h r u s t , a n d t h e stopping effect
as t h e engine t u r n s a h e a d is m u c h g r e a t e r if t h e r u d d e r is amidships.
SW1NG1NC ROOM AT ANCHOR 183
The engine is used ahead only long enough to reduce sternway. Don't
stop the ship complelely. Hold the chain and let the ship move slowly back
against the anchor as the catenary caused by the chain's weigiit absorbs
most of the force of the remaining sternway. The ship must have a bit of
sternway to work against the anchor and dig the flukes well in to the bot-
tom. Back the engine again, if the ship inadvertently stops too quickly, so
t h e anchor is well dug in before the engines are rung off.
SWINGING ROOM AT ANCHOR
Obviously, masters prefer to anchor far enough from other ships and ob-
stacl.es, space permitting, to swing clear on both the present heading a n d
ali other possible headings on which the ship might later lie at a safe dis-
t a n c e from other ships.
B u t how far are you from ships ahead and astern? In a crowded anchor-
age, especially after days in the open ocean, other ships always look closer
t h a n they actually are due both to your height of eye and to the lack of vi-
s u a l references with which the distance between ships can be compared.
Even experienced pilots are often surprised when, after anchoring a ship
in w h a t appeared to be close quarters, thay get into a launch to go ashore
a n d , from a more distant vantage point close to the water, look back to íind
t h a t the ships actually are quite far apart. Unfortunatefy, the master a n d
deck officers are rarely able to view their vessel from a launch, but t h e y
can walk down to the main deck where the true distance between ships be-
comes 'mmediately apparent. Try this the next time you are concerned
about the distance between anchored ships.
It is sometimes difficult to actually m e a s u r e the distance to o t h e r
vessels anchored close to your ship. R a d a r , while excellent in open a n -
c h o r a g e s , is often less eílective for m e a s u r i n g absolute distance be-
t w e e n closely anchored ships because it m e a s u r e s distance from your
r a d a r m a s t to some not always definable point on t h e other ship, to an
a c c u r a c y of fractions of a mile, not y a r d s or meters. Stacks and ship's
g e a r also obstruct the r a d a r and ships anchored in those òlind a r e a s a r e
n o t visible to the r a d a r at a• 1 R a d a r is usualiy more helpfu] to detect
c h a n g e s in distance, such as when one ship or the other drags closer or
f a r t h e r away, than it is to m e a s u r e absolute distance between anchored
ships.
E s t i m a t e distance from other ships by eye using your ship's length as a
reference and measure the distance from other ships ahead and astern to
your bow or stern, not to your location on the bridge.
184 ANCHORING A N D S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH ANCHORS
Some pilots swear t h e y can e s t i m a t e distance more accurately by bend-
ing over a n d looking between t h e i r legs. Pilots a n d s e a m e n often joke
about this technique but. q u i t e franklv, it s e e m s to work. It's probably
better to try it w i t h o u t an audience, t h o u g h , as s h i p m a t e s m a y t h i n k you
are a bit ctrange, s t a n d i n g b e n t over looking b e t w e e n your legs at ships
forward and aft, but it helps—so bend over a n d look.
It may be necessary for a s h i p lying at anchor in a crowded anchorage
to m a n e u v e r on the anchor u s i n g t h e engine, r u d d e r , or bow t h r u s t e r if
available, to swing clear of other ships as she t u r n s to a new tide or a shift
in the wind. Calculate tide a n d c u r r e n t changes a n d watch t h e w e a t h e r
and other ships closely. H a v e t h e engine a n d t h r u s t e r r e a d y well before
the caiculated change and, in a particularly r e s t r i c t e d anchorage, h a v e a
Fig. 8-6. "He says things look b e t t e r t h a t way."
MOOR1NG AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS 185
t u g ordered ?.nd standing by to assist in turning. Don't wait until Lhe other
ships start swinging to m a k e these preparations.
The master may also decide to put down twc anchors in a smull anchoi -
age to limit the s h i p s swing. Mooring to two anchors may be the best ac-
tion under some circumstances and common methods for doing so are
discussed later in this chapter.
It may not always be possible to moor to two anchors in a crowded an-
chorage if other ships close by are riding Lo one anchor. They will move in a
wider circle and your ship, restricted by the second anchor, may not swing
clear. Either use one anchor, or be ready to maneuver or to heave up the
second anchor if other ships s t a r t swinging toward you in such circum-
stances. Local practice is important, since ali ships will generally follow
t h e custom of the port when anchoring or mooring so t h a t ali ships swing
together.
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
Any number of seamanship books present the reasons for mooring and an-
choring to two anchors, so this text will briefly discuss only the ship-
handling nspects of these evolutions.
The running moor is a m a n e u v e r for putting down two anchors in line
while the ship has headway. The ship is brought to her final heading,
stemming the current and wind, a n d the íirst anchor is let go. T h a t chain
is slacked as the ship continues moving slowly ahead to drop a second an-
chor. The first chain is then heaved in as t h e second chain is slacked so the
ship drops back to ride between both anchors. The two anchors can be laid
along the axis of a channel or in line with a current so the ship rides be-
tween and swings within nearly h e r own length to each t u r n of the tide.
The running moor is sometimes called the fLying moor. The name is col-
orful, traditional, and unfortunately misleading since it conveys an image
of an action-packed, high-speed anchoring maneuver under something
less than perfect control. No competent shiphandler does a flying any-
t h i n g and the term should be avoided. Walking moor might be a better
name!
The ship can also anchor to two anchors laid out ahead in a maneuver
similar to a running moor, as described in the section on five- and
seven-point moorings in chapter 9, perpendicular to the wind and current
u s i n g the same or different lengths of chain to minimize yawing, increase
holding power, or hold a ship's head to a swell to reduce rolling while work-
ing cargo. A similar inethod for anchoring to two anchors, for ships fitted
186 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS STEIÍN ANCHORS 187

other so it becomes impossible to heave the anchors home. With <i modi-
cum o f s e a m a n s h i p and shiphandling skills. these turns can be prevented
bv turning the ship in the opposite direction at each turn of the iide o.
change in the wind (fig. 8-8).
Turn the ship by putting the rudder hard over and Kicking the engine
ahead as needed, or have a tug push on the quarter or tow the stern around
on a hawser. Start the ship swinging in the preferred direction, putting the
current or wind on the proper side so it too pushes the ship around alter-
nately clockwise and then counterclockwise on successive tides. Seamanship
texts also discuss canting the ship using hard-over rudder, but the ship's en-
gine or a tug is usually more reliabie and efíective in turning t o d a / s larger,
more diverse ship types, which may not respond to the rudder alone.
Mooring to two anchors may be the best way to anchor under some cir-
cumstances, in spite of potential problems with round t u r n s in the chain,
and every seaman should know how to prevent round t u r n s and how to
clear them if they do occur.

STERN ANCHORS
By Captain Warren G. Leback, Master Mariner

Stern anchors are most commonly found aboard the great n u m b e r of naval
landing and assault vessels built during and since World W a r II. These
anchors give an added m e a s u r e of vessel control, prevent broaching due to
wind, swell, tide, and current, and are used to kedge off a beach.

chapter 9.
A s t a n d i n g moor or o r d i n a r y moor is similar to t h e r u n n i n g moor ex-
Swing s h i p s m o o r e d t o two
cept t h e ship comes to h e r final heading, backs u n t i l she h a s sternway, a n c h o r s in t h e o p p o s i t e
arops her first anchor, a n d slacks t h e chain as she m a n e u v e r s astern to let direction to c o n s e c u t i v a t i d e s .
go t h e second anchor. T h e first chain is t h e n h e a v e d in while the second is
slacked u n t i l t h e ship rides b e t w e e n t h e two anchors. T h e s t a n d i n g moor
is more commonly u s e d to lay a n c h o r s in line w i t h a c u r r e n t since the
s h i p h a n d l e r h a s less control of a ship when going a s t e r n , while the run- / /
S . , /
s \
ning moor with s t e e r a g e a n d h e a d w a y is more c f t e n used to lay anchors / v
A* "

U
>

perpendicular to wind a n d c u r r e n t .
Seamen a r e often r e l u c t a n t to use two a n c h o r s for mooring or anchor-
ing because of problems clearing r o u n d t u r n s in t h e chain, se you m a y go to q —cr ® Tu
sea for y e a r s without m o o r i n g in t h i s m a n n e r . R o u n d t u r n s are causcü by
Flood Efcb
the ship repeatedly s w i n g i n g to t h e c u r r e n t a n d wind in the s a m e direc-
tion, clockwise or counterclockwise, w r a p p i n g t h e chains around each Fig. 8-8. Prevent round turns when moored.
188 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH ANCHORS STERN ANCHORS 189

S t e r n anchors probably carne into use shortly a f t e r m a n put to sea.
Ktidge (stern) anchors were used to hold a ship of t h e line in position to pro-
vide a s t e a d y p l a t f o r m when b o m b a r d i n g shore b a t t e r i e s or opposing
fleets in n u m e r o u s naval battles d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h through the eigh-
teenth centuries. One of the more memorable naval e n g a g e m e n t s in which
stern anchors were used was t h e Battle of t h e Nile w h e r e Admirai Nel-
s o n ^ Meditenranean fleet c a u g h t t h e French fleet at anchor in Akubir
Bay. Nelson divided h i s fleet into two columns, r a n down both sides of the
F r e n c h fleet and, using kedge anchors, positioned h i s vessels so they could
pour deadly broadsides into the opposing fleet. T h e outcome changed Na-
p o l e o n i p l a n s to advance into t h e Middle E a s t .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , few m e r c h a n t vessels other t h a n those designed for
specific t r a d e r o u t e s a r e presently fitted with s t e r n anchors, so only a
iimited n u m b e r of m a s t e r s a n d deck officers h a v e h a d an opportunity to
use t h e m . As with any gear t h a t receives only limited use, t h e r e are nu-
m e r o u s t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e use of s t e r n a n c h o r s — s o m e correct and m a n y
incorrect.
A few s t e a m s h i p companies, including Grace Line, Inc. and El Paso
LNG Company, fitted their vessels w i t h stern anchors. Grace Line fitted
t h e i r four Santa Lúcia class vessels, t h e i r post-World W a r II C-2s and
t h e i r C-2 combination passenger/cargo vessels with s t e r n anchors. The
anchors were used to keep the ships in position while lying at anchor in a
n u m b e r of open r o a d s t e a d s along t h e w e s t coast of S o u t h America.
El Paso L N G Company fitted their nine liquefied n a t u r a l gas vessels
with stern anchors. These anchors a r e to be u s e d in t h e event of either a
r u d d e r or engine failure to slow t h e ship a n d give directional control and to
m a k e it possible to anchor these large ships in t h e C h e s a p e a k e Bay and
t h e n a r r o w channels of t h e S a v a n n a h River. They are of sufficient weight
and are equipped with the araount of chain needed to hold t h e 950-foot
ships in t h e strong flood and ebb tides found in t h e s e a r e a s .
W h e n u s i n g a stern anchor
4. The steering gear and engine must be used judiciously, especially
once the stern anchor is let go.
5. Thioughout the maneuver the master m u s t think ahead of lhe ves-
sel and a d j u s t for changes in wind and current.
There is a significant risk of damaging the r u d d e r and propeller with
t h e stern anchor and its chain because of t'ne stern anchor's location. Be
certain ali sternway is off the ship before letting the stern anchor go. Limit
s t e r n w a y when heaving up so the chain leads a f t with a light strain at ali
times—the ship must not overrun the stern anchor—and wait until the an-
chor is in sight and clear before putting any headway on the ship.
In an open roadstead both bow anchors and the stern anchor are laid out
in a "Y" pattern to form a three-point moor. The m a n e u v e r is straightfor-
ward. After ali planningand preparations for mooring have been completed
1. The ship begins her approach at the minimum speed required for
steerageway.
2. The moor is made, searoom permitting, with the bow to seaward.
Approach from sea to the left of the intended moor to take advantage
cf the ship's ability to back and fill to the right. Make the approach
as wide as searoom allows.
3. Come up to point "A" as shown in figure 8-9 so the three predeter-
mined bearings intersect.

1. The m a s t e r m u s t have confidence in h i s s h i p h a n d l i n g ability and

u n d e r s t a n d the s t e r n a n c h o r s u s e s and limitations.
2. The mooring m a n e u v e r m u s t be carefully p l a n n e d in advance and
p u t on the c h a r t with t h r e e p r e d e t e r m i n e d reference bearings laid
down.
3. T h e m a n e u v e r m u s t be reviewed with t h e other officers so they are
thoroughly f a m i l i a r with t h e plan and its a l t e r n a t i v e s .
190 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S
4. Proceed down t h e reciprocai of b e a r i n g line "B" with t h e port anchor
backed o u t a n d ready to let go. Back down as t h e ship n e n r s the drop
point, t a k e ali headway off the ship, a n d let go the port anchor.
5. Back t h e ship slowly along the reciprocai of b e a r i n g line "B" and
t u r n h e r to b e a r i n g line "D."
6. Come a h e a d a n d proceed slowly down t h e reciprocai of bearing line
"D" while keeping the port chain slack u n t i l t h e drop point for the
s t a r b o a r d anchor is reached. T a k e off ali h e a d w a y a n d let go the
s t a r b o a r d anchor.
7. Back t h e ship to point "A" while controlling t h e ship with both an-
chors, t h e n continue backing along b e a r i n g line "C" to t h e drop point
for t h e s t e r n anchor.
8. Make s u r e ali sternway is off t h e vessel so t h e ship cannot override
the a n c h o r a n d chain, and let go t h e s t e r n a n c h o r .
9. H e a v e t h e bow anchors while slacking t h e c h a i n a f t u n t i l the ship is
riding to ali t h r e e anchors and t h e t h r e e - p o i n t moor is complete.
To unmoor, slack t h e bow chains a n d heave t h e vessel a s t e r n using the
stern anchor. B e a r in mind t h a t you m u s t pay o u t t h e bow chains slowly to
Fig. 8-10. "I got ten shots out, Cap', and she s e e m s to be taking a strain.'
THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL 191
control the vessel. (Remember, you must not overrun the stern anchor.)
Wait until the stern anchor clears the water and is in sight before moving
the ship a h f a d . Heave both chains si.nultanecusly until poiut "A" is
reached, and disongage the starboard chain. Continue to heave on the port
chain until the ship reaches a pcsition approximately halfway between
point "A" and the port anchor drop point. Lock in the starboard anchor
again. Resume heaving; by the time t h e port anchor is aweigh, you will
h a v e a slight strain on the starboard chain so the vessel will not sag down
on the beach.
The same sequence of maneuvers, performed while the ship is stein-
m i n g the current, is used to anchor a ship fitted with a stern anchor in a
river or restricted anchorage. One bow anchor may be sulficient in some
cases, but the maneuver is still performed in basically the same m a n n c r .
THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL
T h e anchor is rarely used when handling a ship, and now usually s e e m s to
be thought of as a tool of last resort to be used only in emergency situa-
tions. This is unfortunate since a ship can be maneuvered using an anchor
in ways not possible with only the engine, rudder, and tugs. The a n c h o r is
called the "poor man's tugboat" for good reason—it is often more effective
t h a n a tug.
When handling a ship with an anchoi.it is essential t h a t the m a t e as-
signed to letgo the anchor be well versed in the use of anchors and be thor-
oughly trained in handling ground tackle, letting go the anchor properly,
a n d p u t t i n g out the correct amount of chain. The importance of h a v i n g a
m a n on the bow who can handle the anchor and be relied upon to p u t out
t h e coi rect amount of cha : n cannot be overstressed.
P e r h a p s the most fundamental misun Jersianding about s h i p h a n d l i n g
w i t h an anchor is the belief that a ship sheers in the direction of the anchor
t h a t is p u t down. This is not so. Sheering is not a significant consideration
when selecting the anchor to be used. The bow of a ship with h e a d w a y is
steadied by the anchor regardlcss of which anchor is used, and is not
pulled in any particular direction. The hawsepipe, and hence t h e lead cf
t h e chain, is ço close to the centerline of the ship as the anchor d r a g s t h a t
only a minimal pivoting moment develops (fig. 8-11).
T h e pivoting effect can become significant, however, if a large t u r n is
deliberately initiated using the engine and r u d d e r a f t e r the anchor be-
g i n s to drag. The pivoting moment increases as the direction of the an-
c h o r s retarding force and the ship's ferward momeutum shift in opposite
192 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH A N C H O R S T H E ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL 193

directions a w a y from t h e vessel's centerline a n d each other, as shown in

position 2 of figure 8-11.
T h i s delayed pivoting effect occurs only a f t e r t h e s h i p develops a signií-
icant swing, a n d r e q u i r e s d e l i b e r a i action by t h e s h i p h a n d l e r who m u s t
s t a r t t h e ship sv»inging. The r e s u l t a n t reduction in t h e d i a m e t e r of the
ship's t u r n i n g circle is one of the desirable effects of a n c h o r use when ma-
neuvering. T h e s h e e r i n g or pivoting to one side is n e i t h e r an i m m e d i a t e
nor an inevitable r e s u l t of dropping a p a r t i c u l a r a n c h o r . It does not occur
without deliberate action and, for practical p u r p o s e s , t h e m a g n i t u d e of
this pivoting force is equal for a t u r n to port or s t a r b o a r d regardless of
which anchor is p u t down.
T h e r e is some disagreement a m o n g m a r i n e r s over which anchor to
drop (fig. 8-12). Some shiphandlers contend t h a t t h e lee anchor, or inboard
anchor w h e n docking, should be used because it l e a d s u n d e r and against
t h e hull a n d t h e r e f o r e will hold better in a b e a m wind. T h e y also claim 3. It is easier to work the ship up to the dock when using the offshore
t h a t u s i n g t h i s anchor p u t s less s t r e s s on t h e w i n d l a s s b r a k e due to the anchor since it does not tend to fetch up as it would when the s h i p
friction b e t w e e n t h e c h a i n and the hull. O t h e r s feel t h a t t h e w i n d w a r d an- works across and over an inboard anchor.
chor, or offshore anchor when docking, should be u s e d since t h a t anchor 4. The outboard anchor can be left in the water readv to heave the s h i p
leads clear of t h e hull a n d requires more c h a i n before it digs in a n d holds. back off t h e berth, and can be heaved up without damaging the
T h e l a t t e r choice is recommended because chain, hull, or antifouling coating.
5. Heaving the chain hard against the hull may damage the chain a n d
1. The a n c h o r should not hold. the ship's hull.
2. T h e c h a n c e of d a m a g i n g the hull with t h e a n c h o r is minimized if the
w i n d w a r d (or offshore when docking) a n c h o r is u s e d since t h e chain By using the outboard or windward anchor there is less chance t h a t t h e
t e n d s a w a y from a n d clear of t h e hull. anchor will hold even if a little too much chain is inadvertently put in t h e
water. It is always possible to slack more chain, but a good docking will
1. Initial turning m o m e n t G' - A' is i n s i g n i f i c a n t
come to a halt if the anchor fetches up and the ship has to stop to heave t h e
as anchor drags on short s c o p e of chain.
2. If v e s s e l deliberately s w u n g , l h e turning chain back in.
moment G' - B' increases and sh'p pivots When the chain is heaved against the hull, each link bears against a n d
a g a i n s t vhe a n c h o r .
is bent around the relatively sinall radius of the hull in the area of the bow,
w h e t h e r it leads across the stem, under the foot, or around a bulbous bow,
and the chain is therefore subject to damage. The presence of a bulb is rea-
son enough to avoid using the inboard or lee anchor.
The ease with which the offshore anchor can be heaved up is an impurtant
consideraticn if the anchor must be heaved home after docking. The offshore
anchor comes up easier because of the more directlead from hawsepipe to an-
chor, and without causing any of the aforementioned damage.
Some m a r i n e r s are concerned t h a t i t mightbe dilficult to stop the chain
Fig. 8-11. Pivoting effect of a dragging anchor. a f t e r letting go because of the ship's motion over the bottom. This concern
194 A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING WITH A N C H O R S DOCKING WITH AN ANCHOR 195

is especially p r e v a l e n t when handling l a r g e r ships. T h i s is not a problem.

Stotic friction is three times greater than dynamic friction for an asbestos
brake band bearing on the windlass's drum. T h e b r a k e h a s t h r e e times as
much h o l d i n g power w h e n the wildcat is stopped as when it is turning. The
chain only r u n s out, a f t e r th o anchor s t r i k e s b o t t o m , u n t i l it goes slack.
The b r a k e is t h e n set up. The anchor digs in as t h e chain again comes tight
and t h e n is pulled free from the bottom before s t a t i c friction is overcome,
dragging a l o n g as the flukes bali up with mud. A d d i t i o n a l chain can then
be s l a c k e d to achieve t h e desired eífect.

SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS—HOW MUCH CHAIN?

Have t h e a n c h o r s m a n n e d and ready to let go w h e n m a n e u v e r i n g in re-
stricted w a t e r s . Should the anchor be required d u r i n g a m a n e u v e r , let go
only e n o u g h c h a i n to allow the anchor to í i r s t g r a b a n d t h e n b r e a k loose
a n d d r a g . T h e anchor m u s t not dig in a n d hold.
For t h e a n c h o r to be most effective, an a m o u n t of c h a i n equal to about
twice tha d e p t h should be put well in the w a t e r a n d t h e b r a k e screwed up
tight. If n e c e s s a r y , the second anchor can also be let go with a like a m o u n t
of chain. T h e s h i p slows and stops as one or both a n c h o r s d r a g s along the
bottom.
T h e r e is a common misconception, especially in an emergency, t h a t a
large a m o u n t of chain should run out so t h e a n c h o r digs in a n d stops the
ship. To s t o p a vessel in this m a n n e r would r e q u i r e t h e relatively small
b r a k e on t h e w i n d l a s s to overcome the i n e r t i a of t h e e n t i r e moving mass of
your ship. It will never happen! The b r a k e will probably b u r n out and ali
the chain will r u n out while the ship continues m o v i n g a h e a d . If t h e brake
does hold, t h e c h a i n often parts as it comes tight. It is m o s t unlikely t h a t a
chain w o u l d be able to withstand the shock load a n d almost i n s t a n t a -
neously s t o p a moving ship, as it would be r e q u i r e d to do if t h e anchor is al-
lowed to dig in h a r d . I n s t e a d we w a n t the ancho:- to b r e a k out and relieve
the s t r a i n on t h e chain before its breaking point is r e a c h e d .
W h a t a h e l p l e s s feeling one has as the s h i p h e a d s t o w a r d a b a n k with
no engine to slow h e r headway while the m a t e on t h e bow lets t h e chain
r u n out to t h e b i t t e r end in a cloud of dirt a n d r u s t ! A deeply laden chemical
t a n k e r w a s t r a n s i t i n g t h e P a n a m a Canal a few y e a r s ago w h e n the ship's
wheel w a s p ut t h e wrong way by the h e l m s m a n . T h e s h i p dove for t h e b a n k
and a n c h o r s w e r e ordered let go, only to h a v e t h e c h a i n continue to run as
shot a f t e r s h o t p a s s e d over the wildcat. T h e chain did íinally stop r u n n i n g
and t h e s h i p carne to a stop—but only when s h e was h a r d a g a i n s t the b a n k
brake to stop a loaded ship.
The proper use of anchors is in danger of becoming a lost art. Be sure ali
deck officers understand w h a t they are to do with the anchors, and espe-
cially how much chain to slack out, before they go forward to stand by. Too
few mates do!
DOCKING WITH AN ANCHOR
Most dockings can be done using an anchor rather than a tug, although
the t u g generally is more convenient.
When using an anchor as an aid in docking, sufficient chain is put out
to eliminate headway when the engine is at dead slow or slow speeds. How
much chain is required? That can only be determined by increasing the
length of the chain a few links at a time until the desired effect is obtained,
since there are se\eral factors affecting the ship and anchor, and their net
effect cannot be predicted. When the ship is held in position both laterally
a n d fore and aft, with the engines coming ahead slowly, you have put out
the proper amount of chain.
Drop the anchor well before arriving at the berth and drag it into posi-
tion. Done properly, the anchor takes nearly ali headway off the ship since
196 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH ANCHORS
an a m o u n t of chain h a s heen slacked t h a t is sufficient to slow the ship when
the engine is stopped. The ship will m a k e no h e a d w a y until the engine revo-
lutions a r e increased to at least slow ahead. Spend sufficient time adjusting
the length of the chain, putling out a few links at a t i m e until you feel you
have total control over the ship. It is obvious to the shiphandler v h e n the
proper a m o u n t of chain is o u t — t h e s h i p m a k e s no headway at lower engine
revolutions, as you work her around the anchor with t h e rudder, and slowly
develops h e a d w a y w h e n revolutions are increased.
Since t h e s h i p s'ows and stops w i t h h e r engine stopped, as the anchor
d r a g s a l o n g t h e bottom, no twisting occurs a n d t h e ship r e m a i n s shaped
u p for t h e b e r t h .
T h e r e is no r e a s o n t h a t the engine c a n n o t be p u t a s t e r n if needed, al-
t h o u g h t h i s is n o t usually necessary.
W h e n docking with an anchor down (fig. 8-14)
1. T h e s h i p is eased s t r a i g h t a h e a d toward h e r b e r t h — a d j u s t i n g en-
gine r e v o l u t i o n s to m a i n t a i n t h e desired speed a n d u s i n g the r u d d e r
to m a i n t a i n heading.
Fig. 8-14. Docking w i t h an anchor.
HOLDING A VESSEL WITH THE ANCHOR 197
2. Reduce engine revolutions so tho ship loses headway and,
3. Use the rudder to change her angle of approach by moving the s t e r n
t-iwards or away from tne berth.
4. After her heading is altered, increase engine revolutions to move tho
ship ahead, bringing the bow nearer the berth.
5. Reduce revolutions again so the ship loses headway and the bow
moves no farther ahead. Let t h e engine work slowly ahead a n d u s e
the rudder to bring the stern laterally toward the pier or wharf.
In effect the bow and stern are moved separaiely as the ship is uocked
while excellent control is maintained over the forward and lateral motion.
Revolutions are adjusted so the anchor either holds or drags and the s h i p
is moved nearly sideways or directiy ahead as desired with a s u r p r i s i n g
degree of control. The key to docking with the anchor is slacking sufficient
chain so the ship remains in position at low revolutions but moves a h e a d
as the revolutions are increased.
HOLDING A VESSEL WITH THE ANCHOR
Often a ship m u s t proceed at a slow speed with a strong wind on the b e a m ,
or maintain her position in a channei because of restricted visibility or t h e
late arrival of a tug. The anchor greatly simplifies this work, no m a t t e r
how large the ship. The technique varies a bit with larger ships because of
the increase in mass, b u t ships a thousand feet long are worked against an
anchor without difiiculty.
A heavy rain squall, with strong winds and blinding rain, strikes t h e
vessel proceeding up a n a r r o w channei. The rain reduces both visibility
and the radar's effectiveness, so the m a s t e r and pilot are unable to distin-
guish the aids or the bank on either side, and the ship is unable to proceed.
This oan be a moment of great stress—or the anchor can be put down until
conditions improve.
An anchor is let go and a shot of chain put well in the water. The b r a k e
is set up while the engine is used a h e a d only to maintain the vessel's head-
ing. the ship slowly losing headway due to the dragging anchor. When tho
ship is dead in the water her engine is put slow or half ahead and she
works against the anchor, additional chain being slacked as required until
the ship jupt holds her position while the quartermaster steers by cnmpass
to maintain the heading, since no landmarks are visible. Those on the
bridge can nowrelax, adjusting the engine revolutions occasionally to allow
for changes in the wind while the ship, which had been setting sideways
198 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH A N C H O R S
out of the c h a n n e l and no', answering h e r h e l m , s t e a d i e s up nicely with the
anchor down.
Tfasinglc anchor is not sufficient, a second a n c h o r can be p u t down in a
similar m a n n e r . It is b e s t to put t h a t anchor d o w n w h i l e the ship still has
some h e a d w a y , so the chain is laid out p r c p e r l y a n d t h e anchor's flukes fali
flat, e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e flukes do not set a g a i n s t t h e huil. T h e a m o u n t of
chain neeüed for one or two anchors d e p e n d s on t h e profile of the hull and
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e , t h a t is, the ship's "sail area," t h e t y p e of bottom, and the
s t r e n g t h of t h e wind. Initially a shot is p u t in t h e w a t e r a n d additional
chain is s l a c k e d u n t i l the anchor t a k e s c h a r g e of t h e bow, although the
steadying e f f e c t of the anchor is felt i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e anchor begins
to drag.
Use only a m i n i m u m amount of chain u n t i l t h e s h i p h a s lost nearly ali
h e r way, since the holding effect of t h e a n c h o r i n c r e a s e s as speed is lost.
You don't w a n t so m u c h chain out t h a t t h e a n c h o r f e t c h e s up as t h e ship
loses h e a d w a y .
ANCHORS TO ASSIST STEERING
When m e e t i n g a n o t h e r ship in a c h a n n e l so n a r r o w t h a t tliere is danger of
s h e e r i n g as t h e q u a r t e r feels the bank. or w h e n n e g o t i a t i n g a t u r n smaller
t h a n t h e s h i p ' s tactical diameters, or w h e n p r o c e e d i n g at slow speeds in a
strong wind so it üj difficult to steer the s h i p — u s e y o u r anchor. The anchor
steadies t h e bow laterally and r e t a r d s t h e ship's h e a d w a y despite higher
engine revolutions—or conversely, h i g h e r r e v o l u t i o n s can be used to in-
crease t h e r u d d e r ^ efTectiveness w i t h o u t i n c r e a s i n g h e a d w a y .
Less chain is used so the ship m a i n t a i n s s o m e h e a d w a y as the anchor
d r a g s along t h e bottom. Let go well before t h e criticai point in the maneu-
ver so t h e a n c h o r has t i m e to bali up w i t h m u d a n d you h a v e time to adjust
t h e a m o u n t of chain a n d achieve t h e desired effect. T h e length of chain is
increased a few links at a time until t h i s b a l a n c e :s found. T h e a m o u n t of
chain is n c t criticai so long as so much chain is n o t p u t o u t t h a t the anchor
fetches up.
Once the a n c h o r b e c o m e s effective, t h e s h i p t u r n s in a much smaller di-
a m e t e r a n d is easily controlled. The pivot point s h i f t s forward so t h a t the
ship pivots a r o u n d a point nearer her bow. A d v a n c e is reduced, becoming a
factor of t h e scope of c h a i n and revolutions u s e d d u r i n g the t u r n , t h a t is,
t h e degree to which t h e anchor is allowed to d r a g .
Since t h e pivot point is farther forward, t h e s t e r n initially swings in a
wider a r e a t h a n it would without the anchor, b u t t h e overall t u r n i n g diam-
EMERGENCY USE OF THE ANCHOR 199
e t e r is greatly reduced. Steering becomes more precise and the ship more
controllable due both to the restricted movement of the bow and the
g r e a t e r flow over the rudder for agiven speed made goed over Lhe bottor.:.
ANCHORS TO B RE Ali A SHEER
Should the ship take a sheer, the anchor can be used to regnin control and
prevent collision or grounding. It is important, though, t h a t lhe anchor
not dig in when used at such a time, so minimize the amount of chain
slacked. If the anchor were to fetch up, the aiready present sheer would be
accentuated because the pivot point then shifts ahead to the hawsepipe,
a n d the suction of the quarter, in combination with the rotational momen-
t u m aiready developed, takes charge.
When the anchor is dragging properly, the bow immediately steadies
up and the rudder becomes more effective, the stern lifts away from the
b a n k , and the sheer is broken. The anchor has both checked the swing of
t h e bow and retarded the ahead movement of the ship, while the engine
continues to come ahead forcing a maximum flow over the rudder to
quickly increase its effectiveness. Needless to say, the shiphandler has
also increased the engine speed to fu'l ahead to break the sheer (fig. 8-15).
This s a m e effect is used to assist a ship in negotiating a bend with a ra-
dius t h a t is less t h a n the ship's normal turning radius.
EMERGENCY USE OF THE ANCHOR
Today, the anchor is most often used for emergencies and it is an ex-
t r e m e l y effective tool for preventing groundings and accidents when the
1. Suction on the quarter c a j s e s s h e e r .
2 . A n c h o r i s put d o w n a n d b o w s t e a d i e s u p .
3. Rudder b e c o m e s m o r e effective so stern
lifts from t h e b a n k .
4. S h e e r is oroken a n c ship p r o c e e d s safely.
200 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S
engine or steoring is lost. Because t h e ship c o n t i n u e s along her track
slowly losing h e a d w a y after t h e anchor is down, s h e can be brought to a
controlled stop u n d e r most circumstances if t h e r e is sufficient searoom
ahead.
Two a n c h o r s can be used to increase t h e s t o p p i n g force in an emer-
gency b u t n e i t h e r anchor should be alio wed to fetch up for t h e reasons ex-
plained e a r l i e r . If a stern anchor is availahle, it is m a n n e d in narrow
c h a n n e l s a n d used in the same m a n n e r as, a n d in conjunction with, the
bow anchors. T h e s t e r n anchor is especially effectivs for stopping a ship in
a s h o r t d i s t a n c e while m a i n t a i n i n g h e r h e a d i n g , a n d holding the ship lat-
erally a f t e r h e a d w a y is lost. Obviously t h o u g h , if it is necessary to work
t h e s h i p a r o u n d a b e n d or change h e r h e a d i n g while stopping, the stern
anchor wouid n o t be an appropriate tool. For f u r t h e r discussion on the use
of s t e r n a n c h o r s , see t h e section in t h i s c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "Stern Anchors."
Some s t e e r i n g control can be m a i n t a i n e d despite a loss of r u d d e r power
by m a k i n g u s e of the ship's n a t u r a l behavior in conjunction with the an-
chor:
1. T h e s h i p can be t u r r e d to t h e r i g h t by b a c k i n g t h e engine and taking
a d v a n t a g e of t h e tendency to t w i s t in t h a t direction.
2. T h e s h i p can bc' t u r n e d to t h e left by u s i n g b a n k suction on t h e star-
board quarter.
3. A conventional s h i p will t u r n into t h e wind w h e n she h a s headway,
or lie at some l a r g e angle to t h e wind w h e n d e a d in t h e water.
4. If a ship develops sternway she t e n d s to back into t h e wind, after
which t h e anchor can be p u t down so t h e s h i p b a c k s nearly straight.
A r e c e n t g r o u n d i n g of a VLCC m i g h t h a v e been p r e v e n t e d h a d the mas-
ter m a d e use of this tendency of a ship to back into t h e eye of t h e wind—the
ship would u s u a l l y b a c k into the s a m e wind, which in this case blew her
onto the beach.
If d r a g g m g anchors cannot stop t h e ship before grounding, and if the
bottom is soft so t h e r e is no chance of d a m a g i n g t h e hull w h e r the ship
goes a g r o u n d , slack more chain when one to two ships l e n g t h s from the
shoal so t h e a n c h o r or anchors are laid out a n d r e a d y to pull t h e ship back
off. This decision has to be made only by t h e m a s t e r at t h e m o m e n t of cri-
sis, b u t it is an option t h a t is available. T h e s h i p h a n d l e r ' s responses to
such s i t u a t i o n s a r e m o r e effective if possible emergencies are considered
before they crise and actions preplanned. W h e n t h i n g s go wrong, they go
LYING ALONGSIDE A BANK 201
wrong in a hurry and reaction time is brief; by planning for such contin-
gencies, the response can be instinctive and immediate.
P u l t i n g the engine full astern is often the worst response if steering is
lost. The propcrly used ancnor will stop a ship in a reasonable distance,
a n d backing should be minimized in such situations because of the ship's
tendency to twist and behave with less predictability.
Anchors are also the mariner's most effective tool when the engine is
lost. The rudder can be used so a ship can be steered and drifteà until she
is nearly dead in the water. Do not be too quick to get the anchors down in
this case, since once the anchor takes charge much of the r u d d e r ' s effec-
tiveness is lost due to the stabilizing effect of the dragging anchor. W h e n
possible, wait until the ship loses stcerageway or until a s t r a i g h t reach
lies ahead before letting the anchor go iO stop the ship.
Due to the stress of the moment, and despite the shiphandler's ac-
quired ability to function under pressure and m a k e immediate decisions
for which he alone holds total responsibility, the master may h e s i t a t e to
use the anchors in an emergency situation. This hesitation is born of lack
of confidence. From time to time, get to the pilot station early and p u t an
anchor underfoot so t h a t you can perform the maneuvers t h a t have been
discussed. Let the other mates try thein as well. Confidence comes with
practice.
LYING ALONGSIDE A BANK
At times it is necessary to anchor a ship in a narrow channel and be confi-
d e n t t h a t she will not swing with the tide or lie across the channel and im-
pede the movement of other vessels. If the bank has a steep gradient a n d is
of a soft material such as mud or clay, the ship can be put alongside a n d
held with the anchor regardless of the direction of the wind and current.
Ifthe current is from astern the ship is brought to the starboard side of
t h e channel and speed reduced to bare steerageway. Drop the outboard or
port anchor and slack the chain until the same control is gained as in pre-
vious maneuvers. Do not put out so much chain t h a t the ship stops before
s h e is alongside the bank. If the anchor fetches up too soon, the c u r r e n t
from astern takes charge and causes the ship to get crosswise in t h e chan-
nel. Ease the ship ahead against the anchor and, as the ship n e a r s the
b a n k , put the rudder to port. Reduce RPM or stop the engine a n d lay the
s h i p easily alongside at a slight angle to the bank. The stern lies a g a i n s t
t h e b a n k and the anchor holds the bow off as the current from a f t strikes
t h e hull on the port side (fig. 8-16).
202 ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G WITH A N C H O R S GOING ASTERN WITH AN ANCHOR 20o

Current
Fig. 8-16. Lying alongside a bank.
Should t h e c u r r e n t change direction, come a h e a d with a few revolutions
and p u t t h e r u d d e r h a r d to starboard to lift t h e s t e r n . L e t t h e ship fali back
with t h e c u r r e n t , kicking the engine a h e a d as n e c e s s a r y to keep the stern
off t h e b a n k u n t i l the ship is riding to h e r anchor. T h e eddy c u r r e n t between
the b a n k a n d t h e hull then usually holds t h e s h i p a s h o r t distance off the
b a n k so she lies nicely until the next change in t h e c u r r e n t . T h e ship is later
p u t alongside as the tide turns and floods again, t h e procedure being re-
peated as necessary for as long as the ship n e e d s to r e m a i n at anchor.
However, should the ancnor be allowed to fetch up so ali astern motion
is lost, the ship walks only to port. It's therefore i m p o r t a n t t h a t only the
m i n i m u m chain required to stoadv the bow is used.
When using an anchor in this manner in a strong wind, a tug must also
b e u s e d a f t o n a hawser. The anchor holds the bow up to the wind while the
t u g both pulls the ship astern and holds the stern up to the wind. In this
case, slack the chain until the bow no longer falis off as the tug pulls a s t e r n
a n d to windward. D u e t o the heavy strain on the anchor, the ship's engine
is needed to assist the tug during the maneuver. It will probably óe neces-
s a r y to increase the amount of chain used once the ship begins moving
a s t e r n u n d e r these conditions, since the anchor balis up with mud a n d
loses some holding power. When the bow s t a r t s to feel the wind, slack
chain—if the anchor fetches up, incrcase revolutions a s t e r n to work it
free. The tug continues to puli throughout the maneuver, since it is pri-
marily holding t h e stern to windward while assisting the engine to move
t h e ship aft.

GOING ASTERN WITH AN ANCHOR

A ship being m a n e u v e r e d astern for a n y d i s t a n c e can use an anchor un-
derfoot to sfceady t h e bow and m a k e t h e ship b a c k a l m o s t directly astern.
T h e a n c h o r repiaces a bow tug and t h e engine is u s e d to move t h e ship
a s t e r n , e i t h e r u n a s s i s t e d or with a t u g on a h a w s e r a s t e r n to tow the ship.
Skill is r e q u i r e d w h e n using the engine alone in t h i s m a n n e r , since the
ship pivots to some degree when the engine t u r n s a s t e r n even though the
anchor is s t e a d y i n g t h e bow. As the ship b a c k s w i t h t h e anchor down the
r e s u l t a n t motion is almost directly a s t e r n , t h e s t e r n w a l k i n g to port at a
m u c h lesser r a t e t h a n it would when b a c k i n g w i t h o u t t h e anchor under-
foot (fig. 8-17). W h e n the stern does begin m o v i n g to port, the engine is
stopped a n d kicked a h e a d with hard-over r u d d e r to b r i n g the ship back to
the desired h e a d i n g a n d then the backing m a n e u v e r is resumed.

Fig. 8-17. Moving a ship astern with an anchor.


CHAPTER NINE
SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Captain Ironsides was as cool a& a cucumber. He moved
his ship about with geometric precision . . , the ship
seemed to perform a slow, formal dance to the accompa-
niment of whistles and kettledrums; every move fol-
lowed a rigid pattern.
—Jan de Hartog, The Distant Shore
The morning is wet and stili A light mist born ofchill nighi airstill linger-
ing within the jungle's ferns and coconutpalme rises uaporlike up the sides
of the cone-shaped hills. Even the hard case seaman lingers on deck to enjoy
this morning as his containership eases slowly toward Gatun Locks and
begins her crossing from the Atlantic to Pacific. The Panama Canal severs
the Isthmus of Panama, forever changing the patterns ofworld commerce
but altzring not one bit of the tropic splendor of this land.
Thousands of ships each year parade up, over, and then down the far
side of the spine of Central America, yet so professionally do the pilots and
others involvcd with this enterprise work that the innately impressive oper-
ation seems rouiine, almost mundane, to casual observers. To seamen
though, whether old hands or first trippers, the Panama Canal is fascinai-
ing. Ships anchor, berth, meet in narrow channels, lock up and down, and
maneuver in wind, tropic rain squall, fog, and spill current with and with-
out tugs; the canal is a microcosm of the shiphandler's world.
The pilot watches from the starboard wing, radio in hand, preparing to
put this ship smoothly into the lock with but 2 feet of clearance on each side.
His skills and confidence are a product of hundreds, even thousands, of
transits.
"South four, this is Gatun east side. We have your ship scheduled for
twelve wires, and will be back for her in about ten minutes."
"Roger."
A laconic reply, but ali that is needed.
Time is paramount ifthe canal is to operate safely and efficiently so the
ship continues to ease steadily toward the lock, moving at the pace ofa slow
walk to arrive at the center wall simultâneously with the locomotives re-
204
CANALS AND LOCKS 205
turning down the mile long track from the ship ahead. Few words are spo-
ken. The silent lockage is a characteristic of the Panama Canal transit of
which the pilots are justly proud.
Htaving iines drop from the ship to the small skiff lying off the now hor-
izontal arrow at the north end ufthe center wall—the Pacific lies just eight
hours away. ] ••
CANALS AND LOCKS
M a r i n e r s routinely handle ships in canais and locks tiiroughout their ca-
reers at sea, be they the locks at the entrance to the tidal basin in Bombay
or Buenos Aires, or those at the Panama or Welland Canal. Each p a s s a g e
is unique since specific approach and lockage techniques vary to s u i t the
conditions of a particular port or wate~way. By u n d e r s t a n d i n g the prob-
lems and methods common to most of the.se facilities though, the m a r i n e r
can develop an appreciation of their eperation.
Most seafarers transit the Panarr a Canal at some point, so this waterway
will serve as a basis for discussing shiphandling at ali such installations.
This canal presents a composite of conditions found in most lock-type
canais—fresh- and saltwater sections, single and multiple locks carrying
ships both up and down, and a restricted channel with ali its inherent
shiphandling problems.
A passage through locks can be divided into four segments: t h e ap-
proach, entrance, lill, and departure. During the lockage a ship is aíTected
by the same laws of hydrodynamics and the same elTects of wind and current
as a docking vessel, a n d also the combined effects of the spill and turbidity
c u r r e n t s found to some degree at ali locks. It is a common misconception
t h a t t h e r e are no currents in the Panama Canal, or at other lock-type ca-
nais. There are, in fact, strong currents that can reach a velocity of 3 to 4
knots at the lock's entrance or jaws.
A huge a m o u n t of water ílows from a lock chamber as its levei is low-
ered, forming a spill current t h a t follows a predictable pattern for which
the pilot m u s t compensate during the approach (fig. 9-1). The spill c u r r e n t
is primarily a surface current and its effect varies with ihe s h i p s d r a f t .
Many locks connect two bodies of water of diíTerent density. For exam-
ple, t h e last or sea-end lock at the Panama Canal moves the ship from the
c a n a f s fresh w a t e r lake and locks to the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean salt wa-
ter. A complex density current fornis when those lock gates a r e opened and
the heavier water on one side of the gates mixes with and displaces the
less dense w a t e r on the other s ; de. While lhe s u r f a c e pattern of the
206 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S CANALS ANO LOCKS 207

Smaller ships approach the center wall in the arca of the j a w s , or the en-
trance locks, and then bring the stern in toward the wall as the bow enters
the locks and the locomotive? are mad^ fust. Larger or more decply laden
shins are kept closer to the center wall during the approach as shown in
figure 9-2 and, in the case of Panamax ships, the bow or the entire ship is
brought hard up against the center wall prior to the time t h 3 ship reaches
t h e entrance to the lock chamber.
Speed of approach is very important because the engine will have to be
kieked ahead to alter the ship's heading as the ship n e a r s the jaws. So long
as speed is reduced to a minimum during the appioaeh (usually 1 to 2
k n o t s is satisfactory), the engine can be used as needed without develop-
ing excessive speed at the entrance. Speed is criticai at the P a n a m a Canal
since the locomotives move at a maximum towing speed of 3 knots and
t h u s cannot put wires aboard a ship that exceeds t h a t speed.
At the locks a ship m u s t have only an officer ar.d crewmembers forward
Fig. 9-1. G e n e r a l ^urface c u r r e n t d i a g r a m . a n d a f t to operate the line handling winches, and supply two mooring lines
at the bow and stern in case it is necessary to tie up at some point. T h e ca-
nal seamen supply ali other gear. Other canais, such as the Welland Canal
t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t is similar to t h a t of t h e spill c u r r e n t , below t h e surface a n d Saint Lawrence Seaway, require the ship to supply ali gear and to
the heavier w a t e r forms a current flowing in the opposite direction, toward h a n d l e her own lines. Local rules m u s t be carefully read to d e t e r m i n e the
and und.er the lighter fresh water, affecting t h e ship in varying degrees and r e q u i r e m e n t s of a particular waterway.
directions depending on her d r a f t a n d t h e period of t i m e t h a t t h e masses of
t h e w a t e r h a v e been inixing. In the P a n a m a Canal specifically, the more
dense s a l t w a t e r outside the entrance to the first lock (the "sea entrance")
begins to displace the lighter fresh w a t e r in t h e c h a m b e r as soon as the
gates are opened. As the fresh w a t e r is displaced it ílows out of t h e chamber
in a strong surface current reaching down to a d e p t h of 20 to 25 feet.
Because of these currents, t h e pilot m a y have t h e gates k e p t closed until
t h e ship is almost to t h e jaws or entrance of the lock a n d u n t i l the bow wires
are aboard t h e ship and fast. At other t i m e s this c u r r e n t will be allowed to
C e n t e r wall
dissipate before a large Panamax-class ship approaches t h e locks.
At t h e P a n a m a Canal, ships follow an *S" p a t t e r n as t h e y approach the
locks to cornpensate for this complex c u r r e n t p a t t e r n (íig. 9-2). Compare
figure 9-1 with figure 9-2 and it is cbvious why ships a p p r o a c h in this man-
ner. T h e c u r r e n t flows strongly for a b o u t t h i r t y m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e water
Knuckle
stops spilling from t h e chamber, the gates a r e opened, a n d t h e spill cur-
r e n t a n d d e n s i t y c u r r e n t combine to affect t h e a p p r o a c h i n g ship.
T h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the ship a n d t h e center a p p r o a c h wall varies de-
p e n d i n g on t h e ship size, t h e c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h , a n d t h e ship's draft. Fig. 9-2. Allowing for current during lock approach.
208 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S
Cornmunication is by walkie-talkie with h a n d signals to back up the ra-
dio in case of failure. T h e ship's whistle is also u s e d to communicate a dan-
ger signal (o t b e lockmaster and locomotives should some problem develop.
Anchors a r e kept ready for letting go, b u t m u s t be stowed in the
hawsepipe, r a t h e r t h a n backed out, so t h e w i r e s a n d m e s s e n g e r s will not
be fouled on t h e flukes.
Tugs are u s e d in t h e same m a n n e r as discussed in previous c h a p t e r s to
assist larger ships d u r i n g the approach. The bow, or t h e e n t i r e midbody of
large, deeply loaded ships, is held a g a i n s t t h e f e n d e r i n g on t h e center wall
by t h e tugs a n d locomotives during the l a t t e r s t a g e s of t h e approach. This
minimizes t h e risk t h a t the c u r r e n t will force t h e ship's bow into the
knuckle, as pilots call the comer where t h e side a p p r o a c h wall meets the
side wall of t h e lock chamber. (See figure 9-2.) T h e t u g s are k e p t working,
u s i n g the t u g signals discussed earlier in t h i s text, to a d j u s t t h e tug's
power, a n d p u s h to hull against the center w a l l u n t i l t h e bow is well into
the chamber.
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e r e are significant differences b e t w e e n t h e methods
used by very experienced pilots p u t t i n g t h e s a m e P a n a m a x - c l a s s ships
into t h e locks.
Some pilots p u t t h e entire ship a g a i n s t t h e wall. T h e y hold h e r flat
alongside w i t h t h e locomotives and t u g s u n t i l t h e f o r w a r d sections of the
parallel midbody pass inside the locks. T h e t h e o r y is t h a t by keeping the
ship alongside t h e wall, the hull is as f a r as possible f r o m t h e knuckle.
More i m p o r t a n t , because the ship is tight alongside, t h e r e is no way for the
c u r r e n t to get b e t w e e n the ship and the wall to force t h e ship away from
t h e center wall.
Other piiots believe this is quite wrong. They hold t h e bow alongside but
allow t h e s t e r n to stay a few feet from the wall while t h e y slide the ship into
the locks. This group believes the ship actually s t a y s alongside easier if it is
angled toward t h e wall. If the bow does get off t h e wall, it can be easily
brought back alongside because water can flow freely a s t e r n r a t h e r t h a n
being trapped between the hull and the wall. This s e e m s to be borne out by
the fact t h a t only one tug is needed to keep the s h i p alongside d u r i n g the op-
erations and even t h a t tug usually comes a h e a d onfy at a slow speed r a t h e r
t h a n being used full a h e a d as is needed using t h e first method.
T h e second method is used by a growing n u m b e r of pilots who find they
have less problem keeping the bow clear of t h e s i d e wall if t h e s t e r n is not
hard alongside. The point, though, is t h a t both m e t h o d s work well. Which
is best? The m e t h o d t h e pilot feels most comfortable w i t h or, as a pilot
CANALS AND LOCKS 209
might s a \ , "what works for you." There are obviously wrong ways to do a
job but, since thousands of Panamax ships have been put safely into locks
for the better part ofa centurv using either method. it is r e a " v only a mat-
ter of personal preference. Keep this in mind the next time someone i:i-
sists there is only one way to do a job. T'ain't so, as the aforementioned
variations in working by some of the finest shiphandlers in the world
clearly demonstrate. Again, it is only important to u n d e r s t a n d ship-
h a n d l i n g techniques and principies of hydrodynamics, plan ahead, use ex-
t e r n a i forces to advantage, and to do the job in the m a n n e r wi' h which you
are most comfortable.
The lockage procedure is the same regardless of whether the pilot puts
only the ship's bow or the entire midbody alongside. Wires are taken from
the locomotives as the ship passes along the center wall, the number of
wires depending on the dispiacement and length of the ship as determined
using an empirical formula developed over nearly a century of operation.
Sidewall wires are taken aboard during the entrance stage of the lockage
and, when aboard, are used to center the ship and assist her in moving into
t h e chamber. The engine is used throughout the approach to move t he ship
a n d to position the stern.
Larger ships m u s t be driven into the lock, often at full ahead. Their
beam and d r a f t fills the cross-sectional area of the chamber so t h a t the wa-
ter cannot flow out as it is displaced by the entering ship and a piston ef-
fect is created.
Using the wires from the locomotive's two constant tension winches,
a n d the braking and towing effect derived from the undercarriage drive
t h a t meshes into the drive rack, up to 70,000 pounds of pull is exerted on
t h e ship by each locomotive. The rack is located between the locomotive
tracks t h a t parallel the chamber. The "mulos" are positioned ahead of the
ship's chock to center and tow the ship, or abcam or abaft the chock to cen-
ter or brake the ship as necessary, depending on the instructions received
from the pilot over the walkie-talkie. A set of idler wheels under the loco-
motive locks into the cambered sides of the drive rack to ensure that the lo-
comotive is not pulled into the chamber.
Ali locomotives are shifted to a braking position a b a f t the chocks as the
ship n e a r s the gate ahead and she is stopped in the chamber to await flood-
ing or filling. Due to the aforementioned piston effect, large ships practi-
cally stop themselves after the engine and locomotives are stopped. Often
a ship's m a s t e r is neadlessiy concemed that the ship is going to strike the
gates ahead, not realizing t h a t the vessel actually tends to stop on her
210 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS 211

own. In t h e S a i n t Lawrence Seaway a n d o t h e r locks w i t h o u t locomotives,

the vessel is stopped using the engine a n d piston effect alone, ar. effect
t h a t i n c r e a s e s rapidly as the blockage factor a p p r o a c h e s unity.
T h e e n t r a n c e phase complete, ali locomotives s h o r t e n up t h e i r wires to
~ \
get t h e b e s t l e a d to hold the ship centered as t h e c h a m b e r fills. T h e im-
m e n s e gate valves are operied, the w a t e r flowing down t h e length of the
c e n t e r a n d side walls and through lateral c u l v e r t s b e n e a t h t h e ship. The
design a n d constructi )n of this engineering m a s t e r p i e c e m a k e s interest-
ing r e a d i n g a n d several recommcnded titles can be four.d in t h e Bibliogra-
phy. T h e s h i p is usually held in the center of t h e c h a m b e r in the P a n a m a
C a n a l while t h e w a t e r levei is raised or lowered. In other w a t e r w a y s t h a t
use s h i p ' s lines or wires r a t h e r t h a n shore-based locomotives, the ship is
k e p t h a r d alongside t h e wall during t h e flll or spill.
Up a n d down lockages difíer greatly. T h e ship lies quietly d u r i n g a
down lockage as t h e placid water d r a i n s o u t f r o m u n d e r her. D u r i n g an up
lockage t h o u g h , t h e ship surges heavily as t h e w a t e r comes into t h e cham-
ber at a high r a t e , e i t h e r from the bottom or side d e p e n d i n g on t h e design
of t h e lock. F i l l i n g from the bottom is p r e f e r a b l e b e c a u s e t h e m o v e m e n t of b a n k described in chapter 2. By keeping sufficient angle, m a i n t a i n i n g a
the w a t e r is t h e n p n m a r i l y vertical a n d t h e ship is less likely to be forced balance between the turning couple created by the rudder and tne suction
into t h e wall. T h e positioning of the vessel, c e n t e r e d or alongside t h e wall, effects on h e r quarter as she moves along the wall, the ship is slowly
is p e c u l i a r to t h e lock system b u t in ali cases t h e s h i p m u s t be held in t h a t s t e a m e d from t h e locks. Alternatively, some pilots choose to p u t the s h i p
position t h r o u g h o u t the fill and not allowed to develop a n y a t h w a r t s h i ? a g a i n s t the center wall fendering and slide along until the ship is clear, es-
m o v e m e n t . A ship held alongside by proper f e n d e r i n g will not be damaged, pecially when moving larger ships t h a t will usually be drawn onto the cen-
nor can t h e r e be any damage to a ship held in t h e c e n t e r of the chamber. t e r wall anyway. The previously discussed currents at the seaward ends of
W h e n a s h i p s t a r t s to move about in t h e c h a m b e r t h o u g h , t h e forces acting t h e locks assist a departing ship to clear the center wall and the ship c a n
on h e r sides become unbalanced and she begins to surge, de\ eloping mo- basically be steamed straight from the last or sea-end chamber.
m e n t u m a n d probably being d a m a g e d as s h e comes alongside one wall or Since t h e ship obeys the s a m e physical laws, and is handled in t h e
the other. s a m e m a n n e r as for any other narrow channel during her passage across
T h e fill or spill is completed and t h e m a s s i v e g a t e s swing open as the G a t u n Lake and through the narrow and rock-edged channel of Gaillard
s h i p moves a h e a d u s i n g her engine a n d t h e towing locomotives. A large Cut, any discussion of t h a t phase of the transit would be r e d u n d a n t . Suf-
s h i p is f u r t h e r assisted out to the locks by p u t t i n g w a t e r into t h e chamber lice it to say t h a t this transit oífers an excellent opportunity for t h e m a r i -
b e h i n d her; s h e is "flushed out" of t h e c h a m b e r . T h e dispJaced w a t e r does n e r to observe ship behavior when maneuvering and when meeting o t h e r
not t h e n h a \ e to flow through the restricted a r e a b e t w e e n t h e ship a n d the ships in c o n f i n e i waters.
lock walls a n d floor as the ship d e p a r t s t h e c h a m b e r — i n s t e a d a head of
w a t e r is c r e a t e d behind the ship to a s s i s t h e r in Jeaving. SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS
As t h e s h i p clears the jaws (fig. 9-3) she is p u t at an angle with the bow F e w ports in the world can accommodate deeply loaded VLCCs a n d
a w a y f r o m t h e center wall. This angle helps to c o m p e n s a t e for t h e imbal- ULCCs, so offshore oil terminais such as the LOOP terminal in the Gulf of
ance of p r e s s u r e s as the ship passes along t h e c e n t e r wall a f t e r clearing México are b e i r g constructed as a practical and efficient alternative. Be-
t h e c h a m b e r . T h e wall affects the ship in t h e s a m e m a n n e r as t h e close ing a relatively recent innovation, these terminais have been visited by
212 SPEC1AL M A N E U V E R S
SINGLE-POINT MOORINO.S 213

only a s m a l l nuinfcer of s e a f a r e r s to date a n d only a few m a r i n e r s nave

b r o u g h t a s h i p into such a facility.
T h e L O O P t e - m i n a l is typical of offshore p o r t s u s i n g single-point
moorings. T h e facilities at LOOP lie in w a t e r r a n g i n g from 100 to 125 feet
in d e p t h , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 19 milcs oíT the Louisiana coast. T h e designated
port a r e a is reuched via a defined fairway u n d e r t h e guidance of a pi-
lot/mooring m a s t e r .
A f t e r ccmpletion of a prearrival inspection to e n s u r e t h a t a visiting
VLCC or U L C C meets the statutory r e q u i r e m e n t s for t a n k vessels, she is
b r o u g h t into t h e terminal area in which t h r e e single point moorings (SPMs)
a n d t h e p u m p i n g platform are located. The ship is t u r n e d to the heading at
which she will lie a f t e r mooring is completed and b r o u g h t up to the buoy.
U n l e s s t h e ship h a s been at anchor in t h e vicinity of t h e port a r e a . the
best indication of t h e required approach h e a d i n g is t h e direction in which
t h e f l o a t i n g cargo hoses trail from t h e buoy. Coming from t h e anchorage,
t h e s h i p a p p r o a c h e s on the h e a d i n g at which she w a s lying while at an-
chor; t h e s h i p does not know w h e t h e r she is s w i n g i n g on t h e buoy or the
a n c h o r a n d will lie at the same heading in e i t h e r case. If coming from sea, laterally away from the buoy; the buoy remains a t t h e same relative b e a r -
a p p r o a c h s t r a i g h t up the hoses since they at l e a s t lie to a r e s u l t a n t of the ing fine on the port bow. This feel that the ship is "in a groove" is one of t h e
s u r f a c e c u r r e n t a n d t h e prevailing wind. It would be a d v a n t a g e o u s to have best indications t h a t the proper heading has been found. I n s t r u m e n t a -
a c u r r e n t m e t e r at a mid-draft depth of 40 f e e t on t h e buoy anchor chain to tion, especially a Doppler log reading speed over the ground laterally a n d
supply su.bsurface c u r r e n t information, a n d such e q u i p m e n t should be in- fore and aft, is especially helpful at this point, since a heading t h a t elimi-
stalled on ali SPMs in the f u t u r e . nates ali sideward motion ovor the ground can quickly be determined as
Since t u g s a r e not generally used, t h e ship m u s t a p p r o a c h on a heading well as speed over the ground towards the buoy.
t h a t b a l a n c e s t h e forces of wind a n d c u r r e n t or she will be set a w a y from There is greater room for error in determining the approach heading if
t h e buoy b e f o r e t h e mooring lines a n d chafing c h a i n s a r e b r o u g h t aboard tugs are available, but the technique for approaching and mooring re-
(fig. 9-4). T h e relative effects of t h e wind a n d c u r r e n t depend not only on m a i n s the same.
t h e i r a b s o l u t e forces a n d direction relative to t h e ship's h e a d i n g b u t also Speed of approach is important of course, and by using methods dis-
on t h e s h i p ' s d r a f t . Refer again to t h e discussion in c h a p t e r 5 on wind ver- cussed in previous chapters to slow the ship the approach can be coin-
s u s c u r r e n t forces. It would seem t h a t , b e c a u s e of t h e VLCC's greater pleted efficiently while ensuring t h a t speed is reduced to m i n i m u m
d r a f t . t h e c u r r e n t would usually overcome t h e wind, b u t this is not the steerageway for the last few shiplengths o f t h e maneuver. Most i m p o r t a n t
case. V L C C s h a v e a g r e a t deal of sail a r e a a n d even a 15-knot wind signifi- is the signiíicant reduction of headway during large changes in course typ-
cantlv a f f e e t s t h e approach h e a d i n g — t h a t h e a d i n g is a r e s u l t a n t of the ical with ships of this size; if the ship has to change heading during the ap-
wind a n d c u r r e n t in ali but the lightest breeze. proach she can proceed at a greater speed prior to the course aiteration.
T h e h e a d i n g is a d j u s t e d d u r i n g the final s t a g e s of t h e approach when Plan one large change of heading during the last stage of the approach
effects of t h e outside forces increase geometrically as t h e ship's headway r a t h e r t h a n using a series of small alterations in course as would normal ly
d e c r e a s e s to the less than 1-knot speed t h a t is n e c e s s a r y tc safely com- be done when approaching a berth. The ship can then approacli at 3 to 4
plete t h i s evolution. Once the proper approach h e a d i n g is found, t h e ship knots until the course change, rather than approaching at 1 to 2 knots on
m a i n t a i n s t h a t h e a d i n g without a large a m o u n t of r u d d e r a n d will not set h e r final heading, and the last 2 miles can be covered in about one h o u r
214 SPECIAL MANEUVERS SINGLE-POINT MOOR1XGS 215

r a t h e r t h a n t h e two or more hours t h a t would be required at 1 knot. Since

the a p p r o a c h with a VLCC is m a d e over a distance m e a s u r e d in miles
r a t h e r t h a n feet, t h e s e considerai ions are significant.
T h e s h i p is s t e a d i e d on her final heading well before r e a c h i n g t h e buoy,
since t h e r e usually a r e no tugs to check any residual swing a f t e r t h e ship
loses h e a d w a y / s t e e r a g e w a y . Despite their 75- to 80-foot d r a f t s , VLCCs
and U L C C s generally steer very well at minimal speeds with t h e engine
stopped, so t h i s final approach can be m a d e at very slow speeds. D u r i n g
t h e final 600 feet of t h e approach, the crew heaves the pickup line aboard
u n d e r t h e direction of the a s s i s t a n t mooring m a s t e r , the ship proc eeding
with only m i n i m u m h e a d w a y so she can be stopped when 100 feet from t h e
buoy. T h e p i c k u p l i n e brings the chafing chain aboard to be m a d e f a s t
w i t h e i t h e r a c h a i n s t o p p e r or S m i t b r a c k e t (fig. 9-5). T h e c h a i n s t o p p e r ,
which r e s e m b l e ò t h e traditional r i d i n g pawl assembly u s e d for t h e ship's
anchor, is p r e f e r a b l e to the S m i t b r a c k e t since t h e r e a r e no connecting
links a n d shackles to handle a n d t h e mooring can t h u s be completed
f a s t e r a n d m o r e safely.
T h e p i c k u p h a w s e r s are not to be used to heave t h e 350,000- to
600,000-ton ships to t h e SPM. The ship m u s t be s t e a m e d to t h e buoy while Two service craft are generally used to assist during the mooring, one
these lines a r e used only to bring t h e chafing chain aboard. moving the hoses off to the ship's port h a n d and clear and the other bring-
ing the mooring lines to the ship to be brought aboard. The hoses and buoy
are kept on the ship's port bow so the ship can pass clear without d a m a g -
ing t h e installation if there is any error in estimating the stopping dis-
tance required. The port bow is chosen because the ship's bow swings to
starboard away from the hose and buoy if the engine is put astern. Do not
h a v e the boat pull the hoses clear to port until the ship has nearly reached
them, since the hose string is used to determine the approach heading.
A second pilot or assistant mooring master must be on the bow as t h e
s h i p approach es the SPM. When within a few hundred feet of the bow, t h e
buoy is no longer visible from the bridge and the assistant mooring m a s t e r
t h e n conns the ship, giving helm and engine orders via the walkie-talkie t<>
t h e mooring master. For this reason, the man on the bow should also be a
pilot qualified to handle ships of this size.
Cornmunication is by U H F walkie-talkie with VHF backup. The ship
supp'ies two 20-fathom messengers to bring the buoy pickup lines aboard
a n d any of the international s t a n d a r d mooring systems such as

1. Bow chain stoppers (fig. 9-7) desigr.ed to accept the 76.1-mm (3-inch)
Fig. 9-5. S P M pickup rope and chafing chain. section of chafing chain. (This is the preferred mooring system.)
 I
216 SPECIAL MANEUVEKS
2. S m i t b r a c k e t s built to Oil C o m p a n i e s I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a r i n e Fórum
(OCIMF) s t a n d a r d dimensions.
3. Mooring bitts suitably positioned a n d of a d e q u a t e s t r e n g t h .
In ali cases the ship m u s t have two closed chocks leading fair to t he moor-
ing equipment t h a t are suitable for the 76.1-mm (3-inch) chafing chain.
A mooring line m u s t be r e a d y a f t to be u s e d by the workboat as re-
quired to hold the ship off the S P M d u r i n g discharge. C o n s t a n t attention
is required d u r i n g the discharge operation to be s u r e t h e ship does not ride
up on the hoses a n d buoy. It is usually n e c e s s a r y to use t h e ship's engine
a s t e r n at 8-to-10 revolutions or a line b o a t pulling a s t e r n to p r e v e n t this.
Because t h e wind and c u r r e n t are usually at some angle to each other, the
ship sails up to a n d across t h e buoy, m u c h as she tacks back a n d forth
across h e r a n c h o r in an anchorage.
Despite h e r deep d r a f t , a loaded VLCC is as m u c h affected by t h e wind
as a smaller ship, since she p r e s e n t s a sail a r e a of t h e s a m e proportion to
t h e below w a t e r hull as any other vessel.
When t h e mooring is completed, t h e h o s e s a r e picked up from t h e w a t e r
and bolted u p , using ship's g e a r u n d e r t h e supervision of t h e a s s i s t a n t
Fig. 9-7. C h a i n stoppers for mooring a VLCC at a single-point mooring.
SIUP-TO• SH1P LI(!IITE RI NG 21?
mooring master. The equipment used for '.he actual oil transfer operation
is beyond lhe scope of this toxt.
Except in the worst of weather, it is possible for the ship to m a k e up
and to siay at an SPM. The primary limiting lactor is the sea state d u r i n g
the m a k e u p as even moderate seas make it impossible for the line b o a t s to
handle the hoses. \
So long as speed is kept down to bare steerageway during the final ap-
proach, and the ship is put on a heading close to t h a t at which she will lie
a f t e r mooring, the maneuver to make up at an SPM is a safe and s t r a i g h t -
forward task (fig. 9-8).
SIIIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING
Dy Captain William Deatun, Lightering Master,
and Captain Marshall Irwin, Lightering Master
A g r e a t deal of offshore ship-to-ship lightering is being done t h r o u g h o u t
the world, especially off the coast of the United Stales where lhe shallow
ports and the lack of offshore facilities make lightering necessary so oil
can be imported in very large crude earricrs. Offshore lightering is less ef-
flcient than transfer via conventional multiple- or single-point mooring
facilities, b u t it is a workable substituto with which the mariner Lhould be
familiar. For clarily, the abbreviation VLCC as used throughout t h i s aec-
tion includes both the very large crude carrier and h e r still larger relative,
t h e u l t r a large crude carrier.
Certain preparations are necessary prior to putting a smaller "off-
taker" (a smaller ship that accepts the oil from the VLCC) alongside a
VLCC. Under supervision of the lightering or mooring master, fenders a r e
rigged on the port side of the offtaker. These fenders are placed on t h e
offtaker even though it would be more expedient to rig them on the VLCC,
which will be receiving a number of ships as her cargo is discharged. By
having the fenders on the smaller ship when she comes alongside, t h e
shiphandler is able to ensure t h a t the offtaker lands on lhe fenders. If the
fenders were on the VLCC it would be possible for the offtaker to land be-
tween fer.ders and damage one or both ships.
Two types of fenders are used while lightering. Four or more large
floating "Yokohama" type fenders, specially fitted for lightering. a r e
floated along the parallel rnidbody of the offtaker, and two smaller "pillow"
type fenders are hung off, one at the shoulder forward and the other on the
q u a r t e r . Typically, the floati-ig fenders are made fast by a wire t h a t leads
 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S SHIP-TU-SHIP LIGIITERING 219
218

Fig. 9-8. Completed mooring at an SPM. Courtesy LOOP, Incorporated.
from a forward bitt on the ship's deck down to the first fender íloating
along the ship'? side. A mooring line joins each fender and another line
r u n s back up to a bit* the ship'o after dc-ck (fig. 9-i)).
Have ali the necessary equipment laid out and ready aboard both ships
before the operation begins. Walkie-talkies are used for communication
between the mooring.masters on the bridges of the two ships and between
the bridge, bow, and stern of each vessel. Have several long 3-inch mes-
sengers a n d sufficient heaving lines on h a n d forward and aft to r u n the
mooring lines.
Mooring lines with synthetic uails are laid out to be taken first from the
offtaker and later from the VLCC as the mooring operation is completed.
It is i m p o r t a n t that the wires have synthetic tails or pendan ts so the ships
can break a p a r t quickly in an emergency. The w e a t h e r can deteriorate
with surprising quickness and it m a y not t l w a y s be possible to slack off
mooring lines so they can be let. go. A small crew can handle synthetic tails
more easily and the synthetic tails absorb some of the shock of loading if
the ships do begin to work against each other aíler mooring. The tails can
be cut to break apart as a last resort in an emergency.
T h e mooring master aboard t h e offtaker has overall command of the
mooring while the second mooring m a s t e r aboard the VLCC inaintains a
steady course and speed as required by t h e offtaker. The VLCC s t e a m s
into the wind and sea a t t h e m i n i m u m speed possible, only kieking the en-
gine ahead to maintain steerageway. This minimizes the hydrodynamic
effeets between the two ships, especially the effect of the accelerated flow
between t h e m t h a t d r a w s the ships together and cr.uses thein to land with
excessive force. These are full bodied, relatively low-powered merchant
vessels and t h e maneuver for putting these ships together is much diíYer-
ent from t h a t described for underway replenishment maneuvers with
fine-lined, high-powered, highly maneuverable naval vessels. A constant
speed and heading are maintained by t h e VLCC while the light offtaker
comes alongside to make fast. If a cross swell makes it impossible to head
into both sea and swell and keep the ships from rolling, abort the lighter-
ing operation until the cross swell inoderates.
The offtaker approacnes the starboard side of the VLCC, remaining
wide until abeam of the flat parallel midbody of the larger vessel. It is very
i m p o r t a n t t h a t the smaller ship stays clear of the VLCC's quarter, since
suction between the ships in t h a t area will draw the offtaker rapidly into
t h e larger ship's quarter (fig. 9-10). When parallel to the VLCC's midbody,
so both ships are heading into the wind, begin easing the smaller ship
 SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING 221
220 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S

c _ o

Fig. 9-10. Keep the o f f t a k e r s bow ciear of the VLCC's quarter while
going alongside.

alongside while using the wind as a tug—keop the wind on the starboard
bow to bring the offtaker alongside, or put the wind on the port bow if s h e
is ciosing too rapidly. The wind has a signiíicant effect on the offtaker at
this point since she is light prior to loading.
Continue to keep the smaller ship flat to the VLCC as she lands to
spread the force of landing over the entire midbody of the offtaker. Land
on ali the floating fenders simultaneously to create the maximum hydrau-
lic cushion between the ships to check up the lateral motien.
The offtaker first passes a forward spring to the VLCC, followed by two
headlines to work against while the remaining lines are run. The course is
t h e n changed to p u t the wind on the offtaker's starboard bow to hold h e r
alongside.
Al though the pattern of lines can vary depending on the deck layout of
t h e two ships, the suggested lines are (fig. 9-11)

1. Offtaker r u n s 5 headlines, 2 forward springs, 2 after springs leading

from the m a i n deck forward to the VLCC, and 3 sternlines.
2. VLCC runs 3 wire headlines, 2 forward spring wires, and 2 stern
wires. Be sure to get 2 good spring lines r u n from the VLCC's m a i n
deck in the area of her manifold, leading aft to the offtaker tewing
springs, to tow the smaller ship during the operation.

Always r u n ali lines regardless of the w e a t h e r conditions or prognosis

at the time, since the running of lines is a time consuining operation t h a t
m a y not be possible later if the weather deteriorates.
If v. e a t h e r permits, an:hor the VLCC prior to hooking up hoses. Use
m i n i m u m revolutions astern to stop the two ships, drifting headway off
Fig. 9-9. Rigging fenders for ship-to-ship lightering. Courtesy Gulf Oil
the ships r a t h e r t h a n backing, so t h a t a combinalion of the momentuni of
a n d S e w a r d International.
222 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
SHIP-TO-SH1P I.IGHTERINLÍ 223

Firsl lines (from o f f t a k e r )

• Main d e c k spring
• Two headlines
• Two after springs

Fig. 9-11. General a r r a n g e m e n t of lines for lightering.

t h e o f f t a k e r plus t h e quickwater moving up b e t w e e n t h e ships as the

VLCC goes a s t e r n does not force t h e ships a p a r t a n d p a r t t h e i r lines.
Should w e a t h e r and sea conditions l a t e r change, t h e VLCC h e a v e s up and
r e s u m e s s t e a m i n g slowly on a h e a d i n g t h a t m i n i m i z e s rolling. S t e a m at
m i n i m u m speed t h r o u g h o u t t h e operation if it is n o t possible to anchor.
T h e r a t e - o f - t u r n indicator is used to steer at m i n i m u m speeds, kicking the
engine a h e a d only to check any swing t h a t develops. By m a n e u v e r i n g in
t h i s m a n n e r t h e h e a d i n g i s m a i n t a i n e d into t h e wind a n d s e a while head-
way r e m a i n s almost nil. Keep t h e wind a n d sea a point on t h e VLCC's port
bow d u r i n g the t r a n s f e r so t h e larger ship can provide a lee for the
offtaker.
T h e s h i p s r e m a i n together for t h e t r a n s f e r o p e r a t i o n u n l e s s t h e sea
conditions d e t e r i o r a t e and the ships begin rolling. T h e r e is t h e n a d a n g e r
o f p a r t i n g t h e ship's lines and hoses. Don't w a i t u n t i l t h e w e a t h e r deteri-
o r a t e s so m u c h t h a t lines s t a r t to p a r t , as it t h e n becomes too d a n g e r o u s
to let go, a n d a vessel finds herself in a position of b e i n g u n a b l e to stay
alongside a n d u n a b l e to let go safely. W a t c h t h e w e a t h e r r e p o r t s a n d lo-
cal conditions a n d b r e a k up t h e operation before conditions d e t e r i o r a t e
(fig. 9-12).
K e e p lha lines t i g h t and the deck welliighted t h r o u g h o u t t h e operation
as good s e a m a n s h i p dictates for any b e r t h i n g s i t u a t i o n . R e t a i n t h e ballast
aboard the offtaker for as long as possible while oil is being t r a n s f e r r e d .
T h e sooner t h e offtaker develops a deeper d r a f t , t h e sooner t h e wind's ef-
fect on h e r decreases a n d the operation stabilizes. Keep sufficient crew on
deck. The lines require more a t t e n t i o n , and a r e m o r e difficult to handle,
t h a n at a t e r m i n a l since the d r a f t s of the two ships s i m u l t a n e o u s l y change Fig. 9 - i 2 . Offtaker Esso Zarieh lightering Esso Atlantic. Courtesy
in opposite directions. Exxon Corporation and Black Star Publishing.
224 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
It may bc necessary to get u n d e r w a y on short notice to e i t h e r s t e a m as
a u n i t or break a p a r t , so keep the engine ready to m a n e u v e r at ali times.
When t h e t r a n s f e r h a s been completed, let go ali the V L C C s lines and
single up t h e offtaker's lines to two headlines, a forward spring, a breast
line aft, a n d the a f t e r m a i n deck spring t h a t leads forward to the m a i n
deck of t h e VLCC. This line keeps the offtaker from slidiug a f t u n d e r the
V L C C s q u a r t e r , a n d is u s e d to work against as t h e o f f t a k e r is broken
a w a y from t h e l a r g e r ship, and will be the last line let go. Throw off the
headlines, t h e n t h e lines a f t as t h e bows begin to s e p a r a t e . If t h e r e is no
wind, h e a v e on t h e after b r e a s t line to bring t h e bow off, a n d t h e n work
a g a i n s t t h e m a i n deck spring line to develop a significant angle to the
VLCC. S t e a m slowly away from t h e larger ship, a g a i n keeping t h e wind on
t h e port or inner bow as t h e "poor man's tug," to s e p a r a t e t h e ships.
If the ships are already u n d e r w a y at t h e completion of t h e t r a n s f e r , t h e
lines a r e t a k e n in t h e s a m e order, b u t the force of t h e w a t e r p a s s i n g be-
t w e e n t h e two ships is u s e d to s e p a r a t e t h e m as you hold t h e l a s t spring
line aft. W h e n t h e r e is sufficient angle between t h e ships, let go t h e last
line a n d d e p a r t w i t h o u t increasing speed until t h e ships a r e well sepa-
r a t e d . Avoid increasing the flow between the ships as t h i s would create
suction a n d d r a w t h e m together again.
Done properiy, t h e offshore lightering operation can be completed
safely, a l t h o u g h c a r e is r e q u i r e d and none of t h e described precautions
should be overlooked. If t h e r e is a n y problem d u r i n g a ship-to-sliip trans-
fer, it is u s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t of complacency t h a t develops a f t e r a series of
r o u t i n e lighterings.
FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS
By Captain Carl R. Dingler, Mooring Master
Five- a n d seven-point moorings are used primarily on t h e w e s t coast of the
U n i t e d S t a t e s . Deep w a t e r is available close to shore so moorings can be lo-
cated V 2 to 1 mile from the shoreline, m a k i n g this type of facility attractive
a n d practical. Five or seven mooring buoys are positioned to hold the ship
into the prevailing wind a n d sea and over the 10- to 16-inch s u b m a r i n e
hoses. T h e vessel moors u n d e r t h e direction of a mooring m a s t e r , using
two bow a n c h o r s a n d s h i p s lines to the buoys lying a b e a m a n d astern.
Generally, t h e five-point moorings are used for ships to 35,000 tons while
t h e seven-point moorings accommodate ships to 165,000 tons. Tugs may
assist ships over 80,000 tons deadweight when mooring.
FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOOK1NGS 225
Prior to arriving at the mooring the ship prepares lhe follõwing:
1. Up to fourteen svnthetic mooring Unes (two lines for each buoy to be
used).
2. Both anchors, backed out below the forefoot and ready Lo drop.
3. Boom or crane and other hose handling gear at the inanifold.
4. Good stoppers for ali lines with extras for doubling up as needed.
5. Walkie-talkies on the bridge, forward, and aft.
The size of the lines depends on the deadweight of the ship, but they
must be a full coil in length so they can be run to the buoys without having to
marzy more than one line together. Wires may be substituted for mooring
lines although the practice of mixing linos and wires varies from one termi-
nai to another. If wires are used they must be at least 800 feet in length.
Both anchors m u s t be backed out and ready to let go, c W r l y m a r k e d so
they can be placed accurately without the mate on the bow having to guess
how much chain is out.
Gear required at the manifold for handling the hoses includes a boom
or crane with a safe working load of at least 7 tons to pick up the hose;
buoy, hose, and chain bight slip ropes as specified by the port and mooring
master; a handy billy; and a boat hook. The boom must be rigged for its full
safe working load to handle safely the loads involved when picking up the
hoses since a 12-inch hose places a dynamic load of 4.7 tons on the gear,
while the load when h a n d l i n g a i6-incli hose is 7.2 tons. Wire r u n n e r s
m u s t be rigged and the gear a n d n i n n e r should be in excellent condition.
The ship must supply a wire p e n d a n t with a hook if a r u n n i n g block is used
so the launch crew does not have to handle the weight of the block when
picking up the hoses.
Q u a r t e r s should be p r e p a r e d for the mooring master and the launch
crew.
The lines and hoses are h a n d l e d by the ship's crew under the mooring
master's direction. Before reaching the berth. the mooring m a s t e r briefs
the ship's m a s t e r and officers on the mooring procedure and inspeets the
gear t h a t is going to be used.
There are some signiíicant differences between berthing a ship at a
mooring and docking her, and the master must keep this in mind as the
mooring m a s t e r is bringing the ship into the mooring. The vessel ap-
proaches on a heading approximately 90 degrees to the axis of the b e r t h
along the line on which the anchors will be laid ífig. 9-13). Because the
226 S^KCIAL MANEUVERS
m o o r i n g lies into t h e prevailing wind and Lhe sea, t h e a p p r o a c h is usually
m a d e w i t h t h e wind a n d sea on the beam. T h i s c r e a t e s some problems for
the m o o r i n g m a s t e r a n d m e a n s t h a t higher s p e e d s t h a n m i g h t otherwise
be desirable m a y b e required d u r i n g the approach. T h e m a t e s t a n d s by the
offshore a n c h o r t h a t m u s t be let go immediately at t h e m o o r i n g m a s t e i s
c o m m a n d so it is precisely positioned relative to t h e mooring. When the
anchor is lei go, ali t h e required seven-to-nine shots of c h a i n a r e allowed to
i m m e d i a t e i y r u n out.
Do not check tfce chain, since this will cause t h e s h i p to pivot on the an-
chor a n d niay a ' s o possibly d r a g the anchor out of position. T h e ship's han-
dling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s change imniediatelj' as t h e a n c h o r is p u t on the
bottom, since j u s t t h e d r a g of t h e chain is sufficient to s t e a d y t h e bow and
s h i f t t h e ship's pivot point forward, altering t h e ship's b e h a v i o r relative to
the wind a n d h e r r e s p o n s e t o t h e engine and r u d d e r . T h e mooring m a s t e r
allows for t h i s d u r i n g t h e approach.
T h e s h i p c a r r i e s h e r h e a d w a y p a s t the axis of t h e b e r t h before stopping
and letting go t h e second anchor. The ship is n o t b a c k e d a n d filled into po-
sition for dropping t h e second anchor, she is s w u n g a n d m a n e u v e r e d into
Fig. 9 r l 3 . B e r t h i n g at multiple-buoy mooring.:.
EIVE- AND SEVKN-1'OIXT MOOK1NGS 227
position. The amount of swing put on the ship prior to letting go the second
anchor is criticai as the stern must be positioned so the ship's tendency to
back to port when going astern into the berth is allowed for. Let go the sec-
ond anchor and tighten the brake on the first anchor so it fetches up a n d
takes a strain. The ship goes astern while the anchors are used to assist in
steering the ship into position.
The stern moves in a direction that is opposite to the sido on which t h e
anchor is held. Hold the port anchor and the strain on the chain causes the
ship to back to starboard—hold the starboard anchor and the ship backs to
port. If the chain on both anchors is kepi slack, the ship usually walks to
port, although the wind will affect the ship to some extent, as always.
This same technique of laying out and then steering with two anchors
is useful when making a Mediterranean moor.
Slack both ehains as required as the ship backs into the mooring a n d
r u n the s h i p s lines to the buoys using the line boat. It is essential t h a t ev-
eryone involved be safety conscious at this point so no c.ie is h u r t while
putting out mooring lines. There is a heavy strain on these ] ; nes while
working into the mooring. The mates must be instructed to alert t h e
bridge before stopping off lines so the ship can be maneuvered to relieve
t h e strain until the lines are on the bit Ls. This is especially important a f i
since the crew working on the stern cannot be seen from the bridge. If
there is a significant amount of strain double stoppers m u s t be used.
Do not allow the propellertobe t'u - ned while the lines are going out ex-
cept by direct order from the mooring master. Since the mooring m a s t e r is
communicating with the line boat by radio, the boat can tell liiin when t h e
lines are clear of the screw. The first line is usually a breast line from t h e
main deckon the up c u r r e n t o r windward side of the ship, followed by Lhe
other lines as direcLed by the mooring master. The order of the lines de-
pends on the weather and currenL conditions. When ali lines are ouL, a
strain is taken on boLh anchors Lo position the ship over the submerged
hose. The anchors form an equilateral Li-iangle and hold Lhe ship into Lhe
predominaLe weaLher. (See figure 9-13.)
During Lhe Lransfer operalion, the mooring master works with t h e
crew to keep the ship over the hose or hoses. now connected to Lhe m a n i -
fold, adjusLing for Lhe change in drafL as well as for any change in t h e
w e a t h e r or sea conditions.
Based on his past experience, Lhe mooring master advises lhe ship's ofíi-
cers concerning weaLher conditions ?nd Lhe advisabilily of remaining aL lhe
mooring and transferring cargo if Lhe conditions deleriorale—a significam
 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
responsibxlity in view cf the time required to break up the mooring as op-
poseu to the poesible consequentes if the ship remains at the mooring too
long. The direction of w e a t h e r and sea is as important as its s t a t e when
making the decisior—when the weather is from other t h a n ahead, the
strain on Imos becoines heavy, while as long as those forces are from ahead,
the strain is on the anchors a n d the ship can remain longer at the mooring.
The value of a mariner'? experience in situations such as this is not fully ap-
preciated by the l a n d s m a n , since ashore responsibility is u^ually shared
and the re&ults of a decision are rarely so immediate, be they right or wrong.
Keep t h e engine ready in case it is necessary to leave t h e mooring and
m a i n t a i n a full w a t c h both on deck and below. M a i n t a i n a continuous
watch on t h e NÜAA V H F frequencies since conditions can d e t e r i o r a t e rap-
idly and sufficient w a r n i n g is necessary if t h e ship is to b r e a k up the moor-
ing before u n s a f e conditions develop.
When t r a n s f e r is completed t h e hoses a r e lowered back to t h e bottom
and the lines singled up as t h e line boat trips t h e hooks on t h e mooring
buoys. The ship t h e n d e p a r t s the mooring, the exiting m a n e u v e r varying
depending on w h e t h e r the ship is light or loaded.
A loaded ship b r i n g s the lines aboard in basically the reverse order
from t h a t in which t h e y were r u n (assuming t h a t the conditions a r e still
t h e same), u n t i l ali lines are gone a n d the propeller is clear. H e a v e t h e an-
chors as the b r e a s t lines a r e let go, using the engine a n d r u d d e r as necep-
sary to hold t h e s t e r n in the c e n t e r of t h e berth. Come a h e a d as t h e anchors
come clear a n d s t e a m away from the buoys.
A light s h i p t a k e s in the lines in t h e same m a n n e r b u t uses the anchors
to compensate for h e r light d r a f t while working clear of t h e berth. H e a v e
the starboard a n c h o r s h o r t to two shots in the w a t e r a n d t h e n h e a v e on the
port anchor. Work a g a i n s t the s t a r b o a r d anchor while heaving on t h e port
to keep the ship's bow into t h e wind. The ship m u s t not fali off t h e wind or
she will wind up on t h e buoys. As soon as t h e port anchor b r e a k s f r e e the
ship is driven out of t h e berth, dragging both anchors u n t i l clear. Heave
the port anchor h o m e a n d t h e n heave up the last two shots of chain on t h e
starboard anchor a n d proceed to sea.
MEDITERRANEAN MOOR
By Captain Earl R. McMillin, Master Mariner
Until the a d v e n t of roll-on vessels, t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n moor w a s used only
in less developed p o r t s with limited facilities. Several RO/RO ships fitted
MEDITERRANEAN MOOR 2 2 9
with stern ramps, which commonly dock stern to the berth with anchors
laid out ahead, are now in service, so more deck officers need to be f a m i l i a r
with this maneuver.
Theprocedure forputting a tanker into a five• orseven-point mooring is
also the most efficient maneuver for completing the Mediterranean moor.
The maneuver is described completely in the previous section and íl would
be redundant to r e p e a t the s t e p s for m a k i n g a proper approach, laying out
the anchors, and backing into the berth using the anchors to assist in
steering. Ideally, the anchors are spread at an angle of 60 degrees so t h e
bow is held in position regardless of wind direction. This may not be possi-
ble when maneuvering room is limited. Plan the mooring so the anchors
are let go far enough from the berth to give a good scope of chain, and drop
them far enough a p a r t so the chain and spread between the anchors forni
legs of an equilateral triangle. The ship should finally be moored with at
least one shot more chain t h a n would be used to anchor in water of t h e
same depth as is found off the berth (fig. 9-14).
Unlike the íive-point moorings, a cargo berth is rarely b u i k with a n y
regard for prevailing wind a n d sea conditions, so these forces are more
commonly from some direction other t h a n ahead. It is necessary to allow
for set and leeway to one side in these conditions, primarily by a d j u s t i n g
1 . Let g o t h e s t a r b o a r d a n c h o r a n d
k e e p the chain slack.
2 . Let g o t h e port a n c h o r .
3 . Hold t h e s t a r b o a r d a n c h o r a n d
back to t h e b e r t h .
4 . H e a v e into position with s t e r n lines,
t h e n t a k e a g o o d strain o n a n c h o r s .
Fig. 9-14. Mediterranean moor.
230 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
the a m o u n t of swing t h a t is p u t on the ship prior to p u t t i n g down t h e sec-
ond anchor, a n d by holding one anchor o*- t h e other as the ship backs to the
berth.
Plan the approach a n d mooring procedure with the m a t e s who will be
stationed forward a n d a f t . T h e m a t e forward m u s t let go the anchor imme-
diately w h e n ordered so t h e anchors are properly placed and then control
the chain precisely as tlie s h i p backs to t h e wharf. T h e m a t e a f t m u s t keep
t h e bridge informed of t h e bearing and distance from the ship's stern to
the berth as t h e ship b a c k s to t h e pier (and more importantly t h e r a t e at
which the b e a r i n g a n d distance are changing) since RO/RO ships usually
have the bridge well f o r w a r d w h e r e it is difficult to see t h e s t e r n .
A line boat should be available so t h e s t e r n lines can be r u n to t h e b e r t h
as soon as possible, a f t e r which t h e ship is backed as t h e m a t e forward
walks the a n c h o r chain out u n d e r a light s t r a i n a n d t h e crew a f t heaves on
the stern lines. Keep t h e s t e r n lines clear of t h e propeller since it m u s t at
ali times be possible to u s e t h e engine to hold t h e s h i p in position a n d then
stop h e r as t h e s t e r n n e a r s t h e stringpiece. T h e vessel is now u n d e r total
control a n d can be b r o u g h t up close to t h e b e r t h . Don't use the engine to
back the l a s t few f e e t — h e a v e t h e ship a s t e r n so t h e r e is no chance of an ac-
cident from a delay in engine response.
U s e sufficient l i n e s or wires a f t so a good s t r a i n can be t a k e n on both
anchors a f t e r t h e s h i p is fast. H e a v e t h e chains partially out of t h e w a t e r
so the ship c a n n o t m o v e a s t e r n if t h e r e is a n y l a t e r change in sea or wind.
The stern is r i g h t up to t h e b e r t h so it m u s t n o t be possible for t h e ship to
move any f u r t h e r a s t e r n a f t e r t h e mooring is complete.
Relie.ble bow t h r u s t e r s a r e available, a n d ali ships ü t t e d with a stern
r a m p , which will commonly b e r t h s t e r n first, should be fitted with this
equipment. A t h r u s t e r g r e a t i y simpliíies positioning the bow prior to let-
ting go each anchor, a n d s t e e r i n g t h e ship as she b a c k s to t h e berth. W h e n
w e a t h e r conditions a n d t h e layout of t h e b e r t h require it, t h e ship fitted
with a bow t h r u s t e r c a n lay out t h e anchors w i t h o u t being perpendicular
to the berth. m o v i n g t h e bow laterally with t h e t h r u s t e r to g e t i n t o position
for letting go t h e second anchor. Restricted m a n e u v e r i n g room m a y re-
quire this. Heretofore it w a s necessary at t i m e s to w a i t for favorable condi-
tions prior to b e r t h i n g s t e r n to a dock. The bow t h r u s t e r m a k e s it possible
to moor M e d i t e r r a n e a n fashion in ali b u t the worst conditions and no ship
t h a t works cargo over t h e s t e r n should be built w i t h o u t one.
D e p a r t u r e from t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n moor varies with w e a t h e r condi-
tions, of course, b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e ship t a k e s in lines aft a n d immediately
WILLIAMSON T U R N S 231
begins heaving on the windward anchor. Ileave short to two shots and
then hea\ e on lhe lee anchor while steaming against the weather anchor.
Maintain position and heading so the ship isn't sei back against the berth
as the anchors come clear of the bottoin. S t a r t moving the ship ahead as
soon as the lee anchor breaks free, heaving and dragging both anchors un-
til well clear of the berth. Heave the anchors home and proceed to se?..
WILLIAMSON TURNS
The elassie Williamson Turn is described in most texlbooks on seaman-
ship. The t u r n works well and is especially useful as ship size increases.
Ships with high block coefficients lose headway faster than smaller,
fmer-lined vessels, and a VLCC will typically have lost most of her head-
way by the time she has reached her reciprocai course at the completion of
a Williamson Turn. Little astern maneuvering is then required to stop lhe
ship and pick up a person or object on the water. Because of this, and be-
cause of the predictability of the vessel's path, the Williamson Turn is
preferable to a round turn or other maneuver for putting a ship on a recip-
rocai heading.
The path t h a t a ship follows dnring a Williamson Turn becomes even
more prediclable if the variables of the maneuver are eliminated. For ex-
ample, ir.stead of stating that the ship should be steadied up after she has
reached a course t h a t is 60 to 65 degrees lrom the ship's original course, it
is preferable to state t h a t the helm should be shifted at some predeter-
mined point and left in t h a t position while the ship checks up and then
swings to the reciprocai of her original course. If the elassie instruetions
are followed, the turn is less predictable because the time to check the
swing and t h e amount of rudder used are dependent on the helmsman's or
deck oiTicers expericnce and judgment. The resulting track can vary
greatly.
F u r t h e r , the elassie t u r n always uses a 60-degr^e change of heading as
a basis for shifting the helm. Ships have changed greatly so neilher this
nor any o'her fixed point will suílire for ali ships. The Williamson Turn
m u s t be performed routinely during an ocean passage as part of the crew
emergency training, and the point at which the helm is lo be shiited
should be determined by trial and error during those exercises. If a deeply
loaded, large beam t a n k e r t h a t is directionally unstable were to follow the
elassie instruetions, she would never return to her original track. If the
r u d d e r is shifted when t h a t vessel is 60 degrees from the initial heading,
she swings well past the desired point since it takes a great deal of time to
232 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S WILLIAMSON T U R N S 233

check t h e s w i n g of such a ship. The directionally u n s t a b l e vessel then man-ovcrboard maneuver used, the perscrt or object in the water must be
t u r n s more rapidly t o w a r d the reciprocai h e a d i n g since h e r t u r n i n g r a t e is wcuched at ali times; this is even more important lhan the correct exccu-
so m u c h g r e a t e r . Lion of t h e Williamson Turn. If sight is lost of a person in th" water, ; t is
A p a r t i c u l a r VLCC r n t u r n e d to h e r own w a k e w h e n t h e rudder was tremely difficult to locate the person agoni in any but perfect conditions.
shifted when s h e was 35 degrees from her initial course.1 By experimenta- By throwing a life ring and olher available objects into the water as close
tion, this point a n d t h e a m o u n t of r u d d e r n e e d e d to s t e a d y t h e ship were
defíned so ali v a r i a b l e s were e l i m i n a t e d f r o m t h e m a n e u v e r . In this case
t h e r u d d e r w a s s h i f t e á h a r d over to check t h e s w i n g w h e n the ship's head-
ing w a s 15 degrees f r o m the reciprocai. S i m i l a r t e s t s should be done by the
m a s t e r for h i s p a r t i c u l a r ship before t h e need to m a n e u v e r in an actual
emergency arises.
A Willigmson T u r n is defíned as follows:

P u t t h e r u d d e r h a r d over t o w a r d t h e side o n which t h e person h a s gone

overboard a n d k e e p it there until t h e s h i p is 35 to 50 degrees from the
initial h e a d i n g . ( T h e precise point for a p a r t i c u l a r vessel is to be prede-
t e r m i n e d by trial.) S h i f t the helm h a r d over in t h e opposite direction.
Keep t h e r u d d e r in t h i s position while t h e s h i p srvings ali the way
a r o u n d t o w a r d t h e reciprocai of t h e ship's h e a d i n g at t h e time t h e Wil-
liamson T u r n b e g a n . When t h e ship's h e a d i n g is 10 to 15 degiees from
t h e reciprocai of h e r initial course, at a point p r e d e t e r m i n e d by trial,
s h i f t t h e h e l m h a r d over again so t h e ship s t e a d i e s up on t h e desired re-
ciprocai h e a d i n g (fíg. 9-15).

Note t h a t only t h r e e m o v e m e n t s of t h e r u d d e r a r e necessary, and t h a t

t h e s e changes in helm a r e at defíned points t h a t a r e not d e p e n d e n t on t h e
watch offxcer's j u d g m e n l .
The engine speed is not changed d u r i n g t h e Williamson T u r n , al-
though t h e engine is p u t on s t a n d b y so t h e e n g i n e e r on watch can p r e p a r e
for m a n e u v e r i n g . By m a i n t a i n i n g revolutions, t h e r a t e of t u r n is predict-
able, t h e ship r e t u r n s to t h e desired point in t h e m i n i m u m time, and speed
is still suffíciently reduced. The ship is t h e n stopped u s i n g m a n e u v e r s de-
scribed in c h a p t e r l. 2
T h e m a n - o v e r b o a r d routiiie fcr a p a r t i c u l a r s h i p a n d crew are beyond
t h e scope of t h i s book. It is stressed, t h o u g h , t h a t regardless of t h e

1
Captain Daniel H. MacElrevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials.
2
Master Pilüt Captain Brian Hope, El Paso Consolidated Maneuvering Trials.
234 SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S
to tho person or object as possible, with a light, dye m a r k e r , smoke llare, or
other aid a t t a c h e d , the task of locating t h a t person is greatly simplified. It
is i m p o r t a n t t h a t a light be put into the w a t e r at night. T h e r e is no subsli-
t u t e for repe&led man-overboard drills, a n d d u r i n g drills it becomes obvi-
ous j u s t how difficult i; is to see a person or object ir t h e water.
Using t h e described Williamson T u r n , a VLCC r e t u r n e d to the originai
location in eleven m i n u t e s and was m a k i n g 4 k n o t s when the reciprocai
course was reachcd, although the engine r e m a i n e d at full revolutions
throughouc t h e maneuver, which began w h e n t h e ship w a s making 19
knots. T h e s h i p was easily brought dead in t h e w a t e r at t h e desired point
so t h a t a boat could be launched. 3
TWIN-SCREW SHIPS
There is a misconception that twin-screw s h i p s i n h e r e n t l y handle better
than single-screw ships. This is not n e c e s s a r i l y so.
T h e type of propulsion and the n u m b e r , configuration, and location of
the r u d d e r or r u d d e r s aíTect the m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y of twin-screw ships and
some twin-screw ships handle more poorly t h a n single-screw ships in
routine operacing situations. Older t u r b i n e - d r i v e n twin-screw ships with
single r u d d e r s usually handle like water-soaked logs. Most modern diesel-
propelled twin-screw vessels with e i t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l propellers or con-
trollable pitch propellers, bow and s t e r n t h r u s t e r s a n d , in m o s t cases, twin
rudders, are excellent handling ships.
Today, t h e twin-screw configuration is f o u n d p r i m a r i l y on passenger
vessels w h e r e it is u s e d both to minimize v i b r a t i o n while operating w : t'n
higher horsepowers a n d greater speeds, a n d to facilitate m a n e u v e r i n g in
the smaller h a r b o r s increasingly f r e q u e n t e d by c r u i s e ships looking for
new a n d less spoiled ports.
Diesel- and turbine-propelled twin-screw ships e x h i b i t t h e s a m e engine
response characteristics, for the s a m e r e a s o n s , described for single-screw
diesel a n d t u r b i n e ships in earlier c h a p t e r s of t h i s book. Diesel ships re-
spond more quickly to engine orders, so t h e effect of "kicking" a diesel-pro-
pelled twin-screw ship ahead fcr a s h o r t period of t i m e to move the stern
laterally w i t h o u t gaining headway is significantly g r e a t e r . Because of ihis
faster response, diesel-propelled twin-screw s h i p s also react more quickly
t h a n t u r b i n e s h i p s when a master or pilot twists or t u r n s t h e vessel within
a
Captain Daniel H. MacEIrevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials.
MANEUVEKING TWIN-SCKEW S H I P S 235
h e r own length using one engine ahead and the other astern or walka a
ship sideways by using the rudder in oppcsition to t h a t Lwisling effect.
Twin-screw, twin-rudder ships are inherently more responsive at slow
speeds than ships with single rudders, regardless of engine type, since
twin rudders are located aft of the twin propellers and the fiow of w a t e r
from the propellers passes directly over t h e r u d d e r s surface. Without this
flow, the ship's r u d d e r h a s little effect until the ship gains sufficient head-
way to create a flow over the surface of Lhe rudder independent of Lhe flow
from Lhe propeller.
IL should be noLed lhal shiphandlers iind twin-screw, single-rudder
ships generally steer better at very low speeds when Lhe engines are
stopped than when they are coming ahead. When Lhe engines are sLopped,
t h e minimal flow past Lhe rudder Lha», does exisl is noL disLurbed by the
t u r n i n g propellers and the inherent direcLional sLabiüty of Lhe s p r e a d pro-
pellers LhaL counLers the turning moment created by Lhe rudder no longer
exisLs. Try sLopping Lhe engine if a twin-screw, single-rudder ship w i t h
h e a d w a y is behaving poorly al very slow speeds, inslead of working one
screw againsl Lhe olher Lo LwisL lhe ship to a new heading.
MANEUVERING TWIN-SCREW SHIPS
If the propeller shafls are well separated, and especially if Lhe ship is die-
sel- r a l h e r than turbine-propelled, a twin-screw vessel can be turned in a
very small area by working one propeller ahead and the other a s l e r n . By
using Lhe porl engine ahead and the starboard engine astern, the ship is
t u r n e d to starboard. By adjusting lhe revolulions of both the a h e a d a n d
a s t e m t u / n i n g engines, increasing and decreasing speeds of eilher l h e
a h e a d or aslern lurning engine as appropriale lo cancel any h e a d w a y or
s t e r n w a y l h a t mighl develop, lhe ship can be turned literally wilhin h e r
own length. Because a propeller is more elficient when t u r n i n g a h e a d ,
fewer revolutions are usually needed on the s h a f t turning in Lhe a h e a d di-
reclion Lo lurn t h e ship while maintaining ils posilion (fig. 9-16).
The twin-screw ship can be nioved laterally using Lhe engines in oppos-
ing directions aheau and aslern to move Lhe slern in the desired direction
a hile a tug or bow tlirusler is used to move lhe bow in the same direction.
For example, to move a ship sideways toward a berth, Lhe oulboard propel-
ler—the propeller away frorn the dock or other structure loward which t h e
s h i p is Lo be moved—lurns aslern, while Lhe inboard propeller l u r n s
a h e a d (fig. 9-17). The two propellers are then roLaling in lhe same direc-
tion (clockwise or counlerclockwise) b u i thrusLing in opposile direclions
230 SPECIAL MANEUVEKS
M A N E U V E F I N O TWlN-SCHKW S H I P S 237

Fig. 9-16. T u r n i n g a twin-screw ship to s t a r b o a r d .

(ahead or astern), s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w a l k i n g a n d twisting the s t e r n toward

r u d d e r is put hard left to move the stern to starboard. but the engines a r e
the berth without developing a n y h e a d w a y or s t e r n w a y . Ac t h e s a m e time,
used in the oppcsite direction to the example above—in this case of high-
the tug or t h r u s t e r is used to p u s h t h e bow toward t h e b e r t h so t h e ship
powered, twin-screw, twin-rudder ships, the port engine t u r n s a h e a d a n d
moves laterally and bodily t o w a r d the b e r t h . Before landing on t h e pier,
t h e starboard engine t u r n s astern to move the bow to starboard. T h e rud-
the direction of rotation of t h e propellers is reversed to check t h e lateral
der and engines are then opposing each other with the net effect of moving
motion of the stern so t h e ship is laid gently alongside w i t h o u t t h e assis-
t h e ship laterally to starboard.
tance of a s t e r n tug.
Consider the forces at work here. The rudder effect from the w a s h of
Obviousíy, t h e direction of r o t a t i o n of t h e p r o p e l l e r s is i m p o r t a n t
t h e ahead-turning engine flowing over the rudders put hard left c r e a t e s a
during this maneuver. Usually, outboard t u r n i n g propellers are more
force t h a t moves the stern to starboard and the bow to port, as is n o r m a l l y
effective t h a n i n b o a r d t u r n i n g s c r e w s w h e n m o v i n g t h e s t e r n l a t e r a l l y .
t h e case. At the saine time though, the engines are operating in opposing
A ship m a n e u v e r i n g s t a r b o a r d side to a b e r t h u s e s t h e s t a r b o a r d screw
directions, the port engine is t u r n i n g ahead and the starboard e n g i n e
a h e a d a n d «he a t h w a r t s h i p c o m p o n e n t of force c r e a t e d by t h i s clockwise
astern, in a manner t h a t would normally move the stern to port a n d t h e
t u r n i n g propeller w a l k s t h e s t e r n t o w a r d t h e dock. T h e p o r t s c r e w i s
bow to starboard—the opposite direction to t h a t i n which the rudder is try-
used a s t e r n a n d , since t h e l e f t - h a r . a screw t u r n s clockwise w h e n going
ing to move the bow and stern. T h e net effect, in the case of these very re-
a s t e r n , the a t h w a r t s h i p c o m p o n e n t o f t h a t screw's forces also w a l k s t h e
sponsive ships, is t h a t the r u d d e r ovexrides the engine forces so the s t e r n
s t e r n t o s t a r b o a r d . T h e s e forces c o m p l e m e n t t h e opposing fore a n d a f t
moves to starboard, while the r u d d e r and engine forces counter each o t h e r
flows from t h e two p r o p e l l e r s , t h e s t a r b o a r d p r o p e l l e r o p e r a t i n g a h e a d
to the extent that the bow does not move to port. The ship m a i n t a i n s . or
a n d t h e port p r o p e l l e r a s t e r n i n t h i s case, t h a t a r e m i n i m i z i n g t h e fore
nearly maintains, its heading while the ship moves laterally to the right,
a n d a f t m o v e m e n t of t h e s h i p a n d also d r i v i n g t h e s t e r n to s t a r b o a r d to- toward the dock on the starboard side.
ward t h e dock.
Shiphandlers are again cautioned t h a t this is a special case t h a t is only
Very good handling, high power, twin-screw, t w i n - r u d d e r ships such effective when handling very powerful twin-screw navai vesseis, s u p p l y
as naval craft, supply and reseaxch vessels, a n d very high-powered pas-
boats, and passenger ships with large twin rudders t h a t can develop t h e
senger ships can be moved Laterally without tug assistance or a bow
strong opposing forces needed to move the ship in this manner. It does not
thruster by using a m a n e u v e r t h a t , at first glance, seems to contradict ev-
usually work for the conimon merchant vessel. Most ships would simply
erything said above. Consider again t h e situation described where the
respond to the opposing engines, moving the stern toward the side on
ship is being moved toward a dock on t h e s t a r b o a r d side. To move these
which the propeller is turning ahead, with the rudder having little effect
special case, high-powered ships with twin r u d d e r s toward t h e dock, the
except to reduce, to some extent, the turning (.'ffect created by the engines.
238 SFECIAL M A N E U V E R S
It m a y be necessary to increase Lhe r e v o l u t i o n s of one shafL, when ma-
n e u v e r i n g twin-screw ships in a shallow c h a n n e l , Lo c o m p e n s a L e f o r a n un-
equal flow of waLer to t h e screw LhaL is closer Lo Lhe b a n k or shoal. or when
one propeller is Lurning in Lhe s h a l l o w e r a r e a Lhrough a mu d bottom. The
Lwin-screw s h i p in t h i s situalion is m o r e likely to Lake a s h e e r t h a n a sir-
gle-screw s h i p , due to the proximity of Lhe offset propeller to t h e shallow
a r e a , t h e r e s t r i c l e d flow to the propeller a n d r u d d e r in t'ne s h a l l o w e r area,
plus t h e u s u a l unbalanced forces e x p e r i e n c e d a r o u n d a n y hull passing
close to a b a n k or shoal. It is also m o r e difficult to recover f r o m t h a t sheer
due to t h e s a m e redueed ílow and i m b a l a n c e of forces. T h e s h i p h a n d l e r
has to Lake special care and waLch m o r e c a r e f u l l y for s i g n s t h a t t h e ship is
t a k i n g suclion when m a n e u v e r i n g a Lwin-screw s h i p in Lhis s i t u a t i o n . One
such sign would be repeatod, large r u d d e r a n g l e s as Lhe h e l m s n i a n tries Lo
m a i n t a i n a course a l o n g a sLraight reach in Lhe c h a n n e l . A n o t h e r sign
would be t h e need for u n u s u a l l y large r u d d e r a n g l e s to s t a r t a s h i p swing-
i n g i n a t u r n f r o m one reach or s t r a i g h l secLion of che c h a n n e l Lo a n o l h e r .
A n o l h e r poLenLial problem develops w i t h t v i n - s c r e w v e s s e l s w h e n one
e n g i n e s t a r t s before t h e other, o r w h e n t h e r e v o l u t i o n s a r e n o t m a t c h e d
while t h e shi p is s t e a m i n g . Especially w h e n h a n d l i n g a motor ship, p i a r Lo
s l a r l one e n g i n e before Lhe olher a n d p l a n m a n e u v e r s Lo allow for Lhe re-
s u l t i n g s h i p behavior. StarL t h e second e n g i n e a f t e r t h e f i r s t i s t u r n i n g
a h e a d and, s i n c e you a r e now s e t up for t h e w o r s t case, t h e r e will be no
p r o b l e m s h o u l d either engine not s t a r t i m m e d i a t e l y . T h i s i m b a l a n c e has
less i m m e d i a t e effect while s t e a m i n g since t h e r e is a good flow pasL the
r u d d e r a n d it is possible Lo c o m p e n s a t e for t h e s h e e r i n g t h a t r e s u l t s when
a n e n g i n e d o e s n ' l s t a r t o r the revolutions a r e n o t properly m a t c h e d .
W h e n n e a r a dock or wharf, especially if t h e b e r t h h a s a solid face. the
inboard screw can be u s e d to a d v a n t a g e to lift Lhe q u a r l e r a n d keep Lhe
ship f r o m g o i n g alongside p r e m a l u r e l y . P u t t h e i n b o a r d e n g i n e astern
w h e n t h e q u a r t e r sets toward t h e b e r t h . T h e off-center propeller twists
Lhe s t e r n a w a y f r o m Lhe berlh, a n d Lhe q u i c k w a t e r moves up t h e side and
lifts Lhe ent.ire ship, j u s l as il does w h e n h a n d l i n g a single-screw ship.
T h e r e a r e several o t h e r concerns w h e n m a n e u v e r i n g a t w i n - s c r e w ves-
sel n e a r to a n o alongside a berth. As wilh a single-sci ew vessel, you must
be a w a r e of t h e propeller's position r e l a t i v e to a n y h a z a r d s , especially a
b a n k or shoal a r e a and the b e r l h itself. H o w e v e r , g r e a l e r c a r e is needed
with t w i n - s c r e w ships because t h e p r o p e l l e r s a r e placed off c e n t e r , which
leaves tliem m o r e exposed. On some m o d e r n t w i n - s c r e w s h i p s t h e propel-
ler b l a d e s a r e very near to or even outside l h e line of t h e hull. Be especially
MANEUVERING TWIN-SCKEW SHIPS 239
a l e r l LhaL Lhe ship does n o l d e v l o p any angle that will cause t he p r o p e l l e r
Lo touch Lhe berlh or shoal. Take care that stern lines a r e not fouled in t h e
p r o p e l l e r s when íhcy are sent ashore or brough' aboard. ' n s t r u c t l h e
s h i p ' s crew, linehandlers, and Lug crews not Lo Lhrow lines in Lhe w a i e r
w h e n undocking. Consideralion must also be given Lo Lhe placemerit of
l u g s . Any Lug working aft must be made up clear of the propellers, w h i c h
m a y p r e v e n t lliem from working as near to the s t e r n as desired. It m a y be
p r e f e r a b l e to have lhe afler lug work on a hawser. Iiere, as a l w a y s . t h e
í h i p h a n d l e r s m u s l rely on his experiencc and professional j u d g m e n i .
An i n t e r e s t i n g varialion t h a l overcomes many of the d i s a d v a n l a g e s of
t h e twin-screw ship.and still allows lhe use of high horsepower propulsion
s y s l e m s is the triple-screw design used on somo recent c o n l a i n e r s h i p s .
T h e c e n t e r s h a f t is used al maneuvering speeds, allowing Lhe s h i p to be
n a n d l e d like any other single-screw ship, and Lho oulboard engines a n d
p r o p e l l e r s a r e used only al high speeds when Lhe ship will be in open w a t e r
w h e r e l h e disadvanlages of a twin-screw ship are nol i m p o r l a n t . T h e lx.-.sl
of both worlds is achieved for the naval architecl and lhe m a r i n e r .
T h e twin-screw configurations wilh single and twin r u d d e r s were once
f o u n d primarily on passenger ships, where it was used both to m i n i m i z e
v i b r a l i o n while operaling with higher horsepower and g r e a t e r speed a n d
to faciiilale maneuvering in l h e smaller harbors frequenled by c r u i s e
s h i p s . Twin r u d d e r configurations have almosl Lotally replaced l h e s i n g l e
r u d d e r for passenger ships.
T h e r e h a s also been a trend Lo replace lhe Lwin screw, Lwin-rudder con-
figuration beginning in lhe lale 1990s when Lhe cruise induslry began f u -
Ling m a n y of lhe new, large cruise vessels wilh eleclric-podded propulsion
or Azipods. Al the same time, other segmenls of the m a r i t i m e i n d u s l r y be-
g a n building inore Iwin-screwed vessels, and il is now common to íind tlie
t w i n - s c r e w configuralion aboard virtually any f.ype of vessel when t h e ad-
v a n t a g e s of t h a t a r r a n g e m e n t are great enovgh Lojustify the higher cost.
T h e VMax VLCCs' are examples of vessels buiil to Lake full a d v a n t a g e
of r.he Lwin-screw ccmfiguration as a means for improving h a n d l i n g c h a r -
a c t e r i s l i c s . These ships are designed with an u n u c u a i i y -vide b e a m for
t h e i r lenglh to maximize ca-rying capacity. Ali olher factors being e q u a í ,
i n c r e a s i n g a vessefs lenglh-to-beam ratio in this m a n n e r reduces t h e
s h i p ' s directional slabilily, wilh a significam adverse effect on the ship'?
4
These VMax ships are owned and operated ii) Concordi.i Marítimo Stena
Bulk.
240 SPECIAL MANEUVEKS
L p W LENGTH-TU-BEAAl RATIO S H I P S

m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics. (See c h a p t e r 1 a n d c h a p t e r 2 of t h i s text.)To a general s h i p t y p e as owners with ships calling at relativelv shallow U.S.
c o u n í e r t h e effects of this high beam-tc-length ratio, the VMax vossels are ports look for ways to increase carrying capacity.
twin s c r e w s a n d twin r u d d e r s inounted on e x a g g e r a t e d t w i n s k e g s placed VMax ships are built with a much larger beam than vessels of similar
as f a r o u t b o a r d as practical. length. They are I,i0u ieet iong with a beam of 230 feet. Vessels of similar
ier.gth h a v e a oeam .30 to 50 feet less. The length-to-beam ratio of t h e
LO W LENGTH-TO-BEAM RATIO SHIPS VMax ships is4.8:l versus a n l / B of5.5-fi:l for other VLCCs. F o r c o m p a r i -
By Captain Daniel E. MacElrevey son, an 850-foot Panamax ship has a length-to-beam ratio of 8:1.
Delaware Bay and River Pilot Again, al! other faotors being equal, a vessel with a low length-to-beam
ratio will respond poorly to its rudder. Masters and pilots report that this
A vessel's c a r r y i n g capacity is one of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d e t e r m i n e is not t h e case with the VMax ships. What n a k e s these vessels different?
w h e t h e r t h e s h i p will be profitable on the route it serves. Q u i t e simply, the T h e VMax vessels are fitted w i t h twin skegs, twin rudders, and twin
l a r g e r t h e s h i p , the m o r e cargo it can carry a n d t h e g r e a t e r t h e operator's screws—placed as far outboard as practical (fig. 9-18).
profit. Historically, technological b r e a k t h r o u g h s h a v e been necessary to The twin-skeg/rudder a r r a n g e m e n t acts to improve the ship's direc-
p e r m i t t h e construction and safe operation of l a r g e r ships. Today, port tional stability and also provides a much larger turning force t h a n t h a t of
c o n s t r a i n t s are t h e m a i n limiting factor to increasingly l a r g e ships, and a single, centerline rudder. The VMax ships have a cut-away stern section
t h e m o s t coramon constraint is channel d e p t h .
C a r r y i n g capacity can be increased w i t h o u t i n c r e a s i n g a ship's d r a f t ei-
t h e r by i n c r e a s i n g its length, its b r e a d t h , or a c ombination of the two. On
m a n y r o u t e s , vessel length has been increased to t h e m a x i m u m practical
d u e t o t h e p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e portitself. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , increasing
t h e b e a m r e l a t i v e to t h e vessel's length reduces t h e lengtli-to-beam ratio
(L/B ratio) a n d decreases its directional stability. It t h e r e f o r e requires
m o r e r u d d e r to check the t u r n i n g vessel a n d s t e a d y on a n e w course. On
t h e positive side, t h i s effect also results in a s m a l l e r t u r n i n g circle t h a n a
vessel of t h e s a m e length b u t smaller beam. Vessels designed w i t h a low
l e n g t h - t o - b e a m ratio usually require a g r e a t deal of a t t e n t i o n in order to
be h a n d l e d safely.
H o w e v e r , some recently built vessels d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t it is possible to
design vessels with a low L/B t h a t h a n d l e superbly. An e x a m p l e of this is
t h e V M a x VLCC 5 . It m i g h t have been more fitting to call t h e s e ships DMax
V L C C s as one of t h e goals in designing these t a n k e r s w a s to provide the
m a x i m u m c a r r y i n g capacity possible without exceeding t h e c h a n n e l re-
s t r i c t i o n s cf t h e D e l a w a r e Bay and River.
C r d i i i a r i i v , individual ship classes and rypes would n o t b e discussed to
a n y length, b u t it a p p e a r s the VMax ships are t h e first of w h a t will become

Fig. 9-18. Modern VMax twin-screw vessel with skewed propellers and
high-efficiency rudders with skegs to maximize steering controls. Photo
5
Ibid. courtesy Concordia Maritime.
242 SPECIAL MANEUVERS MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS 243

t h a t places t h e r u d d e r s at t h e extreme end of t h e s u b m e r g e d a r e a , where

they a r e m o s t effective. T h e cut-away stern also allows m a x i m u m water
flow bv t h e r u d d e r s a n d °ignificantly reduccs vibration while u n d e r w a y
and proceeding at h i g h e r RPMs.
Conti ary to expectations, these ships h a n d l e well d u e to t l i a t configu-
raticn C o m p a r e d to o t h e r similarly sized vessels, less r u d d e r is needed to
s t a r i a t u r n , t h e r u d d e r s are left on for longer before placing t h e m amid-
ships a n d less r u d d e r is used to check the ship's swing. O f t e n , t h e rate-of-
t u r n d e c r e a s e s once t h e r u d d e r s a r e placed a m i d s h i p s . Additionally,
s t e e r a g e is m a i n t a i n e d for a long time with the engines stopped, a n d they
will r e m a i n on a n e a r l y c o n s t a n t heading when backing w i t h both engines.
Many pilots feel t h a t t h e ships h a n d l e better t h a n predicted by early simu-
lations, a n d they certainly h a n d l e better t h a n other ships of similar size
and hull form.
To f u r t h e r improve maneuverability, t h e r u d d e r s can be used sepa-
rately at slower speeds. This is especially useful w h e n s w i n g i n g about af-
ter gettiiig u n d e r w a y from anchor and when t u r n i n g a r o u n d to go
alongside a b e r t h . By o p e r a t i n g one engine a h e a d a n d t h e o t h e r astern,
the s h i p s can be t u r n e d a b o u t in their own length. U s i n g t h e r u d d e r t h a t is Fig. 9-19. VMax owner and architect consulted with ship officers and
011 the s a m e side as t h e engine going a h e a d while leaving t h e o t h e r r u d d e r pilots to design efficient bridge equipment and controls and e n s u r e
a m i d s h i p s e n h a n c e s t h e twisting effect of t h e engines by t a k i n g advan- success of this new ship type. Courtesy Concordia Maritime.
tage of t h e capability to split r u d d e r control with t h i s class of vessel (fig.
9-19). uations so t h a t they occur on straight reaches and where channel width
T h e ships are noteworthy for several other r e a s o n s in a d d i t i o n to excel- permits. Even small angles of heel created during turns cause a consider-
lent h a n d l i n g characteristics. There is a complete r e d u n d a n c y in t h e oper- able increase in d r a f t so the maximum allowable draft is reduced to 38 feet
a t i n g a n d control s y s t e m s to increase safety, two engine rooms s e p a r a t e d as compared to a maximum d r a f t of 40 feet for most tankers. Additionally,
by a fire b u l k h e a d , a n d a fully integreted bridge t h a t provides n e a r 360 de- the combination of their beam a n d freeboard make it impossible to see t h e
gree visibility. When designing the VMax ships, t h e vessel o w n e r and op- t u g s on the offshore side of the ship when working from the inshore bridge
e r a t o r c o n s u l t e d river pilots, h a r b o r pilots and t u g companies, t h e loading wing, and, as with any twin-screw versei, care must be taken when ma-
and d i s c h a r g e port a u t h o r i t i e s , and the chartering c o m p a n y to obtain in- neuvering near berths, when handling lines near the stern, and when
p u t on f e a t u r e s most n e e d e d to m a k e these ships successful. F u r t h e r , they working with tugs aft.
worked with t h e RTM STAR C e n t e r in Florida to develop a simulator- The>e vessels have been extremely weil rcceived. and the demon-
based t r a i n i n g course for bridge personnel and t h e river pilots t h a t would ^trated success of this design m a k e s it likeiv that many similar vessels
be h a n d l i n g t h e VMax ships. T h e pilots' association felt t h e vessels were will Le consiructea in the near future.
sufficiently d i f f e r e n t f r o m other VLCCs to require i t s m e m b e r s to make
several trips with experienced pilots before h a n d l i n g t h e m on t h e i r own. MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS
A l t h o u g h g r e a t effort was m a d e to make t h e s e vessels extremely safe, T h e handling characteristics of VLCCs and ULCCs 'ire surprisingly simi-
t h e r e a r e still several considerations to be m a d e w h e n h a n d l i n g them. lar tu those of smaller ships. The Esso Osaha tests demonstrated the excel-
T h e i r e x t r e m e b r e a i t h necessitates planning m e e t i n g a n d o ^ e r t a k i n g sit- lent handling characteristics of very largo ships, and the conclusions
244 SPECIAL MANEUVERS MOVING U l " l O LAKGKR S H I P S 245

d r a w n from t h e s e t e s t s have been confirined by pilots a n d mooring mas- tions is obvious. T h e s a m e hcad sea will set in the plat-3s at the bow of a
ters w h o h a n d l e t h e s e ships. Especially appreciated by m a s t e r s is the abil- VLCC without bei ng felt significantly on the bridge. More deli bera te
itv of t h e s e s h i p s to steer at very low speed? with m i n i m a l u c o of the thougí.t i.- therefore required when handling the larger ship, since it i-:
engine. not possible to conn her in a seaway by feel alone. Because of increased
Stopping d i s t a n c e changes geometrically as ship size increascs, so it is m a s s and length t h e p a n t i n g and slamining stresses, as the ship pounds
i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s h i p h a n d l e r think even í u r t h e r a h e a d w h e n altering in a head sea, are actually much greater even though the pounding itself
speed or m a n e u v e r i n g . These changes are exacerbated by t h e higher ton- may be hardly felt.
nage-to-horsepower ratios ty picai ofVLCCs. Some typical ratios m i g h t b e The hogging, sagging, and wrneking stresses t h a t are not usually con-
sidered at sea aboard smaller ships now become important. A VLCC
380,000 tons displacement _ r works dramatically in a seaway as she alternately hangs suspended be-
vlul — — y.o tween two orests at her ends and then is supported by the sea amidship
40,000 horsepower
while her ends fali into the trough. Close attention to bending moments
T, n . 80,000 tons diS placement .
Bulk carner = = 5.0 and sliecr stresses is, of course, required while loading a VLCC, and at sea
16,000 horsepower the mariner aboard a VLCC m u s t reduce speed and/or alter course to re-
. 65,000 tons displacement , ,
Containership = - = 1.1 duce severe hogging and sagging strest.es that are rarely considered with
60,000 horsepower smaller ships. The m a r i n e r m u s t recognize that the s a m e sea state t h a t
damagos a smaller ship also damages a VLCC and reduce speed or alter
Obviously, while t h e displacement of m o d e m ships is m u c h greater,
their h o r s e p o w e r h a s n o t increased proportionally. It is no longer practical
to rely on e n g i n e power alone to stop a ship, b u t VLCCs a n d U L C C s can be i
safely h a n d l e d in restricted w a t e r s by planning a h e a d a n d u s i n g t h e tech-
niques previously described to slow a vessel. Too oflen t h e n o n s e a f a r e r
m a k e s m u c h of t h e f a c t t h a t more searoom is required to stop a l a r g e ship
when, in reality, t h a t s h i p will usually alter course to avoid a close quar-
ters s i t u a t i o n , t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of the excellent s t e e r i n g characteristics
o f V L C C s to c o m p e n s a t e for her relatively low backing power.
The large ship's m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics m u s t be considered
when d e t e r m i n i n g m o a e r a t e speed in restricted visibility or a r e a s of
heavy traffic. T h e C O L R E G S recognize this fact a n d s t i p u l a t e t h a t a ship's
m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y is a significant factor when d e t e r m i n i n g s a f e speed at
any time. Since the V L C C s most eíTective response in a close q u a r t é i s sit-
uation is an a l t e r a t i o n of course r a t h e r than a reduction in speed, the mar-
iner m u s t plan on t h i s alternative when possible. If conditions m a k e a
reduction in speed necessary, however, it will be i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t
why safe speed for a VLCC in a close q u a r t e r s situation is significantly
less t h a n for s m a l l e r ships.
In addition to c h a n g e s in h a n d l i n g characteristics, a V L C C is affected
d i f f e r e n l l y by c h a n g e s in sea conditions. A s m a l l e r s h i p p o u n d s heavily
in a h e a o sea, so t h e n e e d to reduce speed or alter c o u r s e in t h o s e condi- Fig. 9-20.
246 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
course accordingly to ease the vessel even when t h e s e stresse.3 a r e not ob-
vious from h e r motion.
I n s t r u m e n t s are being tested t h a t mav in t h e f u t u r e give m a r i n e i s
more a b s o l u t e information about the forces of t h e sea a c t i n g on a buli, but
presently experience is the best guide for t h e m a s t e r or deck officer. Sea
sense, a n d t h e i n a r i n e r s cppreciation of the e n v i r o n m e n t gained over the
y e a r s s p e n t a t sea, become extremely i m p o r t a n t w h e n m a k i n g qualitativo
judgmenfcs s u c h as w h e n to ease a V L C C s motion in a s e a w a y .
Shallow w a t e r effeets are felt as the ship n e a r s land or shoal and, since
t h e V L C C s d r a f t is often twice t h a t of t h e a v e r a g e ship, t h e s e effeets are
felt sooner a n d in d e e p e r water. The changes in t h e ship's directional sca-
bility, t h e l a r g e r d i a m e t e r of her t u r n i n g circle, a n d t h e increased twisting
effect a r e ali felt in w a t e r t h a t the m a r i n e r aboard s m a l l e r ships consid-
ered open a n d deep.
T h e C O L R E G S define (Rule 3.h.) a vessel as b e i n g " c o n s t r a i n e d by
h e r d r a f t " w h e n , b e c a u s e of her d r a f t in r e l a t i o n to t h e a v a i l a b l e depth of
w a t e r , s h e "is severely restricted in h e r ability to d e v i a t e irom t h e course
s h e is following." T h i s should be i n t e r p r e t e d to i n c l u d e n o t only restric-
tions o n h e r t r a c k r e s u l t i n g from h a v i n g t o keep s u f í i c i e n t w a t e r u n d e r
h e r keel to avoid g r o u n d i n g , b u t also restrictions due to shallow water ef-
feets, w h i c h d e g r a d e t h e ship's m a n e u v e r i n g capabilities. Tliere is some
u n c e r t a i n t y w h e t h e r t h i s is the p r e s e n t i n t e n t b u t such interpretatior. is
proper a n d c o n s i s t e n t with today's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h y d r o d y n a m i c s and
ship behavior.
In port, t n e m a s s a n d hull form of t h e VLCC becomes more significant;
bottom effeets increase as previously discussed, while t h e ship's reaction
time w h e n correcting for the results of such effeets is significantly longer.
T h e s h i p h a n d l e r m u s t plan the passage and m a n e u v e r s , m u s t think
a h e a d of t h e ship, w i t h greater a t t e n t i o n to t h e s e effeets. It is stressed,
t h o u g h , t h a t t h e r e are no mysteries; very large s h i p s obey t h e s a m e laws of
h y d r o d y n a m i c s as o t h e r ships and the differences in b e h a v i o r a r e differ-
ences in m a g n i t u d e , n o t character.
F o r w a r d s p e e d of a VLCC is more d i f f i c u l t to j u d g e n o t only because
of t h e g r e a t er h e i g h t of eye from which t h e s h i p h a n d l e r w o r k s , b u t also
d u e t o t h e s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e s betv/een p r o p e r a n d i m p r o p e r speeds
t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r w i t h a ship of s u c h m a s s . If t h e m a r i n e r is h a n d i -
c a p p e d by lack of p r o p e r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , t h e r e is no option b u t to e r r
on t h e s a f e s i d e w h e n moving a VLCC a n d t h e s h i p m u s t p r o g r e s s at
very slow s p e e d s . W h e n e s t i m a t i n g safe speed of a p p r o a c h r e m e m b e r
MOVJNG UP TO LAkCiKR SHIPS
t h a t a VLCC moving a t l e s s than 2 knotsstill requires more t h a n a s h i p
l e n g t h tc stop. F i t t i n g large ships with state-of-the-art i n s t r u m e n t a -
tion m°.kes it possible tc move such ships more cxpediently a= v. dl hs
m o r e safely.
Due to the greater mass, some adjustment in technique is r e q u i r e d .
1. Tugs are less effective.
2. It is impractical to warp a VLCC alongside using ship's lines only.
3. A ship m u s t be stopped further ofT the pier and pushed alorig side
due to the need to land flat on the stringpiece or clusters.
4. M i n i m u m lateral speed is important if the ship is to land w i t h o u t
dam age.
5. Doppler speed indicators showing lateral motion as well as a h e a d a n d
a s t e r n speed are essential if the VLCC is to be docked expeditiously.
The ship m u s t come alongside flat so Lhe forces generated as t h e s h i p
lands are distributed throaghout the length of the midbody and a r e ab-
sorbed by t h e maximum number of frames. The vessel's great l e n g t h
m a k e s this more difficult, perspective causiug the bow to a p p e a r m u c h
closer to the dock t h a n the stern when actually the two ends are e q u i d i s -
t a n t from the stringpiece (fig. 9-21). Observe the rale of elosing f o r w a r d
and aft, r a t h e r tnan only the apparent distance off, since the relative dis-
tances forward and a f t will appear to decrease at the same r a t e . even
though the distances themselves do not appear equal when the ship is pnr-
allel to the berth.
W h e n t h e m a r i n e r steps aboard a VLCC for the first time t h e r e is of-
ten some trepidation about handling this different ship. The d i f f e r e n c e s
a r e really only of scale and tiining—ship behavior is no different a n d t h e
m a r i n e r will quickly a d j u s t work habits to these differences in m a g n i -
tude. No new skills are required, only greater attention to the a d v a n e e d
p l a n n i n g needed to stay ahead of the ship and greater patience w h i l e
w a i t i n g for h e r to respond. With a good professienal background, a coni-
p e t e n t s h i p h a n d l e r can handle a VLCC as well as any other type of s h i p .
Too much is made today of qualifying a pilot for every different t y p e of
s h i p t h a t shows up at a pilot station, when it is general experience g a i n e d
over several y e a r s of doing gradually more demanding work t h a t pre-
p a r e s a s h i p h a n d l e r for a particular ta.sk, not two hours of o b s e r v a t i o n
time aboard a "new" class of ship.
2'! 8 SPECIAL MANEUVERS K E I ' L E N I S I I M E N T AT 5EA

REPLENISHMENT A r SEA

A sir.all bui significant number of ships engage in repienisnment opera-

Fig. 9-21. Allow for t h e "railroad track" effect when e s t i m a t i n g a
V L C C s d i s t a n c e off a berth.
tions al sea and this number can be expecled lo increase if the I r e n d
toward greater use of merchant ships lo support naval operalion-s contin-
ues. Transfer by helicopter will be considered separately and only s h i p -
to-ship transfer of pquipment, oil, and si ores will be considered h e r e i n .
For clarity, the ship t h a t inaintains course and speed during the ma-
neuver is designafed the "large sliip," because this ship is usually t h e
physically larger of lhe two vessels involved. The second vessel is the "ma-
neuvering ship."
Initial planningbetween lhe two vessels is done by radio. A base c o u r s e
a n d speed is determined to pui the sea two points or. the bow o f t h e "large
vessel" t h a t will be away from the operation. to make a lee and m i n i m i z e
rolling and yawing. The steering gear must be lested and inspected care-
fully prior to commencement of the operation, and a seaman t r a i n e d in
s h i f t i n g from bridge to local trick wheel steering must be stationed in t h e
steering gear fiat. The "A" f r a m e or other rig is set up and ali accessory
gear is iaid out. Sufficient crewmembers are assigned lo the deck a n d
bridge, and a good helmsman—preferably experienced in steering d u r i n g
ship-to-ship transfer operations—is assigned to lhe wheel.
Usually the larger, or, in the case of naval vessels, the supplying m e r -
c h a n t ship, maintains the base course and speed throughout the evolu-
tion, and ali maneuvering is done by the approaching ship. In a heavy s e a ,
it may be prudent to have the larger ship maintain course and speed, a n d
p u t the sea in the prescribed position, no matter which ship is doing t h e
supplying, to ensure the best lee for the transfei operation.
When within o n e h a l f a mile o f t h e large or steadied up vessel, the ma-
neuvering ship comes to a heading t h a t parallels the large ship s w a k e .
Speed is adjusted to be about 3 to õ knots greater than the speed of t h e
large ship and the approach is begun. Note that more speed is a p p r o p r i a t e
lbr this operation than for offshore iightermg. when the maneuvering s h i p
actually goes alongside the large ship. There is interaciior. between s h i p s
t h r o u g h o u t the maneuver, hut it is greatest as the bow of the m a n e u v e r i n g
ship passes the larger ship's quarter. This "danger zone" (fig. 9-22) s h o u l d
be passed through before the speed of the maneuvering ship is reduced to
t h e final base speed lo minimize the passage and ensure good r u d d e r con-
trol while in it. High-powered naval vessels will often approach at m u c h
higher speeds and back down j u s t before coming abcam, bui. this is not a
250 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Fig. 9-22. Á r e a to be avoided d u r i n g approach.
p r u d e n t a p p r o a c h w h e n two m e r c h a n t ships are involved. It is n o t practi-
cal for m e r c h a n t ships to back down since t h e effect on s t e e r i n g will be
s i g n i f i c a n t a n d t h e i r b a c k i n g power is n o t sufíicient to slow a s h i p from
t h e h i g h e r s p e e d s u s e d by t h e h a n d i e r naval vessels. A lower-powered
m e r c h a n t ship continues at a speed g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e steadied up
ship u n t i l p a s t t h e d a n g e r zone a n d t h e n reduces engine speed a n d slowly
loses h e a d w a y u n t i l s h e is moving at t h e base speed.
One h u n d r e d feet is generally a proper s e p a r a t i o n distance between
ships, a l t h o u g h some r i g s used for t r a n s f e r require less s e p a r a t i o n . Don t
allow t h e ships to be pulled together by constant tension winches d u r i n g
the t r a n s f e r operation. T h e m a n e u v e r i n g ship h e a d s a few degrees away
from t h e l a r g e r ship to c o m p e n s a t e for t h e pull of these w i n c h e s a n d also
for t h e suction effect b e t w e e n t h e two moving ships.
W h e n in position a b e a m , t h e s h i p s pass a distance line f o r w a r d ,
m a r k e d a t i n t e r v a l s t o a s s i s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e r e q u i r e d s e p a r a t i o n dis-
tance, a n d t h e n pass t h e highline ar a other rigging r e q u i r e d for t h e re-
p l e n i s h m e n t o p e r a t i o n . Course is a d j u s t e d by giving t h e h e l m s m a n
h e a d i n g s t o s t e e r r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g h e l m orders, t o e n s u r e t h a t ali
c h a n g e s a r e m i n i m a l s o t h e s h i p s d o n ' t develop a n y r a d i c a l s w i n g while
alongside. T h e c o n t i n u e d i n t e r s h i p a t t r a c t i o n while i n t h i s position,
caused b y t h e r e d u c e d p r e s s u r e a s t h e w a t e r flows b e t w e e n t h e two
ships, p r e s e n t s n o p r o b l e m a s long a s t h e specified d i s t a n c e a n d s l i g h t
angle is m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e s h i p s . If t h e ships get closer to one an-
o t h e r t h e y could be d r a w n toge t h e r . T h e m a r i n e r can do little to c o u n t e r
i n t e r s h i p s u c t i o n if t h e two s h i p s a r e allowed to get too close, since t h i s
H E L I C O P T E K OPKIIATIONS 251
p r e c l u d e s the m a n e u v e r i n g ship getting sufficient angle a w a y from t h e
l a r g e r ship to overcome t h e suction.
While alongside, the maneuvering ship adjusli speed a few revolutions
at a time to match her speed with t h a t of the larger ship Do not make a n y
large changes in revolutions (such as would result from using the Lele-
graph to change speeds). Use abeam bearings and watch the distance line
to maintain the ship's position during the transfer.
To depart, open the angle at the bow slightly and let the m a n e u v e r i n g
ship come slowly away from the larger ship, increasing revolutions o/dy
enough to overcome any decrease in speed due to the change in heading and
rudder. Do not pass ahead of the latter ship since any machincry failure
would result in almost certain collision as the departing ship veers across
t h e other ship's bow. Don't increase ship's speed through the water until
well clear of the larger ship, as this increases the intership suction.
HELICOPTEK OPERATIONS
It used to be t h a t a helicopter was used only for emergency evacuation of a
sick or injured crewmember. This task was accomplished by hovering over
t h e ship and loweringa littor to the deck. Increasingly, helicopters are be-
ing u j e d for crew changes and storing of VLCCs and ULCCs enroute from
port to port—the helicopter lands on the ship's deck to make the necessary
t r a n s f e r of stores and crew.
In either case, it is preferable to put the ship on a heading and a d j u s t
speed to create a 15 to 25 knot relative wind on one bow. This gives t h e
helicopter a headwind, minimizes the turbulence over the deck t h a t would
be created by the ship's superstrueture if the wind is put dead ahead, and
carries t h e stack gases to one side away from the approaching helicopter.
It is stressed t h a t it is the relative wind t h a t is important and a m a n e u v e r -
ing board plot should be done if necessary to find the heading t h a t pro-
duces t h e desired relative wind direction and force. Often Lhe necessary
h e a d i n g is not obvious, especially if the- true wind is stronger t h a n Lhe de-
sired 25 knots.
Communication shouití be established -.vith lhe helicopter on V H F
as soon as practical so m a n e u v e r s can oe agreed upon. The helicopter
pilot m a y recommend course a n d speed changes. When Lhe s h i p is roll-
ing more l h a n a few degrees, a n d the helicopter is to land on deck for t h e
t r a n s f e r , the m a s t e r m u s t w a r n the helicopter off since iL is d a n g e r o u s
to land u n d e r such conditions. If the helicopter is only Lo hover, this is
n o t a problem.
252 SPECIAL MANEUVERS

Lower the dipole a n t e n n a a n d remove any other obstructions prior to CHAPTERTEN

the helicopter'8 arrival so they do not fcul the helieopier's rotor blades dur-
ing the operation. An u n o b s t r u c t e d deck a r e a m u s t be provided, clearly
marked with t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y recognized letter "H" s u r r o u n d e d by a TRAINING
circle to designate t h e clear a r e a . Have the engine r e a d y to m a n e u v e r in
case any problema develop d u r i n g the operation. Hoist a flag f o r w a r d and
a n o t h e r on the flying b r i d g e so t h e pilot can j u d g e t h e w i n d direction and
speed d u r i n g the operation. L i g h t the ship well so ali obstructions and the . . . the redoeming aud ideal aspect of this breadwinning
is the attainment and preserva', ion of the highest possi-
landing a r e a a r e clearly visible, b u t use lights s h i n i n g f o r w a r d so t h e y
ble skill . . . It is made up of accumulated tradition, kept
don't blir.d t h e pilot as he approaches. alive by individual pride, rendered exact by professional
Do not touch a b a s k e t or litter when it is lowered. Allow t h e b a s k e t to opinion, and, like the higher arts, it is spurred on and
land on deck so t h e s t a t i c cliarge is discharged before a n y o n e h a n d l e s it. sustained by discriminating praise.
While p u t t i n g a m a n or g e a r into the b a s k e t or litter do not secure it to the That is why the attrinment of profioiency, the push-
ship in any way. ing of your skill with attention to the most delicate
shades of excellence, it. a matter of vital concern.
—Joseph Conrad, The Mirror of the Sea

Like other professionals, the novice seaman m u s t learn new concepts,

skills, laws, and practices; unlike other professionals, though, a s e a m a n
m u s t apply what is learned in a new environment, and become so a d e p t at
living and working in t h a t environment t h a t once-alien reactions become
intuitive—the mariner develops "sea sense." Training for a maritime ca-
reer is therefore of greater depth than in many other professions, begins at
a more basic levei, and m u s t be continued throughout a m a r i n e r s career.
It is both formal through various private, union, and governmental facili-
ties, and informal through continuous self-study and contact with ship-
m a t e s , be they peers or sênior oflicers.
Formal training receives the most attention and is handled well in
most cases. Equally important informal training unfortunately gets less
attention, yet it is through this type of training t h a t a seaman learns pri-
ori ties and adjusts theory to reality.
Only rudimentary t r a i n i n g in shiphandling and piloting is provided at
t h e maritime academies. Significant training in this area begins aboard
ship and is received from several sources including

1. Masters and sênior officers, primarily covering at-sea shiphandling

and anticollision maneuvering, and maneuvering at the pilot sta-
tion or anchorage.

253
 !
254 TKAINING ONBOARD TRAINING O F S F I F S O F F I C E R S 255

2. Pilots a n d docking m a s t e r s . Few m a r i n e r s t a k e t h e initiative re-

ouired to t a p t h i s source of training, which is u n f o r t u n a t e since pi-
lots are proud of their skills and generally willing to s h a r e much
information. In reality, pilots primarily t r a i n other pilots.
3. Passive observation of s h i p h a n d l e r s at work, a laudable but rela-
tively u n p r o d u c t i v e exercise similar to l e a r n i n g h e a r t surgery by
watching a t r a n s p l a n t operation on television.
4. Study of textbooks a n d video t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l , both personal and
company supplied.
5. Simulator-based t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s a n d scale model basin training
facilities, w h e r e a m a r i n e r or pilot can o b t a i n a good grasp of
shiphandling a n d bridge o p e r a t i n g procedures in both routine and
emergency situations.

ONBOARD TRAINING OF S H I P S OFFICERS

Every officer is s e r v i n g aboard a multimillion dollar t r a i n i n g aid. The
ship, and the company a n d personal m a t e r i a l aboard h e r , a r e available to
the mariner; it is in t h e m a s t e r ' s and company's i n t e r e s t to encourage use
of t h a t training aid. T r a i n i n g opportunities a r e limited only by master's Fig. 10-1. "Only training and 'hands-on' experience take the mystery
imagination and initiative, a n d include o u i of shiphandling."

1. Bridge d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d critiques of s i t u a t i o n s t h a t arise and ac-
tions t a k e n in t h o s e situations.
2. Informal coffeetime discussions of professional subjects including
shiphandling at sea a n d in port.
3. Planned t r a i n i n g sessions covering anchoring, stopping a snip, con-
ning techniques, m a k i n g a lee for a pilot, Williamson T u r n s and
man-overboard exercises, and other appropriate shiphandling skills.
Training should s t a r t at t h e most basic levei. M a s t e r s m u s t insist t h a t
deck officers conn t h e s h i p to n e w h e a d i n g s at sea, r a t h e r t h a n j u s t giving
the h e l m s m a n a new course to steer, so t h a t t h e y develop a feel for the ship
and the amount of r u d d e r needed to h a n d l e her. Deck officers should han-
dle the ship when a n c h o r i n g or picking up t h e pilot, while t h e m a s t e r ob-
serves and corrects t h e work as necessary. Every m a t e m u s t be prepared
for the duties of t h e n e x t higher position, c-specially t h e chief m a t e who
m u s t do as much s h i p h a n d l i n g as possible. A promotion is not an opportu-
nity to s t a r t training. It is a recognition of skills a l r e a d y possessed.
Use ali available time in the ship's schedule to train the ship's officers,
using the techniques describedfor instruction in previous chapters. Select
scencrios t h a t are commonly encountered and re-create them in an an-
chorage or open roadstead while waiting for a pilot or berth, allowing each
officer to handle the ship and complete the planned maneuver. When rou-
tinely maneuvering the ship, explain to the deck officers w h a t y o u are do-
ing and why—action taken in a particular situation and the reasons for
t h a t action are not obvious to the less experienced officers unless you get
t h e m involved. Point out how the ship backs into the wind or the bow falis
off to starboard as the engine goes astern, since seeing this action once
m a k e s a more lasting impression than reading about it a dozen timos.
Because of inexperience, too many deck officers suffer from the "don't
touch" syndrome. The less experienced officer is not initially comfoi table
with bridge equipment, so there is a very real hesitancy to use it. It is im-
p o r t a n t that these officers overcome this hesitancy or they can never be-
come proficient. If shipboard training accomplishes nothing else, it is
irreplaceable if the officer becomes more willing to take action.

I
256 TRAINING
Hold a "hands-on" session and encourage each officer to use the bridge
e q u i p m e n t — i n s i s t t h a t they repeatedly u s e t h e t e l e g r a p h , whistle, put
the r u d d e r h a r d over (yes, at sea s p e e d . . . it will not d a m a e e anything). Ex-
plain t h a t e a c h ofiicer is j u s t Lo grab on a n d use t h e g e a r repeatedly and to
its m a x i m u m , then s t a n d back. Go a h e a d Mate, u s e t h e w h i s t l e . . . sound it
again . . . p u t t h e r u d d e r hard o v e r . . . p u t t h e engine a s t e r n , ahead, astern
again. Now t h a t m a t e h a s s t a r t e d to be a u s e f u l a n d c o m p e t e n t deck offi-
cer. Few drills will ever be more productive t h a n t h e s e initial hands-on
sessions.
There is no magic to shiphandling, j u s t experience, good sense, and
confidônce in one's skills, and no one can become proíicient until they are
totally comfortable using bridge e q u i p m e n t a n d m a k i n g t h e ship respond
to t h e i r d e m a n d s .
A new 1,000-foot s h i p went a g r o u n d a lew y e a r s ago while maneuver-
ing to avoid f i s h i n g c r a f t in the s t r a i t s of G i b r a l t a r . D u r i n g t h e ensuing in-
vestigation t h e m a s t e r was asked why he r e p e a t e d l y altered course to
avoid or.e vessel alter a n o t h e r r a t h e r t h a n slowing or stopping the ship.
He replied t h a t he w a n t e d to go a s t e r n b u t h e s i t a t e d because he didn't fc el
he could back t h e ship at the speed she w a s m a k i n g w i t h o u t losing control.
He wasn't s u r e how h i s ship would b e h a v e if t h e t e l e g r a p h w a s p u t astern!
A beautiful, n e w ship would not h a v e settled on th e r o : k s if a short, simple
hands-on session h a d been held aboard ship at some t i m e d u r i n g the mas-
t e r ^ twenty y e a r s a t sea.
Most ships have a video recorder on board, a n d several good training
films on ali m a r i t i m e subjeets including s h i p h a n d l i n g a n d ship behavior
are available for lease. M a r i t i m e a c a d e m i e s a n d u n i o n school libraries
m a i n t a i n s c u r c e lists for such m a t e r i a l , which can be obtained by a tele-
phone call if you do n o t already h a v e a d d r e s s e s of suppliers. Companies
leasing or selling these films also advertise in m a r i t i m e publications, such
as t h e excellent Safcty at Sea a n d Professional Mariner magazines, which
should also be p u t aboard ship as t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l . O b t a i n training films
for use t h r o u g h o u t t h e fleet, in conjunction w i t h t r a i n i n g sessions and ma-
neuvers, to g e t t h e m a x i m u m benefit from an onboard t r a i n i n g program.
Some m a s t e r s combine fire and emergency drills w i t h training ses-
sions, and hold t h e sessions prior to each drill. By g a t h e r i n g officers and
crew in the lounge and discussing a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t over coffee (the sub-
ject usually being complementary to the drill a l t h o u g h this is not re-
quired), t h e crew a n d officers develop g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t in drills and
t r a i n i n g in general. T h e crew is soon r e q u e s t i n g t h a t specific subjeets be
ONBOARD TRAINING CF PILOTS 257
discussed and contributed to the discussions. Most of the crew is involved
a n d interested in shiphandling and it should be included in this training
program.
Distribute educational material obtained from professional publica-
tions to ali onboard, licensed and unlicensed; your interest is contagious
a n d your satisfaction g r e a t .
ONBOARD TRAINING OF PILOTS
Even with m o d e m simulation, there is still no better, more effective train-
ing for apprentice pilots t h a n ' hands-on" experience aboard ship. It h a s
become increasingly difficult for ship's officers to develop shiphandling
skills aboard larger, fast-turnaround ships with ever smaller crews, but
pilots, by the very n a t u r e of their work, still have daily access to the ulti-
m a t e training tool, the ship.
Unfortunately, there is presently a tendency to downgrade the impor-
t a n c e of such training in favor o f w r i t t e n tests and licensing, classroom
time, standardization of training requirements, and Simulator training.
T h i s only refleets a lack of understanding of piloting since the s t a t e of the
a r t of other teaching systems simply has not reached the levei of sophisti-
cation required to replace shipboard experience.
Approntice pilots m u s t make full use of the ship, j u s t as ship's officers
m u s t use every opportunity to gain information on shiphandling from a pi-
lot. A great deal of money is being spent for pilot association-owned,
shore-based training facilities, which is commendable, but the ship itself
is not being fully utilized as a training aid. Use the various types of equip-
m e n t , including radars, in every possible mode, to keep skills current. Too
m a n y pilots put the radar in the "head-up" presentation as soon as they
g e t to the bridge (even before getting a cup of coffee!) because t h a t is t h e
only presentation with which they are comfortable. You can't al ways effec-
tively watch the relative motion of other ships when the radar is used in
t h e head-up presentation and the targets are changing their location on
t h e PP1 (plan position indicator) as you maneuver, yet when feelingyour
w a y up a narrow channel in the fog, there is less chance of error when op-
e r a t i n g in the head-up mode. There is a proper time for each mode and the
s h i p is a laboratory in which to experiment (fig. 10-2).
Question the ship's officers about any new gear found aboard ship.
T h i s is their field of expertise and they are Irained in the use of such equip-
m e n t . Exchange your knowledge of shiphandling for information about
t h e ship's new equipment.
258 TRAINING ONBOARD TRAINING OF PILOTS 259

Fig. 10-2. M a k e use of state-of-the-art ship's e q u i p m e n t to continuously
u p d a t e s h i p b o a r d skills. Courtesy RTM STAR C e n t e r .
sages and trips on difficult ships to give the broadest possible base of expe-
rience and ensure the learningofgood .vork habits. Aspecific pilot in the
assoc ; ation should be responsible fc: training, and continually review and
u p d a t e training requirementa to reflect the changes in ship types and lo-
cal conditions. Training, be it for the r;hip's officer or t h t pilot, is too impor-
t a n t to be left to happenstance.
There is a great deal of politicai pressure from within the i n d u s t r y to
s t a n d a r d i z e and formalize pilot training and have pilots work only u n d e r
a federal license. It is obvious to the working pilot t h a t conditions are too
different in each port to adopt standard requirements—that is the very
reason t h a t pilotage services are needed as ships move from port to port.
T h e r e is, however, somebasis for criticism at present as some pilot associ-
ations have no formal training program, and each pilot follows an infor-
mal path to qualify for his various licenses. O t h e r associations h a v e
formal training, strictly enforced standards t h a t usually far exceed any
s t a t u t o r y requirements, and a system of peer evaluation t h a t again is of-
ten more effective than any federaily administered licensing scheme. In
self defense it is time t h a t ali pilot associations establish formal t r a i n i n g
programs and defmite standards to qualify an apprentice to serve as full

Work w i t h ali of t h e navigation e q u i p m e n t including GPS units,

ECDIS, ARPA, f a t h o m e t e r s , and Doppler e q u i p m e n t , a n d learn about the
l a t e s t types of s t e e r i n g gear so you are as f a m i l i a r with t h e m as the ship's
officers. Trv to become comfortable a n d proficient in t h e i r use, ospecially
with t h e s y s t e m s t h a t are most useful for piloting a n d shiphandling. Too
often a pilot m u s t ask for help to perform even t h e m o s t routine of opera-
tions despite h a v i n g h a d the opportunity to use t h e s a m e piece of equip-
m e n t aboard o t h e r vessels. F u r t h e r , m o s t s h i p h a n d l e r s , ship's officers,
a n d pilots alike, t e n d to use the e q u i p m e n t in t h e open ocean and never de-
velop techniques they need when t h e r a i n squall h i t s while handling the
ship in a n a r r o w channel. Overnavigrte, even t h o u g h t h e last thing you
m i g h t need is a fíx as you make yoi.r t h o u s a n d t h t r i p up the river on a ciear
day; it ^ h a r p e n s y o a r skills and may save you f r o m h a v i n g to rely on a iess
t h a n c o m p e t e n t m a t e when the fog sets in on a s t r a n g e ship.
W h e n t r a i n i n g an apprentice create o p p o r t u n i t i e s to use t u g s or an an-
chor in less comraon situations and insist t h a t t h e a p p r e n t i c e s occasion-
ally n a v i g a t e b}' r a d a r on clear days. Require m u l t i p l e trips u n d e r difficult
conditions. I n s i s t t h a t an apprentice m a k e a l a r g e n u m b e r of night pas- very seriously."
260 TRAINING
pilot. If the associations don't do this, others will, a n d the piloting profes-
sion a n d the i n d u s t r y will suffer for it.
SHIPHANDLING SIMÜLATORS
Teachers have used books, lectures, a n d w r i t t e n t e s t s to teach t h e theory
of s h i p h a n d l i n g and o t h e r m a r i t i m e skills for generations. Countless sea-
farers learned their t r a d e t h r o u g h this traditional instruction a n d then
went directly aboard s h i p to apply t h e i r classroom knowledge in t h e real
world where most did an excellent job in a profession w h e r e skill develop-
m e n t was rnotivated p r i m a r i l y by t r a d i t i o n a n d professional pride.
This t r a i n i n g served t h e i n d u s t r y well even though it failed to a d d r e s s
some serious gaps b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d application t h a t t h e m a r i n e r was
forced to íill by trial a n d error at sea. T h e s e gaps were at t i m e s sizable, as
most m a t e s s t a n d i n g t h e i r first bridge watch alone will a t t e s t . Who forgets
t h a t first watch w h e n , a f t e r dropping t h e pilot a n d p u t t i n g the ship on
course to h e r next port, t h e m a s t e r stepped below leaving t h e n e w third
mate, alone and u n t e s t e d , to deal w i t h navigation a n d traffic. T h e young
mate, who h a d read ali t h e books a n d m a s t e r e d countless e x a m s , quickly
learned, during the n e x t few proud b u t n e r v e - w r a c k i n g h o u r s , t h a t a
sometimes horrifying g a p exists between theory a n d application. Most of
us survive to serve w i t h o u t incident t h r o u g h a career s t r e t c h i n g for years
and h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s of miles at sea, b u t t h e r e is nc d e n y i n g we ali
would have benefited f r o m some form of t r a i n i n g t h a t more closely resem-
bled t h a t first watch at sea or first encounter with some new situation.
W i t h simulation, m a t e s , master3, a n d apprentice pilots h a v e an oppor-
tunity to apply theory to real-world s i t u a t i o n s w i t h o u t being aboard ship,
and simulator-based i n s t r u c t i o n is now p a r t of t r a i n i n g in s h i p h a n d l i n g
and bridge operations at t h e U.S. M e r c h a n t M a r i n e Academy, t h e s t a t e
academies, t h e union schools, p r i v a t e t r a i n i n g facilities, a n d s e v e i a l Sim-
ulator facilities worldwide.
These i n s t i t u t i o n s realize t h a t t h e Simulator offers m a r i n e r s t h e op-
portunity to experience, in a relatively s h o r t period of time, a m u l t i t u d e of
situations t h a t would t a k e years to witness "on-the-job." More impor-
tantly, these situations can be controlled a n d responses can be evaluated
and critiqued without b e n d i n g a single plate of steel.
THE RULES OF THREES
An overview of simulation t r a i n i n g as it impaets on s h i p h a n d l i n g is p r e-
sented in this chapter a n d the practice m a n e u v e r s in t h e b o o k ' s l a s t pages
SIMÜLATORS AS INNOVATIVE TRAINING AJDS 261
can be used as part of a simulator-based shiphandling program. More de-
tailed information about a curriculum and teaching techniques are out-
side the scope of this texto nd readers should consult specialized texts fsee
t h e Bibliography), such as chapter 8 of Watchstanding Guide for the Mer-
chant Officer, for a more detailed discuLsion on this rapidly developing
field. Complete reporte of studies and guidelines for simulator-based pro-
g r a m s have been produced at the CAORF facility at Kings Point and are
available for review.
Simulator training follows two oasic Rules of Threes:
• There are three components to a good Simulator program—the Sim-
ulator, t h e instruetor, a n d t h e curriculum.
• There are three steps to effective Simulator training—classroom
presentation of theory in a detailed briefing session, the t r a i n i n g
exercises on the Simulator, and an all-important debriefing session
where performance is reviewed and critiqued.
Together, the three components and the three steps form a t e a c h i n g
process t h a t changes the very n a t u r e of instruction for several fáceis of lhe
work done by shipmasters, deck o f f i c e r a n d pilots as well as for operating
t a s k s performed by professionals in uther demanding poutions, such as
airlinc pilots and power plant operators.
Simulators are powerful toolsfor training in the very important opera-
tional work done on the ship's bridge and in the engine room, b u t s i m u l a -
tion is not a panacea. Mariners are generalists in an era of specialization
a n d simulator-based instruction is not, at least at this time, useful for
teaching every type of work t h a t deck officers routinely perform.
SIMÜLATORS AS 1NNOVATIVE TRAINING AIDS
Simulators fill a long recognized gap between classroom instruction and
hands-on application of many operating skills including shiphandling,
rules of the road, radar, navigation. watchkeeping and bridge procedures,
a n d bridge resource management. For the first time, with simulation. dy-
namic re al-world situations can be created in a controlled classroom envi-
r o n m e n t where ship's officers and pilots can
1. Practice new techniques and skills with an instruetor and peers.
2. Transfer theory to real-world situations in a classroom environment.
3. Deal with multiple problemsconcurrently rather than sequentially.
262 TRAINING SCALE MODKL-DASEI) SIMULATORS 263

4. Learn to priori tize those multiple t a s k s u n d e r t h e s a m e high stress, SCALE MODEL-BASED SIMUUVTORS
changing conditions faced in actual s h i p b o a r d opcrations.
Scale model-based simulators atfacilities in Grenoble, Franco; the South-
a m p t o n Institute in the Uniled Kingdom; and the presently closed United
Shiphandling and many other facets of the m e r c h a n t m a r i n e r s and pi-
S t a t e s Navy school in Little Creek, Virgínia, use large scale models of var-
lot's work are operating skills. T h e principies can be l e a r n e d from books
ious ship types to simulate actual ships and shiphandling situations. The
and lectures, b u t proíiciency comes t h r o u g h practice. Before simulation,
s t u d e n t and shiphandler/instructor ride in the models (fig. 10-4) on rela-
t h e r e was no way to complete t h e l e a r n i n g process w i t h o u t actually going
tively large, specially designed lakes laid out with modeled channels,
aboard ship and working at the job. As s t a t e d e l s e w h e r e in t h i s text, one
docks, locks, canais, mooring buoys, single-point moorings, and anchor-
does not learn to play the piano by r e a d i n g a b o u t it, a n d professionals do-
a g e s to recreate a wide range of shiphandling activities.
ing operational work do not learn their c r a f t t h r o u g h 'study a n d classroom
instruction alone. M a r i n e r s m a s t e r t h e i r c r a f t by doing it aboard ship but,
with simulation, it 's now possible to at l e a s t practice f u n d a m e n t a i s , cor-
rect poor work habits, develop procedures, a n d d e m o n s t r a t e basic profi-
ciency before actually going aboard ship.
This is a major advancement in m a r i t i m e training. Textbook instruction
can be put into practice and, at least as i m p o r t a n t , skills can be applied in
real-world situations where several t a s k s a r e done simultaneously, not
one at a time. Before simulation, s h i p b o a r d skills w e r e discussed and
tested sequentially, because t h e r e is no way to a d d r e s s several tasks si-
multaneously on p a p e r or to learn t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t a r t of prioritizing
work. In real life, deck officers a n d pilots deal w i t h m u l t i p l e operating
t a s k s simultaneously and, through practice, t h e y l e a r n to prioritize in-
stinctively and, most importantly, to s h i f t priorities, in changing routine
and emergency situations.
Simulators are bringing a new d y n a m i c into t h e classroom where expe-
rienced m a r i n e r s or pilots teach skills u s i n g books a n d lectures with the
added dimension of real-time experience to actually teach operating skills
rather than just explain them.

TYPES OF SIMULATORS
There are two basic types of simulators—model-based simulators in
which pilots a n d deck officers ride in large scale models while learning and
practicing shiphandling, and computer-based s i m u l a t o r s using a bridge
mock-up and a computer-driven p r e s e n t a t i o n . C o m p u t e r - b a s e d simula-
tors use either an image of the selected geographic a r e a g e n e r a t e d com-
pletely by t h e computer with t h e ship's b e h a v i o r p r o g r a m m e d as an
overla}', or a computer-generated image t o g e t h e r with points of light pro- Fig. 10-4. A typical scale training model with riding posilioris for the
jected on t h a t image. Each h a s a d v a n t a g e s a n d disadvancages and both i n s t r u c t o r and student. Courtesy the Southampton Institute, Maritime
types, properly operated, are very effective t r a i n i n g tools. O p e r a t i o n s Center. Photo by Steve Park.
264 TRAINING

The model-based Simulator gives a d y n a m i c p r e s e n t a t i o n of bottom and

b a n k effects, wind a n d sea conditions, and i n t e r s l v p effucts created as two
ships pass. Scenarios are created to provide a wide r a n g e of shiphandling
experiences (fig. 10-5). The ship models respond to externai wind and cur-
rent and behave like an actual ship when backed a n d t u r n e d . Anchor work
is practiced in the model-based Simulator u n d e r n o r m a l a n d emergency sit-
uations in a very realistic environment w h e r e a real, albeit small, vessel i:í
m a n e u v e r e d using an actual anchor. T h e s e are real floating craft in real
w a t e r b s h a v i n g according to the la ws of hydrodynamics, so the effect expe-
rienced by s h i p h a n d l e r s is correct even though it is scaled down.
Because t h e simulation is scaled down, n e i t h e r t h e e x t e r n a i effects nor
ship behavior can be in "real time." T h e r e is some difTerence of opinion
among experienced s h i p h a n d l e r s who h a v e worked with both computer-
driven and model-based simulators as to w h e t h e r t h i s scaled behavior sig-
nificantly decreases the effectiveness of t h i s t r a i n i n g .

SCALE—IS IT IMFORTANT?
S h i p h a n d l e r s speak of "having a feel" for a s h i p — b e i n g able to take the
correct action at the correct time based on an a l m o s t instinctive sense of a
p a r t i c u l a r ship's behavior. The ability to a n t i c i p a t e s h i p response at this
levei is g a i n e d by actually handling similar s h i p s for several year;. It
would a p p e a r , therefore, t h a t the lack of real-time response would be a ma-
jor d i s a d v a n t a g e to a n y system t h a t is being u s e d to t e a c h shiphandling.
In fact, m o s t ship's officers a n d pilots i n s i s t t h e y quickly a d j u s t to this
scaled time, so it does not seem to d e g r a d e t r a i n i n g . F u r t h e r , a n y disad-
v a n t a g e t h a t m i g h t exist is partially offset by t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y effects
and s i t u a t i o n s can be simulated, a n d actually felt, in a dynamic, scaled-
down vessel moving t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r , t h a t c a n n o t be re-created as effec-
tively u s i n g p r e s e n t computer-driven e q u i p m e n t . T h e r e s e e m s to be gen-
eral a g r e e m e n t , especially among experienced pilots a n d shiphandlers
who have actu ally s p e n t time on both t y p e s of s i m u l a t o r s , t h a t scale does
not degrade t h e effectiveness of scale model s i m u l a t o r s as learning tools.
C o m p u t e r - d r i v e n a n d scale model s i m u l a t o r s each offer a d v a n t a g e s and,
generally, t h e more experienced s h i p h a n d l e r s s e e m to h a v e a greater ap-
preciation of scale-model training.

COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS
Computer-based, full- and p a r t - t a s k s i m u l a t o r s a r e proliferating at mari-
time schools, union schools, and private t r a i n i n g facilities worldwide as
266 TRAINING
ship bridge s i m u l a t i o n becomes an affordable a n d effective m a r i n e train-
ing tool. T h i s g r o w t h of m a r i n e simulation, a n d particularly ship bridge
simulation, is very m u c h technologically driven as e q u i p m e n t develops to
fill a long-known n e e d for a m e a n s to teach o p e r a t i n g techniques t h a t , be-
fore simulation, could not be t a u g h t in a classroom (fig. 10-6). Smaller,
faster desktop a n d m i n i - c o m p u t e r s with g r e a t e r memory capacity have
made it technically a n d financially practical to build equipment t h a t sim-
ulates complex h y d r o d y n a m i c models moving over realistic visual scenes
at a reasonable cost. Early simulation with r a t h e r basic, cartoonlike pre-
sentations a n d simpllstic ship models h a v e evolved into detailed a n d visu-
ally accurate scenes with complex models a n d multiple m e e t i n g a n d
crossing vessels. Limited ahead-view only screens h a v e evolved into 240-
to 360-degree p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t u s u a l l y provide a view a f t so t h e com-
puter-driven s i m u l a t i o n is useful for pilots a n d deck officers.
There a r e two basic leveis of computer simulators, defined by complete-
ness of t h e simulation and purposes served. Part-task simulators p r e s e n t a
Fig. 10-6. T h e m o d e r n simulation uses state-of-the-art high-definition
projectors to provide 360-degree photo-quality scenes. Courtesy RTM
STAR C enter.
COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS 267
limited n u m b e r of featurcs, typically one or two systems, a..d are intended
for training in a specific task such as radar, m i e s of the roud, \RPA, or
cargo system training, where it is not nece?3ary to use a more expensive,
complex full bridge simulation. Full-task simulators, alsc referred to as
full-mission bridge simulators, present i complete environinent, such as a
complete engine control rooin or a full ship's bridge complete with naviga-
tion equipment, radar, steering stand, communications equipment, en-
gine control, and ali the other systems that would be present in a modern
wheelhouse. A full task or full misrion Simulator is designcd to create a re-
alistic environment in which the ship's officer or pilot can train and prac-
tice t h e same full range of tasks in a real-tiine scenario t h a t they would
experience aboard ship in routine and emergency bridge watch situations.
Full-task simulators, regardless of type and builder, share a coinmon
background. Ali begin with a mathematical model developed from d a t a
collected in shallow water tests and sea trials of the class and type of ship
being simulated. The hydrodynamicist supplies the ship data to program-
m e r s who create a visual presentation t h a t moves across a set of screens
re-creating vessel motion and the hydrodynamic and environmental ef-
feets suitable to the particular training session, limited only by available
computer memory and speed. Experienced pilots then spend many hours
working with t h e programmer and hydrodynamicist tailoring the model,
modifying the data-based presentation until it "feels" to the shiphandler
like the class of ship being modeled. This modification or tailoring of mod-
els is 'zontroversial and obviously unscientific but, with current simula-
tors and the maneuvering data available to the hydrodynamicist, it seems
necessary to blend the experienced mariner's intuitivo evaluation with
t h e theoretical model to develop a sufficiently accurate simulation.
Simulators have a mock-up of a generic ship's bridge with some type of
f r o n t or rear projection visible forward of the bridge upon which the visual
scene and the ship's deck are either projected or developed (figs. 10-7 and
10-8). It is generally accepted t h a t the siinulator's bridge should re-create,
to the m a x i m u m extent possible, the actual shipboard environment. Most
facilities include a chart room ship's passagewr vs, and the usuai naviga-
tion equipment, reference books, and instruments found on a typical
ship's bridge. The visual presentation should present at least a 240-degree
field of \ isibility, since shiphandlers depend as much on a view aft, or at
least a b a f t the beam, as they do on the view ahead when moving ships in
pilot waters and close quarters situations (fig. 10-8). A greater are of visi-
bility is desirable when working in very close q u a r t e r s situations, and a
268 TRAINING C O M P U T E R li ASE D SIMULATORS 269

t u r e s used by the s h i p h a n d l e r maneuvering in the port. Conditions of

restricted visibility, day a n d night scenes, the effects of wind forces on wa-
ter surface, buoy and navigational aids, and the sounds of whistles and
buoys are included in the simulation.
Increased computer power makes it possible to simulate more com-
plete vessel behavior ingiven wind and current conditions and in response
to changing bank effects as a ship proceeds along a channel. Intership ef-
fects between passing ships are presented with reasonable accuracy al-
though computer-driven simulation is waiting for lhe next goneration of
computers to be able to h a n d l e the complex calculations needed to repro-
duce fully the interaction of two ships passing. The m o s t m o d e r n simula-
tors are also able to simulate at least the basic effects of dragging and
s t e a m i n g on anchors and t h e use of an anchor in emergency situations.
The technique used to actually generate this \ isual presentation is of
more importance to the Simulator operator than to the student. The Simu-
lator user is more interested in the following:

Fig. 10-7. M I T A G S Simulator uses a hydraulic system to move l h e

wheelhouse p l a t f o r m a n d add roll, yaw, and pitch to t h e simulation.
Courtesy M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e of Technology and G r a d u a t e Studies.

view a s t e r n is now available in a few simulators for t r a i n i n g in docking

and undoclung.
Various s h i p t y p e s a r e simulaled. Depending on t h e work to be done,
the m a t h e m a t i c a l s h i p model m i g h t be speciíxc, such as w h e n doing port
research or t r a i n i n g for a n e w class of ship, or it m i g h t only s i m u l a t e an av-
erage ship of a p a r t i c u l a r size or type for less specific instruction in bridge
operations a n d g e n e r a l shiphandling. Effects i n h e r e n t to t h e ship, includ-
ing s t e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , engine response a h e a d a n d a s t e r n , efiects of
backing, twisting, t r i m , d r a f t , a n d directional slability or instability are
ali included in t h e ship's program. Shallow water effects, t"ne hydrody-
namics of b a n k a n d i n t e r s h i p action, a n d externai forces such as tugs,
wind, and c u r r e n t effects t h a t change as the ship type a n d loading condi-
tions are altered, are overlaid on t h a t ship's program. T h e ship and the Fig. 10-8. U.S. Merchant M a r i n e Academy cadets gaining experience
forces affecting it a r e overlaid on a representation of t h e port or open wa- conning and handling ships underway on a real-time Simulator.
ter m a n e u v e r i n g a r e a t h a t includes the visual cues a n d p r o m i n e n t fea- Courtesy © United States M e r c h a n t Marine Àcaderny.
270 TRAINING
1. T h e accuracy of t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l ship model over a full range of
maneuvers ahead and astern.
2. T h e detail or fideiity of the visual presentation.
3. The are of visibiiity p r e s e n t e d .
4. The accuracy w i t h which t h e externai forces are re-created to simu-
late the effeets of wind, c u r r e n t , b a n k a n d shallow w a t e r effeets,
intership action, a n d the effeets of t u g s a n d anchors.
5. The degree to which the Simulator re-creates t h e bridge environment.
There is some d e b a t e concerning t h e need for highly specific m a t h e -
matical ship models a n d detailed visual scenes, a n d t h e i m p a c t of added
detail on the effectiveness of t h e Simulator as a teaching tool. Academics
tend to feel detail is n o t as i m p o r t a n t as application while m a r i n e r s , the
users, generally contend t h a t realism is i m p o r t a n t to m a k e t h e simulation
believablebut, as c o m p u t e r power increases a n d cost declines, t h e debate
will probably become moot. S i m u l a t o r s will provide increasingly accurate
reproduetions of the s h i p a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t in which she o p e r a t e s sim-
ply because technology m a k e s it possible to do so at ever lower costs.
State-of-the-art c o m p u t e r s capable of p r e s e n t i n g complex hydrody-
namic effeets a r e now available at a reasonable cost so t h e r e a r e very few
a r e a s where initial t r a i n i n g c a n n o t be provided u s i n g simulation. Simula-
tors can be used for t r a i n i n g in t e c h n i q u e s like t h e proper way to m e e t and
pass other ships in n a r r o w c h a n n e l s with sufficient realism to be used for
initial t r a i n i n g of pilots a n d ships' officers. The exception m i g h t be the use
of anchors for routine a n d emergency m a n e u v e r s , which is n o t currently
simulated with sufficient accuracy to be u s e f u l to a pilot or m a r i n e r .
On t h e other h a n d , t h e effeets of d r a g g i n g a n d m a n e u v e r i n g on one or
two anchors a r e poorly s i m u l a t e d at best. This is probably t h e case be-
cause p r o g r a m m e r s a n d design e n g i n e e r s don't appreciate t h e i m p o r t a n t
role anchors play in emergency a n d r o u t i n e s h i p h a n d l i n g a n d t h e lack of
sufficient real d a t a t h a t can be u s e d for p r o g r a m m i n g . T h e anchor looks to
t h e m like a big p a r k i n g brake. T h i s shorteoming is significant because the
anchor is the primar}' tool in emergency s i t u a t i o n s w h e n power or s t e e r i n g
is lost and, since s i m u l a t o r s a r e t o u t e d as tools for teaching emergency
maneuvers, the effeets of t h e anchor m u s t be s i m u l a t e d accurately. T h e
most recent generation of s i m u l a t o r s s e e m s capable of doing this to a lim-
ited degree, b u t s i m u l a t o r s will not reach their full potential as tools for
emergency t r a i n i n g u n t i l t h e effeets of dragging and working with an-
chors is fully and accurately d o c u m e n t e d and simulated.
COMPARISON OF M O D E L ANU COMPUTER S I M U L A T O R S 271
COMPARISON OF MODEL AND COMPUTER SIMUTATORS
There are so™.e advantages ?nd disadvantages to both model- and com-
puter-based simulators, independent of the operational differences be-
tween the two types.
Model-based simulators need several acres of n a t u r a l or man-made
lake, so that there are limitations to where this type of facility can be lo-
cated. A suitable n a t u r a l or man-made lake and a few acres of open land
are needed for the facilities, so the model facility m a y have to be estab-
lished in an inconvenient, and possioly expensive, location. Computer-
driven simulators can be set up literally anywhere without regard to prox-
imity to water or large a r e a s of open land since only a few reasonably sized
rooms are needed for t h e equipment and bridge inock-up. The facility can
be built hi a convenient, low-cost location although the site cost consider-
ation is at least partially offset by the higli cost o" purchasing, maintain-
ing, and upgrading t h e computer-driven Simulator and its software.
Model simulators are affected by weather, which can significantly re-
duce the time this type of simul ator is usable. This can be a significant dis-
advantage in areas with severe winters and a high percentage of rainy
days. Computer facilities can be used for training year round independent
of weather conditions, although some mariners claim the real-life envi-
ronment of model-based simulators adds to the learning experience.
The very low teacher-to-student ratio inherent in a model-based Simu-
lator, where the instruetor rides with only one or two m a r i n e r s for several
days, makes this type of instruction expensive. The teacher to student
ratio is only marginally beUer for computer simulators, so neither type of
Simulator has a significant advantage in this regard. It seems then t h a t
t h e r e are no overriding advantages or disadvantages to one systein over
t h e other and t h a t each is more effective for teaching particular aspeets of
shiphandling.
Those designs end cos; differences tend to balance out, so the real con-
sideration is which type of Simulator is most effective for teaching the par-
ticular subject matter. Pilots seem to prefer the model simulator t h a t
effectively re-creates hydrodynamic effeets, externai forces, anchor work,
and ship behavior both ahead und a s t e m in very close waters, since they
a r e more inlerested in the subtleties of shiphandling and operations in pi-
let waters. Deck officers seem to prefer computer-driven simulators for
their ability to simulate particular po?-ts and a familiar bridgelike setting
of a ship underway for training in bridge operations, navigation, rules of
272 TRAINING SI MULATO R VALI L) ATI ON 273

the r o a d , a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s more r e l a t e d to the w o r k of a s h i p ' s officer.
P e r h a p s t h i s io to be ex.pected since t h e two u s e r g r o u p s do h a v e d i f f e r e n t
interests.
If a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n can be m a d e , it is t h a t t h e r e a r e a d v a n t a g e s to the
s h i p - m o d e l F.irnulator for t e a c h i n g t h e s u b t l e t i e s of s h i p h a n d l i n g , while
t h e c o m p u t e r-driver. bridge S i m u l a t o r s e e m s t o b e b e t t e r for t e a c h i n g
m a n y of t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s of t h e deck officer's or pilot's work. In a n y case,
a d v a n t a g e s of model s i m u l a t i o n m a y be lost if t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n of com-
p u t e r - d r i v e n s i m u l a t o r s i s able t o r e - c r e a t e t h e effects t h a t a r e p r e s e n t l y
s i m u l a t e d m o s t effectively u s i n g models. U n t i l t h a t t i m e , t h e b e s t facili-
ties will p r o b a b l y u s e b o t h c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n a n d scale-model s i m u l a t o r s t o
teach t h o s e a s p e c t s o f s h i p h a n d l i n g for w h i c h each i s m o s t s u i t a b l e . T h i s i s
presently done at the Southampton Institute in the United Kingdom.
TOOLS OF SIMULATOR INSTRUCTION
M o d e m simulators create an environment where performance can be
d e m o n s t r a t e d , m e a s u r e d , a n d r e p l a y e d , so t h a t recording equipment
s e v e r a l t y p e s i s i m p o r t a n t . T h e S i m u l a t o r c h a n g e s t h e m e t h o d s u s e d t o re-
view a n d t e s t l e a r n i n g i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y i t c h a n g e s t h e n a t u r e o f in-
s t r u c t i o n i t s e l f , b e c a u s e Simulator r e c o r d i n g s provide a n a c t i v e , d y n a m i c
m e a s u r e o f p e r f o r m a n c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e passive p a s s - f a i l w r i t t e n t e s t s
used in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l classroom (fig. 10-9).
T y p i c a l l y , t h e tools used t o record b o t h p e r f o r m a n c e a n d b e h a v i o r u n -
der r o u t i n e a n d h i g h - s t r e s s e m e r g e n c y conditions i n c l u d e
s u r e d performance, review, and repetition a f t e r a debriefing w h e r e each
recorded session is reviewed by p a r t i c i p a n t s and the instruetor. Be criticai
of yourself and open-minded when reviewing recordo of « a t a exercise so
t h a t s u b s e q u e n t Simulator sessions do more t h a n reinforce old, often im-
p r o p e r work h a b i t s (fig. 10-9).
SIMULATOR VALI D ATION
A Simulator is of little use if the information presented is not accurate,
since incorrect or misleading information Is worse t h a n useless: it can be
d a n g e r o u s . The process of e v a l u a t i n g t h e accuracy of the simulation is
k n o w n as validation.
S t u d i e s of various m e a n s for m e a s u r i n g accuracy of the s i m u l a t i o n
a n d v a l i d a t i n g Simulator facilities a r e ongoing in several c o u n t r i e s b u t ,
as yet, t h e c r i t e r i a a r e n e b u l o u s at best, since the user is t r y i n g to catch
u p w i t h t h e f a s t c h a n g i n g technology while, a t t h e s a m e time, deciding
of

1. "X-Y" or s i m i l a r plotters t h a t r e p r o d u c e a vessel's t r a c k a n d h e a d -

ing.
2. C o m p u t e r - or p r i n t e r - g e n e r a t e d g r a p h s a n d t a b l e s of v e s s e l speed,
e n g i n e a n d h e l m orders, r a t e o f t u r n , a n d associated d a t a x e l a t e d t o
time.
3 . S i m u l a t o r p l a y b a c k capability, s o t h a t s i t u a t i o n s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e
c a n b e r e c r e a t e d for selected t i m e s .
4. A u d i o r e c o r d i n g of pilot's or deck o f f i c e r s o r d e r s a n d d i s c u s s i o n s
d u r i n g a S i m u l a t o r rum.
5. Video r e c o r d i n g of p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a c t i o n s a n d u s e of e q u i p m e n t . Fig. 10-9. Control room of a state-of-the-art marir.e Simulator with
c o m p u t e r i n p u t , monitors, and recording e q u i p m e n t to allow instruetor
U s e t h e s e r e c o r d s of each S i m u l a t o r exercise in a d e b r i e f i n g session to a n d o p e r a t o r to m a n a g e a n d record the session for later doLriefing and
review a n d c o m p a r e p e r f o r m a n c e with p a s t sessions a n d a c c e p t e d s t a n - e v a l u a t i o n . Courtesy M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e of Technology and G r a d u a t e
d a r d s . S k i l l s a r e m a s t e r e d on a Simulator t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s of m e a - Studies.
274 TRAINING
w h e r e s i m u l a t o r s fit into the m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g picture. S i m u l a t o r vali-
dation is becoming increasingly i m p o r t a n t as s i m u l a t o r s gain accep-
tar.ce for roquired t r u i n i n g , te«ting, a n d licensing, and as compa/.ies
increase t h e i r use of s i m u l a t o r s for e v a l u a t i n g m a t e s a n d m a s t e r s for
promotion a n d retencion.
THE SIMULATOR INSTRUCTOR
The i n s t r u c t o r is the second a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t component of t h e Simula-
tor package.
It is f a r too easy to overlook the instructor's essential role a m i d s t t h e
bells, whistles, and flashir.g lights of a m o d e r n Simulator but, as impres-
sive as it m i g h t be, t h e simulator is only a sophisticated teaching tool used
by an experienced m a r i n e r with t h e a p t i t u d e a n d t r a i n i n g to teach a well-
p l a n n e d course covering t h e various aspects of vessel operations a n d
Bhiphandling to cadets, pilots, and deck officers.
An uncodified b u t nationally a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y accepted s t a n d a r d is
evolving t h a t r e q u i r e s very skilled m a r i n e r s as instructors r a t h e r t h a n a
third m a t e w a i t i n g for a job at sea, or a r e t i r e d military officer with two
years' sea time aboard military ships t h a t a r e very different f r o m today's
large a n d o f t e n underpowered deep d r a f t m e r c h a n t ships. I n s t r u c t o r s
should be experienced pilots, m a s t e r m a r i n e r s , or m a r i t i m e professionals
who h a v e in-depth experience in t h e p a r t i c u l a r m a n e u v e r s being t a u g h t
a n d a r e also t e a c h e r s t r a i n e d in o p e r a t i n g t h e simulator. At ü i e b e t t e r fa-
cilities, t h e i n s t r u c t o r s also have specialized t r a i n i n g in a d u l t education
a n d t h e techniques for using s i m u l a t i o n effectively as a t r a i n i n g tool.
When very specialized training is offered, t h e facility m a y u s e a team con-
cept with two i n s t r u c t o r s , one t r a i n e d in teaching wrth s i m u l a t o r s a n d a
second who is usually a professional w i t h c u r r e n t experience in t h e spe-
cialty being t a u g h t .
Poor i n s t r u c t i o n only p e r p e t u a t e s t h e very s h i p h a n d l i n g m i s t a k e s and
poor o p e r a t i n g procedures t h a t the pilot, m a t e , cr m a s t e r came to the
course to overcome, a n d courses t a u g h t by anyone other t h a n sênior, expe-
rienced m a r i n e r s with training as i n s t r u c t o r s do a disservice to t h i s area
of m a r i t i m e education.
Companies, pilot organizations, a n d t h e m a r i n e r s using a facility
should consider t h e qualifications of t h e instructor as well as t h e capabili-
ties of t h e s i m u l a t o r w h e n e v a l u a t i n g a s i m u l a t o r program, a n d s i m u l a t o r
facilities should b u d g e t for well-qualifled instructors, not excessively ex-
pensive e q u i p m e n t . A s i m u l a t o r with limited capabilities in t h e h a n d s of a
THE SIMULATOR CURKICULUM FOR D E C K O F F I C E H S 275
skilled instructor with strong course material is an cxcellent t r a i n i n g tool.
T h e best full-task simulator is a weak teaching tool in the hands of a poor,
professionally mexperienced instructor and an instructor who does not
take simulation seriously.
There are ongoing studies by the International Maritime Grganiza-
tion, the U.S. Coast Guard, and several papers by various participants in
the international conferences on marine simulation concerning accredita-
tion of simulator instructors t h a t will consider professional experience
a n d training but, as yet, no such s t a n d a r d s are in place in the United
States. This certification should also include certification s t a n d a r d s for
courses t h a t train the trainer.
DEGREE OF INSTRUCTOR INVOLVEMENT
There are two schools of thouglit regarding the degree to which t h e in-
structor should be involved in the simulator exercise.
Some believe instructors should be on the b r i d j e working with the stu-
d e n t group. The instructor would explain maneuvers and actively guide
t h e shiphandler or m a t e through the exercise so t h a t each m a n e u v e r is
performed correctly.
Others feel the instructor should be at a separate operating console re-
moved from the students, who would go through each exercise independ-
ently a f t e r the briefing session. The shiphandlers and mates are allowed
to m a k e mistakes and perform the exercise at their own pace, a f t e r which
the instructors and s t u d e n t s go through a detailed debriefing critiquing
each other's work based on performance and records of the exercise. With
t h e plethora of excellent m e a s u r i n g and monitoring equipment available,
most fa :ihties are using the latter method, which most students and more
experienced instructors generally agree is more effective. Specialized
courses sometimes use both alternativos. The expert simulator i n s t r u c t o r
works at the console, while a second instructor with specific skills in the
subject m a t t e r t a u g h t works on the bridge.
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS
T h e curriculum is the third component of an effective simulator program.
It is interesting to watch experienced seamen get deeply involved in
well-planned shiphandling lessons on a real-time simulator presentation,
responding emotionally as the fog sets in or another ship approaches in a
n a r r o w channel. This is p e r h a p s the best testimony for the effectiveness of
such training.
276 TRAINING
On t h e job, deck officers do not routinely get enough closely supervised
s h i p h a n d l i n g t r a i n i n g or hands-on experience in pilot w a t e r s , even if they
glcan as much i n f o r m a t i o n as possible from a pilot aboard t h e i r ship. For
them, s i m u l a t i o n is especially i m p o r t a n t . Shipboard work is, to a large ex-
tent, a solitary t a s k , a n d m a r i n e i s often carry bad habits t h r o u g h o u t their
career because t h e r e a r e limited opportunities in the n o r m a l course of a
voyage for someone to point out their errors. The Simulator is valuable if it
does no m o r e t h a n provide a briefing and debriefing f ó r u m with peers, un-
der the supcrvision of experienced s h i p h a n d l e r s a n d s h i p m a s t e r s with no
obligations o t h e r t h a n to teach professional skills.
As a l r e a d y s t a t e d , s i m u l a t o r s a r e very eífective aids for teaching a
m u l t i t u d e of subjeets. This t e x t focuses on s h i p h a n d l i n g a n d considers
skills only to t h e e x t e n t t h a t they iinpact on shiphandling. In this regard,
ship model a n d c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t o r s a r e both very eífective for teaching
basic s h i p h a n d l i n g t h e o r y and specialized piloting a n d s h i p h a n d l i n g tech-
niques, b u t m o r e a d v a n c e d s h i p h a n d l i n g skills m u s t be honed to the levei
expected by t h e m a r i t i m e community, and the public, by s p e n d i n g h u n -
dreds of h o u r s a c t u a l l y h a n d l i n g ships.
It is generally agreed t h a t detailed, carefully developed scenarios t h a t re-
ílect situations a pilot or deck officer will encounter in the course of their work
should be used as a basis for instruction re.ther than a rote lesson. Plan a very
detailed scenario t h a t includes ali the navigation, radio communications,
and intraship communications, watch reliefs, and other routine events in an
arrival, docking, undocking, departure, or other evolution being practiced.
Based on discussions with experienced instruetors a n d s t u d e n t s , it is
a p p a r e n t t h a t s c e n a r i o s t h a t closely t r a c k real-world situations a r e more
effective t h a n impossible situations t h a t degrade the Simulator session to
the levei of a video g a m e . Avoid the t e m p t a t i o n to overdo problems to the
point w h e r e exercises become unrealistic, no-win situations, b u t include
ali the work a s h i p h a n d l e r or pilot will have to do d u r i n g t h e s a m e evolu-
tion aboard ship so t h e work load and priorities reílect on-the-job experi-
ence. Ideally, t h e p r o b l e m s developed in those scenarios increase in
difficulty a t t h e s t u d e n f s pace until realistic limits, r a t h e r t h a n t h e limits
of the computer, a r e r e a c h e d .
Subjeets covered on t h e Simulator vary depending on t h e i n t e n t of the
program, since a third m a t e needs material different from a m a s t e r prepar-
ing to command a VLCC, b u t as a m i n i m u m the program should include
1. An introduction to general ship m a n e u v e r i n g characteristics.
T H E S I M U L A T O R C U R R I C U L U M FOR DKCK OFPICISRS 2 77
'2. Basic m a n e u v e r s as discjssed in the mastcr's trials.
3. The Williamson T u r n maneuver to demonstrate steering eharacter-
lSt'.v3.
4. Watchkeeping scenarios requiring maneuvering a ship at sea in
ciuse m e e t i n g a n d crossing situations (both when aboard the giving
way vessel and the standingon vessel,, stressingthe iinportance of a
round-turn m a n e u v e r in such situations.
5. Maneuvers to arrive at a pilot station and make a Ice to embark a pi-
lot in ali types of w e a t h e r and s^a conditions.
6. Maneuvering to m a k e a lee to launch a lifeboat or recover a person
from the water.
7. Maneuvering in narrow channels and with traffic, including stop-
ping a ship in a n a r r o w channel in the minimum time while main-
taining good control of the ship.
8. Use of tugs in narrow channels and while docking and undocking.
9. Response to own ship machinery failures and failures aboard ap-
proaching ships.
10. Methods for h a n d l i n g a ship wilh stern way, with and without strong
winds.
11. Comparison of high-sided versus low-freeboard ships and their be-
havior in strong winds.
12. Ifwithin the capability of the simul ator, demonstrate techniquesfor
working wilh b a n k suction, intership action, and strong river cur-
rents.
13. Proper communication techniques using sound signals, running
lights, and radio, and stressing the iraportance of limiting such com-
n u n i c a t i o n only to necessary information.
Insist on proper procedures for every task and teach the full range of
work involved in a shiphandling exercise including navigation, rules of
t h e roaa in traffic situations, bridge organization, bridge resourcc man-
agement, a command presence, decision making and ieadership skills.
a n d voyage planning techniques ur.der routine and emergency situations,
not just shiphandling itself. Ali tnese skills iinpact on shiphandling. The
pilot or deck officer m u s t m a s t e r the entire package of professionals skills
a n d techniques of bridge resource management to use the crew and equip-
m e n t to advantage. Use the simulator's capability to its fullest extent so
t h a t the mariner is practicing the skills in as close to a real-world environ-
m e n t as possible. T h a t is the very essence of the Simulator experience.
278 TRAINING
Bridge organization is discussed briefly in t h i s t e x t to the extent it im-
pacts on s h i p h a n d l i n g , and some excellent texts on voyage p l a n n i n g and
bridge resonrce m a n a g e m e n t a r e listed in the Bibliography Develcp these
skills as p a r t of t h e s t u d y of shiphand) ing since t h e y a r e an integral p a r t of
t h a t work. The s i m u l a t o r is t h e most effective tool for p u t t i n g t h e concepts
of voyage p l a n n i n g a n d bridge m a n a g e m e n t into practice, both of which
are integrated into every well-planned s i m u l a t o r p r o g r a m .
Plan exercises u n d e r progressively worsening w e a t h e r conditions with
increasing winds a n d reduced visibility. Analyze m a n e u v e r s done u n d e r
clear conditions compared with those done as conditions deteriorate. In-
corporate several lessons into one exercise as t h e s h i p is b r o u g h t from sea
to a dock. Practice m a n e u v e r i n g in trafíic, applying t h e Rules of t h e Road,
making a lee a n d picking up a pilot, a n d learn to work w i t h tugs, communi-
cate, organize t h e bridge in pilot w a t e r s , a n d u n d e r s t a n d hydrodynamic
effeets ali in one exercise by being creative w i t h carefully p l a n n e d scenar-
ios. Be sure to do t h e s a m e work u n d e r n i g h t conditions since t h e s a m e
jobs a p p e a r d i f f e r e n t in t h e d a r k .
The s i m u l a t o r also m a k e s s e a f a r e r s , a n d particularly t h e younger
ship's mate, comfortable with t h e idea t h a t a s h i p is designed to be m a n e u -
vered. This m a y s o u n d basic, b u t too m a n y deck officers are r e l u c t a n t to
t a k e action w h e n a problem develops d u e to a s t i g m a of inviolability at-
tached to t h e bridge a n d its e q u i p m e n t . Effective course m a t e r i a l takes
this into consideration d u r i n g t r a i n i n g in s h i p h a n d l i n g , m a n e u v e r i n g in
traffic, a n d bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t . T h e "hands-on drill" discussed
elsewhere in t h i s t e x t is also applicable to t h e f i r s t day on a simulator and,
after several days of s i m u l a t o r training, t h e reluctance to m a n e u v e r
should be gone.
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR PILOTS
As previousiy s t a t e d , deck officers a n d m a s t e r s a r e h a v i n g an increasingly
difficult time finding opportunities to practice s h i p h a n d l i n g to t h e degree
needed to develop s t r o n g s h i p h a n d l i n g skills. F o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s is not the
case for pilots who h a v e no problem a c c u m u l a t i n g shipboard experience.
By the very n a t u r e of t h e i r work, pilots h a v e daily access to ships for train-
ing and practice of s h i p h a n d l i n g and bridge m a n a g e m e n t skills. They are
aboard ships in pilot w a t e r s , m a n e u v e r i n g , at ali h o u r s u n d e r ali condi-
tions. They l e a r n a n d practice t h e i r skills on a r o u t i n e basis, u n d e r tute-
lage of experienced, skilled pilots at no cost o t h e r t h a n t h e i r time—they
train aboard t h e u l t i m a t e ship simulator, the ship, a n d t h a t t r a i n i n g is 1'ree!
T H E SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR P I L O T S 279
Simulators, in their present state ofdevelopment, do not give pilots a
sense of depth and distance or the subtle visual cues and hydrodynamic ef-
feets needed to m a s t e r close quarters shiphandling. It is still the ship t h a t
best demonstrates ali the nuances of ship behavior at the I jvel required to
develop total competence under ali the conditions encountered hy a work-
ing pilot. Simulators, in their present state, aro effective tools to enhance
pilot skills but they don't replace the ship for must pilot training.
Simalators do not presently replace t he traditional apprenticeship-ori-
ented training methods t h a t have served pilots so well, and any claim to
t h e contrary does a disservice to the development and acceptance of simu-
lators, but they definitely are a useful tool for pilots for many purposes in-
cluding
1. Theory and basic techniques of shiphandling, including training in
emergency situations.
2. Bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t and bridge organization.
3. Familiarization with new or unusual ship types not customarily
handled in a pilot's home waters.
4. As a fórum for pilots to demonslrate and compare various job tech-
niques with peers in a slructured training environment.
5. Radar, ARPA, navigation, and coininuiiications training to update
knowledge of new equipment and techniques.
6. Port development and improvement studies to reconfigure ports
and establish p a r a m e t e r s for handling new, larger, or unique ship
types.
7. New methods for dealing with specialized pilot tasks, such as han-
dling new or larger vessels and maneuvering in reaíigned channels
and new port configurations.
Technical reports from CAORF published in March 1985 discuss simu-
lator training for pilots in depth, and those reports provide an exceilent
basis for planning a generic pilot training program. More definitive train-
ing must be developed in conjunction with the pilots' assoeiation for the
port or arca simulated because piloting is inherently port specific and very
specialized. That is the very reason pilots exist. No ene other than the pi-
lots themselves appreeiate the techniques used and the local knowledge
needed to work safely and efficiently in a particular port.
Like ship's officers, pilots need training in navigation, radar, bridge
operations and bridge resource management, and emergency maneuvers.
280 TRAINING
Fig. 10-10. A typical m o d e m Simulator bridge includes full
i n s t r u m e n c a t i o n and i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e control s y s t e m s for t r a i n i n g on a
full r a n g e of s h i p types and propulsion s y s t e m s . Courtesy RTM STAR
Center.
Apprentice pilots especially m u s t m a k e full u s e of t h e ship f e a t u r e s and
e q u i p m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n concentrating on s h i p h a n d l i n g alone, since they
need t h e s a m e t r a i n i n g and experience in bridge operations as the third
mate. Again, scenarios should be p l a n n e d to include ali aspects of a pas-
sage t h r o u g h pilot w a t e r s , not j u s t s h i p h a n d l i n g techniques, even though
the pilot m a y be i n h e r e n t l y more i n t e r e s t e d in t h e s h i p h a n d l i n g aspecto of
the exercise, a n d the scenarios m u s t be challenging b u t realistic, so the ex-
ercise r e m a i n s a job to be done r a t h e r t h a n a g a m e to be won (f:g. 10-10).
Spend t i m e discussing hydrodynamics a n d t h e o r y of ship behavior
with pilots w h o benefit from a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of why ships behave
as they do r a t h e r t h a n j u s t knowing liow t h e y behave. An appreciation of
hydrodynamic principies and s h i p h a n d l i n g gives pilots the basis for antic-
ipating s h i p behavior on the job r a t h e r t h a n r e a c t i n g to it.
T H E SIMULATOR C U R R I C U L U M FOR P I L O T S 281
Have the pilot role-play as master, working with another pilot to better
appreciate the master's position in the pilot-master relationship. Take a
ship into familiar pcrts. Broaden the pilots' experience by placing them in
challenging situations with larger ships and different ship types lVom
lhose being handled in the pilot's home waters. Use the recording and re-
play capabilities of the Simulator to fácilitate self analysis and peer cri-
tiques of not only the actual shiphandling performance but also bridge
demeanor and bridge resource management. Even the most skilled and
experienced pilots íind, when reviewing graphs and videos of their exer-
cises, t h a t they may give many unnecc ssary orders or show signs of stress
t h a t create unnecessary tension on the bridge in challenging situations.
Pilots are using t h e playback and review process routinely and pilot orga-
nizations are participating in bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t courses on a
routine basis.
Bridge operations and resource m a n a g e m e n t have become increas-
ingly difficult for pilots who work more and more with multicultural crews
without advance preparation to move a ship safely through pilot waters.
The pilot organizations recognize this and the American Pilots' Associa-
tion is promoting bridge m a n a g e m e n t training for ali pilots. 1 In fact, pilots
insist t h a t a simple requirement to comrnunicate in a cominou longue, usu-
ally English, would do more to increase marine safety than a wheelhouse
full of new instruments or a volume of regulations. Communications and
bridge orgairzation remain a major challenge to working pilots, and Simu-
lator exercises provide an excellent opportunity to sharpen the pilot's
skills in bridge resource m a n a g e m e n t and communications.
Training exercises should include both vessel-specific exercises for
more sênior pilots and nonspecific exercises for less experienced pilots
learning Lhe basies of shiphandling using generic ships operating over the
pilot's roule. Insist that ali pilots involved in the course follow correct pro-
cedures and make every aspect of the training scenario as realistic as pos-
sible.
Pilots a i e also using simulators for port studies, familiarization with
new vessel types, and as a f orum with peers in the workplace, practicing
shiphandling exercises and exchanging ideas on their work. PiloLs are
most familiar with ships t h a t routinely call in the w a t e r s on which they
serve and, when radically differont types of sizes of ships begin serving
1
APA Promotes BRM Training for Pilots. Washington, DC: American Pilots'
Association, October 5, 1993.
282 TRAINING B R I E F I N G AND DEURIFFING S F S S I O N S 283

t h a t port, t h e y s o m e t i m e s have to r e i n v e n t t h e wheel. Increasingly, pilots and plan the intended passage. Charts and tide tables m u s t be studied
are g e t t i n g t o g e t h e r with peers froin a n o t h e r port who h a v e experience a n d a passage plan developed. The more carefully the passage is discussed
with t h a t s h i p type and are using simulators as a tool for transferring and pia " " e d . the more beneficiai the suusequent simulator period will be.
knowledge and experience wiihin the profession. T h i s f ó r u m aspect of the After the s i m u l a t o r e x e r c i a , there should be a lengthy, carefully
simulator exercise provides a u n i q u e opportunity, since pilots normally moderated debricfing where bridge work is reviewed a id Lhe perfor-
work alone with little opportunity to critique each other's work and dis- m a n c e of each of the individuais involved in the lesson is critiqred. Most
cuss s h i p h a n d l i n g . Piloting is by n a t u r e a solitary job with little routine of the learning from a simulator session is done d u r i n g this debrieíing
contact b e t w e e n p e e r s and the simulator can c h a n g e this—serving as a when the users a r e led by the instructor to look critically at their perfor-
catalyst for professional discussion among pilots t h a t can be quite benefi- m a n c e and the r e s u l t s of their work and analyze w h a t they m i g h t h a v e
ciai. done differently (fig. 10-11). The mates and pilots a r e usually allowed to
So, is s i m u l a t i o n effective in improving piloting skills? T h e pilots m u s t critique their own performance with guidance from the instructor using
think so since they a t t e n d both model- a n d computer-based simulators at r e r u n s of selected sections of the passage, and a review of video, audio,
t h e i r own expense. They see the value of t r a i n i n g t h a t e n h a n c e s their abil-
ities both in b r o a d shiphandling skills a n d specialized a r e a s peculiar to
t h e i r cwn p o r t a n d work. Cost is an i m p o r t a n t consideration, though, since
s i m u l a t o r s a r e expensive. P e r h a p s it is t i m e for a nationally uniform
training surcharge on ali pilotage fees t h a t is r e t a i n e d by each association
to pay t h e cost of t r a i n i n g and educating its m e m b e r s . This equalizes the
cost of t r a i n i n g b e t w e e n ports a n d creates a f u n d so t h a t even t h e smallest
associations can afford training paid for by t h e beneficiaries of t h a t
t r a i n i n g — t h e s h i p o w n e r whose ships a r e moved safely a n d expediently in
t h a t port.

THE THREE STEPS OF SIMULATOR TRAINING

As s t a t e d previously, t h e r e a r e three steps to simulator training: a briefing
session w h e r e tlieory and an outline of t h e s i m u l a t o r exercise a r e dis-
cussed in a classroom environment, t h e s i m u l a t o r exercise itself, a n d a de-
briefing session to review performance. S i m u l a t o r t r a i n i n g t i m e seems to
be broken d o w n a b o u t evenly between these t h r e a steps, so t h a t only ap-
proximately a third ofthe total training time is actually spent on the bridge
simulator.
T h i s is logical since instruction a n d a p p r a i s a l is done by t h o instructor
t h r o u g h a w e l l - p l a n n e d course and, w i t h o u t intensive instruction a r d
evaluation, t h e pilot, master, or m a t e would only be u s i n g s i m u l a t o r time
to practice a n d reinforce weak or improper work h a b i t s .
Fig. 10-11. Properly equipped debriefing room includes large area for
BRIEFING AND DEBRIEFING SESSIONS group discussion and equipment to play back key segmenta of the
Time m u s t be allotted for a classroom briefing before each s i m u l a t o r pe- exercise and review g r a p h s and printouts of m a n e u v e r s . Courtesy RTM
riod to discuss t h e theory and hydrodynamics involved in each problem STAR Center.
284 TRAINING
and c h a r t r e c o r d s gives m a r i n e r s a clear picture of w h a t occurred d u r i n g
the S i m u l a t o r exercise. W i t h o u t t h i s review, t h e period on t h e Simulator
becomes a high-priced video g a m e since the lessons a r e n e v e r r e a l l y fixcd
in t h e u s e r ' s mind.
It is s u r p r i s i n g how often m i s t a k e s are not recognized d u r i n g t h e ses-
sion b u t immediately selzed on a n d discussed d u r i n g t h e debriefing. Even
the m o s t experienced m a r i n e r s a n d pilots often c o m m e n t on work h a b i t s
they h a d n ' t realized they had developed d u r i n g y e a r s of w o r k a b o a r d ship.
This peer-to-peer review is especially helpful to experienced pilots and
s h i p m a s t e r s since they rarely h a v e an opportunity to c o m p a r e techniques
and develop iniproved work h a b i t s t h r o u g h discussion with t h e i r peers.
The third segment of the Simulator training, the time actually spent on
the Simulator, has a l r e a d y been discussed in preceding sections of this
chapter.
THE FUTURE OF SIMULATION
Simulation is a developing field. Technology, need, a n d application are
changing and improving rapidly as t h e Simulator is more widely accepted
as a u s e f u l t r a i n i n g a n d testing tool in t h e m a r i n e c o m m u n i t y .
E a c h generation cf Simulator oífers more accurate p r e s e n t a t i o n s and
b e t t e r visual detail as more and f a s t e r computers a r e p u t into smaller
spaces at lower cost.
Several firms have built small s i m u l a t o r s driven by desktop computers
for use aboard ship. T h i s type of s i m u l a t i o n is useful for l e a r n i n g t h e rules
of the road, ARPA and r a d a r operation, basic navigation, a n d o t h e r skills.
Some companies provide software so ship's officers can u s e d e s k t o p simu-
lators to become f a m i l i a r with a port before arrival. T h a t said, t h e d r e a m
of developing desktop s h i p h a n d l i n g s i m u l a t o r s h a s been elusive at best.
S h i p h a n d l i n g is an applied art, n o t a video game, a n d t h e restricted are
of visibility, total lack of depth of field, a n d t h e p l a n -*dew p r e s e n t a t i o n
used in m a n y cases h a s limited t h e u s e f u l n e s s of this e q u i p m e n t . Memory
capacity a n d computer speed coniinue to increase exponentially so it is
reasonaole to expect such e q u i p m e n t to be u s e f u l at some point in t h e fu-
t u r e but, for now, s h i p h a n d l e r s should not place a n y f a i t h in skills devel-
oped a n d practiced on desktop s i m u l a t o r s .
C o m p u t e r s are developing because of u n i v e r s a l d e m a n d . T h e r e is obvi-
ously a m u c h smaller d e m a n d for research a n d d a t a needed to increase the
u s e f u l n e s s of s i m u l a t i o n for teaching a n d testing. Research is n e e d e d to
develop t h e h u m a n side of simulation a n d colléct m o r e complete d a t a on
C O M P U T E R S FOR TESTING AND EVALUATION 285
t h e effectiveness of instruction and the degrec to which Simulator training
transfers to work aboard ship. Research is also needed on ship behavior in
shallow water. The accuracy oi mathemacical mudeis is still limited be-
cause cosi and tight schedules make it diflicult to collect d a t a aboard ships
operating in shallow water and, without t h a t information, much of the ba-
sis for current models is theoretical and extrapolated from deep w a t e r sea
trials and tank tests. The effectiveness of Simulator training and t e s t i n g
will increase as this information becomes a/ailable.
COMPUTERS FOR TESTING AND EVALUATION
C o m p u t e r s will be used more for assessmenls and license e x a m i n a t i o n s as
b e t t e r testing criteria are developed. A great deal of work lias been done in
t h i s a r e a in the past decade and reasonably objective evaluation criteria
h a s been developed for special purposes. For example, the RTM STAR
Center developed criteria t h a t has been tested and, in the opinion of staff,
pilots, and state commissions proven useful for evaluating s t a t e pilots
prior to license renewal.
Simulators have been used for several years for deck officer license ex-
a m s and pilot evaluations at maritime academies and union Simulator fa-
cilities to test performance-based skills such as applied rules of the road
a n d performance as conning officer and officer of the watch in fog a n d
heavy traffic situations. The ability to evaluate a mariners ability to prior-
itize tasks : n realistic shipboard scenario is a major step forward in exam-
ining performance-based skills. The testing becomes more valuable when
situations are introduced t h a t test the professional's ability to apply skills
u n d e r stress. Simulation is the best and, at present, the only method for
doing this.
The U.S. Coast Guard, the Maritime Institute ofTeehnology and Grad-
u a t e S ' u d i e s (MITAGS), the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, the RTM
STAR Center, and other training facilities have completed studies and os-
tablished some criteria for this type of testing and evaluation. The Na-
tional Research Councifs Marine Board has also completed intensive
studies and published recommendations for training and testing using
simulation.
The testing usually meets with initial skepticism from m a r i n e r s who
leel there is some gap between shipboard performance and performance in
w h a t they feei is an artificial environment in a Simulator. In fact, those
s a m e m a r i n e r s and pilots usually change their opinion a f t e r experiencing
simulator-based testing. A good case can be made t h a t pilots and m a r i n e r s
286 TRAINING
benefít directly from this- type of testing. T h e r e is a direct correlation be-
tween testing. licensing, and professional s t a n d a r d s t h a t raise the entry
threshold a n d protect jurisdiction for anvone moving ships in restricted
waters.
T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a r i t i m e Organization r e c o m m e n d s performance-
based testing of underlying skills r a t h e r t h a n dependenca on written
knowledge-baaed testing. 2 T h i s and other reports reflect a significant
change in t e s t i n g methodology a w a y from traditional w r i t t e n multiple
choice e x a m i n a t i o n s t h a t test m e m o r i z a t i o n m o r e t h a n t h e ability to pilot
ships.
A cadre of sênior m a r i n e r s a n d pilots, i n d e p e n d e n t from or contracted
to the U.S. Coast G u a r d are n e e d e d to a d m i n i s t e r t h e s e examinations. To
date, technological developments in simulation h a v e outpaced t h e uses of
this equipment for t e s t i n g and a s s e s s m e n t .
The RTM STAR C e n t e r in D a n i a , Florida, continues to develop more
and better criteria t h r o u g h their computer-based e x a m i n a t i o n s for unlim-
ited ocean m a s t e r licenses a n d t h e A l a s k a n Pilot E v a l u a t i o n P r o g r a m de-
veloped for the s t a t e of Alaska. C r i t e r i a developed for t h a t evaluation
include a point scoring system b a s e d on lengthy t a s k s r e l a t e d to piloting in
A l a s k a n w a t e r s t h a t w a s developed jointly by t h e pilots a n d t h e facility.
T h e testing criteria w e r e validated in several ways including h a v i n g mul-
tiple instructors e v a l u a t e the s a m e pilot independently. This w a s done
d u r i n g trial evaluations a n d scores w e r e almost identical in every case.
The policy of h a v i n g pilots evaluate pilots is key to the success of that
Alaskan program. T h i s p e s r review is a model for similar p r o g r a m s . T h e r e
are no h a r d a n d fast, right or wrong responses in a given t e s t situation so
this application of simulation r e q u i r e s experienced peers to e v a l u a t e per-
formance.
SIMULATOR VS. HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE
In addition to license examinations, t i m e spent in s i m u l a tor t r a i n i n g is be-
ing considered as on-the-job experience when computing service require-
m e n t for original, upgraded, a n d renewed m a r i n e licenses. There is a
definite shift to a policy of e q u a t i n g w r i t t e n tests a n d licensing, classroom
time, and s t a n d a r d i z e d t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h hands-on t r a i n i n g ,
and t h e r e are i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l precedents for s u b s t i t u t i n g sim-
2
Reuiew of the 1978 Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, IMO Subcommit-
tee on Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, Section 4.2.3, October 5, 1993.
S I M U L A T O R VS. HANDS-ON E X P E R I E N C E 287
ulator and classroom time at some multiple of days credit for each day of
training/
There is serious doubt among professional» about this practice and
m a n y feel simulation should be seen as an additional too! for raising stan-
d a r d s to meet the requirements of an increasingly demanding profession
r a t h e r than as a s u b s t i t u t e for other experience and training. Pilots espe-
cially seem to feel simulator training enhances shipboard experience but
does not replace it.
Supporters of g r a n t i n g service credit at some ratio of equivalency con-
tend the s t r u c t u r e d simulator experience provides better training than
onboard experience. Opponents of equivalency contend time aboard ship
is m e a n t to provide experience, not training, and t h a t it is irreplaceable
precisely because it is not structured. They maintain that broad and ran-
dom experience seasons and prepares the officer for promotion and com-
m a n d . The l a t t e r group also feel tne work of mates, masters, and pilots
encompasses much more t h a n just bridge operations, and reducing time
r e q u i r e m e n t s also reduces important experience in areas not addressed in
a simulator exercise.
The U.S. Coast Guard currently grants up to six days' sea time credit
for each day spent on a simulator with a maximum credit equal to 25 per-
cent of the total required time being granted. Wliether this practice con-
tinues in this form will probably depend on the findings resulting from
present studies and input from the industry. It is possible that, in the fore-
seeable future, m a t e s will both prepare and be examined for upgraded li-
censes on a simulator.
Simulation h a s m a t u r e d into a widely used and effective training tool
for teaching basic shiphandling and other bridge skills. Simulation's place
in maritime t r a i n i n g is in a state of flux, but there is no doubt it will play
an increasing p a r t in t h e education and testing process for mariners and
operating professionals in many other high-skill fields.
3
Standards ol Training and Watchkeeping 1978 Regulation 11/4, Aiticle IX,
(1) Equivalents, and CFR Title 46—Sliipping, Part 10 304—Substitution of
training for required service.

CHAPTER ELEVEN
MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
If a pilot undertak.es the Conduct of a vessel .. . and
fails of his Duty therein .. . and the Merchants Sustain
Damage thereby, he shall be Obligated to make full Sat-
isfaction for the same . . . and if not, lose his head.
—Ruie 23, Laws of Olero
It m u s t first be stressed t h a t this c h a p t e r is not a legal treatise on t h e com-
plex relationship between s h i p m a s t e r a n d pilot; it is a discussion of t h e
day-to-day working a r r a n g e m e n t s b e t w e e n two professionals. An excel-
lent discussion of the legal aspects of t h e master/pilot relationship can be
found in Law ofTug, Tow, and Pilotage.1 This text was used as t h e princi-
pal reference for the discussion t h a t follows.
At first glance the master/pilot relationship a p p e a r s poorly defined.
Areas of responsibility seem nebulous and conflicting, with t h e m a s t e r ap-
pearing responsible for much of t h e work performed by a pilot w h o m t h e
m a s t e r does not select a n d is u s u a l l y compelled by s t a t u t e to employ. T h e
case law in this a r e a f u r t h e r befogs t h e relationship, leaving t h e m a r i n e r
to figuratively "navigate u n d e r Rule Nineteen."
In practice, though, t h e m a s t e r a n d pilot are experienced professional
s e a m e n working together to complete a p a s s a g e safely, u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
relationship between t h e i r two positions t h a t h a s evolved t h r o u g h custom
and practice over centuries. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t works well a n d t h o u s a n d s
of ships are moved each year w i t h o u t incident. It is only w h e n a casualty
occurs t h a t t h i s informal but well understood and workable a r r a n g e m e n t
becomes unnecessarily complicated.
1 2
Alex L. Parks and Edward V. Cattell, Jr., Law ofTug, Tow, and Pilotage, 3d
ed., CentreviDe, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press, 1994.
288
T H E P I L O T ABOARD S H I P 289
THE PILOT ABOARD SÍIIP
T h e pilot comes aboard to take charge of the navigation of the ship from
t h e pilot station to her destination, or to sorne intermediate point ifmulti-
ple pilots are used. The pilot inoves the ship toward her destination using
both local knowledge and a degree of shiphandling skill t h a t the seagoing
m a s t e r generally is not expected to possess. Local knowledge is such a
broad temi t h a t it m i g h t b e said to encompass the whole of the pilot's cx-
pertise, but at least it would include:
1. Local tides and currents.
2. Bottom and channel d e p t h s and configurations.
3. Courses, distances, aids to navigation, and significant geographic
features enroute.
4. Local customs and practices for snip movements.
5. Local weather patterns.
6. The shiphandling skills necessary to move vessels in the waters em-
ploy ed.
T h e pilot must, of course, possess many of the n.ariner's skills includ-
ing a knowledge of the m i e s of the road, navigation, and the use of ali
forms of navigation equipment. Obviously then, Lhe landman's picture of
t h e q u a i n t old pilot standing at t h e master's side mumbling pilliy bits of
local wisdom and advice, as the ship proceeds under Lhe master's direction
t o w a r d her d<istination, is patently incorrect and unrealistic.
A clear distinction m u s t be m a d e between voluntary and compulsory
pilots. A voluntary pilot is one engaged for the convenience of the vessel. A
N o r t h Sea pilot employed to t a k e a ship between the Rotterdam and
B r e m e r h a v e n sea buoys would be one example of a voluntary pilot. No
s t a t u t e requires a ship to have a pilot aboard, but the master or owner may
h i r e a pilot to aid in making 1 he passage expeditiously.
The owner, through the m a s l e r , h a s great control over the voluntary
pilot. The pilot need not be hired in the first place, or the pilot's services
can be rejected during the passage and the vessel continue to her destina-
tion. The voluntary pilot is in a significantly different position aboard ship
t h a n the compulsory pilot.' Practically speaking then, Lhe master can feel
Homer Ramsdell Transportation Cornpany u. Cornpagnie Generala
Transatlantique, 132 U.S. 406 (1901)
290 MASTER/PILOT KELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
much more f r e e to advise or r e ü e v e a v o l u n t a r y pilot—the voluntary pilot
is in much t h e s a m e position as t h e ship's m a t e s .
A compulsory pilot, on the o t h e r h a n d , is one t h a t is required by law to
be aboard while the ship is n a v i g a t i n g c e r t a i n specified a r e a s . Penalties
such as fines or i m p r i s o n m e n t , or both, a r e t h e h a l l m a r k s of compulsory
T H E PI LOT ABOARD S H I P 291
pilotage laws. If a ship is allowed by s t a t u t e to refuse the services of a pi-
lot provided she pays a portion of the pilotage fee, the pilotage is not com-
pulsory/
The relationship between master and compulsory pilot is in m a n y
ways unique in t h a t U is usually defined by custom, practice, and s t a t u t e
r a t h e r than contract. While the pilot is generally neither an employee of
the ship nor a meinber of her crew, he is ultimately subordinate to the
master, although the degree of subordination is less than popularly per-
ceived. The public and the industry benefít from this working arrange-
ment and from the degree of overlapping responsibility that compels both
pilot and master to be concerned about a vessel's safety.
T h e compulsory pilot is not aboard in a purely advisory capacity. T h a t
pilot is in charge of the navigation of the ship while aboard, and the ship's
crew is required to obey the compulsory pilot's orders relating to naviga-
tion unless the master determines it is necessary to intercede for reasons
yet to be discussed. A compulsory pxlot is responsible for liis own actions
a n d receives a significant fee because of this responsibility. In the pres-
ence of the compulsory pilot, a master's responsibility is not total and for-
ever. Both master and pilot have a job to do a n d bear an u n u s u a l degree of
responsibility not only to the vessel, cargo, and crew, but also to the public.
Except for American flag vessels operating in the coastwise trade un-
der enrollment, ships are requireu to have a pilot aboard in most inland
w a t e r s of the United States to provide local knowledge and shiphandling
skill. Most pilots are compulsory and it is t h a t type of pilot t h a t is referred
to throughout this chapter unless specifically noted otherwise.
An exception is found to the traditionalmaster/pilot relationship at t h e
P a n a m a Canal. The Panama Canal Authority accepts a greater degree of
liability in exchange for greater control of ships' navigation in t h a t strate-
gic waterway. Inside the locks of the P a n a m a Canal Lhe Authority is liable
for payment for injuries to the vessel, cargo, crew, or passengers arising
o u t of a passage through the locks u n d e r the control of einployees of the
commission, unless the commission shows t h a t the injury was caused by a
negligent act ofthe vessel. Outside the locks the AuthoriLy is liable for pay-
m e n t for injuries to a vessel, cargo, crew, or passengers when such injuries
are proxirnately caused by the negligence or fault of a Canal Commission
employee... provided that In the case of a ship required to have a P a n a m a
3
The Merrimac, 81 U.S. (14 Wall.) 199, (1872).
292 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE R E S O U R C E MANAtíE-MENT
Canal pilot on duty, damages are only payable if at t h e t i m e of injury the
navigation w a s u n d e r t h e control of the P a n a m a C a n a l pilot.
Shipmast.ers should be awr rc of t h e m a n n e r in which t h e traditional
rnaster/pilot relationship is distorted in this special circumstanee.
THE MASTER-S REGPONSIBILITIES IN PILOTAGE WATERS
The m a s t e r r e t a i n s overall responsibility for t h e vessel a n d h e r operation,
for h a v i n g a competent watch on d u t y and seeing t h a t t h e y perform their
work efficiently, for being sure a proper lookout is m a i n t a i n e d , and for
compliance with ali regulations and s t a t u t e s including t h e r u l e s of the
road (COLREGS). The master's a u t h o r i t y is never completely in abeyance
even while a pilot (compulsory or not) h a s i m m e d i a t e c h a r g e of t h e ship's
navigation. T h e m a s t e r is also responsible for his own professional compe-
tence, including having suíBcient knowledge a n d experience to be able to
judge t h e pilot's performance a n d recognize significant pilot error, and to
have s t u d i e d t h e local waters a n d be able to recognize k n o w n a n d pub-
lished d a n g e r s .
T h e m a s t e r h a s a duty to advise or relieve a pilot in cases of
1. Intoxication.
2. Gross jncompetence to perform t h e t a s k at h a n d .
3. W h e n t h e vessel ir» s t a n d i n g into d a n g e r t h a t is not obvious to the pi-
lot.
4. W h e n t h e pilot's actions a r e in error due to a lack of appreciation of
p a r t i c u l a r circumstances, including t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e particular
ship being handled.
In c a r r y i n g out t h e s e responsibilities t h e m a s t e r m a y e i t h e r advise or
relieve t h e pilot, at the master's discretion. In practice, t h e r e is a real bur-
den u p o n t h e m a s t e r to justify relieving t h e pilot should some casualty re-
sult, so t h e action of relieving m u s t n o t be a r b i t r a r y . T h e r e a r e several
ways to do a job and, while a d n u t t c d l y some a r e more expeditious than
others, t h e m a s t e r m u s t not relieve simply because he feels t h a t he can do
a b e t t e r j o b — t h e pilot should only be relieved w h e n t h e m a s t e r feels,
based u p o n professional experience a n d training, t h a t t h e vessel, crew, or
cargo is being placed in real and i m m i n e n t d a n g e r b e c a u s e of t h a t pilot's
p r e s e n t course of action. On the other h a n d , the m a s t e r is negligent if ac-
tion is not t a k e n when required. The m a s t e r first objeets to an action, then
r e c o m m e n d s an alternative, and only irí t h e r a r e case w h e n t h e pilot re-
"RELEASE FROM LIABILITY" F O R M S 293
f u s e s to accept a reccmmendation does the m a s t e r relieve a pilot in a
timely manner—while it is still possible to avoid an accident.
The decision about when Lo become involved is more difficult than the
absolute problem of whether it is necessary to do so. There is a n a t u r a l re-
luctance to act because of the ramifications in case of a casually, yeL the
question of timing is most criticai. Relief usually occurs when it is too
late—when the situation has deteriorated so far Lhat even the most com-
p e t e n t shiphandlorcould not correct matters and Lhe master's efforts Lhen
only complicaLe an already bad situation. There is no requirement t h a t a
s h i p be in extremis before the pilot is relieved, only t h a t the m a s t e r fore-
sees danger should a present course of action continue.
It is imperative t h a t the master be sufficiencly skilled in s h i p h a n d l i n g
to recognize a problem early, and have suHicient coníidence in Lhose skiils
to t a k e prompt and decisive action if it is necessary to relieve a pilot. The
correctness of action taken reílects the training and experience t h a t a
m a s t e r has had, and it is too late to compensate for years ofnegleet in this
area at such a time. The decision to relieve a pilot is not an easy one, b u t a
m a s t e r who instead stands by as the vessel heads for certain catastrophe
r e m a i n s a responsible partv and must take action. It is a j u d g m e n t t h a t
can only be made based on professional experience and is but one example
of why the title "shipmaster" bears a connoLaLion of unusual responsibility.
"RELEASE FPOM LIABILITY" FORMS
Occasionally a master is presenLed with a form to be signed releasing the
pilot from liability. These forms may be based on local practice or special
circumstances, such as a tugboat strike. The validity of Lhese forms in a
parLicular case is quesLionable and depends on local laws and regulations
of which the master cannot reasonably be expected to have knowledge.
I n a s m u c h as the m a s t e r may be under pressure not to delay the ves-
sel, a n d may n o t b e able to consult with anyone about the advisability of
s i g n i n g a release, he may elect to sign and note over the s i g n a t u r e t h a t
t h e release is "Signed under protest so t h a t the vessel may proceed." An
e n t r y to t h a t effect should be made in the ship : s log. Forward a copy of the
r e l e a s e to the owners so thoy can advise you about signing such docu-
m e n t s in the f u t u r e .
In any case, the form will have no immediate practical effect since the
m a s t e r has ultimato responsibility for the ship in any case, and the docu-
m e n t in no way alters the master's conduct during t h e docking or other
w o r k a t hand.
294 M A S T E R / P I LOT R E L A T I O N S H I P A N D B R I D G E R E S O U R C E MANAGE-MENT
SOME PRACTTCAL CONSIDERATIONS
The real world m u s t be kept ir mind when discussing a relationship be-
tween m a s t e r and pilot. In practice, the pilot will not r e f u s e to work more
safely, or to slow down, or use an additional tug w h e n requested to do sc by
the master, so it is extremely r a r e t h a t a conflict over relative authority
arises between pilot and master aboard ship. No r e a s o n a b l e pilotis going to
reject a m a s t e r ' s r e q u e s t to work more safely, nor would a n y m a s t e r object
to such a r e q u e s t by a pilot. This duality of interest works to the obuious ben-
efit of ali concerned. As long as one of t h e two p a r t i e s h a s an interest in
working safely, the ship is handled in a proper m a n n e r , a n d when both
work professionally t h e conoerns of one tend to amplify those o f t h e other.
It is a f a c t t h a t very few casualties occur in pilot w a t e r s t h a t do not iu-
volve some degree of acquiescence on t h e p a r t of t h e m a s t e r . In many
cases, if t h e m a s t e r h a d done no more t h a n s u g g e s t t h a t t h e pilot reduce
speed in fog or clarify a proposed m e e t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h an approach-
ing vessel, no accident would have occurred since t h e pilot will not refuse
to handle a situation more safely in such conditions. In m o s t reports of ma-
rine casualties it is obvious t h a t the m a s t e r w a s r e l u c t a n t to get involved
and allowed t h e pilot to act alone until it w a s too l a t e to avoid an accident.
It is a g a i n stressed t h a t the m a s t e r m u s t not w a i t u n t i l t h e situation is
hopeless before g e t t i n g involved. It is time to get involved, to at least ques-
tion a pilot's intentions, at the first m o m e n t t h a t t h e r e is a n y doubt about
t h e correctness of t h e pilot's actions.
W h a t options do t h e compulsory pilot or m a s t e r h a v e w h e n an irrecon-
cilable disagreeinent arises about a course of action?
The pilot can accept the master's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , or t a k e t h e vessel
to the n e a r e s t safe anchorage until t h e m a t t e r is resolved, or s t a n d aside
and allow t h e m a s t e r to complete t h e job. T h e m a s t e r can relieve t h e pilot,
complete t h e m a n e u v e r if conditions require it, a n d t h e n e i t h e r r e t u r n the
conn to the pilot or p u t t h e ship to anchor. It is a g a i n s t r e s s e d , t h o u g h . t h a t
the m a s t e r i n t e r v e n e s only when t h e pilot's work is e n d a n g e r i n g t h e ship,
cargo, crew, or assisting tugs—not because the m a s t e r feels a job can be
done in another, more expedit^ous m a n n e r .
Let me r e i t e r a t e for emphasis. It would be wrong to give an impression
t h a t such differences occur with any regularity. They do not! Both the
m a s t e r a n d pilot a r e professionals with a coinmon i n t e r e s t a n d t h e fact is
t h a t irreconcilable differences almost never occur b e c a u s e of t h e context
in which objections to a course of action a r e m a d e .
B R I D G E R E S O U R C E MANAGEMENT FOR S H 1 P H A N D L E R S 295
Recently, the relationship between the master and pilot has been com-
plicated by the growth in popularity of the "team concept" of shipboard or-
ganization. The pilot is ofUsii said to be another member of a team t h a t is to
navigate a ship from one point to another, as if the pilot were employed as
a crew member for the passage. This is clearly not Lhe case with a compul-
sory pilot who is providing a one-time service to the ship, and it is unrealis-
tic to a t t e m p t to p u t any pilot into that position.
The team concept in its intended forni is not new. The wcll-organized
crew has always operated as a team under the master, each inember per-
forming assigned t a s k s to move the ship expediently from point to point,
and the concept is valid as long as it is kept in t h a t context. T h e team is or-
ganized verLically with the mate and h d m s m a n , engineer on watch, and
others involved in the navigation of the ship performing t a s k s as assigned
by the pilot, through t h e master. These tasks might involve machinery op-
eration, log and record keeping, position fixing, or radar plotting—ali jobs
being performed to support the master or pilot who has the conn. It is im-
p o r t a n t to differentiate between this vertically organized team and a hori-
zontally organized committee. There is no place for the latter aboard
ship—any concept t h a t diífuses responsibility beyond the m a s t e r or pilot
only confusos the relationship that exists between those two and is coun-
terproduetive to safety and sound operation. The shipboard team should
existonly to supply information and assistance as assigned by the respon-
sible m a s t e r or pilot.
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS
P r o p e r bridge organization is commonly referred to as Bridge Resource
M a n a g e m e n t (BRM). T h e organization is designed to reduce e r r o r s and
omissions t h r o u g h a system of checks and the delegation of duties.
T r a i n i n g in Bridge Resource Management is required by regulation
a n d the b e n e f i t s of BRM are steadily being recognized in the m a r i t i m e
community.
BRM evolved from Cockpit Resource Management t h a t was developed
by the airline industry after studiõs revealed h u m a n error was a contrib-
uting factor in the majority of accidents. A training system was devised to
produce a coordinated effort among cockpit personnel, ensuring t h a t each
member contribuLe in a specified manner Lo Lhe safe ílight of Lhe aireraft.
There are differences between the cockpit of an airplane and the bridge of
a ship, but m a n y of the practices developed by the aviation industry have
been adapLed Lo fit m a r i t i m e demands.
296 M A S T E R / P I L O T R E L A T I O N S H I P AND BRIDGE R E S O U R C E MANAGE M E N T
T h i s is n o t a t e x t on BRM. T h e subject is discussed in t h i s book to the
e x t e n t t h a t it effects shiphandling. Readers should consult a text dedi-
cated to t h e subject for a more complete discussion of BRM affecting vessel
operations a n d day-to-day operations.
T h e r e a r e some key t e r m s common to most discussions of BRM t h a t are
p e r t i n e n t both to BRM á n d to this text because t h e y a r e also central to
good s h i p h a n d l i n g practices including
•* E r r o r C h a i n : accidents are often a result of a chain of errors, a series
of minor m i s t a k e s or oversights, leading to a casualty.
• Perceived World: M a n y times t h e initial e r r o r s in t h a t chain go un-
detected because che conning officer is w o r k i n g in a perceived
world, t h a t is, he is i n t e r p r e t i n g the event as he expects it to be
b a s e d on a s s u m p t i o n or previous experience t h a t m a y n o t b e appli-
cable.
• E r r o r Recognition: T h e conning officer fails to recognize t h e errors
b e c a u s e of m a n y f a c t o r s including
• A loss of s i t u a t i o n a l a w a r e n e s s
• F a i l u r e to s e t priorities
• Inadequate monitoring
• F a i l u r e to d e l e g a t e t a s k s a n d assign responsibilities
• F a i l u r e to u s e available d a t a
• F a i l u r e to commu.nicate
• Preoccupation w i t h minor technical problems
T h e bridge t e a m s h a r e s the workload, obtains a n d c o m m u n i c a t e s rele-
v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n early, a n d monitors t h e v e s s e f s progress by cross-check-
ing t h e decisions a n d actions of ali m e m b e r s of t h e t e a m w i t h i n t h e context
of t h e m a s t e r / p i l o t relationship.
As previously m e n t i o n e d , vessel operators m u s t n o t confuse t e a m s
with committees. A committee m a k e s joint decisions a n d enjoys some
equality of d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g responsibility. A ship's b r i d g e r e q u i r e s disci-
pline, a defíned chain of command, and a clear u n d e r s t a n d i n g as to which
officer h a s t h e conn, t h a t is, who is in charge.
P r o p e r B R M formalizes the roles of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s b u t it does not al-
ter the c u s t c m a r y roles a n d relationship b e t w e e n t h e m a s t e r a n d pilot as
a p p r o p r i a t e for the p a r t i c u l a r w a t e r s in which t h e vessel is operating.
This is equally t r u e w h e n the pilot h a s gone a s h o r e a n d t h e m a s t e r or a
deck officer is in c h a r g e of s h i p h a n d l i n g a n d n a v i g a t i o n i m p o r t a n t in re-
BHIDGE R E S O U R C E MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDIJSKS 297
stricted waters. The t e a m supporí-s and provides feedback to the ship-
handler.
From time to time expcricnced pilots board ships where inappropriale
BRM practices lead to confusion regardiug the pilot's role relative LO the
ship's bridge team. In fact, the master-pilot relationship is not altered un-
der law or the practice ofgood seamanship, as dascnbed in this chapt-ei re-
gardless of w h a t m i g h t be stated in a ship's operating manual since ships
operate in a larger world where custom, practice, and precedent prevail.
The pilot comes aboard to t a k e the conn, lead the bridge teain as he finds
it, and a s s u m e responsibility subject only to a masler's obligations to re-
lieve the pilot in specific circumstances discussed in this chapter.
On a properly organized bridge, each niember of the bridge team serves
as afilter—removing extraneous information and duties so the conning of-
ficer is able to focus on safe movement of the vessel. The roles of bridge
team m e m b e r s are discussed in several sections of this text and in t h e
many BRM courses now available to ship's officers. The inaster and pilot
delegate t a s k s and accepts an open flow of information from bridge t e a m
members. The shiphandler, be it the master or the pilot in pilot w a t e r s , re-
ceives timely, p e r t i n e n t information from the supporting bridge t e a m in
order to m a k e proper decisions.
It is noteworthy t h a t t h e b n d g e team has additional responsibilities in
pilot waters, t h a t is, u n d e r watch condition 4 as discussed below in this
chapter. The pilot's r e q u i r e m e n t s are more intense and fluid in n a t u r e as
events occur more quiokly a n d there is less leeway for error in pilot waters.
For this reason, pilot associations have teamed with the best Simulator
schools to develop bridge resource management courses specifically for pi-
lots. S h i p m a s t e r s engaged in trades where they are responsible for ship-
handling and piloting in narrow channels and inland waters should also
t a k e these courses t h a t a r e designed when bridge team members have the
responsibility for s h i p h a n d l i n g regardless of whether a pilot or m a s t e r is
conning.
As prsviously discussed. the state-licensed, compulsory pilot brings
aboarcl his or her own responsibilities as a third party responsible to the
s t a t e and federal government as well as for the safety of the vessel, its
cargo and crew. The pilot is charged by the commissioning a u t h o r i t y to
navigate in the best interests of the state and local environment. Sound
BRM organizatior formalizes the responsibilities of everyone working on
t h e bridge, serving as lookout, or performing other duties as a team in sup-
port of the pilot to fulfill t h a t responsibility.
298 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOIIRCE MANAGE-MENT BRIDGE R E S O U R C E M A N A G E M E N T FOR SH1PHANDLEKS 299

W h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a bridge team? Basically, it consists of anyone Bridge Duty6

needed for t h e safe navigation of the ship a n d m a y include—the m a s t e r , Wa tch Collision Other j
deck officers, unficensec! crew, and t h e pilot. T h e bridge t e a m m u s t be of Condition Conn Avoidance Radio Comm.'s Nr.vigctio.. Duties Luunouc
sufficient size to perform normal bridge duties, which BRM groups into
1 Watch officer AB
three general areas:
2 Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
3 Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
1. CollÍ3Íon Avoidance—Detecting and avoiding o t h e r vessels a n d ob-
4 Pilot Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
jects.
2. N a v i g a t i o n — K e e p i n g the vessel safely clear of shoal w a t e r , close to
Note: "Other Duties" may include record keeping, tending t h e e n g i n e
h e r i n t e n d e d track, and near to on schedule.
order telegraph and/or t h r u s t e r controls, monitoring equipment, etc.7
3. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n — R o u t i n e watch d u t i e s such as communications,
The division of duties is similar to the concept of triage. As the s i t u a -
log keeping, and supervising watch personnel. 4
tion warrants, additional personnel are ndded so that the person conning
can focus on the task at hand. There is eonsiderakle overlap of duties,
T h e size of t h e bridge team varies based on t h e w a t c h condition, which
which allows members to cross-check each oíher. It might be better if t h i s
is dictated by t h e environment in which t h e vessel is operating. T h e envi-
c h a r t were drawn with hatched lines to show that the division of duties is
r o n m e n t includes factors such as w e a t h e r , t r a f f i c , a n d vessel location. The
not static or exclusive to a particular officer or crew members. Effective
following c h a r t shows an example of watch condition criteria.
BRM dictates t h a t duties are divided based on the expertise of t e a m m e m -
bers. For example, the pilot may h a n d l e most of the radio communications
Watch
Condition Ship's Environment d u r i n g a passage, but he m a y delegate less essential communications LO
Waterway t h e m a s t e r or watch officer. If t h e m a s t e r deems it necessary, there m a y be
Visibility Traffic
two watch officers sharing navigation and other duties.
1 Clear Offshore Light
Unfortunately, in the real world the number and duties of bridge t e a m
2 Reduced Restricted Moderate members are often less t h a n ideal when ships are sometimes u n d e r -
3 Reduced Restricted Heavy m a n n e d and crews inadequately trained. Watch condition 4 may include
4 Reduced Pilotage Heavy only the pilot, a solitary mate, a n d a helmsman. Solid BRM techniques a r e
even more important in these situations when pilots and s h i p h a n d l e r s
T h e w a t c h condition may be determined by a c o m b i n a t i o n of factors.
m u s t a d a p t ideal practices to existing conditions and use available per-
For e x a m p l e , if a ship w e r e operating in clear visibility, in light traffic, and
sonnel to safely accomplish the t a s k at hand. There are also conditions
in pilotage w a t e r s , t h e watch condition would be 4. In a basic sense, as a
when the available bridge team is unacceptable. Trained and experienced
s i t u a t i o n becomes m o r e information intensive and/or less error tolerant,
professionals recognize t h a t point a n d p u t a ship to anchor until the bridge
more people a r e required to perform bridge d u t i e s safely.
is adequately manned. Aiways insist on proper manning for a given situa-
T h e size of t h e bridge ceam increases as t h e s i t u a t i o n intensifies, and tion rega.-dless of how vehemently others might object.
t h e following c h a r t illustrates t h e way in which d u t i e s a r e divided as t e a m
size increases.
6
Ibid.
4
Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute for Training and Graduate 7
Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute for Training and Graduate
Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Linthicum Heights, Maryland, Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Linthicum Heights, Maryland,
1992. 1992. (Note: Several sections of this chapter were adopted from the MITAGS
5
Ibid. course material.)
300 M A S T E R / P I L O T R E L A T I O N S H I P AND B R I D G E R E S O U R C E M A N A O E - M E N T T H E COST O F R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y 301

Watch condition 4 begins once a pilot comes aboard. T h e conn is ex- THE COST OF RESPONSIBILITY
changed a f t e r completing the M a s t e r / P i l o t Exchange (chapter 1). Tnis ex-
Authority, responsihility, and liability a i e inseparable, so foult will inevi-
change of i n f o r m a t i o n familiarizes t h e crew with t h e pilot's role aboard
tably be assigned after any casualty according to perceived responsibility.
the ship a n d p r e p a r e s bridge t e a m for t h e passage a h e a d . Il h e l p s to form
Fortunately, the day when pilots and mariners paid with their lives for er-
t h e "shared m e n t a l model" required for eífective BRM.
rors is ;ong past, so present day penalties are primarily in the form of lost
Bridge Resòurce M a n a g e m e n t principies recognize conditions aboard
income cr fines.
ship a r e dynamic. Well-managed bridge teams are t r a i n e d to adopt to
Perhaps these penalties satisfy a perceived need to enforce s t a n d a r d s
changing conditions. T h e M a s t e r is responsible for t h a t t r a i n i n g so he or
of performance and assign blame. Unfortunately, it is inevitable t h a t t h e y
she should schedule m e e t i n g s at various stages of a voyage including
become a consideration when the m a s t e r thinks about relieving a pilot.
T h e penalties might in fact be counterproductive since their existence can
1. Pre-voyage—Prior to sailing, t h e m a s t e r and deck officers m e e t to
cause the master to delay in taking correctivo action. In any case, it is
discuss t h e voyage plan, to identify potential problems, to e n s u r e
duubtful t h a t they serve any real purpose since casualties usually a r e t h e
t h a t everyone is "on the s a m e page," and e n s u r e t h a t m e m b e r s are
r e s u l t of errors in j u d g m e n t r a t h e r t h a n gross negligence or i n t e n t i o n a l
a w a r e of t h e i r d u t i e s a n d responsibilities.
misconduct. To make m a t t e r s worse, the penalties are assigned a f t e r t h e
2. Post-voyage—Upon completion of t h e voyage, t h e t e a m m e e t s to
fact by a third party who usually has only a limited appreciation of the m a -
s h a r e s u g g e s t i o n s for improving bridge t e a m p e r f o r m a n c e and to
rine profession and the context within which the m a r i n e r s j u d g m e n t s a r e
r e m e d y a n y individual or t e a m weakness.
m a d e and actions are taken. Unfortunately, there is no reason to expect
3. Monthly—The m a s t e r should conduct monthly m e e t i n g s to rein-
t h i s situation to change.
force p r o p e r B R M practices, to provide leadership t r a i n i n g , and to
It is essential t h a t neither the m a s t e r nor the pilot get too bound up in
e n c o u r a g e open discourse among t e a m members.
considerations of legality and liability in the course of their work. While
4. Special—The m a s t e r may choose to conduct special m e e t i n g s to dis-
these considerations are significant, there is an overriding professional a n d
cuss emergency procedures, to resolve problems as t h e y arise or to
m o r a l obligation for both of t h e m to exercise ali their professional t a l e n t s
provide t r a i n i n g opportunities.
to safely and expeditiously move ships. Both must appreciate the circum-
stances under which they labor, b u t their actions should be instinctive
Experienced m a r i n e r s realize t h a t t h e principies of p a s s a g e p l a n n i n g
a n d in the best interests of t h e ship in which they are serving. W h e n t h e
and the concept of a bridge t e a m are not new ideas. T h e s e a r e ali tech-
m a s t e r or pilot hesitates to act as they see proper because of concern for
niques t h a t h a v e been practiced for generations aboard well-run ships.
some later review or liability, it is time for them to seek some other career.
Certainly, each of us c a n identify p a r t i c u l a r m a s t e r s , pilots, a n d officers
who were proficient in them. These individuais were identilied as t r u e
professionals or "good" c a p t a i n s , and it w a s a pleasure to serve with them.
BRM t r a i n i n g simply formalizes t h e bridge organizatron t h a t , in t h e p a s t .
was p u t in place in an inconsistent m a n n e r depending on t h e individual
s h i p m a s t e r s ability to i m p l e m e n t sóund leadership skills.
Professional s h i p h a n d l e r s should add a text dedicated to Bridge Re-
source Managc-ment to their professional library. The value of BRM is
widely recognized and s h i p h a n d l e r s need to u n d e r s t a n d a n d work within
t h a t organization to move ships most efficiently and safely in pilot w a t e r s .
(See also t h e discussion of BRM aboard Azipod and other centralized
and a u t o m a t e d control vessels.)

CHAPTER TWELVE
VESSEL OPERATIONS
Many officers spend much time in perfecting themselves
in deep sea navigation, where the ship is not endan-
gered, but make no effort to acquaint themselves with
conditions such as tides, currents, etc., when coming
into port, because the Captain or pilot will then be tak-
ing responsibility. This is where danger really exists. . . .
—Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook
PLANNING THE PASSAGE
Columbus wasn't s u r e w h a t he would find at his d e s t i n a t i o n or w h a t
would be e n c o u n t e r e d en route, b u t he p l a n n e d his p a s s a g e w i t h meticu-
lous care a n d m a d e t h e best u s e of information available at t h a t t i m e . He
planned a stop at G o m e r a in t h e C a n a r y Islands, a n d a t r a c k down the
twenty-eighth parallel, which he f e l t would t a k e h i m to h i s d e s t i n a t i o n .
Through the c e n t u r i e s m a s t e r s a n d ships' officers h a v e continued to plan
each passage using ali available information to safely a n d expeditiously
reach their destination. P a s s a g e p l a n n i n g is n e i t h e r new nor a n y less im-
p o r t a n t today w h e t h e r a p a s s a g e is offshore or in pilot w a t e r s .
F u r t h e r , as discussed in c h a p t e r 7, t h e need to plan a p a s s a g e does not
diminish with experience on a p a r t i c u l a r r o u t e or body of w a t e r ; too often,
a m a t e or m a s t e r neglects p l a n n i n g because T v e m a d e this r u n a h u n d r e d
times." This is illogical, since no one plans a p a s s a g e more thoroughly
t h a n a pilot who h a s probably m a d e a t h o u s a n d trips over a route. Because
of t h e pilot's competence a n d experience, t h e planning m a y at t i m e s seem
effortless a n d s k e t c h y a l t h o u g h , in lact, the pilot h a s p l a n n e d t h e p a s s a g e
in great detail; an a p p a r e n t concradiction since the pilot a l r e a d v h a s such
detailed knowledge of t h e a r e a being navigated. T h e fact is t h e m a r i n e r
m a y not have suíficient local knowledge to appreciate the p l a n n i n g t h a t is
required. The pilot checks c u r r e n t s a n d tides at several points, not j u s t at
the pier as t h e m a r i n e r t e n d s to do, a n d compares dead reckoning to actual
positions continuously d u r i n g a passage. Notices to m a r i n e r s a r e checked
even though the aids long ago b e c a m e so well-known t h a t positions are
302
PLANNING T H E PASSAGE 303
scrub the voyage."
5
reconciled almost without conscious thouglit. Distances off points and
aids are checked, times for standing by the anchors and taking tugs are
discussed, times for rising and eettingof the sun and moon are computed
because of their effect on available light during a passage, and w e a t h e r
conditions along the route are studied. If the pilot considers ali t h i s work
essential, it is only logical t h a t the mariner who is less familiar with an
a r e a should plan at least as carefully.
The hazard of overplanning a n d its effect. on handling the ship m u s t
also be considered—and more significantly, the dangers of following an in-
flexible passage plan regardless of conditions t h a t develop. Do not plan
t h e placement of every mooring line at the dock and then a l t e m p t to
blindly follow that plan regardless of the 30-knot wind t h a t devtlops off
t h e dock after the planning is done, or aespite the freshet found to be run-
n i n g across the berth. Select an area to anchor, b u t use your professional
skill to a d j u s t when you find a ship anchored in your planned location.
T h i s may sound obvious, yet a few years ago a ship's mate religiously fol-
lowed an overly detailed passage plan until the ship's bow was 50 feet over
t h e Cristobal breakwater! It is not uncommon for a pilot to board a ship
a n d find bridge personnel overly concerned because a n o t h e r ship has
stopped ahead on the preplanned track line t h a f w e have to follow." The
 T H E C O U R S E CARI) 305
304 VESSEL OPERATIONS

This information is also put on ali the necessary charts as a reference

t h a t will r e m a i n throughout the passage—a graphic plan t h a t is even
more important and useful t h a n the t a b u l a r plan, since good navigation
practice calls for ali navigation to be done directly ou the charts of an area.
As the passage plan is laid down on the chart, the charted data is com-
pared to the tabular plan for errors or unforeseen dangers along the
planned route. P u t this information on the c h a r t in ink so it will remain in
its original form. This avoids the cumulativo errors that occur when pen-
ciled courses a r e continually shifted as fixes are oblained during a pas-
sage. Daily navigation is done in pencil for comparison with the planned
track. Lay down ares of visibility for ali lights t h a t will be used, and put ali
distance, course, expected currents, and other information tha.. is shown
on the tabular plan into the chart.
Additional information is required In pilot or inland waters including

1. Courses and distances in each reach or leg of a port passage.

2. Each t u r n i n g point, with a reference buoy or bearing and distance
off a proininent aid or point of land.
3. Set and drift at several significant points along the route.
4. Time of high and low w a t e r at similar points.
5. Location of anchorages, pilot boarding areas, and the location where
plan is m e a n t only as a formalized dead reckoning a n d does not replace
tugs will be m e t a n d m a d e fast.
good s e a r n a n s h i p , navigation, a n d shiphandling ability.
6. Shoals and hazards, highlighted to bring them to the navigators at-
T h e a t - s e a p a s s a g e plan begins i n a n abstract t a b u l a r f o r m a t t h a t in-
tention during t h e passage.
cludes

1. P l a n n e d t r a c k with waypoints a n d junction points. Again, everything except the times of tides and current changes should
2. C o u r s e s to s t e e r from point to point, or between waypoints. be in ink, both to avoid m i s t a k e s and to save f u t u r e work, since the courses
3. D i s t a n c e s f r o m point to point, a n d for the passage. a n d distances will not be lost when the c h a r t is erased and will be avail-
4. E s t i m a t e d t i m e of arrival at various points computed for selected able for subsequent passages.
s p e e d s a t h a l f - k n o t intervals.
5. L i g h t s a n d aids to navigation expected en route, with characteris- THE COURSE CARD
tics a n d r a n g e of visibility. In addition to the chart. a pocket-size course card (described in chapter 7) is
6. N o t a t i o n s of b a n k s , shoals, and other points of particular i n t e r e s t . prepai ed by the master for reference during the passage to or from the dock
7. P o r t a n d pilot r e q u i r e m e n t s , V H F working frequencies a n d report- (fig. 12-3). The pocket card minimizes distraction from the ship's operation
i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , times of high a n d low water at the port. a n d allows the m a s t e r to remain at the centerline window to conn the ship
8. S e t a n d d r i f t expected from ocean and local currents. or observe the pilot's work rather than having to shift between the wheel-
9. P a r t i c u l a r information required by any u n u s u a l conditions existing house and chartroom. The pilot has a course card even though he is able tu
along the track. draw the chart of the port from memory; how can the master effectively
10. Local v e s s e l traffic control practices and requirements.
306 VESSEL O P E R A T 1 0 N S BRIDGE DESIGN 307

conn t h e s h i p w i t h o u t one? The card shows the r e a c h e s in order with the 1975, 1 to develop practical crileria for bridge design. T h e s t u d y lias since
course, length of the reach, turning point at the end of each reach, a n d the been adopted by the International Maritime Pilots' Association, has bcen
characteristics of t u r n i n g point lights noted. P u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n on one or reviewed and approved by over two hundred ship designers, builders, and
two G-by-5-ineh cards, which are kept in the shirfc poeket. T h e c a r d s are owners, and was included by IMG m the i n t e m a t i o n a l l y accepted stan-
m e a n t to s u p p l e m e n t l h e charted information and to m i n i m i z e distracting d a r d s for bridge design. This study is available from t.hose groups and
trips to the chartroom, r a i h e r than to replace l he u s e of t h e c h a r t s com- should be consulted by mariners, naval architects, a n d o p e r a t i o n s manag-
pletely The card m u s t cover the entire area b e t w e e n t h e s e a and dock, not ers when designing or updating a ship's bridge. Design c r i l e r i a are pre-
j u s t the portion of t h e passage t h a t is m a d e w i t h o u t a pilot. sented, r a t h e r t h a n a standardried bridge design, so t h e r e is no risk of
This card will be espccially appreciated when t h a t h e a v y r a i n squall or institutionalizing p/esent-day technology.
fog sets in m i d w a y down river and the m a s t e r n e e d s only to gl ince at the Standardized designs are neither necessary nor p r a c t i c a l ; different
course card to check t h e heading as the ship feels h e r w a y to sea. t y p e s o f v e s s e l s , their manningscales, and their intended service ali affect
design so that an "ali ship" bridge is not feasible. Guidelines a n d m i n i m u m
BRIDGE DESIGN requirements do h a v e value though, especially if developc-d by experi-
Good bridge design is essential i f t h e m a r i n e r a n d s h i p h a n d l e r are to work enced seafarers and pilots so t h a t oesign (íts use, a n d good w o r k habits do
safely and effectively. It is difficult to use improperly located equipment, not have to be compromised to adapt to impractical design. A small,
or to bring a ship onto a range t h a t can't be seen b e c a u s e of obstructions bridge-controlled coàster t h a t docks v:ith one m a n on t h e b r i d g e requires a
placed in t h e s h i p h a n d l e r ' s line of sight. The m a r i n e r m u s t i n s i s t t h a t na- more centralized layout t h a n a VLCC, and the h e i g h t a n d o p e n design re-
val architects give t h e s a m e consideration to good bridge design as is given quir-íd with a 900-foot-long containership is not n e c e s s a r y for t h e coaster.
to hull a n d e n g i n e room design, so the bridge is p l a n n e d to fít t h e deck offi- It is count-erproductive, then, for any study to be overly speciíic: only those
cer's and pilot's work habits. The cost of installation should be secondary f e a t u r e s desirable on ali vessels should be presented.
to good design a n d ease of maintenance; the bridge l a y o u t affects t h e ope r- Aboard new ships, miniaturized equipment should be g r o u p e d in clus-
ation and navigation of t h e ship t h r o u g h o u t h e r life. ters or stations t h a t don't interfere with the s h i p h a n d l e r or m a t e on
An excellent s t u d y w a s done by a committee of m a s t e r m a r i n e r s a n d pi- watch. It is now technically possible to place ali bridge e q u i p m e n t in one
lots chaired by C a p t a i n s Wilbur H. Vantine a n d R o b e r t D. V a l e n t i n e in console, b u t this is counterproducdve since several people m u = t then work
in one area. Gear should be grouped by use so it isn't n e c e s s a r y to move
from one side of a lOü-foot-wide wheelhouse to the other to p e r f o r m a sin-
Piuor V H F - 1 (p * 1-2. gle task, and place each console-mounted group in t h a t a r e a of the wheel-
TO MÉWTOWM WHA&F-
house where it is most useful (fig. 12-4).
S E A
FR-OM TO CHAR>£J6RlSnC COURSE D l ^ T T
No two m a r i n e r s or pilots will agree on the exact p l a c e m e n t of bridge
L.T. TOWEB. 0uor#s Q<-Fl- R - 311 2.-4 equipment, but t h e r e a r e general principies upon which ali experienced
BUOY^Ô BUoy-«<7 a^Fl-.W. BI 9 l- 9 pilots and m a r i n e r s concur:
6 U O V 17 J o J E S PT. GP. P^VJ-CSvt^ 3-2-7 2--7
JorsíGS P T SUOY"2.PR" GK- Í=L. W 32,X 2.2. 1. A clear view m u s t be provided on the centerline, or as n e a r the cen-
0 U o Y * : 2 . P R " 8UOY*I7PR"F'--W. &
s&
=-) 337 3.6 terline as possible, from the wheelhouse to the s t e r n .
BUoY*<7PR" BASÍNI 332- /.9 2. The wheelhouse windows m u s t b e large and give a clear all-around
DOCiC*é 32-2- o-s view of the horizon, with as few bulkheads and pillars as possible.
"TÕTALDISTT (5.7b\\.
VARlATictJ 3-S.^V.
1
Wilbur H. Vantine, "Good Bridge Design from a Masier Mariner"- Point of
Fig. 12-3. Pocket course card. View," pg. 99-104.
308 VESSEL OPERATIONS
BRIDGE DESIGN 309

10. A clear walkway is needcd from one bridge wing to the other,
through the wheelhouse, with ali equipment other than the conning
P t a t ^ n located uft of the walkway.

Naval architects seem to have a misconception about the h e l m s m a n ' s

duties, so a significant number of modern ships have the wheel located for-
w a r d at the wheelhouse windows. Ships with the wheel in this improper
location seem inevitably to sign on a helmsman who is 7-feet tall, ma king
it physically impossihle for the master or pilot to see! On f u t u r e ships the
h e l m station should be placed weil back from the window and equipped
w i t h a gyro repeater, gyro pilot controls, rate-of-turn indicator, and wheel
a n d r u a d e r angle indicators (fig. 12-5).
I f y o u r ship's helm station is improperly located adjacent to the wheel-
h o u s e windows, give the helmsman a stool to sit on in pilot waters. The pi-
lot or conning officer can then at least see over the helmsman's nead.
A r r a n g e a conning station around the centerline windows, the equip-
m e n t b e i n g bulkhoad-inounted over the windows and on a console a f t of

F i g . 12-4. G r o u p bridge equipment in clusters in a p p r o p r i a t e l y located

consoles to i n c r e a s e efficiency of t h e bridge w a t c h crew a n d conning
officer or pilot. Courtesy Kvacrner-Mass Yards.

3. T h e r e m u s t be unobstructed access to t h e centerline wheelhouse

w i n d o w s so t h e s h i p h a n d l e r can see both f o r w a r d a n d a b e a m with-
o u t h a v i n g to move around the wheelhouse.
4. A c o n n i n g s t a t i o n is required a r o u n d t h e centerline windows.
5. At sea, n a v i g a t i o n equipment shoula be located so t h e r e is as n e a r to
a 3 6 0 - d e g r e e clear view as possible from t h e c h a r t table.
6. T h e h e l m s m a n ' s station should be located on t h e centerline well
back f r o m the windows.
7. A s h i p ccntrol console is required near t h e center of t h e wheelhouse,
located well back from the windows, w h e r e the officer on watch can
clearly h e a r ali h e l m and engine orders.
8. T h e w h e e l h o u s e should be soundproofed; too m a n y c a s u a l t i e s occur
b e c a u s e t h e m a t e or h e l m s m r n cannot h e a r orders clearly.
9. A c o n n i n g station is required on each bridge wing. Fig. 12-5. A proper helm station. Photo Sperry Marine Systems.
310 VESSEL OPERATIONS P I L O T NAV1GATION KQUIPMKNT 311

t h e window facing forward to keep access to the windows clear. It is impor-

t a n t t h a t t h e s h i p h a n d l e r and m a t e o n w a t c h h a v e a n unobstructed view
a h e a d and a b e a m while working. This becomes especially significant when
a light rain covers t h e windows with beads of w a t e r a n d it is impossible to
see out without getting right up to t h e glass. T h i s simple detail—providing
u n o b s t r u c t e d access to the centerline w i n d o w s — m a t e r i a l l y increases the
m a r g i n of s a f e t y w h e n handling the ship. If you c a n ' t get up to the bridge
windows a b o a r d y o u r present ship, it m i g h t be possible to move a bulk-
h e a d table or other equipment to create t h e n e e d e d access.
This c o n n i n g station is designed to group in one location ali the equip-
m e n t n e e d e d for shiphandling. Any changes you can m a k e in your present
ship, such as s h i f t i n g a tachometer, V H F t r a n s m i t t e r , f a t h o m e t e r , or rud-
d e r angle indicator so they can be used while you r e m a i n at t h e center win-
dows will be w o r t h t h e effort. Even if only a few pieces of g e a r are shifted,
Fig. 12-6. This m o d e m bridge design provides unobstructed access to
you can c r e a t e at l e a s t a minimal conning s t a t i o n . T h e o p t i m u m station
the wheelhouse windows and a clear view ahead of the vessel. Courtesy
would include a digital fathometer, V H F t r a n s c e i v e r , wind direction and
MV Happy Riuer, Merwede Shipyard.
force indicators, w h i s t l e control, Doppler speed indicators, bow t h r u s t e r
controls, gyro r e p e a t e r , tachometer, r a t e - o f - t u r n indicator, a n d r u d d e r an-
gle indicator. T h e radar/CAS should be placed to s t a r b o a r d of this loca- and accidents. Use an answerback system so Lhe mate and h e l m s m a n can
tion, good s e a m a n s h i p dictating t h a t t h e horizon off t h e s t a r b o a r d bow of a acknowledge orders, either via a talkback hailer a r r a n g e m e n t or a walkie-
s h i p should be visible from t h e r a d a r , so it can be u s e d by t h e officer work- talkie. Japanese ships routinely have a microphone mounted at t h e steer-
ing at t h e c o n n i n g station. If this e q u i p m e n t is placed at one station, the ing console so the helmsman can repeat commands back to t h e conning of-
m a t o or pilot can obtain needed information w i t h o u t h a v i n g to move about ficer on the bridge wing, and you could easily fit. such e q u i p m e n t aboard
t h e wheelhouse. T h i s is important, since it is difficult to r e m a i n oriented your present ship.
to ship motion, particularly lateral motion, if t h e s h i p h a n d l e r m u s t con- Mariners and pilots should be consulted when designing t h e bridge
t i n u a l l y move from o n e location to a n o t h e r to w o r k (fig. 12-6). J a p a n e s e layout prior to construction of a new ship; once the ship is built, s e a m e n
ships g e n e r a l l y h a v e such well-arranged conning s t a t i o n s t h a t they could can make changes only where practical and then work around r e m a i n i n g
be a model for s h i p s of other nationalities. restrictions placed upon thein by poor design. Mariners m u s t insist,
A similar s t a t i o n should be placed on e a c h wing. Less e q u i p m e n t is through the Council of American Master Mariners and other professional
n e e d e d at t h i s s t a t i o n , since the pilot or m a s t e r n o r m a l l y works from the groups. on having some impact on future design and regulation of the
bridge wing only w h e n embarking or d i s e m b a r k i n g a pilot, or conning ship's bridge and its equipment. Even if no change is m a d e in bridge de-
alongside a dock, a small boat. or other vessel. A t a c h o m e t e r , gyro re- sign other than countering the trend toward blocking access to t h e wheel-
p e a t e r . t h e V H F and i n t e r n a i communications h a n d s e t s , r u d d e r angle in- house windows with a helm station and operating console, 3 major
dicator, and bow t h r u s t e r contrcls should be placed h e r e . I f t h e telegraph improvement in design will have been made.
is not visible f r o m this station, a smali r e p e a t i n g i n d i c a t o r is needed on the
PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
w i n g Jf your ship lacks these wing indicators, h a v e t h e m installed.
Aboard l a r g e r ships, or ships with a high levei of bridge noise, a communi- Laptop Systems and DGPS—General
cations s y s t e m is n e e d e d between the bridge a r e a , h e l m s m a n , and m a t e on More and more often, pilots are bringing aboard laptop navigation sys-
watch to e l i m i n a t e t h e shouting t h a t leads to m i s u n d e r s t o o d commands t e m s and other aids specially designed for a particular port. M i n i a t u r i z e d
312 VESSEL OPERATIONS PILOT NAVIGATION FQU1PMENT 313

eleetronics m a k e navigation e q u i p m e n t smaller, less expensive, a n d more

portable so s y s t e m s can be designed w i t h s o f t w a r e a n d f e a t u r e s t h a t are
port specific a n d exlremely useful. In some ports, piiots a r e now able to op-
e r a t e in ice, fog and other conditions t h a t would have closed a port in the
past because they have these specially designed a n d extremely accurate
systems.
It is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t the s y s t e m s discussed in this section are not
simpl> laptop computers with off-the-shelf c h a r t p r o g r a m s . T h e s e a r e spe-
cially designed navigation systems. T h e e q u i p m e n t , p r o g r a m m i n g , and
upgraded c h a r t s are expensive, b u t pilot associations a n d p o r t s are realiz-
ing t h a t this i n v e s t m e n t provides a payback ir increased safety, greater
port efficiency, and improved n a v i g a t i o n m a n y t i m a s t h e cost of t h e sys-
tem. Commercial p r o g r a m s are basic a i d s to navigation b u t they will not
provide the degree of accuracy or other f e a t u r e s discussed in this section.
These pilot s y s t e m s are evolving year-by-year u n d e r various equip-
m e n t n a m e s b u t ali s h a r e some common f e a t u r e s to provide pilot-specific
information for

• Navigation
• S h i p h a n d l i n g in channels
• Communications
Fig. 12-7. Pilot laptop showing the P a n a m a Canal CTAN s y s t e m with a
• Traffic m a n a g e m e n t
display of ali traffic movements to scale in real time plus an a b u n d a n c e
• Speed m e a s u r e m e n t
of navigation information. Note the accuracy of the system as
• Vessel location a n d detection
demonstrated by the ship moving down the center wall of P e d r o Miguel
• T r a n s p o n d e r and vessel identification
Locks. Courtesy P a n a m a Canal Authority.
• Active vessel traffic m a n a g e m e n t

An example of such e q u i p m e n t is found at t h e P a n a m a C a n a l where pi-
lots a r e using CTANS (Ccmmunications, Traffic M a n a g e m e n t , a n d Navi-
gation System) t h a t does ali t h i s e n d more. T h e system w a s developed in
the l a t e 1990s by a pilot team w o r k i n g with the P a n a m a C a n a l Commis-
sion a n d experts from t h e Volpe C e n t e r in Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , to
increase efficiency and safety in t h e P a n a m a Canal.
When using the CTAN system, each pilot brings a b o a r d a single case
containing a combined satellite a n d U H F a n t e n n a , a l a p t o p computer, and
a u n i t t h a t combines a radio t r a n s c e i v e r , D G P S e q u i p m e n t , a n d software
to allow everything to interface (fig. 12-7).
Within m i n u t e s a f l e r coming aboard, t h e u n i t is set up a n d t h e system
is receiving t h e signals to support D G P S navigation a n d t r a n s m i t and re-
ceive radio information between ships via a system of shore-based truns-
ceivers and repeaters. The system processes the ship's movement as
measm-ed by scquenlial DGPS calculations of ship position to calculate lo-
cation, speed, and course. T h a t information is broadcast from ships, tugs,
a n d launches undenvay in P a n a m a Canal water=> to a centralized location,
w h e r e it is combined with similar information from other vessels and
rebroadca-it back to ali ships simultaneousiy.
Each ship broadcasts an identiíier and preprogrammed information
including speed, course, draft, length, beam, antenna location, cargo type,
pilot name, and other information entered when the ship e n t e r e d the sys-
tem. The information is used to generate a graphic presentation of the ship
on every computer screen in the system. The rebrcadcast signals include
314 VESSEL OPERATIONS
information from every ship moving in the P a n a m a C a n a l to provide a con-
tinuous, real-time presentation of the entire w a t e r w a y and ali traffic. Ships
are shown to scaie r a t h e r than as simple blips on a screen so piloòs "see" ac-
tual ship iocations and movements tliroughout t h e Canal. Information t h a t
is essentiai for safe a n d expedient m a n e u v e r i n g a n d navigation t h a t was
previously unavailable cr obtainable only t h r o u g h i n p u t from a t j u r d party,
is now readily available in display directly accessible to the pilot (fig. 12-8).
It is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t DGPS-based laptop s y s t e m s are additional
navigation aids t h a t provide additional information to experienced mari-
ners. T h i s s t a n d a r d c a v e a t applies as much to t h e D G P S systems as it does
to other navigation e q u i p m e n t used by m a t e s , m a s t e r , and pilots. The
DGPS laptop s y s t e m is merely an additional tool u s e d to move ships more
safely a n d eíTiciently. T h e pilct should set up t h e laptop system so it m a y
be used in conjunction with the r a d a r a n d other ship's equipment. Re-
member, like a n y t h i n g mechanical, the s y s t e m s a r e still subject to break-
down, a n d d e s p i t e ali t h e i r "gee-whiz" f e a t u r e s , t h e y will not detect any
Fig. 12-8. D i a g r a m of typical laptop-based s y s t e m w i t h D G P S positions
and ship d a t a b r o a d c a s t to r e p e a t e r s a n d r e b r o a d c a s t to ali ships
simultaneously to provide real-time area-wide information. Courtesy
P a n a m a C a n a l Commission.
PILOT NAVIC.ATION E Q U I P M E N T 315
vessel moving without the system on board such as t h a t y a c h t drifting into
your path or an off-station buoy lying in the channel.
Pilots mast still look out the window!
Laptop Systems and DGPS—Nauigation and Pilot in/;
Laplop-based navigation systems designed or modified for pilot or ship-
handlers' use in a particular port brings inland navigation and piloting to
an entirely new levei. The systems have many uses and are accurate to the
point where ships pilotedby experienced and t r a i n e d s h i p h a n d l e r s and pi-
lots can navigate in restricted visibility, ice, or other situations when aids
to navigation are not present or visible. The axis and limits of the channel,
charted positions of buoys and ranges, and readouts of distances from t h e
centerline and distance to a course cliango are presented graphically on
t h e laptop screen. Ships can navigate in ali weather once users gain coníi-
dence in the accuracy of the system.
To demonstrate this capability, several pilots navigated ships t h r o u g h
t h e winding Gaillard C u t i n P a n a m a i n i n g only the laptop presentation.
They went through the narrow, twisting eight-mile-long C u t — m a k i n g
t u r n s , adjusting for bank suction and steering through each reach while
s t a n d i n g in the chartroom. The extremely accurate grapliic p r e s e n t a t i o n
of channel limits, shoreline, the axis of the channel, and own-ship shown
to scale using the known a n t e n n a location and the position of the ship's
bow and stern make it possible for skilled shiphandlers to proceed in fog or
heavy rain that closed the P a n a m a Canal when ships used r a d a r a n d con-
ventional instrumentation.
Is the system really accurate enough to be used in this m a n n e r ? De-
signers for these pilot navigation and communications systems acknowl-
edge accuracy to within a couple meters. In fact, pilots find the specially
designed systems to be accurate within a foot or two if the information is su-
perimposed on extremely accurate charts. The P a n a m a Canal is a good
t e s t area to demonstrate that accuracy. The constantly updated and verv
accurate surveys collected during a century of construction and operation
provide extremely accurate data t h a t was programmed point by point by
Volpe programmers to create extremely accurate electmnic charts. By vi-
sually comparing the clearance between a ship's hull and the walls of the
canal locks with the distances shown on the laptop presentation, it is obvi-
ous t h a t the system is accurate to within a foot or less.
The charts are the limiling factor when determining the accuracy and
u s e f u l n e s s of the laptop presentation. Off-the-shelf electronic c h a r t s and
316 VESSEL OPERATIONS
h a n d h e l d or laptop c o m p u t e r s are not acceptable for t h e u s e s described in
this c h a p t e r . S t a n d a r d c h a r t s available for h a n d h e l d c o m p u t e r s a r e con-
venient for r o u t i n e navigation b u t only special purpose DGPS-based pilot
systems can provide information on other ships and own s h i p with t h e ac-
curacy r e q u i r e d for t h e uses discussed in this section (fig. 12-9).
The specially designed laptop-based navigation s y s t e m s a r e a great
advance for inlar.d w a t e r s navigation as d e m o n s t r a t e d by pilot systems
used 011 lhe D e l a w a r e River, T a m p a , t h e C h e s a p e a k e Bay, a n d other ports
w h e r e t r u e pilot n a v i g a t i o n s y s t e m s are operational. E v e n D G P S s y s t e m s
t h a t show only own s h i p and t h e c h a n n e l axis and b o u n d a r i e s in real time
m a k e ali w e a t h e r navigation possible. Ports r e m a i n open in t h e w i n t e r ice
when, in t h e p a s t , t h e y closed, a n d ships move in fog a n d n a r r o w c h a n n e l s
even t h o u g h r a n g e s a n d buoys a r e not visible.
Most s y s t e m s also s u p p l e m e n t t h e g~aphic-chart p r e s e n t a t i o n with
continuously u p d a t e d and accurate r e a d i n g s of t h e d i s t a n c e to waypoints
and t h e d i s t a n c e r i g h t or left of t h e centerline a n d p a s s i n g r a n g e s in a
channel. T h e s y s t e m is even more useful when t h e laptop receives and
Fig. 12-9. Typical l a p t o p display for special purpose pilot n a v i g a t i o n
system. Photo c o u r t e s y Raven I n d u s t r i e s and Pilots for t h e B a y a n d
River D e l a w a r e . ; t h e basic and ancillary systems and the information provided is k n o w n . It
PILOT NAVIGATION E Q U I P M E N T 317
presents information to show course, speed, draft, location, and m e e t i n g
points from other ships. Tnose systems can be used for more complete pas-
sage planning ond active traffic management.
The capabilities ofsuch systems are still evolving. it i< not an exagger-
ation tosay the laptop-based DGPS systems take piloting services a n d in-
land navigation of large vessels to a new levei. In the past five y e a r s ,
typical systems have added
• Rate-of-turn indication.
• Automatic calculation of ship meeting points t h a t a d j u s t s cont inu-
ously as ships alter speed and course.
• Extremely accurate calculation of own vessel speed with graphic
and audible presentation t h a t is useful in close q u a r t e r s s i t u a t i o n s
such as w hen approaching a dock or lock without t h e limitations of
Doppler systems.
• Constant readout of distances from centerline and to waypoints.
• Weather, tide, and current information broadeast directly from in-
struments located at strategic points to the ship.
• Real-time information regardlng tugs and availability of docks pre-
sente d in a graphic format.
• Ship-to-ship and broadeast email capability for pilot communica-
tions.
• Direct readout of other ship's course and speed with greater accu-
racy, without the time delays required by radar-based collision
avoidance systems.
• Range and bearing to shore and other vessels m e a s u r e d past b e n d s
or obstruetions in a channel based on either straight-line m e a s u r e -
ments or following the axis of a channel, which is often much m o r e
useful.
• Direct DGPS-generated own-ship positions on extremely accurate
electronic charts prepared for pilot use in a portable presentation
t h a t pilots can move about the wheelhouse or to the bridge wing as
work requireraents change.
Independent pilot carry-aboard systems have several a d v a n t a g e s t h a t
benefit both the shiphandler and the ship. First, the pilot-provided equip-
m e n t is independent of ali ship's equipment so its capability and controls
a r e consistem from one ship to another. The pilot can h a v e confidence in
318 VESSEL OPERATIONS
is a f a c t t h a t t h e condition and m a i n t e n a n c e of s h i p b o a r d e q u i p m e n t var-
ies s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m one ship to a n o t h e r . If t h e e q u i p m e n t is shoddy or
n o n f u n c t i c n i n g , t h e vessel cannot proceed until r e p a i r s are made or substi-
t u t e e q u i p m e n t is provided from ashore. The use of a laptop system uperat-
ing i n d e p e n d e n t of shipboard equipment provides a degree of redundancy
t h a t i m p r o v e s safety. Also, the ability to quickly o b t a i n a r e p l a c e m e n t for
t h e l a p t o p - b a s e d a n d portable pilot system should it fail is an obvious ad-
vant.age over fixed shipboard e q u i p m e n t t h a t d e p e n d s on r e d u n d a n c y and
m a i n t e n a n c e for m e a s u r e of reliability. This is also a good reason to mini-
m i z e i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w c e n the pilot's system a n d s h i p b o a r d systems since
the systems are redundant rather than interdependent.
In p r a c t i c e , t h e D G P S system provides very u s e f u l information with
only b r o a d e a s t e d d a t a and information calculated by t h e DGPS. C h a r t in-
f o r m a t i o n , speed calculations, a n d navigation i n f o r m a t i o n is at least as
good directly f r o m t h e laptop system as t h e i n f o r m a t i o n provided by inte-
g r a t i n g s h i p ' s e q u i p m e n t into t h e laptop s y s t e m . Accuracy does improve
s i g n i f i c a n t l y at very slow speeds with a d d i t i o n a l i n p u t from a flux-gate
c o m p a s s o r o t h e r h e a d i n g reference.
T h e i m p a c t on safe and efficient ship m o v e m e n t s of a system t h a t
m o v e s an a l m o s t inflnite volume of directly m e a s u r e d reai-time informa-
tion to a s h i p b o a r d l a p t o p receiver in a g r a p h i c f o r m a i c a n n o t be exagger-
a t e d . In f a c t , it is impossible to provide t h i s volume or type of information
via s p o k e n b r o a d e a s t s or printed lists. T h e i m p a c t of t h i s equipment on
V T S is d i s o u s s e d elsewhere.
Laptop Systems and DGPS—Shiphandling
In a d d i t i o n to collecting and distributing u s e f u l t r a f f i c a n d navigation in-
f o r m a t i o n , t h e DGPS-based navigation s y s t e m is also a valuable ship-
h a n d l i n g tool. T h e u s e s for s h i p h a n d l i n g a r e evolving as pilots a n d
m a s t e r s g a i n experience using the s y s t e m s i n r e s t r i c t e d w a t e r s .
Making Turns: T h e DGPS-based c h a r t p r e s e n t a t i o n can be used to make
a c c u r a t e t u r n s i n channels. S h i p h a n d l e r s h a v e b e e n u s i n g r a d a r presen-
tation t o m a k e t u r a s for many years. W h e n u s i n g t h e r a d a r , pilots fre-
q u e n t l y s t a r t a t u r n w h e n the ship reaches some k n o w n d i s t a n t e off a
fixed p o i n t a h e a d . T h e s e reference points are l e a r n e d by trial-and-error
a n d r e f i n e d t h r o u g h use. Every pilot l e a r n s one or m o r e reference points
for e v e r y t u r n on a passage. The variable r a n g e m a r k e r (VRM) is set at
some k n o w n d i s t a n c e , a n d the t u r n is s t a r t e d w h e n t h e VRM touches t h e
P I L O T NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 319
reference point. The electronic bearing line (EBL) is commonly used to
monitor the ship's progress t h r o u g h a turn. By setting the EBL on t h e next
course, the pilot can watch as the EBL falis into t hc r.ext range. T h e helm
is p u t over as the EBL n e a r s the desired track and the rate-of-tum is ad-
justed so the EBL falis on the desired location in lhe channel when t h e
t u r n is fmished.
The DGPS-based system is even more useful for this purpose b e c a u s e
of t.he increased accuracy a n d the improved presentation although t h e
method employed when u s i n g a DGPS-based system is very similar. T h e
majority of laptop systems display the distance to the intersection of chan-
nel legs, either as Distance to Go, Distance to Waypoint or some s i m i l a r
term, and they display the distance of the antenna from the channel cen-
terline or the desired track lino. In lieu of using the VRM and EBL, t h e pi-
lot uses the distance to the intersection when starting the t u r n a n d
distance o í f t h e centerline of the next leg to adjust the rate-of-turn. In ad-
dition, the range and channel are presented on a laptop screen i n d e p e n d -
ent of line of sight so the system "sees around corners" and t h e r a t e - o f - t u r n
can be adjusted to put the E B L on t h e next range even though the reach or
channel is behind a hill or other obstruetion. (See figure 12-10.)
Again, through practice, t h e pilot learns at what distance from t h e Ln-
tersecüon he or she prefers to s t a r t the turn using the laptop system. T h i s
s t a r t i n g point is normally any w h e r e from 2]/2 to 3 ship lengths from a t u r n ,
b u t it will vary dependingon any n u m b e r of factors including ship size a n d
hull form, direction and s t r e n g t h of the current, s h i p s speed a n d even
from pilot-to-pilot. Many experienced pilots find they can even m a k e t u r n s
by simply watching t h e ship's position and orientation in the t u r n a n d ad-
justing the rate-of-turn w h e n the laptop presentation shows the c h a n n e l
and ship's hull to scale. M a n y DGPS-based sets display this i n f o r m a t i o n
in t h a t form. It must be noted t h a t t h e information is most useful at very
slow speeds when the system has a heading reference generated from a
compass or gyro interface.
Meeting Points: The better s y s t e m s also provide continually u p d a t e d
graphic presentation of meeting points of vessels being monitored. T h e
system calculates each ship's f u t u r e positions and the point at which they
will moet using programmed information about courses in the c h a n n e l
and a s s u m i n g e o n s t a n t s p e e d . This calculation is different/rom a CPA cal-
culated using radar-based systems. Radar-based systems a s s u m e both
constant speed and straight-line course so CPA calculations a r e only
320 VESSEL OPERATIONS
PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 321

u s e f u l in o p e n w a t e r . T h e pilot s y s t e m includes s o f t w a r e a n d electronic
e h a r t s so meetings are calculated along the course ofa channel with multi-
ple t u r n s . T h e pilot system m e a s u r e s both straight-line distances and dis-
tances along the centerline o f a channel so meeting points can be calculated
using t.he D G P S pilot system even though the ships are changing course.
T h i s c a p a b i l i t y to predict m e e t i n g is particularly u s e f u l when ships
m u s t m e e t or o v e r t a k e in narrow c h a n n e l s and p a r t i c u l a r l y in c h a n n e l s
w h e r e t h e vessels a r e not visible to each other. T h e process is simple. Se-
lect t h e s h i p b e i n g m e t and initiate the m e e t i n g point calculation. The sys-
t e m u s u a l l y s h o w s the meeting point as a small circle or ellipse. A d j u s t
speed a n d w a t c h t h e m e e t i n g circle s h i f t as the s y s t e m continuously recal-
culates t h e p o i n t w h e r e ships will m e e t and pass. T h e m e e t i n g is a r r a n g e d
with e x t r e m e accuracy, within a couple h u n d r e d feet, by a d j u s t i n g speed
i n t h i s m a n n e r a n d observing t h e r e s u l t a n t change i n t h e m e e t i n g point.
Laptop Systems and DGPS—Traffic Management
Traffic m a n a g e m e n t moves to t h e next g e n e r a t i o n u s i n g two-way D G P S
s y s t e m s . T h e e n d u s e r , the m a s t e r or pilot, now h a s an active role in traffic
was the bcst possible process when the passivo versei traffic systems were
designed. New DGPS-based real-time systems make the improved, í n h e r -
ently safe and more eflicient active VTS practical where ihe end uocr, i n e
m a s t e r or pilot. has an active role in traffic management u s i n g u n f i l t e r e d
and uninterrupted information passed directly from one vessel to a n o t h e r .
Using active traffic management principies, the master or pilot can ar-
range safe and expedient meetings based on weather, ship type, and m a n e u -
vering characteristics of both own-ship and the other ship. Before these
laptop navigation and communications systems were available, the m a s t e r
or pilot relied on simplistic data inherent in the pass : ve systems based on ra-
dio transmissions at designated checkpoints. With active systems, the deci-
sion makers are experienced mariners aboard ship with firsthand immediate
knowledge of each ship's characteristics and externai effeets at t h e time the
slúps are meeting because the data needed to arrange meetings and m a n a g e
traffic is now moved into the hands of the end user aboard ship (fig. 12-10).
i l M M > \ r c c rti • IW • I H í . - J / l J-UI

m a n a g e m e n t . T h e shipboard u s e r has b e t t e r real-time d a t a for ship posi-

tion, s p e e d . course, a n d other d a t a t h a n t h e shore-side t r a f f i c control
w a t c h officer u s i n g traditional r e p o r t i n g systems.
Ali s h i p s a n d , w h e n applicable, t h e shoreside c e n t e r s h a v e t h e s a m e
sog'--VC.I ij
complete r e a l - t i m e information. W h e n equipped with a complete D G P S
g r a p h i c s - b a s e d system, t h e pilot a n d s h i p m a s t e r also h a v e a constantly
u p d a t e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of meeting points for other ships being t r a c k e d as
previously discussed. No distractions. No delays. No chance of e r r o r due to
m i s u n d e r s t o o d or incomplete information. Meetings a r e a r r a n g e d in ap- a m
p r o p r i a t e locations by two s h i p h a n d l e r s using t h e g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n
with no c h a n c e of t h e errors i n h e r e n t in passive s y s t e m s t h a t introduce a
t h i r d p a r t y , t h e shoreside traffic coordinator, in t h e decision-making loop.
T h e v a l u e of t h i s type d a t a is m o s t appreciated w h e n t h e pilot a d j u s t s iltwfíliv
course a n d s p e e d a n d watches t h e m e e t i n g point i m m e d i a t e l v change so
pilots a n d m a s t e r s know the effect of any change with c e r t a i n t y .
Pcssiue vs. Active Traffic Management
Tx aditional p a s s i v e traffic m a n a g e m e n t systems rely on filtered informa-
tion r e l a y e d by radio or, in more modern systems, u s i n g AIS (Automatic
Indentiíication S y s t e m ) to provide information on t h e E C D I S or r a d a r Fig. 12-10. Unlike radar, laptop navigation systems show s h i p s behind
p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n f o r m a t i o n passed to ships is, by defmition, filtered de- hills. around corners, and miles a h e a d in a winding channel. Courtesy
p e n d i n g 011 s t a n d a r d procedures or t h e j u d g m e n t of the controller. This P a n a m a Canal Authority.
322 VESSEL OPERATIONS HRIDGE ÍIEIGHT 323

L a p t o p - b a s e d D G P S presentations t h a t receive a n d display positions
and d a t a for other s h i p s differ from r a d a r b e c a u s e t h e y are not line of
sight. T h i s m e a n s active traffic management by the shipboard end uscr is
appropriate in a l m o s t ali situations r e g a r d l e s s of t h e coníiguration of the
port or t h e c h a n n e l . T h e bridge team can v/atch vessel m o v e m e n t s miles
away a r o u n d bends a n d bchind hills using t h e D G P S pilot system. They
know t h e location of every vessel in the s y s t e m a n d the effect of every
speed a n d c o u r s e c h a n g e . No more simplistic "MV A B C j u s t passed buoy 1"
or other l i m i t e d a n d relatively useless information f r o m shoreside centers
when t r a f f i c m a n a g e m e n t shifts from a passive shoreside-based system to
t h e active s h i p b o a r d - b a s e d system.
Technology has made the passive shoreside-based VTS systeins obso-
lete. In t h e P a n a m a C a n a l , for example, the pilot h a s t h e ability to see any
section of t h e c a n a l in real time and can plan to a r r i v e at an anchorage or
a r r a n g e a m e e t i n g m i l e s away while looking at scale p r e s e n t a t i o n s of ship
m o v e m e n t s as they a r e occurring. They w a t c h s h i p s leaving the locks,
moving in t h e c h a n n e l behind hills a n d a r o u n d b e n d s , a n d see the location
of ships at a n c h o r b e f o r e arriving at t h e lock or a n c h o r a g e .
It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t these systems provide pilots with t h e navigation
aids r e c o m m e n d e d by t h e National Research Council M a r i n e Board in the
definitive s t u d y and r e p o r t Minding the Helm t h a t w a s issued in 1994. 2
BRIDGE HEIGHT
Bridge h e i g h t is a criticai design consideration. S e v e r a l y e a r s ago, a major
E u r o p e a n c o n t a i n e r s h i p operator p u t a class of v e s s e l into service with a
wheelhouse so low t h a t the tops of t h e c o n t a i n e r s w e r e above t h e lower
p a r t of t h e w h e e l h o u s e windows, m a k i n g it physically impossible to conn
t h e ship from t h a t location. The ship was a m a s t e r p i e c e of engineering, y et
t h e pilot w o r k e d h a n g i n g over the bridge w i n g like an old-time locomotive
engineer. T h e w h e e l h o u s e m u s t be raised, even if it r e q u i r e s an extra un-
used deck, so t h e b e r t h alongside and a r e a s a h e a d a r e visible at a reason-
able distance. T h i s is especially i m p o r t a n t a b o a r d bridge a f t ships, since
t h a t design r e s t r i c t s visibility over t h e bow u n d e r t h e b e s t of conditicr.s.
Keep m m i n d w h e n working from the g r e a t e r b r i d g e h e i g h t s common
aboard m o d e r n ships t h a t distance a n d speed of a d v a n c e a r e greatly dis-
torted as height of eye increases. The ship appears to be moving m u c h
more slowly and to be much closer to points of reference thon it actually is.
The height o f e y e aboard a modern LNG ship, for example, is 110-to-130
feet—working from t h a t height is similar to working from the roof of a ten-
to-twelve-story building.
Automobile carriers, LAfiH ships, RO/RO, smaller passenger vessels,
and similar ships commonly have the wheelhouse placed extremely close
to the bow. Working 75 feet from the stern makes it difficult to e s t i m a t e
t u r n i n g rates, so work looking aft, "Great Lakes fashion," when m a n e u -
vering in restricted areas and narrow channels. It is especially i m p o r t a n t
t h a t these types of ships have a clear view from the wheelhouse to the
stern, both from the bridge wings and from amidships, and t h a t t h e bridge
wings extend outboard to the maximum beam of the ship so t h e parailel
midbody is visible. Some a r r a n g e m e n t must be provided t h a t overcomes
t h e short bridge-to-bow distance t h a t greatly reduces perspective. Most
commonly, markers are placed on the centerline—a pole or high vertical
jackstaff at the bow and a m a r k e r on the centerline window in t h e wheel-
house—to provide a "gunsight eíTect" to make small changes of h e a d i n g
m o r e obvious. Since coinpetent shiphandlers normally watch t h e s t e r n
as much as the bow when working, a wheelhouse located in the e x t r e m e
f o r e p a r t of the ship presents no significant obstacles, as long as t h e bridge
is properly designed (fig. 12-12).

2
National Research Council Marine Board, Minding the Helm: Marine
Navigation and Piloting, Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences,
1994.
324 VESSEL O P E R A T I O N S N I G H T VERSUS DAYLIGHT MANEUVERING 325

4. Unlighted buoys and shoreline are no longer visible, so more reli-

ance must be placed on radar presentation and local knowledge to
stay clear of shoais and banks.
5. A poorly lighted stringpicce must be avoided by instinet because it is
not visible during docking.

Fig. 12-12. Ships w i t h a bridge well forward need a centerline m a r k e r .
P r e p a r e a visibility diagram for every ship you serve aboard, showing
a r e a s not visible f r o m the wheelhouse in light a n d loaded conditions, with
a n d w i t h o u t containers if carried, and post t h e d i a g r a m in t h e wheel-
house. T h e d i a g r a m is jimple to construct using basic trigonometry and
t h e basic ship dimensions such as bridge height, bridge-to-bow distance,
ship's b e a m , etc. T h e diagram is especially helpful w h e n m a n e u v e r i n g
a r o u n d piers a n d in restricted channels (fig. 12-13).
Even the smallest increase in light helps, since some degree of depth
perception is regained, Do not make a passage without computing the
time of moonrise and moonset for the night in question, and, given a
chance, delay a particularly difficult passage until daybreak if there is not
at least a gibbous moon at the needed time. The ship's ETA is often an indi-
cation of the master's experience, Since a more seasoned shipmaster ap-
preciates the problems caused by darkness and delays arrival until
daybreak when there is no real need to arrive at an earlier hour.
Some degree of experience is needed on a dark night at sea to estimate
distance from other ships, especially when masthead and range lights are
poorly placed, although r a d a r overcomes this problem to a great extent,
and darkness is now much less a problem in open water navigation. Make
it a practice to estimate distance off before going to lhe r a d a r so you can de-
velop the ability tojudge distance visually with reasonable accuracy. This
skill is greatly appreciated when t h e r a d a r goes down or when conning by
eye in an anchorage or congested area. Younger mariners especially need
to make a conscious effort to develop this ability, since they do not acquire
"KlSO MARU" INVISIBLE DlSTANCE

NIGHT VERSUS DAYLIGHT MANEUVERING

D a r k n e s s creates new problems for the s h i p h a n d l e r and t h e r e a r e two
pilotages in any water—a daylight and a n i g h t pilotage.

1. Speed and distance become more difficult to e s t i m a t e . since depth

perception is lost at night, and relatiue size and changes of relative
HEIGHT of Antlnna / 79-ft (ántznna Ijown I k l f Ò
motion must be used tojudge distance.
i tus 2:SPIACEVE'<T oavT INV1S 3.E 0'StANCE i-*ju v/iieei MOUSE urtcn
2. It is even more important to look abeam or a f t at n i g h t t h a n during MCUJLO TSMwcrtK
t h e day, since it is impossible to e s t i m a t e speed d u r i n g hours of 1 CONDI riONs\» MEIRIC TONS METHH 0 '0 2 0
| DESIGNED 4 7.9 5 5 10 6 2 3 17 2 55 3 98
d a r k n e s s by looking ahead of the ship.
1 SCANT ÍUU. 54.676 11.70 2S7 233 1 375
3. On a clear n i g h t objeets appear closer, yet when visibility deterio-
r a t e s they a p p e a r f u r t h e r away. Fig. 12-13. Post a visibility diagram on the bridge.
326 VESSEL OPERATIONS
it by n e c e s s i t y , as did t h e sênior officers who stood w a t c h e s before r a d a r
w a s so widely accepted.
Depth perception is a r e s u l t of binocular vision a n d unconscious evalu-
ation of r e l a t i v e position. W h e n this ability is lost at n i g h t , t h e m a r i n e r
s u b s t i t u t e s o t h e r techniques:
1. R e l a t i v e size is an indication of distance. For e x a m p l e , the height of
a buoy, a n d t h u s its distance off can be e s t i m a t e d at n i g h t since the
l i g h t m a r k s t h e top, while t h e reflection of t h a t light on t h e w a t e r
£.hows t h e b a s e of t h e buoy.
2. R e l a t i v e motion is q u i t e helpful since at more t h a n 2 miles' distance
a buoy will a p p e a r n e a r l y stationary, at 1 mile its c h a n g e in bearing
becomes m o r e noticeable, a n d when t h e buoy is close at h a n d its
m o v e m e n t n e a r l y equals t h e bpeed of t h e ship.
3. Brilliance is helpful, b u t can be deceiving since it is affected by so
m a n y factors, such as atmospheric conditions, t h e a s p e c t of t h e
light, a n d m o t i o n of t h e light in t h e case of a buoy.
4. T e c h n i q u e s s u c h as computing t h e are of visibility a n d bobbing a
light a r e applicable a t g r e a t e r distances t h a n t h e s h i p h a n d l e r i s
g e n e r a l l y concerned with, b u t can be used on occasion.
To e x p a n d on t h e i m p o r t a n c e of r a t e of changes in r e l a t i v e bearing, con-
sider a s h i p t u r n i n g inside a buoy. T h e a p p a r e n t motion of t h e buoy is sig-
nificantly g r e a t e r a s its distance f r o m the ship decreases, a n d t h u s the
change in m o t i o n can be u s e d with reasonable accuracy to e s t i m a t e the
change in d i s t a n c e from t h e buoy as t h e ship t u r n s . Again—practice esti-
mating distance in these conditions before looking at the radar a n d the
skill of handxing a s h i p at n i g h t comes quickly.
RECORD KEEPING
T h e k e e p i n g of logs a n d records of m a n e u v e r s is i n h e r e n t in proper
s h i p h a n d l i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e two t a s k s often conflict w h e n t h e record
k e e p i n g becomes r e d u n d a n t o r u n n e c e s s a n l y complicated. P r o p e r orga-
n i z a t i o n a n d t h e u s e of autologging relieve t h e m a t e of some of t h e admin-
istrat.ive chores, 30 m o r e a t t e n t i o n can be given to t h e n a v i g a t i o n of the
ship. Give priority to n a v i g a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n g e t t i n g so involved in record
keeping t h a t p r o b l e m s are n o t recognized a n d acted upon. It is more im-
p o r t a n t to avoid a c a s u a l t y t h a n to record t h e exact t i m e of impact.
RECORD KEEPING 327
Good work habits deveiop with experience. Remember your f i r s t
undocking as a cadet cr green third mate? There seemed to be m y r i a d of
tasks to accomplish and details to be noted and logged. With timp. t h e s e
responribilities become second n a t u r e until, while accomplishing every-
thing required, you had time for coílee and perhaps swapping sea stories
with the pilot. When record keeping is properlv organized, it can be done
concurrently with other t a s k s and consumes liule time. This sort of orga-
nization is essential while maneuvering in pilot waters.
Every ship should be fltted with an automatic bell logger. T h e mat.e 1 s
time is better spent checking the tachometer and rudder angle indicator to
see t h a t helm and engine orders are properly executed t h a n in continu-
ously recording the bells.
Eliminate ali t.he separate books and limit ali record keeping to one
scratch loglworkbook and the c/iart when in pilot waters. I m p o r t a n t d a t a
is transferred to the deck log at a later convenient time and the m a t e does
not have to shuffle bell books, navigation books, logbooks, sounding books,
and whatever other record books might be required by company policy.
Keep che book neat, but don't waste time with elaborate entries t h a t d i v e r t
attention from the shiphandling and navigational duties at h a n d — a í t e r
ali, the book is called a "scratch log."
Refer to any of the classic navigation or seamanship texts for more de-
tailed information about w h a t should be included in the deck log when in
pilot waters, but be certain to include
1. Times and locations of course and speed changes, and t i m e s of
changes to diesel fue) or maneuvering speeds.
2. Time of passing abeam of important lights, landmarks, buoys m a r k -
ing the end of a reach or other significant location, and the b e a r i n g
and distance of those aids.
3. Times of encountering significant changes in depth of water u n d e r
the keel.
4. Important meteorologicai information such as visibility, p a s s i n g
showers. fog. wind force and direction.
õ. Engine maneuvers (recorded by the automatic bell logger).
6. Time of passing conning respo^sibility between master, pilot, a n d
the deck officers.
7. Significant radio transmissions, such as those for making passing
arrangements with ships being met or overtaken.
328 VESSEL O P E R A T I O N S

Note ali t h e navigational information fírst on t h e c h a r t , and then put

essential i n f o r m a t i o n into the scratch log. C o m p a r e e a c h position with the
DR a n d t h e i n k e d passage courses and notify t h e m a o t e r a n d pilot of any
set indicated. Don't end your duties with recording i n f o r m a t i o n while the REVIEW QUESTIONS AND
vessel is set t o w a r d a shoal t h a t only you a r e a w a r e of, and don't assume PRACTICE MANEUVERS
that the pilot is aware of the situation—tell t h e m a s t e r or pilot about
i t — i n f o r m a t i o n is gathered so you can s u p p l y it to t h e officer conning, not
j u s t so it can be recorded for historical interesc.
K e e p t h e p a s s a g e plan nearby for r e f e r e n c e a n d h a v e it preplotted in Page numbers in parentheses indicate where in the text the a n s w e r s m a y
i n k on the c h a r t s u s e d . This greatly reduces record k e e p i n g while m a n e u - be found.
vering, a n d s e r v e s as a check on the ship's a c t u a l p r o g r e s s as compared to
CHAPTER 1. ARRIVAL
the p a s s a g e p l a n . Graphic records are often m o r e m e a n i n g f u l , a n d mini-
mize t h e n e e d for m a n y distracting t a b u l a r records. Avoid r e d u n d a n t Iiiview Questions
work by k e e p i n g t h e scratch paper off t h e c h a r t t a b l e . Enter bearings and 1. In day-to-day work, the most useful unit of measurement for estimating turn-
other information directly into the scratch log r a t h e r t h a n p u t t i n g t h e m ing circles and other distances ie the ship's own length. (Page 10;
fírst on s c r a t c h p a p e r , and reduce logging chores by n e a r l y 50 percent. a. true
T h i s helps you to record ali necessary d a t a w i t h o u t t a k i n g excessive time b. false
a w a y f r o m p r i o r i t y t a s k s . The scratch log is j u s t t h a t , a rough notebook for 2. In shalhw water, a shíp's turning circle is (Pages 10 and 17-18)
l a t e r r e f e r e n c e , so a n y t h i n g of interest can be recorded in it while avoiding a. larger
b. smaller
d i s t r a c t i n g a n d time-consuming double work.
c. the same
3. An average-size ship's turning circle is usualiy slightly when lhe
ship turns to the right than when shn turns leít. (Pages 10-11)
a. larger
b smaller
c. the same
4. A VLCC's turning circle to the right is usuallv her turning circle to
the left. (Page 11)
a. larger than
b. smaller than
c. nearly the same as
5. When revolutions are increased during a turn. the taciical diameter becomes
(or stays) ^Page 11)
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same
6. For a given rudder angle and engine speed, lhe rate of turn as me
depth of water decreases. (Pages 10 a.id 18)
a. increases
b. decreases
c. does not ehange

329
330 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AMD P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 331

7. A ship cun be backed and filled in the smallest area when turned tc the left. 13. The concept of using the "most effective maneuver" is important because
(Pages 11-13) (Page 17)
a. true I. the ship is maneuvered using the minimum number of engine and rudder
b. false ordera.
II. several tasks are accomplir.hed simultaneously.
8. You are aboard an average-size, loaded, house-aft tanker proceeding through III. it simplifies maneuvering because only one task is completed at a time.
an open roadstead. The wind is blowir.ghard encugh to overcome the normal a. I and II
twisting effect whenyour ship's engine goes astern. When you backyour ship b. I and III
you would expect her to (Page 14) c. III only
I. head into the wind while she has headway and back into the wind when she d. none of the above
has sternway.
II. head away from the wind while she has headway and back away from the 14. How would you expect the following shiphandling characteristics to change
as your ship moves from deep to shallow water? (Pages 17-20)
wind when she has sternway.
a. I only A. tactical diameter. a. increase
B. twisting effect when backed. b. decrease
b. II only
c. both I and II C. rate of turn. c. no significant change
D. speed loss during large course changes.
d. neither 1 nor 11
E. speed loss when engine stopped.
F. directional stability.
9. Assuming there are no extraordinary wind, current, or bank effects, a ship
should be swinging moderately to before her engine is put astern. 15. How would you expect the following to affect directional stability? (Pages
(Pages 14-15) 18-20) j
a. starboard A increased length. a. more positive (or less negative)
b. port B. increased beam. b. less positive (or more negative)
C. increased drag. c. no significant change
10. A bow thruster is sometimes preferable to tugs because (Pages 15-16) D. decreased underkeel clearance.
I. it is located at the extreme end of the vessel. E. increased block coefficient.
II. it is always available. F. more full sections forward.
III. it is equally effective at slow and fast speeds. G. increased rudder angle.
a. I and II H. ship trimmed by the head.
b. II and III I. ir.creased squat by the head.
c. ali of the above
d. none of the above 16. Ships with large block coefíkients are more likely to trim by the head in shal-
low water. (Page 19)
a. true
11. Using a bow thruster has its disadvantages: (Pages 15-16)
b. false
I. it usually provides less power than a tug.
II. it has no effect on headway to slow or nold a ship. 17. Which of the following statements is/are true for ships with negative direc-
III. it can only be used at very light drafts. tional stability? (Pages 18-20)
a. I and II I. a íarger rudder angle is needed for a longer period of time to siart a turn.
b. II and III II. a iarger rudder angie i= neede-< for a longer period of time to stuady up afxer
c. ali of the above a turn.
d. none of the above III. the ship's rate ofturn increases when the rudder is put amidships during
a turn.
12. A bow thruster is usually quite effective at speeds of up to 5 knots. (Pages a. I only
15-16) b. I and III
a. true c. ali of the above
b. false d. none of the above
332 EEVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICK M A N E U V E R S 333

18. The only effective way to slow a ship is to stop the engine and, if necessary, go II. graphic communications such as CTANS and interactivo DGPS presenta-
astern. (Pages 24—26) tions.
8. true III. radar and ARPA
b. fatee Ia.'. whlõtie signals
a. I and IV above
19. A VLCC makes a hard-over turn. You would expecther to lose nearly per- u. I and III above
cent of her headv/ay when her heading changes by 90 degrees. (Page 25) c. AU of the above
a. 10
b. 20
c. 25 Practice Maneuvers
d. 50
1. Make a hard-over turn in deep wate- and use the wake to measure the ship's
20. A ship is on your port bow in a crossing situntion and her bearing is steady. tactical diameter. A brightly painted oil drum can be used as a reference or
You reach the point where you doubt that collision can be avoided by her ac- the diameter can be measured by radar using the display of the sea return
tionr. alone. Usually, it would be better to (Pages 25-26) generated by the ship's wake. How does the diameter of the turning circle
I. back down compare with the sliip's length?
II. make a round turn Make the same turn in shalluuj water (a depth less than 1.25 times drafU
c. I only and measure the turning ci.xle. How does the dianeterofthe turning circle in
b. II only shallow water compare with that observed in deep water?
c. both I and II
2. Your ship is dead in the water. Put the rudder hard over and put the engine
d. neither I nsi-II
progressively from slow, to half, and then to full ahead so the ship executes a
21. A combination pilot ladder/accommodation ladder is required when the dis- complete circle with the revolutions increasing through the entire 360 de-
tance from the water to the top of the ladder exceeds feet. (Page 29) grees. Use the wake as in maneuver 1 above, to measure the diameter of this
a. 10 turn. ísow, leave the engine on full ahead and again measure the turning cir-
b. 20 cle diameter while inaking another complete 360-dcgree turn with the engine
c. 30 speed unchanged (a steady state turn). How does the diameter of the acceier-
d. 50 ating turn compare with that of the steady state turn?
22. A modern containership has more sail area than a full rigged sailing ship. 3. Perform the masier's maneuvers described in chapter 1 while one of the ships
(Page 34) mates eolleets data on your ship's characteristics using a data sheet similar to
a. true figure 1-2 on page 9. Analyze these data and compare the rate of turn, time to
b. false stop, change of heading when stopping and backing, and other important
characteristics with the data collected aboard other ships you have maneu-
23. The ship's call letters should be transmitted frequently when communicating vered. Study ali the pertinent information so you have some feel for your ship
by VHF and, in any case, at intervals of (Pages 36-37) and can predict her behavior with reasonable accuracy.
I. before and after every transmission during a series of transmissions with
another ship. 4. This exercise will give you a feel for, and appreciation of, using hard-over rud-
II. at ten minute intervals. de;- to reduce speed. First, measure your ship's spe-ed approaching an open an-
III. before the fírst transmission and after the last transmission of a VHF con- chorage or pilot station. This can be done with a Doppler log, or the ship's
versation regardless of length. ARPA (p'otting a fixed point while the snip'= speed is manuaüy inpu: i2 0
a. I only knots so the "'computed speed" oí the fixed objc-ct is then your ship's speed), or
b. II and III above by any other method you migl"1 choose. A series of simple fixes at frequenl in-
c. III only tervals can be used to at least get a rough ineasure of speed and changes in
speed. Obviously, you can?t accurately determine absolute speed with the lat-
24. Mariners have several means for communicating ship's actions and inten- ter method, but changes in speed will be quite apparent to the experienced
tions including (Pages 36-39) marinerand this exercise can still be very useful even ifyour ship isn't fitted
I. verbal communications such as VHF radio with equipment to measure speed accurately.
334 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 335

Put the rudder hard over and change the ship's heading by at least 45 de- a. ali of the above
grees. Measure the ships speed again and calculate the reductiun in speed. b. I and II only
Repeatedly shift the rudder from hard over to hard over while continuing to c. I and III only
measure or estimate speed through the water and changes in speed until the
ship's headway is significantly reduced. •I. Shiphandlers should reevaluatc any maneuver requiring the repcated use of
the engines or thrusters at half and full power. (Page 55)
5. When searoom perinits, make a practice of putting the rudder hard over to-
a. true
ward the lee side (toward the side on which a pilot is boarding) a short time be-
b. false
fore the pilot begins boarding. Observe how this sweeps a smooth lee for the
pilot and makes boarding quicker and safer. 5. When steering u:;ing Azipods in the Sea mode, the pod is tumed to port to
turn the ship to starboard. (Page 61)
CHAPTER 2. SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL a. true
b. false :
Review Questions
1. To bx-eak a sheer in narrow channels a pilot should (Page 47) 6. Although Azipods may be placed in virtually any position, there are three po-
a. reduce engine revolutions sitions that have been found to be most efTective in practical use. They are
b. increase engine revolutions (Pages 61-63)
c. turn away from the bank and increase distance a. mode, which is used in open waters
d. increase rudder toward the bank b. mode, which is useful in narrow channels
e. both a and c c. mode, which is used as the ship approaches the berth
f. both b and d
7. When operating i n Harbor inode, the pods are placed at 45 degrees in opposi-
2. Your vessel is steaming parallel to a shoal or bank. How does she behave? tion to each other. The vessel is turned to port by moving the control
A. her bow moves away from the bank or snoal. (Pages 47-48) ahead and pulling back on the control. (Page 62)
a. true a. port, starboard
b. false b. starboard, port
B. her stern moves toward the bank or shoal. (Pages 47-48)
a. true 8. When in Docking mode and going port side to the berth, the pod is
b. false placed parallel to the centerline, and the pod is placed in tlie 3
C. her midbody moves laterally away from the bank. (Pages 47—48) o'clock position with the propeller . (Pages 62-63)
a. true a. port, starboard, inboard
b. false b. port, starboard, outboard
D. competent shiphandlers don't just react to the ship's behavior and decide c. starboard, port, inboard
on a course of action after a situation develops; they think ahead, anticipate d. starboard, port, outboard
situations,and plan alternative maneuvers. (Page 49)
a. true 9. When researching various methods for standardizing Azipod commands,
b. false some pilot groups found it worked well to use (Pages 63-64)
E. ships with variable-pitch propellers steer best if speed is reduced quickly. I. standard steering and engine commands in the At Sea mode.
(Page 52) II. standard steering and engine commands in the Harbor and Docking
modes.
a. true
III. clock positions and percentage of full power for ali modes
b. false
IV. clock positions and percentage of full power for Harbor and Docking
3. Advantages of omnidirectional propulsion systems over conventional sys- modes
tems include (Page 53) a. I and II above
I. greater safety b. III above
II. increased maneuverability c. I and II above
III. reduced reliance on traditional shiphandling skills d. I and IV above
336 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 337

10. When operating under computer control, the shiphandler is controlling 16. A rate-of-turn indicator usuaPy indicates turning rate in per second or
(Page 65) I per minute. (Page 83)
a. revolutions per minute of the pod and thruster and direction of the a. meters/feet
thruster and pods forces. b. tenihs of a degree/degrees
b. resultant power, speed, and vessel movement. . c. degrees/degrees
11. Experienced mariners limit the ui;e of computer control wlien maneuvering d. feet/feet
near docks and fixed objecta. A good rule-of-thumb id to change from auto- 17. A ship changes draft when moving into shallow water. The change in mean
inatic to manual control when within of a hazard. (Page 66) draft is known as . The hull rotation abcut the transverso axis and
a. three ship lengths resulting change in draft forward or aft is known as . The in-
b. 100 feet crease in deep draft, forward or aft, if called . (Page 85)
c. one ship length j a. squat, trim and sinkage
12. Standardized commands for maneuvering Azipod vessels are important be- b. sinkage, trim and squat
c&use (Pages 67-70) c. sinkage squat and trim
I. lack of standard commands makes it impossible to follow recommended 18. The increasing pressure drop under a hull and the corresponding increase
Bridge Resource Management practices. | in squat caused by water flowing under the hull at increased velocity as
II. lack of standard commands makes it necessary to have a single person both ship s speed increases, follows a basic principie of physics known as the
conning and controlling engine and thruster movements. ! Principie. (Page 85)
III. pilots and deck officers lose situational awareness when standard com- j 19. Ships always trim by the stern in shallow water. (Pages 90-91)
mands and conning practices are not used. a. true
IV. the pilot cannot fulfill requiremer.ts under law to control the vessel or pro- j b. false
vide sufficient controla to be held responsible for maneuvering in many situa-
tions without standardized commands. 20. The pilot or ship's officer can reduce sinkage and squat by reducing the (Pages
a. I above 96-97)
b. I and II above I. block coefficient
c. ali of above II. speed
III. blockage factor
13. The tactical diameter and turning rate can be precisely adjuLted during a IV. the rate and period of acceleration
turn by visually aligning an externai fixed object, such as a buoy or point of a. ali of the above
land, with a reference point aboard ship. b. none of the above
A. the tactical diameter is when the object moves ahead relative to the c. II and IV only
shipboard reference point. (Pages 75-77) d. II only
a. increasing
b. decreasing 21. Squac for a given speed and hull conditinn in confined water is that in
B. the rate of turn is if the object moves ahead more rapidly. (Page 56) open water. (Pages 87-88)
a. increasing a. half
b. decreasing j b. twice

14. It is best to overtake and pa3S close by another ship in a narrow channei at a 22. A useful formula for calculsting aoDroximate sinkage in open water is (Pages
very slow speed. while the overtaken ship should increase her speed before 87-88)
being paesed. (Page 80 > Squat (feet) = block coefficient >• (speed iu knots 7 .-30
a. true A. calcula te squat for a ship having a block coefficient of 0.8 proceeding at 6
b. false knots in open water.
15. The clicking sound made by the gyrocompass should be eliminated as it dis- B. calculate squat for the same ship proceeding at the same speed in a re-
traets the pilot. (Page 81) stricted channel.
a. true C. calculate squat for the same ship proceeding at 12 knots in a restricted
b. false chann»!.

I
338 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S A N D PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 339

23. Undcrkeel clearance is influenced by several factors including (Page 95) puts tiiis buoy or point in line with the edge of a wheelhouse window, and turn
I. vessel 3peed your ship around this referenre point without changing the rudder angle.
II. channel dimensions Closely watch the objecfs relative motion as thp ship turns. Did it movL- for
III. changes in engine revolutions v.aru or aft relative to tne reference point as the ship turned? How did the
IV. vessel interaction ships distance from the reference object change in each ca'-e? How did the
a. I, íl and IV only change in your ship's rale of turn affect the rate of rela tive motion of the refer-
b. I and II only ence object?
c. II and III only
d. ali of the abcve 5. Make the same type of turn around the same or similar reference point and
adjust the amountof rudder being used to keep the buoy fixed in position rela-
24. Underkeel clearance is reduced significantly when two ships pas3 in a narrow tive to your shipboard reference point. Did the ship then maintain the same
channel because squat increases % to % or even more depending approximate distance offthe reference object? You are now making controlled
on ship speed and distance of separation. (Pages 95 and 98) turns.
a. 10%/25%
b. 25%/25% 6. Carefuily note the location of buoys and points, relative to your ship's pivot
c. 50% to 100% point, as a pilot begins each turn in a narrow channel. Develop a feel for the
d. none of the above time at which turns should be started. (Note: Most inexperienced ship-
handlers begin a turn too soon.)
25. Underkeel clearance is reduced significantly as a ship accelerates and squat
increases as much as %. (Pages 95 and 97) 7. Closely watch the rudder-angle indicator as your ship meets and passes other
ships in a narrow channel. Was more or less radder used as the bows passed,
26. Wide-beam ships increase draft significant when they roll, so rolling may or when the ships were abeam, or when their sterns were passing? Was the
have a greater impact on underkeel clearance than drafl. (Page 95) rudder toward or away from the other ship?
a. true
b. false 8. Watch the rudder- ingle indicator each time your ship overtakes and passes
other vessels in a narrow channel. Note also any changes in engine speed
27. Changes in the shape ofa channel have no affecton squat as long as the block- made by the pilot while the other ships are being passed. Were the rudder and
age factor does not change. (Pages 95 and 98) engine used in the manner described in shiphandling texts?
a. true
b. false 9. Make a habit of listening to the clicking sound of your gyrocoinpass while
turning. It will soon become second nature and. you will immediately know
Practice Maneuvers when your rate of turn is increasing or decreasing and to what degree.
1. Closely observe the rudder angle indicator as a ship passes near banks and 10. Have the forward and after tugs read your draft as closely as possible while
points of land. Compare the amountof rudder needed to hold a ship steady on your ship is moving at 6 to 10 knots and again when they have made up and
her course as the bow passes each point of land with that needed when the youi ship is procceding at bare steerageway. Note both sinkage (change in
stern reaches the same point. inean draft) and squat. Does your ship squat by the head or by the stern? 1 low
did this compare with your computed sinkage using Barrass's formula?
2. Compare the amount of rudder and duration of time it is applied when start-
ing a turn with the amount and time needed to check a ship's swing at the
completion of the turn. Do this when your ship is trimmed by the head, and CIlAPTER 3. USE OF TUGS
when she is trimmed by the stern. Is she directionallv stable or unstable in
each case? P.euiew Questions
3. Observe the change in rate of turn after the rud der has been put amidships for 1. Prepare a pketch showing how a tug is typically made fast alongside in a U.S.
each case described in maneuver 2. Does the rate increase or decrease? Is your port, using two lines. Label the backing line (head line) and the come ahead
ship directionally stable or unstable? line (spring line). (Page 104)
4. Select a buoy or point that lies on the inside of a turn while making routine 2. Make a similar sketch showing the tug made up with three lines, labelmg the
maneuvers at the pilot station or in a i anchorage. Stand in a location that come ahead and backing lines as well as the additional stern line. (Page 104 )
340 R E V I E W y U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS 341

3. A tug being used for ship work can only be used to move a ship's bow or stern 3. Generally, the less experience shiphandlers have. lhe they work. <Page
laterally. (Page 106) 118)
a. true a. faster
b. falso b. slower
4. You are docking a ship using two tugs. You have the quarter t jg stand off un- 4. Quickwater ipropeller wash when backing) moves ahead al rbout the same
til just before the ship enters the slip. Give two reasons for this. (Page 108) speed as the ship when the ship is making about knots. (Pages J19-20 •
5. Match the following signals with one or more tug responses. (Page 105) a. 1 \ ,
A. increase to full power. a. one blast b. 2
B. tug is dismissed. Let go. b. two blasts c. 3
C. if working, stop. c. thrce blasts 5. Quickwater begins to move forward, up the ship's side, when the ship is mak-
D. if pushing, increase power. d. series of short blasts ing a speed of approximately knots, and lhe quickwater reaches the
E. come ahead dead slow. e. one long, two short blasts ship's midships section when the ship is moving at a speed of knots.
F. back the tug, normal power. f. one long blast (Pages 119-20)
G. if stopped, come ahead. a. 1/0
H. not a tug signal. b. 2/1
I. if stopped, como ahead. c. 3/2
J. ifbacking, increase power.
6. An experienced shiphandler always looks at objeets ahead of the ship when
6. A bow thruster used correctly will have the same effects on the ship as a tug
made fast on the ship's bow. (Page 106) estimating speed during a maneuver because it's difficult to detect movement
by looking abeam or abaft the beam. (Pages 120-2'.)
a. true
a. true
b. false
b. false
7. A tug^s lines don't have to be heaved up tightly, when she is lashed up along-
side to work, if she has good leads for both spring and head lines. (Pages 7. Why is it better to approach the berth with less angle when docking a ship
111-12) with a right-hand propeller starboard side to the dock? (Page 122)
a. true 8. Sketch two alternative methods for making tugs fast when backing into a slip
b. false starboard side to the pier. (Pages 124-25)
9. Ships docking at a wharf in strong current can expect to be set oíT the berth
CHAPTER 4. APPROACHING THE BERTH
just as they come alongside because of the and the , especially
Review Questions when there is a bank or solid face below the wharf. (Pages 126-27)
a. hydrauüc cushion/Bernoulli eííect
1. It is important that the pilot keep moving about the wheelhouse so as to al-
b. Bernoulli eíTect/eddy current
ways have a good view of every part of the ship while docking or doing other
c. hydraulic cushion/eddy current
work. (Pages 115-16)
a. true 10. It is best to think of a ship as being docked stern first when she is docking with
b. false the current from astem. The docking is done as if the ship were moving
relative to the . (Pages 126-27)
2. There are several techniques a shiphandler can use to hold a ship in position
a. ahead/waler
in a channel or other confined area, including (Page 1131
b. ahead/bottom
I. steam on the anchor ai siow engine speeds.
c. astern/water
II. anchor to a short scope of chain with the current from ahead.
d. astern/bottom
III. simply back and fill in the channel.
a. I only 11. When docking at a wharf with the current from astern, the is used to
b. II only move her laterally the last few feet to the berth. 'Page 111)
c. III only a. current
d. ali of the above b. engine
342 REViEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 343

12. Your ship is docking port side to a wharf parallei to the channel. There is a 2. A 1-knot current exerts the same force on a gi ven surface area as knot s
btrong ebb current running as you come alongside, and tugs are made fast at of wind. (Page 130)
the bow and stern. ("age 127) a. 1
I. the tugs should come full ahead at ? 90 degree angle to the ohip to pin the b. 10
ship tighi nlongside and prevent movement while line? are run. c. 20
II. the tugs should work at an angle toward the ship, into the current, to hold d. 30
the ship both alongside and in position.
III. the tugs should come ahead parallel to the ship's side, against the current, 3. A ship moving at 2 knots moves approximatelv in one minute. (Pa^e
to hold the ship in position while lines are run to keep the ship alongside. 132)
a. I only a. 50 feet • .
b. II only b. 100 feet
c. III only c. 200 feet
d. either I or III d. 200yards

Practi.ce Maneuvers 4. Lateral motion can be caused by (Pages 132-33)

1. Try to handle your ship without moving around the wheelhouse more than is I. wind and current
absolutely necessary. Notice how your feel for the ship's movements (and es- II. turning the ship
pecial ly lateral movement when turning, backing, working in currents, or us- III. extended use of tugs
ing tugs) is significantly improved when you aren't constantly moving around a. I and II
the wheelhouse. b. I and III
c. ali of the above
2. Make use of every opportunity to practice handling your ship at minimum d. ships do not move lateraliy
speed. Stop the engine and keep her on course while approaching an anchor-
age or pilot station, using hard-over rudder as headway is lost. Be patient, 5. You are docking a ship with a right-liand propeller and she is about to come
watch the stem or jackstaff closely to detect movement as soon as possible, alongside and be stopped, in position, at the berth. The ship should be set up
and learn how slowly your ship can be handled. When she no longer answers for backing to allow for, and use to advantage, the normal twisting effect as
to rudder alone, use short kicks on the engine to start and check swing, and the ship goes astern. This is most commonly done (Pages 133-34)
practice until you can handle your ship at less than 1 knot in ali but the worst I. when docking starboard side to, by "kieking" the engine ahead with hard
conditions with a minimum of engine maneuvers. Anyone can handle a sh ; p port rudder before going astern.
at sea speed! II. when docking port side to, by "kieking" the engine ahead with hard star-
board rudder before going astern.
3. Look over the side and check the position of the quickwater every time you III. when docking port side to, by going astern to take o ff headway and bring
back the engine to slow or stop your vessel. Use the location of the quickwater the ship alongside.
to estirnate headway when approaching an anchorage, berth, or pilot station. e. both I and II
(Read pages 119-120 for approximate speeds vs. quickwater position.) b. both I and III
4. If your ship is fítted with a Doppler log, check your speed through the water c. III only
when the quickwater is moving forward at the same speed as your ship, when d. none of the above
the quickwater starts moving forward along the ship's hull, and when the
quickwater reaches amidships. 6. It's important to always put the rudder amidships before the engine starL=
turning astern. ("Page 134)
CHAPTER 5. DOCKING a. true
b. false
Review Questions
1. A compete.nt shiphandler plans a job so that wind and current can be used as 7. Quickwater can have a significant effect, forcing the ship away from the berth
aids to maneuvering rather than forces to be overcome. (Page 129) when docking starboard side to. (Pages 134-35)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
344 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 345

8. Ships must usually be forced into a berth and maneuvered using full revolu- 4. You are about to undock a ship berthed port side to at a wharf. Ships art-
tions ahead and astern, because shiphandling is not a subtle art. (Page 136> lerthed close ahead and astern, so the ship must be moved laterally to star-
a. true board, away from the berth, to clear those ships. Only one tug is availablo. De-
b. fatae scribe one way to accomplish this. (Pages 142—14)
A. the tug could be made fast with at least one backing line from the
9. Which of the following stateinents about ianding a ship alongside a berth tug's bow.
is/are true? (Pages 136-37) a. forward
I. a ship should be parallel to the pier when 3he lands alongside so ali franies ò. aft
along the parallel midbody can absorb equally the forco of Ianding.
B. the tug at a 45-degree angle toward the stern, while the ship's engine
II. a ship should be at an angle to the pier when she lands alongside the wharf
turns ahead and her rudder ir. put hard to .
or pier to minimizo the efíects of quickwater as she stops. a. comes aliead/starboard
a. I only b. backs/starboard
b. II only c. comes ahead/port
c. both I and II d. backs/port
d. neither I nor II
5. Your ship is docked starboard side to her berth. A tug is made fast on the port
bow and the last line has been lef: go. The ship has a right-hand turning pro-
Practice Maneuvers
peller. There is no ship berthed astern. The ship's engine is put astern. (Pages
1. Measure the time required for your bridge to move between bollards on the 144-46)
pier. Estimate the distance between bollards by comparing that distance with A the stern will move the berth unless there is a strong current or wind
your ship's beam. What was your ship's speed of approach? countering the propeller's eílect.
a. toward
2. Work to become more aware of lateral movement. Make a practice of stand- b. away from
ing on the centerline when approaching a berth and watching natural ranges B. the bow moves the berth as the ship's speed increases.
(corners of buildings, stacks, flagpoles, rooflines, etc.) for changes that indi- a. toward
cate lateral movement. b. away from
C. the tug will to steady the ship as she moves astern out of the berth.
a. back
CHAPTER 6. UNDOCKING b. come ahead

Review Questions 6. Your ship is berthed port side to her berth. One tug is available and is made up
on the starboard bow. There is no ship berthed astern, but you will need to
1. Undocking is, by its very nature, a simple maneuver that requires less plan- back approximately 300 feet to get clear of the ship. Describe one way to do
ning than a docking. (Pages 139-40) this job. (Page 145)
a. true A. the tug comes .
b. false £.. ahead
b. astern
2. In a ballasted condition, it's usually better to have too much drag than not B. this moves the ship"s tcward the berth.
enough, if such trim is necessary to get the propeller and rudder well sub- a. bow
merged. (Pages 140-41) b. stern
a. true C. the tug continues until the ship is at a significant angle to the pier.
b. false a. pushing
b. pulling
3. It is best to approach a potential hazard such as a pier or a shoal stern iirst be- D. this is necessary because the stern will mcve the pier when the en-
cause you can always put the engine ahead to reduce sternway. (Page 150) gine goes astern and the ship backs from the benn.
a. true a. toward
b. false b. away from
346 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS 347

7. A ship's bow can be moved or canted toward a pier before undocking by (Page a. true
145) b. falsc-
I. pushing with a bow tug.
2. Safe speed at departure is to a large extent dotermir.ed ">y '.Pagec 157-59,
II. letting go the fovward spring and then hcaving on the headline.
I. the shiphandler's experience and confidence in his shiphandling
III. cominp ahead dead slow against the spring line with the rudder hard over
ability.
toward the dock.
II. the depth of water, the speed of departing traffic, and the weather
a. I unly
conditions.
b. I and II
a. I only
c. l a n d III
b. II only r
d. ali of the above
c. ali of the above
8. Face when moving a ship stern first. (Page 152) d. none of the above
a. ahead
3. By increasing ship speed and moving faster than other departing traffic, the
b. astern
shiphandler significantly reduces the pofential for collision. (Pages 158-59)
9. Whon turning in a tidal basin, it's usually best to (Pages 152-53) a. true
I. turn the ship with some headway to complete the maneuver in the least b. false
time and to minimize effects of currents.
4. Modern bridge equipment has made it possible for the ship's master to conn a
II. turn tho ship in the up current side of the basin to avoid being set out of the
ship to sea with little or no assistance from the other ship's officers. (Pages
basin before completing the maneuver.
159-60)
III. have cs much way off the ship as possible before starting to turn in a ba-
a. true
sin.
b. false
a I only
b. I and II 5. Passage planning that stresses a pocket course card, formal pilot/master ex-
c. II and III changeof information, and charts with preplanned courses, turning bearings,
d. nono of the above distances, operating notes, and other navigation information noted in ink is
preferable to pages of written instruetions. (Pages 161-62)
10. Ships fitted with variable-pitch propellers respond in a manner than
a. true
ships fitted with conventional propellers when the engine goes astern. (Pages
b. false
150-51)
a more predictable
b. less predictable CHAPTER 8. ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHO RS
11. Variable-pitch ships should be fitted with propellers. (Page 151) Review Questions
a. right-hand
b. left-hand 1. A competent shiphandler can anchor safely in any anchorage and never has to
lay off for conditions to improve. (Page 165)
12. Always dismiss the forward tug as soon as possible to reduce tug charges. a. true
(Page 155) b. false
a. true
b. false 2. Anchoring is one continuous evolurion and considering it in partõ makes it
unnecessarily complicated. (Pages 166-67}
CHAPTER 7. DEPARTURE a. true
b. false
Review Questions
3. Allowance should be made one degree at a time for set and leeway when ma-
1. The pilot's duties include clarifying the inLentions of other ships and making neuvering at slow speeds in an anchorage. (Page 168)
safe meeting arrangements with those ships, and the master should not re- a. true
lease the pilot at departure until this is done. (Page 157) b. false
348 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 349

4. A ship moving at 3 knots moves about feet ahead in one minute. (Page c. when at/at ali times
169) d. before reaching/at ali times
a. 50
k 100 12. \lways place the anchor halfway between ships anchored aiiead and astern
c. 200 so your ship will lie at an equal distance from ali ships when your ar.chor
d. 300 fetches up. (Page 180)
a. true
5. A ship 600-feet-long, moving at 3 knots, would require about minutes b. false
for her entire hull, bow to stern, to pass a fixed point. (Page 169)
a. one 13. Ships at anchor always appear your ship than they aro actuallv King.
b. two (Page 183)
c. three a. closer to
d. four b. farther from
6. A 1-knot current on the beam sets a 600-foot ship about feet in that 14. There is significant risk of damaging a ship's rudder and propeller with a
ainount of time. (Page 169) stern anchor. Make sure the ship is before letting go a stern anchor
a. 100 and that sternway is when heaving the stern anchor. (Page l&y)
b. 200 a. moving asteni/increased
c. 300 b. stopped/minimized
d. 600 c. moving astern/minimized
d. stopped/increased
7. A ship can turn and maneuver to depart from a crowded anchorage by heav-
ing short and maneuvering on her anchor. (Page 171) 15. It's important to use the proper amount of chain when handling a ship v.-un
a. true her anchor. Used correctly, the anchor will drag along with considerable re-
b. false sistance, but it won't dig in and hold. (Page 194)
a. true
8. Ships lie at anchor on their final heading (Pages 173-74) b. false
I. lying to the strong force, wind or current, affecting the ship.
II. lying to the resultant of ali forces acting on the ship. 16. It is unusual for anchors to l>e used in day-to-day shiphandling because an-
III. lying into the current. chors are inefiective with toda/s larger ships. (Page 191)
a. I only a. true
b. II only b. false
c. both II and III
d. ali of the above 17. An anchor is only used for 6hiphandling in emergencies when maneuvering
e. none of the above today's larger ships. (Page 191)
a. true
9. List three reasons why it is preferable to have the ship on her final heading b. false
before letting go. (Page 174)
18. A « hip sheers immediataly and violently to the side on which an anchor is
10. The difference between the apparent motion of closer ships or ibjects and far- iropped. (Page 191)
ther objects or the shoreline can be used to accurately dotect lateral motion a. true
and motion ahead a n d astern. (Pages 176-77) b. iaise
a. true
b. false 19. The offshore anchor is recommended when docking a ship because (Page*
192-93)
11. Go astern to estimate ship's speed through the water the final an- I. there is more chance of the anchor digging in and holding.
choring location, when anchoring . (Page 179) II. there is less chance of damaging the hull and chain.
a. when at/at night III. the offshore anchor may be used later to heave off the berth and undock
b. before reaching/at night with minimum damage to hull and chain.
350 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S A N D PRACTICE MANEUVERS 351

a. I unly and that there is no 'mmediate or violent change in the ship's heading
b. II only when the anchor is used.
c. both II and III c. Come dead slow or slow ahead and use the ships rudder to maintain
d. ali of t he abnve tiie ship!s heading across the wind. Slack out more chain if necessary
e. none of the above so the ship remains dead in the water at luw RPM and note how tnc-
ship's heading and posit : on can be maintained, even when lying acros =
20. Static friction (when the wildcat is not turning) between the asbestos brake
the wind.
band and the windlass's brake drum is approximately times as great
d. Increase revolutions until the ship begins moving ahead again and use
as dynaini; friction (when the wildcat is turning). (Page 194)
the rudder to maintain the selected heading across the wind. Increase
a. two
and reduce revolutions to increase and decrease the ship's headway.
b. three
Observe the ship's behavior under ccntrolof the anchor, including the
c. five
change of headway when engine RPM is changed; the time required
d. ten
for the ship to lose ali headway when the engine is stopped; and speed
21. When docking with the anchor, using the correct amount of anchor chain through the water at a given RPM with the anchor on the bottom, as
(Page 195) compared to the speed at the same RPM witnout the anchor.
I. the bow is steadied. e. Reduce to dead slow ahead, and when the ship is dead in the water, use
II. the ship loses headway when the engine is stopped. the rudder to change heading to port and starboard. Note the effect of
III. the ship responds to her rudder without gaining headway at low RPMs. rudder on rate of turn and how quickly the ship steadies up with the
IV. the ship can be moved ahead by further increasing revolutions. rudder araidships. Also pay attention to the forward shift of the pivot
a. I only point toward the bow; the reduced diameter of the ship's turning cir-
b. II and III only cle; and leeway, or, more accurately, the lack of leeway as the ship is
c. ali of the above held on a particular heading.
d. none of the above f. Increase and decrease RPM and again alter the ship's heading, this
time with headway. Note that it's possible to make very controlled ma-
22. A ship can be turned in a considerably smaller area using an anchor. (Page
neuvers by coming ahead on a fixed heading to move the bow toward a
198)
desired point, and by reducing RPMs until headway is lost and then
a. true
using the rudder to move the stern to one side or the other, as might be
b. false done to come alongside a berth.
23. In an emergency, let go at least one anchor with enough chain to be certain the Ali this should help you develop an understanding of, and a feel for,
anchor will dig in and hold, and not drag, as the ship moves ahead. (Page 194) shiphandling under the control of an anchor. Think how useful maneuver lc
a. true would be while holding a ship awaiting tugs or improved weather conditions.
b. false Ship behavior demonstrated in ld would be useful in very narrow channels or
in reducing speed without backing (or whenyouve lost the engine) while the
Practice Maneuvers practice in le becomes important when you have to maneuver in a narrow
channel or into a narrow berth without a tug (by choice or circumstances), or
1. Select a pilot station or anchorage with a íairiy uniform sand or mud bottom need the anchor to break a sudden sheer while proceeding up the channel
and a depth 10 to 20 feet greater than your ship's draft. Arrive an hour or more from sea. Maneuver Ifputs it ali together and shows how a ship can make con-
before the ship's pilot time and practice using lhe anchor. trolled maneuvers or come alongside a berth or another vessel under perfect
a. Head across the wind and stop the engine. Try to steer using the rudder control, using an anchor even when conditions cre less :han ideal.
alone as Lhe ship loses headway. Note the wind's effects on the ship
b. Come ahead, if necessary, and increase the ship's speed to approxi- Hold your ship in position using the anchor and a short scope of chain while
mately 2 knots. Stop the engine and let go the windward anchor and waiting foi the pilot to board. This maneuver is most advantageous with a
one shot of chain well in the water. Slack more chain, as necessary, un- light ship in bad weather and you should try it at every opportunity to gain ex-
til the drag of the anchor begins reducing the ship's headway (a length perience in ali conditions of wind, tido, and ships drafl.
of chain equal to approximately twice the depth of water). Ncte how a. Reduce speed to bare steei ageway and put down one or two shots of
the ship is steadied by the anchor as compared to maneuver la above chain (depending on the depth of water). Steam on the anchor, adjusting
352 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 353

the rudder angle and engine revolutions to head the ship into lhe pre- 5. During ship-to-ship lightering operations, there is less chance of damage if
vailing »vind and sea. the Yokohama fenders are rigged on the VLCC rather than the offtaker. (Page
b. Adjufic RPM and slack a bit more chain, if necessary, and continue 217)
coming ahead against the anchor. Hold the ship òtationary relative to a. true
the bottom on the same heading into the prevailing wind and sca. b. false
c. P u t the rudder hard over as the pilot boat approaches and increase en-
gine RPM to change heading across the wind and sea/swell and make a 6. It is important that mooring wires used by ships engaged in ship-to-ship
lee for the pilot. Depending on circumstances, you could begin heaving lightering have synthetic tailsor pendants. (Page 219)
the anchor after the pilot boards or bteam on the anchor to bring the I. even though they make the wires more difficult to handle.
ship around to the initial course toward the channel while awaiting II. because they make it possible for ships to break apart m- re quickly in an
the pilot'8 arnval on the bridge. emergency.
This is certainly a lot safer and easier than backing and filling for half an III. because they absorb some of the surge that might otherwise part the
hour in a crowded anchorage while awaiting the pilot launch! wires.
a. I only
CHAPTER 9. SPECIAL MANEUVERS b. II and III
c. III only
Review Questions
d. Synthetic tails should not be used for this purpose.
1. Currents at the entrance to locks can be caused by (Pages 205-6)
I. spilling of water from the chamber. 7. When approaching the offtaker, the VLCC proceeds at possible speed.
II. difference between the density of the water in the chamber and the water (Page 219)
outside the chamber. a. maximum
a. I only b. least
b. II only 8. During this part of the operation, the VLCC should head the prevailing
c. both I and II wind and swell. (Page 219)
d. neither I nor II a. into
2. The best heading for approaching a single-point mooring is indicated by the b. across
heading of anchored ships and the reciprocai of the direction in which the
9. At the same time, the offtaker the VLCCs quarter and comes aJongside.
floating hoses trail from the buoy. (Page 212) (Page 219)
a. true a. stays close to
b. false b. keeps clear of
3. The wind has little effect on VLCCs, so these ships approach single-point
10. Anehors caa be used to steer a ship backing to a berth or mooring, because the
moorings directly into the current. (Page 212) ship's stern will move to port ifthe starboard anchor is held, and to starboard
a. true if the port anchor is held. (Page 227)
b. false a. true
4. The safest, most expedient approach to a single-point mooring is made by b. false
(Pages 213-14)
11. Whrn making a Mediterranean moor, the ship should back with her er.gines
I. heading directly at the mooring, keeping the buoy drad ahead as ship's en-
unt.il m position, close up to the berth, before running any lines. íp£-çe 230 1
gine gces astern and stoppmg near the pick.up buoy.
a. true
II. making a significant course change. preferably to port, to come to the final
b. false
approach heading, and then keeping the buoy fine on the port bow as the ship
approaches the SPM. 12. Departing a multiple-buoy mooring or Mediterranean moor, it's usuallv best
a. I only to (Pages 228 and 230-31)
b. II only I. htavc the weather anchor short.
c. either I or II II. steain on the weather anchor as required while heaving home xhe lee
d. neither I nor II anchor.
354 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S KEVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 355

III. steam away from the mooring as soon as the lee anchor breaks free, heav- 22. Hydrodynamic effeets are diíTerent for VLCCs. (Page 247;
i:ig un and dragging both anchors until well clear of the buoys or berth. a. true
a. I only b. false
b. II and III <mly
23. VLCCs are less easily damaged when coming alongside a berth. (Pase 247)
c. ali of the above a. trua
d. none of the above b. false
13. Williamson Turns are less effective with a VLCC because she maintains her
24. VLCCs should be closer to a berth than smaller ships before mooring lines are
speed longar and the vessel's path of travei is less predictable. (Page 213)
sent ashore. (Page 247)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
14. When making a Williamson Turn, a ship should always be steadied up 60 de-
25. Longer ships are more difficult to bring flat alongside because perspective
grees from her initial heading before starting a hard-over turn in the opposite
makes the farther end appear much closer to the berth than the closer end
direction. (Pages 231-32) (the "railroad track" cffect). (Pages 247-48)
a. true a. true
b. falso b. false
15. Twin-fcrew ships fítted with single rudders are generally more responsive at
slow speeds through the water when the engines are stopped. (Page 235) Practice Maneuvers
a. crue
b. false The Williamson Turn is used for man-ove^board emergencies and for routioe vessel
maneuvers, both to bring a ship back to a desired point with a minirnum cf maneu-
16. Twin-screw ships can be moved laterally toward a berth by pushing the bow vering and to help mates and masters appreciate a ship's handling characteristics
with a tug or bow thruster and backing the engine while coming at full speed at sea. Turning circles, the time and amount of rudder needed io make
ahead on the other engine. (Pages 235—36) and check turns, and the amount of speed a ship ioses making large course changes
a. inshore can ali be demonstrated during a Williamson Turn.
b. offshore
1. Paint an oil drum or other object bright orange so it can be easily s<íen and
17. VLCCs generally steer well at very slow speeds. (Page 244) used as a reference during the Williamson Turn. Puncture both ends of a
a. true 5-gallon paint pail and attaeh it to the drum with small diameter line. The
b. false pail serves as a drogue to minimize wind drift during the exercise. Also, pre-
18. VLCCs usuallv go astern to avoid close quarters situations. (Page 244) pare a data sheet, like the one described in chapter 1 for the m a s t e r s majieu-
vers, to collect data during the maneuvers. The information will be useful
a. true
when studying the ship's performance and comparing handling characteris-
b. false
ties under different conditions of loading.
19. "Safe speed" is the same for ali sizes of ships. (Page 244)
2. Muster the crew prior to starting the Williamson Turn, and explain the ma-
a. true
neuver and its purpose as both a man-overboard drill and a shiphandling ex-
b. false
ercise. The details of the man-overbeard procedurc- are outside the scope of
20. Shallow wnter effeets are felt at greater depth-to-draa ratios by loaded this b'">ok, so only the shiphandling aspeets of the maneuver will be dis^russed
VLCCs than by smaller ships. (Page 246) here.
a. true
3. Throw the drum or reference object over the side, note the ship's base course,
b. false
put the rudder hard over, and start the turn as described on page 232. Mea-
21. The term "constrained by draft" should take into consideration both shallow sure the time required for the ship to begin turning after the rudder is put
water effeets and danger of grounding. (Page 246) hard over and comparo the advance and tactical diameter with the ship's
a. true length, as the ship turns, using the drum as a reference. This information will
b. fa'se be helpful both for maneuvering in close quarters situations sea and in any
356 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS
REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 357

future emergency situation that might arise. The time to turn, the tactical di-
CHAPTER 10. TRAINING
ameter, and the advance will probably be significantly less than you expected.
Revicui Questiona
4. Continue the maneuver, shifting the helm from hard over to hard over when
the heading ha? changed 55 degrees from t.he base course (po nt "A" in figure
9-15). Note the heading when the ship steadies up and begins swinging in the 1. Onboard training and experience is important bccause (Pages 253-54)
opposite direction. Caiculate the number of degrees that the ship swings be- I. it is impossible to teach some marine skills in a classroom.
fore she checks up and youll know the are of swing required to steadv up from II. priorities needed to apply theory to real-world situations can only be
learned onboard the ship.
a bard-over turn.
III. masters and sênior officers can transfer the lessons gained from experi-
5. Keep the rudder hard over as the ship turns through a circle toward the recip- ence through shipboard training.
rocai of her initial heading. Apply the are required to check hei swing, as cal- IV. it's possible to leani most skills, such as shiphandling, simpl; by watching
culated in ir.aneuver 2 above, and when the ship's heading is that number of sênior officers and pilots at work.
degrees from the desired final heading (the reciprocai of tho initial heading), a. I only
reverse the rudder hard over again. The ship should check up on, or near, the b. both I and III
final heading as the ship returns to her starting point alongside the reference c both II and III
oil drum. d. IV only
Example: Object overboard on the starboard side, rudder hard right to
turn the ship to starboard. 2. Deck officers can't become effective watch officers and shiphardlers until
(Pages 255-56)
Original course 030 degrees I. they have twenty years' experience at sea.
Initial change of heading +55 II. they have "hands-on" drills and feel comfortable using equipment.
Heading to shift helm ("A") 085 III. they learn not to touch equipment unless absolutely necessary.
Ship steadies up 095 a. I only
Are to check swing (difierence) 10 b. II only
c. Ill only
Final (reciprocai) heading 210 d. I and III
Are to chcck swing 10
Heading to shift helm ("B") 220 degrees 3. Simulators are innovative training aids because they make it possible to
(Pages 261-62)
The ship will have oompleted the Williamson Turn in a predictable manner with I. learn to prioritize tf sks and perform several tasks concurrently.
the leact possible helm movements (three) and thus the minimum of variables. II. watch experts work.
Note the total time to complete the maneuver, the speed ihrough the water at the III. transfer classroom theory to real-time sitrations.
end of the maneuver, and the distance and bearing from the starting point. If de- IV. learn mest shipboard work without spending a gruat deal of time aboard
sired, back down and stop the ship as close to the starting point as possible. ship.
a. I only
6. Perform the maneuver again using an initial change of heading at point "A" of b. II only
35 degrees. Did your ship retum closer to or farther from her sta.-ting point c. II and IV
using this smaller initial course change? The required initial change of head- d. I and III
ing is, to a large extent, determined by the ship's directional Ltability. and the
more positive the directional stability, the farther the ship should be p Uowed 4. Simulator \ype is more important than instruetor experience when judging
to swing before shifting the helm at "A." pozential Jenefits of a training facility. (Pages 274-75)
Practice this maneuver at light and loaded drafts, in various conditions of a. true
trim, and let ali the ship's officers perform Williamson Turns so everyone b. false
learns the procedure. A great deal can be learned about shiphandling param-
5. Professional instruetors are preforable to professional mariners at Simulator
eters and the effeets of various loading and trim conaitions by comparing the training facilities. (Pages 274—75)
turning rate, most effective change of heading at point "A," tactical diameter, a. true
advance, etc. b. false
358 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S AND P R A C T I C E M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 359

6. The following m a r i n e r ' s skills could be improved w i t h Simulator training: CHAPTER 11. MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
(Pages 277-78)
A. shiphandling. Reuiew Questions
a. true 1. it isn't particularly important that pilots possess traditional scagoing skills,
b. false because their maia task is advising shipmasters of courses and speeds from
B. rules of the road applicationn and maneuvering with other ships. point to point. (.Page 289)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
C. bridge organization.
a. true 2. A pilot whose services are required by law is a pilot. (Pages 290-91)
b. false a. compulsory
D. wato.hkeeping practices. b. voluntary
a. true 3. A pilot taken at the master's option is a pilot. (Page 289)
b. false a. compulsory
E. restricted visibility navigation. b. voluntary
a. true
b. false 4. A compulsory pilot is aboard in a purely idvisory capacity and as such has no
F. emergency procedures. responsibility or liability for bis actions. (Page 291)
a. true a. true
b. fslse b. false
G. ship-to-ship eommunication procedures. 5. There are no significant differences between the responsibilities of the com-
a. true pulsory and the voluntary pilot. (Page 289)
b. false a. true
b. false
7. The computer-based Simulator is an advancement that is replacing the
ship-model type Simulator at most training facilities. (Pages 271-72) 6. Should the shipmaster imrnediately relieve the pilot in the following situa-
a. true tions? (Pages 292-93)
b. false A. the pilot is intoxicated.
a. yes
8. The most important component of the Simulator course is the (Page 274) b. no
a. Simulator B. the pilot demonstrates gross incompetence.
b. instructor a. yes
c. the curriculum b. no
d. ali of the above C. the master knows a more expedient way to complete the maneuver at hand.
a. yes
9. Performance-based testing on simulators should overload the student with b. no
scenarios that are more difficult than real-world situations. (Page 276) D. the vessel is standing into danger that is not obvious to the pilot.
a. true a. yes
b. false b. nc
E. tiie pilot's actions are ir error due to circuiüstances or the limita tions of the
10. Time shouid be divided between the briefing, Simulator session, and debrief- Síiip being handled.
ing approximately (Page 282) a. yes
a- K K K b. no
b-K&K F. the master recommends a change that the pilot rejects.
c- a. yes
d. the debriefíng is only necessary if students make many errors. b. no
360 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICK M A N E U V E R S 361

G. A master must wait until the ship is "in extremis"' before relieving a <:om- CHAPTER 12. VESSEL OPERATIONS
pulsory pilot.
Revieiv Questicns
a. true
b. false
1. Formal plans are only needed if the master and mates have not recently made
7. It is essential that the master be a competent shiphandler because, under cer- a passage in a particular area. (Page 302)
tain circumstonces, he has a responsibility to relieve a pilot in a timely and ef- a. true •
fective manner. (Page 293) b. false
a. true
b. false 2. Passages can be overplanned. An inílexible passage plan, without alterna-
tives based on professional planning and judgmcnt, is as dangerous as no
plan at ali. (Pages 303-4)
8. The traditional overlapping of responsibility between the master and pilot a. true :
prevents many accidents. (Page 294) b. false
a. true
b. false 3. Review the types of information that should be included in proper inland wa-
ters passage plans. (Pages 304—5)
9. Irreconcilable differences between master and pilot occur often in the course
4. Passage plans and routes should never be put on charts in ink because that
of moving ships in pilot waters. (Page 294)
would make the chart less useful for future voyages. (Page 305)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false

10. Penalties and liabilities for accidents that could occur should be foremost on 5. Competent masters don't prepare and carry pocket course cards because they
the m a r i n e i s mind when deciding on a course of action. (Page 301) memorize charts and passage plans from sea to the dock. (Pages 305-6)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false

6. Ali bridges should be standardized with identical layouts and equipment.

11. Bridge Resource Management is designed to reduce errors and omissions (Page 307)
through a syutem of ehecks, the delegation of duties, and joint decision-mak- a. true
ing by a group of vessel personnel referred to as the bridge team. (Page 295) b. false
a. true
b. false 7. There should be a clear view forward from large, unobstructed centerline win-
dows. (Page 307)
12. The bridge team shares the workload. obtains and ccmmunicates relevant in- a. true
formation early, and monitors the vessel's progress by crosschecking the deci- b. false
sions and actions of ali members of the team within the contaxt of the
8. The quarcermaster's station shouid be as close to the forward wheelhouse
master/pilot relationship. (Page 296)
windows as possible. (rages 30B-9 i
a. true
a. true
b. false
b. false

13. BRM has changed traditional pilot responsibility for overall vessel control 9. Instruments should be clustered by use and placed where the user (mate,
and protection of the public interest and the local environment by incegrating master, pilot, quartermaster) can use them without being diverted from other
the pilot into the joint decision-making bridge team. (Pages 296-97) work. (Page 307)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
362 KEVIEW Q'JESTIONS AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S AND PRACTICE M A N E U V E R S 363

10. A conning station should be organized with equipment mounted on a bulk- 17. There are several distinct advantages to having active traffic management us-
head, console, or to keep windows clear. (Pages 309-10) ing two-way DGPS-based systems versus information from a shore-based pas-
a. true sive traffic management system. These advantages include (Pages 320-22)
b. false a. information ia real time.
b. information is unfiltered and uninterrupted.
11. Instruments and equipment should be kept off bridge wings. (Page 310)
c. information is not iine of sight.
a. true
d. al! of the above.
b. false
12. Which ofthe following statements are true regai ding the effectof bridge loca- 18. There are significant diíTerences between shiphandling in daylight and at
night. Which of the following are true? (Pages 324-25)
tion on shiphandling? (Pages 322-24)
I. loss of depth perception at night makes it more difficult to estimate dis-
I. points of reference appear closer as bridge height is increased.
tance.
II. your ship appears to be moving more slowly as height of eye increases.
II. speed cannot be determined at night by looking ahead.
III. turning rate is more difficult to detect when looking ahead from a bridge
III. speed cannot be determined at night by looking abeam or a' aft the beam.
located close to the bow.
IV. lights and aids appear farther away on cloar nights.
IV. visibility is improved when the bridge is higher and closer to the bow.
a. I and II only
a. I and II only
b. III and IV only
b. I and IV only
c. ali of the above
c. ali cf the above
d. none of the above
d. none of the above
13. Any laptop system using DGPS and off-the-shelf software and charts can be 19. Which ofthe following is/are true regarding record keeping? (Pages 326-27)
used to navigate in ice, fog, rain, and other conditions that would have closed I. logs and records are important aspects of proper vessel operation.
ports in the past. (Pages 312 and 316) II. iogs and record keeping often confhct with shiphandling, and redundant
a. true paperwork must be eliminated.
b. false a. I only
b. II only •
14. DGPS laptop pilot navigation systems have the same line of sight limitations c. both I and II
as radar so traffic cannot be seen beyond obstructions or beyond the radar ho- d. neither I nor II
rizon. (Page 319 and 322)
a. true
b. false
15. DGPS pilot systems are limited by (Page 315)
I. line of sight target detection
II. chart accuracy
III. communication with other vessels
IV. ability to present accurate information on "other nhip" course, speed and
location
a. I above
b. II above
c. ali of the above
d. none cf the above
16. Modern laptop-based DGPS navigation systems are extremely accurate and
relioble, allowing pilots to navigate safely in any condition regardless of the
accuracy or reliability of the ship's navigation equipment. (Pages 314-15)
a. trua
b. false
 BI13LIOGRAPHY 365

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I Watchkeeping. London, 1978.
Ives, Captain Paul. Azipod Operations Course. RPM STAP. Center, Dania
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La Dage, John H. Modern àhips. Cambridge, Md.: Cornell M a r i t i m e
1
Press, 1965. ]
MacElrevey, Daniel H. El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials. Cove Puint,
A m e r i c a n Petroleum I n s t i t u t e . Gu.ideli.nes for Developing Bridge Manage- Md.: El Paso Marine Company, 1978.
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A r m s t r o n g , Malcolm C. Pilot Ladder Safety. W o o l l a h r a , N.S.W., A u s t r a - I Company, 1978.
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B a r r a s s , C. B. "Ship S q u a t a n d I t s Caleulation." Safety at Sea m a g a z i n e , York, 1978.
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C r e n s h a w , R. S., J r . Naval Shiphandling. Annapolis, Md.: N a v a l Insti- ville, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press, 1990.
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D a g g e t t , L a r r y a n d C h r i s t o p h e r H e w l e t t , et al. Dynamic Squat and Under j Navigation and Piloting. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sci-
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Daggett, L a r r y a n d C h r i s t o p h e r H e w l e t t . Study ofShip Squat in the Pan- . Proceedings:Symposium on Piloting and VTS Systems. Washing-
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C a n a l Commission, Vicksburg, Miss., 1998. I . Ship Bridge Simulator Training. Wasliington, D.C.: National
D e p a r t m e n t of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . Investigation of Effects of Ship's Speed Academy of Sciences, 1995.
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EMRI, Steering Control Systems and Azipod Operations. Herlev, Den- I . Ship to Ship Transfer Guide (Petroleum). London: Witherby & Co.,
m a r k , 1998. 1978.
Gray, W. O. E S S O OSAKA Maneuvering Trials—Shallow Waier Maneu- . Standards for Equipment Employed. in Mooring of Ships at Single
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1978. P a n a m a Canal Commission. Panama Canal Pilot's Handbook. Balboa,
H a y l e r , William B., ed. Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook, 5 t h ed. Par. ama, 1980.
Centreville, Md.: Cornell M a r i t i m e P r e s s , 1989. P a r k s , Alex L. and Edward V. Cattell, J r . Law ofTug, Tow, and Pilotage,
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364
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Quick, George A. ' Pilotage." P r o c e e d i n g s — M a r i t i m e T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Re-
s e a r c h Board. Washington, D.C.: N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of Sciences, 1980.
Reid, George H. Shiphandlinc with Tugs. Centreville, Md.: Cornell Mari-
t i m e P r e s s , 1986. INDEX
liesolution of t h e American Pilots' Association. Role of the Pilot and the
Master-Pilot Information Exchange. American Pilots'Association, 1997.
RTM STAR C e n t e r . Alaska State Marine Pilot Training and Evaluation
Manual. D a n i a Beach, Fia., 2000. Accelerating turn, 11, 178
Ship Performance Data for VLCCs [ T r a i n i n g M a n u a l ] . La G u a r d i a , N.Y.: Acceleration, underkeel clearance,
M a r i n e S a f e t y I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1981. 87,95,97-98
Access: bridge windows, 308, 310; im-
Swift, A. H. Bridge Team. Management, A Practical Guide, T h e N a u t i c a l
portance of, 310
I n s t i t u t e , 1993.
Accuracy, Simulator model, 235
U n i t e d Kingdom Board of Trade. "Navigation Safety/Guide to Planning &
Acquiescence, of master to pilot, 294
Conduct of Passages/' MN854. Advance, 44, 74, 75, 76, 178-79
V a n t i n e , W i l b u r H. "Good Bridge Design f r o m a M a s t e r M a r i n e r ' s Point of Advising pilot, master's duties,
View." Ship Operation Automation, ed. by P i t k i n , Roche, a n d Wil- 40-43 39—40, 300
liams. N e w York: North-Holland P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , 1976. "A" frame, 249
W e r n e r , N o r m a n A. "A View from t h e Bridge." The Panama Canal Review, Aids to navigation: uses, 75-77, 172;
spring, 1976. simulating, 269
Alaskan Pilots, evaluation and li-
censing, 286
American flag, pilot requirements,
291
Anchor chain, 162; amount of, 176
Anchoring: mentioned, 16; in steps,
166; planning, 166-77; in deep
water, 170-71; final heading,
173-75; wind/current abeam, 168,
175-76, 177; wind/current astern,
175-76, 177; basic, 176; approach
to, 176-77; determining speed,
179; mooring and anchoring,
185-89; with stern anchor,
187-90; alongside bank, 201-2;
lightering, 221—22; model-based
simulators, 263, 271
Anchors: standing by, 7; preparing,
23- pilot information for, 40; to
hold ship, 118, 197; to steer, 198,
227; at wharf, 126; in wind, 132,
367
16S-69; undocking, 139; to turn,
148; to turn short, 154, 170, 171,
176, 198; walking out, 171; easing
chain, 176; placing, 179-81; dig-
ging in, 182-83; swinging room,
183-85; laying out 181-82;
amount of chain, 194-96: brake,
176, 194; for shiphandling, 191,
194; steadying bow, 198; select-
ing, 172, 192-93; stopping ship,
194; holding ship, 118, 197; re-
stricted visibility, 197; steadying
effect, 198-99; strong wind, 169;
fetching up, 194, 198; meeting
ships, 198; stopping sheer, 199; in
a bend, 199; narrow channel, 198;
in canais, 208; approaching moor-
ing, 224-25; 5-point moorings,
224-28; backing, 202-3, 226-27;
Mediterranean moor, 228-31;
simulating, 263-64, 269;
shiphandling simulated, 263,
269-71
Anchor underfoot, backing, 202-3
Angle, to berth, 239
Angle of approach: port side to,
122-23, 133; starboard side to,
122-23, 133; discussed, 122-24;
afiected by wind, 130-32;
twin-screw ship, 239
Answer back system, 311
Approach: speed, 118-21; port side
to, 122-23; starboard side to,
122-23; bow in slip, 123; stern in
368 INDEX INDEX 360

Approach (continued)
slip, 124-25; lightering, 221-22;
5-point moorings, 225; at sea re-
plenishment, 249-50
Approaching berth, discussed, 122
Approaching wharf: current ahead,
126; current astern, 127
Areas of immersed sections curve, 73
ARPA: training, Simulator, 267; for
pilots, 279; mentioned, 39, 81, 92,
258,284
Arrival: preparation for, 7, 22-23;
timing, 118
Arriving early, importance, 118
Assistant mooring master, qualifica-
tions, 215
Astern: movement with anchor,
202-3; simulated maneuvers, 277
Audible gyro, importance, 81
Auto-logging, 326-27
Automatic Identification System, 38
Azipod, 8, 239; commands, 63-64;
discussed, 52-70; bridge resource
management, 67-69. See also Di-
rectional propulsion systems
Backing and filling: described, 11-13;
tests, 11-13; to make lee, 28; to
anchor, 170, 171,179
Backing: discussed, 13-15; setting up
for backing, 14, 133; from slip,
144-48; hazards, 150; to anchor,
180-81, 182; strong wind, 35-36
Backing engine, effects simulated,
268, 277
Backing "into the wind," 15, 35-36,
168, 169
Backing line, 103
Backing tug, effects, 106
Ballast condition, 140
Ballasting: forward, 140; lightering,
222
Bank cushion, 21, 47; simulated. 269;
as feature, 270; training, 277
Bank effects: backing, 14;
twin-screw, 238; shecring, 47-48;
simulating, 270; as feature, 270;
training, 277
Bank suction: vs. bank cushion, 21-22;
discussed, 21-22, 47-48; passing
and meeting, 48; simulated, 270; as
feature, 270; training, 277
Barrass, PhD, C. B., 87, 88, 89, 94
Base course, at sea replenishment,
249
Basin, turning in, 151-53
Beam limit, meeting in channels, 78
Bell book, 40, 327
Bell logger, 326-27
Bend, turn in using anchor, 199
Bernoulli effect: 47, 85; discussed
85-86
Berthing, twin-screw, 236-38; land-
ing twin-screw, 238; exposed pro-
peller, 238; excess angle, 238
Bight, use undocking, 141
Blockage factor: defined, 85; effects,
85-87, 94; formula, 86; handling
characteristics, 90
Block coefficient: directional stabil-
ity, 20, 71; squat, 88, 94-95; ef-
fect on steering, 71, 90; trim,
90-91; discussed 85-87
Bottorn contours: affecting backing.
15; discussed, 20-21, 47^18
Bow, in mud turning, 154
Bow stresses, VLCC, 245
Bow thruster: advantages, 15; dis-
cussed, 15, 144; compared to tug,
15; table for, 15; vs. ship's speed,
16; in anchoring, 165; Mediterra-
nean moor, 230; twin-screw ships,
235-36; moving ships laterally,
235-36
Bow tug: stern in approach, 124, 125;
undocking, 143, 145; substituting
anchor, 191, 195-97
Brake, anchor, 176, 194
Brake band, 194
Break up, lightering, 224
Breast lines, 127, 138; lightering, 222
Bridge: manning, 160; team, 16,
295-300; work, 159-60; simu-
lated, 270; as feature, 270, 272;
importance, 272; organization,
278; procedures, 278; supporting
master/pilot, 295, 297; aft visibil-
ity, 323
Bridge console, 308-9
Bridge control, single person, 67-68
Bridge design: VMax, 242; discussed,
306-11; visibility, 307-8, 311; af-
fecting bridge work, 306; consul-
tation for, 311
Bridge equipment, 81, 160, 306-11
Bridge forward, 323
Bridge height, 322-24
Bridge markers, 135
Bridge procedures, 261, 275, 282-84;
for pilots, 279-81
Bridge Resource Management: and
Azipods, 67-69, 295-300; for
shiphandlers, 295-300;
shipmaster, 298-300; watch con-
ditions, 298-300. Common terins:
shared mental model, 300; error
chain, 296; perceived world, 296.
Error recognition, bridge team:
duties, 298-99; members, 298;
team size, 298-99; purpose, 296,
297; training for pilots, 295; af-
fect on master/pilot relationship,
296-97; team vs. coinmittee, 295,
296; pilot aboard, 300
Bridge team: and Azipods, 68; vs.
committees, 296; piloting, 68,
296-300; watch conditions,
298-300
Bridge wings, 308, 310
Briefing, Simulator instructioii, 261,
275,282-84
Bulbous bow, 23, 174, 193
Buoys: use of in shiphandling, 75-77;
turning on, 75-77; strong cur-
rents, 77
"By the head": affecting steering,
71-73; vs. directional stability,
19,71-73
Camels, 123, 131
Canais, crew duties, 2u7
CAORF, Simulator facility, 231, 279
Centerline markers, 323
Chain: handling, 176; laying out,
181-82; clearing turns, 186-87
Chain stoppers at SPM, 214-16
Changing fuel to maneuver, 162
Channel: holding position in, 118; us-
ing buoys, 75-77; configuration
affecting squat, 85-86, 92, 94-95;
configuration, affecting underkeel
clearance, 95; width, meeting
ships, 77, 98-99
Charts: discussed, 162; as passage
plan, 162, 305
Checking swing, 18, 73
Chief mate training, 160, 254
Chocks, for use at SPM, 216
Clear view, at work area, 307-S. 310
Clear water, backing towards, 150
Clearance, underkeel: discussed,
92-100; summarized test íind-
ings, 95; safe speed for, 95-96; ef-
fects of stability on, 95, 96-97;
and acceieration, 95, 97; when
meeting and passing, 95, 98-99;
when overtaking, 95, 100
"Clicking" gyro, use of, 81
370 INDEX
Close quarters, 159; speed in situa-
tion, 158; with VLCC, 244; simu-
lated, 267
Coastvvise pilotage requirements,
291
COLREGS, affeeting VLCCs, 246
Combined beam in narrow channels,
78
Come ahead line. 103
Coming ahead from slip, 148
Commands: Azipod, 63-64; standard-
ized, 54, 57, 63-64
Communications: discussed, 23,
36-39, 105, 215, 219, 251; steer-
ing gear flat, 23; with tug, 105; at
SPM, 21o; lightering, 239; with
helicopter, 251; Simulator train-
ing, 277, 278
Communications Tracking and Navi-
gation System, 38, 39, 312
Compulsory pilot: discussed, 288-91;
relationship to master, 291-93
Computer-based simulators: types
discussed, 266-67; model develop-
ment, 268-70; advantages,
261-62, 271; disadvantages, 271;
features, 267; compared, 271;
preferences pilot vs. deck officer,
271; validation, 273-74; instruc-
tor, 274-75; deck officer curricu-
lum, 275-78; depth parception,
279; enhancing pilot training,
282, 287; testing with 285-87
Computer control: for Azipods, 66;
discussed, 66-67
Concurrent tasks, 261, 267; testing,
285
Conn, 39, 45, 157, 254
Conning station: layout, 310; locat-
ing, 308-11
Console cont^ols, Azipods: pilot-mas-
ter relationship, 69-70; bridge re-
source management, 67-68; and
standard bridge commands, 70,
308-11
Consoles: placement. 307-11; ciear
of windows, 307, 308-9, 310,
311.
Containerships, 33-34, 82, 244, 322
Controlling emotions, 115-17
Cost, paying for pilot training, 271,
278,282
Council of American Master Mari-
ners, 311
Course card, 7, 161-62, 172, 305-6
Course changes, 159, 254
Course material foi simulators,
275-82
Courses inked, 161-62, 304
Cross-sectional area, 70, 86, 87, 89,
90
Cross swell: making a lee in, 27;
lightering, 219
Current: actual vs. predicted, 49;
turning in, 77; mentioned, 117,
129-30, 142-43, 144, 154,
168-69; from astern, 126-27, 177,
201; as tool, 129-31, 168-69; com-
pared to wind strength, 130,
168-69; undocking, 142-43, 144;
final heading, 174; affeeting ma-
neuvering, 168-69; when moored,
137; planning for, 168-69, 171;
simulating, 269; as criteria, 270;
instruction, 277
Current tables, 117
Curriculum: simulators, 260; deck of-
ficers, 275-78; scenarios, 276,
277; pilots, 278-82
Curve of immersed sections, 73
Cushion effeets, 21, 47, 78, 134, 221;
twin-screw, 237, 238
Daggett, PhD, Larry L.: work of, 84
INDEX
"Danger area" during at sea replen-
ishment, 249-50. See also
Ship-to-ship lightering
Darkness affeeting piioting, 324-25
Data: sheei, 9: model tests, 45, card,
139
Day vs. night, 324-25
Deaton, Captain William, 217
Debriefing: Simulator instruction,
261, 272, 273, 282-84; impor-
tance, 261. 283
Deck log, 326-28
Demonstrating: proficiency, 257, 259,
262; pilots, 257, 259, 262, 28i
Departing: frorn between ships, 143,
149; from port, 156-62; from
moorings, 228; Mediterranean
moor, 230-31; at sea replenish-
ment, 251
Depth oi" water: effeets, 8-9, 17-18,
20, 22, 170, 178; vs. speed, 158;
affeeting maneuvering, 17-18,
20-22, 85-100; and anchoring,
170-71
Depth perception, 279
DGPS: to measure squat 81;
underkeel clearance tests, 94-95
DGPS-based navigation systems:
312-15; accuracy, 315; capabili-
ties, 317; for shiphandling,
318-20; for traffic management.
320-22. See also Laptop naviga-
tion systems
Diameter of turning basin, 153-54
Diesel engine, handling twin-screw,
234
Diesel oil for maneuvering, 40, 162
Diesel propulsion: backing, 26; ma-
neuvering, 40, 49; affeeting steer-
ing 49; dead slow ahead, 143,
14C; mentioned, 143, 145
Digital fathometer, 81, 310
371
Dingler, Captain Carl R., 224
Direction of rotation: propoller, 51,
120, 122, 150: variable-pitch pro-
pelJer, 51, 150-51; directional
control, stern anchor, 188
Directional propulsion systems:
types, 52; advantages, 53; con-
cerns, 53-54; design, 55-56; con-
trols, 56-5S, engine modes,
59-60; At Sea mode, 59; Harbor
(Maneuvering mods), 60; At-Sea
pod configuration, 61; Harbor pod
configuration, 62; Docking pod
configuration, 62-63; standard-
ized commands, 63-64, 70; com-
puter control, 64; me ship length
rule, 66; and BRM, 67-69; and
master/pilot relationship, 69-70
Directional stability: defined, 18;
shallow water effeets, 18; men-
tioned, 19, 20, 140, 239-40; trim
effeets, 70-72; instability used to
advantage, 72-73; instability dis-
cussed, 73, 83, 232; for VLCCs,
72, 239-41, 246; for VMax ships,
239-41; twin-screw, 235; simu-
lated, 268
Disagreement, master and pilot, 294
Displacement, 86; affeeting
shiphandling, 244
Distance estimated at night, 324-25
Distance line, 250
Docking: shaping up for, 14, 122;
bow-in, 123; current froin astern,
126-27; stemming tide, 126; pil-
ing clusters used port side to,
122, 123, 131, 133-34; piling
clusters used starboard side to,
122, 123, 133, 134; stern in,
124-26; with anchor, 193,
195--97; twin-screw ship, 235-39;
wind and current, 129-32;
372
Docking (coritinued)
landing twin-screw, 237-39;
twin-screw cushion, 238; angle to
berth, 122-23, 127, 239; simu-
lated, 268, 259
Docking plana, 117-18
"Don't touch syndrome," 255, 278
Doppler speed log, 81, 82, 119, 120,
258,310,317
Draft: discussed, 19; affecting direc-
tional stability, 19-20; vs. depth,
85
Drag: discussed, 20, 70-72, 140; af-
fecting directional stability, 20,
70-72
Driil8 for man overboard, 231-34
Dynamic friction, anchor brake, 194
Dynamic instruction, simulation, 261
Eddy currents: discussed, 49, 126,
127, 137, 202; in bend, 49; going
alongside, 137
Effective maneuver defined, 17
Electronic charts, onboard pilot
training, 258
Emergencies: discussed, 23, 194,
199-200; breaking up lightering,
224; evacu&tion by helicopter,
251-52; simulated, 269-70, 277,
279
Engine: overuse, 65; starting
twin-screw, 238
Engine astern to stop, 13-14, 24
Engineer for steering gear, 23
Engine failure: discussed, 150,
199-200; use of sLern anchor, 200
Engine opposing tug forces, 142-43,
144, 149
Engine response, simulated, 268
Engine revolutions: uses, 44, 52, 132,
134; vs. ship's ápeed, 132; steer-
ing effects. 44, 52
INDEX
Engines used, tug on hawser, 110-11
Enrollment, pilot requirements, 291.
See also Compulsory pilot
Equipment: grouping, 308-9; Simula-
tor evaluating, 272, 273, 285-86;
simulated failures, 278
Equivalency, 286-87; simulation ws.
sea time, 286
Error chain: and Azipods, 69; BRM
for pilots, 296
Errors in judgment, 301
Eryuzlu and Hauser: squat formula,
90; mentioned, 88, 90
Esso Osaka tests, 22, 243
Evaluation, Simulator, 270; by Simu-
lator, 272, 284-85; pilot perfor-
mance, 281-82, 286; evaluator
qualifications, 286-87
Excessive speed, 118
Externai effects, simulation, 267-70.
See also Simulator
Facing aft, 112, 152
Fair tide, 49-50
Fathometer, 81, 258, 310. See also
Digital fathometer
Feedback: and bridge resource man-
agement, 68; regarding Azipod
control, 68
Fidelity, simulator model, 270
Final heading: discussed, 172-73; wind
and currents, 174; advantages,
174: bulbous bow, 174; determin-
ing, 175; altematives, 175; recip-
rocai, 175; anchoring off, 175-76
Finesse docking, 136
Fire and emergency drills, 256. See
also Drills for man overboard
Flare affecting tug"s maneuvers, 104
Flashing light, 36
Flow over rudder, 47, 80, 199
Flow, rudder effect, 235, 238
INDEX
Fórum, 276, 279
Forwaid sections, directional stabil-
ity, 18-20. See also Directional
stability
Forward tug dismissal, 155
Freuboard vs. wind, 31-32, 34-36,
129-30 ] .
Freshets, 49
Full sections: affecting directional
stability, 19-20
Full task simulator, 267
Future of simulation, 284-85
Gaillard Cut, 48, 109, 211
Gear for 5-point moorings, 225
i Going alongside, 136-37
Going astern, maintaining control,
133-34
Grenoble, 263; model-based simula-
tor, 263
Gross negligence, 292, 301
"Gunsight effect," 323
l Gyrocompass, 81, 309, 310;
shiphandling tool, 811
i ;
Hand signals, 115,116 [
i "Hands-on" drills, 255, 256, 257; sim-
ulated, 260-61, 276, 286-87
Harmonic vibrations, 158
Hawser: uses, 111; for tugs, 110-11
Head currents, 49; docking, 126;
undocking, 142—44
Heading for helicopter operations, 251
Healway for steering, 51
Heaving o.Tbeith, 145. 193
Heavy oil vs. maneuvering, 40. 162
Height of eye effects, 322-24
Helicopter maneuvering plot, 251;
operations, 251-52
Helm orders, 115, 116
Helm statnn: discussed, 309; equip-
men', 309; location, 308
373
Helmsman: training, 73; using rate
of turn indicator, 83; duties, 309,
311
Hewlett, PE, J. Christopher: work of,
84
High power ships: response!, 236-U7,
239; walking ship, 236-37
Holding: alongside pier, 15, 137-38;
in channel, 100, 118; with tugs,
118; with anchor, 118, 188,
197-198
Horizontal bridge team, 295. See also
Bridge
Huuska and Tuck: squat formula, 89;
mentioned, 88, 89
Hydraulic cushion: discuí-sed, 126,
137; lightering, 221
Hydrodynamic effects: model-based
simulators, 264; computer sirnu-
lators, 267-70; pilot training,
280
Hydrodynamicist, simulators, 267
Ice on pilot ladder, 29
Identification by VHF, 37-38. See
also VHF
Imminent danger: relieving pilot,
292-293; in extremis, 293
Inboard anchor, 192—93
Inboard propeiler, 237, 238; walking
ship, 234-36, 237; checking lat-
eral motion, 238
Information in pilot waters, 40-43,
302, 305
Inked courses for charts, 161-62, 305
Instructor: simulator, 261, 274-75;
as component of simulation, 274;
importance, 261, 274; team con-
cept, 274; qualifications, 274;
training, 274; accreditation, 274;
involvement, 275; in debriefing,
283

374
INDEX
Instrumentation: discussed, 81—83;
seaman's eye 81; gyro, 81; DGPS,
81; radar, 31; rate of turn indica-
tor, 81-82; liniiting bridge visibií-
ity, 81; fer VLCCt., 246; in bridge
design, 308-11. See also Bridge
equipment
International Maritime Organization
(IMO), 28, 40, 275, 286, 307
International Maritime Pilots' Asso-
ciation, 307
Intership action: meeting, 77-80,
98-99; simulated, 264, 268-70,
277
Intership effeets: model simulators,
264, 268, 269; Simulator training,
277
Irwin, Captain Marshall, 217
Ives, Captain Paul, 52
Jackstaff as steering a;d, 323
Keel clearance, affeeting steering,
17-18
Kicking engine: to steer to wind, 35;
to steer at slow speed, 118; twin
screw, 234
Ladder, for pilot, 28-30, 33
Landing alongside: discussed,
133-34, 136-37; landing flat,
136-37
Laptop navigation systems: dis-
cussed, 311-22; common features,
312; design requirements, 312,
313. For navigation: charts accu-
racy for, 315- 16; capabilities,
317; independent of ship's equip-
ment, 317-18; CTANS, 312-14;
for pilots, 311-15; real time, 317.
For shiphandling: making turns,
318-19, meeting points, 319-20;
I
t
"Not line of sight," 319; for traffic
management, 320-22. See also
DGPS-based navigation systems
Large ships, S i m u l a t o r pilot t r a i n i n g ,
81-82
Lash up: defined, 111-12; uses,
112-14; to reduce tug use, 112-13
Lateral motion: bank effect, 21, 47;
narrow channels, 47; mentioned,
21, 47, 82, 125, 130; discussed,
21, 47, 125, 131, 132; causes, 132;
detecting, 82, 132-33; twin-screw
ships, 235-36; high-power ships,
237; checking, 78, 130, 134, 238
Late turns discussed, 74
Leback, Captain Warren G., 187
Lee anchor, 192-93
Lee for pilot, 26-28 - handling, 240-42; VMax ships,
Leeway during approach, 122, 123,
133
Left turn: discussed, 10-11; disad-
vantage when maneuvering, 11
Length affeeting directional stability,
20
Length/beam ratio, 20, 239, 240; and
VMax ships, 240-42; directional
stability, 240; turning circle, 240;
handling characteristics, 240-42;
VMax vessels, 240-43
Letting go anchor for docking,
131-32, 192-93, 195-97
Liability: in Panama Canal locks,
291; outside Panama Canal locks,
291-92, pilot, 293, 301
Lifting quarter of twin-screw ship,
238
Light ship departing moorings, 228
Lightering: discussed, 217—24; moor-
ing lines, 221-22
Limits: for speed, 90; for mooring at
SPM, 213-14; lightering, 219, 222
Lines, fouling twin-screws, 239, 243
INDEX
Little Creek, Virgínia, model-based
Simulator, 263
Local knowledge: importance, 117,
159, 302-3; defined. 289
I.ock wall suction, 211
Lockage: density current, 205-6; ap-
proach, 207-S; discussed, 209-10;
techniques, 209-10; piston effect,
209; wall effeets, 207-11; filling,
210; departing, 210-11; flush out,
210
Lookout in pilotage waters, 292
LOOP terminal, 211, 212
Loss of engine: stopping ship, 25, 26,
199-201
Low length-to-beam ratio ships: and
directional stability, 239, 240;
240-43
Making fast, 137-38
Making lee, Simulator training, for
pilot boarding 276, 278; for life-
boats, 277
Maneuvering: most effective, 17, 65;
pilot station, 26-28; information,
38, 40-42; in channel, 74-77, 100:
Azipod, 54-55, 59-63; excessive
power, 55; computer-controlled,
64-67; fuel,162; simulated traffic,
277-78; night vs. daylight,
324-26
Maneuvering characteristics: impor-
tance of, 43—-14, 165, 255-56;
learning, 165: changes in, 13,
18-20. 170-71; wind effeets,
31-36, 129-32; departing anchor-
age, 171
Maneuvering plot for helicopter oper-
ation, 251
Maneuvering ship, replenishment at
sea, 247, 249-51
375
Manning bridge. 159-60. 298-300;
anchor, 173
Man overboard. 231-34: drill. 221
Manrcpe.% 30
Manual controls, use, üti
Master: trial maneuvers, 7-9; rela-
tionship to pilot, defined, 288,
291; relationship to pilot in prac-
tice, 69-70, 292, 294-95, 297;ex-
ercising responsibility, 292;
disputing pilot's actions, 292-93
Master's trials: Simulator, 276-77
Mate's duties: on watch, 159-60,
326-28; anchoring, 172,
181-82
Maximum submerged area, 72-73
McMillin, Captain Earl R., 52, 228
Measaring: performance b} simula-
tion, 261-62, 272-73, 282-84;
equipment, 272-73, 282-84; test-
ing, 285-286
Mediterranean moor: discussed,
228-31; anchors, 229; mate's du-
ties, 230; departing, 230-31
Meeting ships in channel: discussed
57-58, 59; 77-80; underkeel
clearance, 98-100; planning with
pilot DGPS laptop, 319-20
Meeting, simulated in a channel,
264, 268-69, 270, 271, 276-77
Mental model: bridge resource man-
agement, 6S; regarding Azipod
control, 68
Messengers: at SPM, 214; for tug
lines, 155
Midships section affeeting
shiphandling, 86, 87-88; and
squat, 87-88
Model-based simulators: discussed,
262-6G, 271-72; advantages,
263-64; hydrodynamic effeets,
263-64; anchor work, 264;
376 INDEX
Model-based simulators (contir ued)
model accuracy, 266-70; limita -
tions, 271-72; disadvancages,
270, 271-72; coinpared to com-
puter simulation, 271-72; prefer-
ences, pilot vs. deck officer, 271
Modes: Azipod, 59-63
Mooring: discussed, 185-87; running
moor, 185; flying moor,185; nieth-
ods, 185-87, spread anchors, 186;
standing moor, 186; clear hawse,
185-86; clearing chain, 187; five-
and seven-point, 224-28
Mooring bitts at SPM, 215-16
Mooring lines: discussed, 117,
136-37, 141; lightering, 219-22;
5-point mooring, 224-26;
twin-screw ship, 239
Mooring master's duties, 212-17,
219-22; 5-point and 7-point moor-
ings, 224-28
Most efficient maneuvers, 65
Motion: detecting general, 28, 82-83,
118-21, 132-33. See also Lateral
motion
Moving: astern, 15; laterally, 132-33,
144-48. 150; with tug, 144-48;
ship sideways, twin-screw,
235-37
Mules in Panama, 207, 209-10
Narrow channel: backing in, 13-15,
133-34; discussed, 47-46, 74-77;
meeting ships, 77-80; holding po-
sition.. 118; using anchor, 197-99,
201-3; simulated maneuvers,
270, 276-77; holding simulated,
277; twin-screw, 238
Navigation: unchoring, 172; by eye,
172-73; leading marks, 172,
176-78; simulation, 261-62; com-
pared by simulator type, 271
Navigation training for pilots,
257-60
Navigational aids, simulating,
268-69
Negative directional stability. See Di-
rectional stability
Neutral directional stability. See Di-
rectional stability
Night: estimating speed at, 28,
118-21; vision, 42; passage,
324-26
Notice to mariners, 302
Offshore anchor. See Anchors
Offshore lightering: discussed,
217-24; offtaker, 219-22; depart-
ing from, 224
"One ship length" rule, 66
Open stern, 19
Outboard propeller, walking ship,
225-37
Overtaking, 80; vs. underkeel clear-
ance, 100
Overuse of engines, 65
Panama Canal: squat tests, 92-100;
underkeel clearance, 95-100; dis-
cussed, 204, 205-11; locomotives,
207, 209; locks entrance, 206-9,
208-10; locks departure, 210-11;
master/pilot relationship, 291-92
Part task simulators, discussed,
266-67
Passage planning: discussed, 17,
161-62; for anchoring, 165, 166,
167-69; for maneuvering, 169-71;
briefing officers, 172, 180; need
for, 302-3; excessive, 303; on
charts, 305; affecting record keep-
ing, 326-28
Peer review, 276, 279, 280-81, 282,
283
INDEX
Penallies: master's errors, 301; pen-
alties counterproductive, 301
Performance-based testing, 285-86;
vs. written examinations, 286-87;
criteria, 286
Permanent crews, 128-29
Perspective, docking and undocking,
247
Pilot-Master relationship: simulator
training, 281; and Azipods,
69-70; bridge resource manage-
ment, 297; exchange of informa-
tion, 40—43
Pilot(s): maneuvering at pilot sta-
tion, 26-28; embarking, 28-31;
ladder, 29-30; hoist, 30;
on-board training, 257-60; fed-
eral licensing, 259; tailoring sim-
ulators, 267; simulated boarding,
276-77; curriculum, 278-82;
onboard vs. simulated training,
279; simulator enhanced train-
ing, 279; simulator as fórum,
279; duties, 251-52; responsibil-
ity, 289-92; relief by master,
292-94
Pilot laptop systems: general,
311-15; for navigation, 315-18;
design requirements, 312, 313;
features, 314-15, 317; chart accu-
racy, 315-16; system accuracy,
315; real time, 317; communica-
tions, 317-18; vs. radar, 319; line
of sight, 319; for shiphandling,
318-20; traffic management
320 -22
Pilot responsibility: statutory, 69;
and pilot master relationship
69-70; regarding terrorism, 69;
and Azipods, 69-70; bridge re-
source management, 297
Pilot testing, 285
377
Piston effect, 85-87, 90
Pivoting point: discussed, 72. 92, 142,
148, 152, 198-09; turning in a
channel, 74—75; anchor affecting,
191-92
Planning ahead for wind, 35-36; dis-
cussed, 49, 129-32, 107-8, 170;
Azipod systems, 65, 68; passage,
42, 161-62; docking, 123, 130-31;
undocking, 139; anchoring, 166,
167-68; stern anchor, 187-89;
Mediterranean moor, 229, 230;
with VLCC, 243-44
Pocket card for pilot waters, 172,
305-6
"Poor maiVs tug", 191, 224
Port studies, using simulators,
281-32
Positive directional stability. See
Directional stability
Preplanning. See Passage planning
Preprinted docking forms, 117
Pressure drop causing sinkage, 85
Priorities in shiphandling, 262, 276
Prioritizing. practice, 262; demon-
strating ability to, 276
Procedures, watchkeeping, 261, 277
Professionalism: discussed, 46—47;
defined, 46; learned trait, 46;
teaching, 46-47, 253-57; on simu-
lator, 277
Proficiency, deinonstrating, 262
Profile design, 51
Propeller: wash, estimating speed,
28; direction of rotation, 56,
151. 236; design, 51-52; separa-
tion effects, 250; twin-screw,
234-40; variable-pitch, 51-52,
150-51; and lines, 227, 228,
230
Propulsion systems, 50-70
"Pulling water," 90
378
Qualificationí,, 2 7 4 - 7 5 ; Simulator in-
structor, 274
Quickwater: to determine speed, 119,
120; discussed, 134-35; position
of, 119-20; cushioning effeot, 137;
lateral motion, 134; planning for,
134; when undocking, 141-42,
144; when docking, 133, 134;
when anchoring, 180, 181, 182
Radar: 39, 80, 81,119, 183; and
bridge design, 310; Simulator in-
struction, 261, 267; pilots,
257-58, 279
Radio use, 36-39, 105, 125, 249
Ranges used when turning, 154, 161,
176
Rate of turn: changes in, 10, 18; indi-
cator use, 61-64, 192, 267; back-
ing and filling, 12-13
Rate-of-turn indicator: 83, 84, 222,
309, 310; using gyro for, 81; steer-
ing with, 222
Realism, importance for simulation,
270
Real-time simulation, 262
Recording fathometer use, 81
Record keeping: 295, 299, 326-28; vs.
shiphandling, 327; unnecessary,
327
Reducing headway: narrow channel,
118; discussed, 24—26; by change
of heading, 17, 25; VLCC, 25; us-
ing tugs, 106-7, 109, 118, 126; us-
ing anchors, 185, 190, 195-97:
using Williamson turns, 2C1-32;
rudder, 12; maintaining control,
14; methods, 24; round turn ma-
neuver, 25-26
Relative bearings: turning, 75, 326;
changes in, 326
Relative motion, 119, 257, 324, 326
INDEX
Relative wind for helicopter operation.
See Helicopter maneuvering piot
Release from liability: discussed, 293;
signing, 293
Releasing pilot, 157
Relieving pilot: compulsory, 294; vol-
untary, 289-90
Responsibility: compulsory pilot,
69-70; master/pilot, 288, 291-92
Restricted visibility, 82, 197, 315
RO/RO ship mooring, 228-31
Rolling: 92; in narrow channels, 95;
rudder-induced, 97; lightering,
222
Rotation, twin-screw propellers, 236
Round turn: slowing ship, 25-26;
making lee, 26-28; discussed, 26;
vs. Williamson turn, 231; Simula-
tor instruction, 277. See also SPM
RTM STAR Center: VMax ships, 242;
testing criteria, 285, 286
Rudder, effectivenejs, 11, 47, 50-51,
198-99, 201, 234-35, turning, 74;
overuse, 134; failure, 188;
twin-screw vessels, 234-40; stop-
ping engine, 235; flow, 235; types
of, 50-52; VMax rudder configu-
ration, 241-42; split rudders, 242
Rudder angle indicator, 309, 310,
327. See also Bridge equipment
Rules of threes: simulation, 260-61;
simulation components, 261; in-
struction steps, 261; instructor as
component, 274—75; curriculum,
275-82; steps of training, 261-62;
briefing and debriefing, 282-84
Rules of the Road, 80, 289, 292; sim-
ulation, 267, 271, 277, 278, 284,
285
"Safe speed," 95; VLCC, 244, 246
Sail area, 31-32, 169, 198
INDEX
Sail training, 36
Scalc, importance for model simula-
tors, 264
Scale model simulators: discussed,
262-64, 271-73; advantages, 264;
anchor work, 264; limitations,
264; importance of scale, 264; ca-
pabilities, 264; compared to com-
puter simulators 271-72;
disaavantages, 264, 271; prefer-
ence of pilots, 271; prefereace of
deck ofiicers, 271-72
Scenarios, Simulator, 276, 277-78;
for pilot training, 272, 278-82
Scratch log: use, 327, 327-28; elimi-
nating scrap paper 327; reducing
paperwork, 328
Seamanship, 54, 59,187, 310
Searoom: requirements, 168; allow-
ance, 168-69, 178; restricted 171;
at anchor, 179-81; determining at
anchor, 183-85; swinging room,
183-85; swinging clear, 184-85
"Sea sense," 163, 175, 246, 253
Sequential, testing, 262; skill appli-
cation, 262
Set: approaching berLli, 91, 130-31;
at wharf, 126; vs. drift and lee-
way, 130; unlocking, 142; in turn-
ing basin, 152-54;
computer-controlled systems, 65
Shallow channel, twin-screw, 238
Shallow water: discussed, 7; affeeting
backing, 11; effeets general,
17-18, 21; data, 44; VLCC, 22,
246; effeets simulated, 267: as
fer.ture, 270
Shed doers aíTecting wind, 147
Sheer, 191-92, 199
Sheering, twin-screw, 238
Ship as training aid: for ships ofii-
cers, 254-57; for pilots, 257-60
379
Shipboard management, 128-29
Shipboard training, 254-60
Ship characteristics. 43-45
Shiphandling: as art, 3, 136; anchor
as tool, 191-94; skills vs. tug use,
105-6: importance of traditional
skills, 102; simulator instruction,
261-62; simulation, 264-71, 277;
simulated anchor, 269; instruc-
tional curriculum, 275-82; for
deck ofiicers, 275-78; for pilots,
278-82; skills vs. pilot/master re-
lationship, 292-93; using instru-
mentation, 80-83; laptop systems
and DGPS, 318-20; simulators,
260
Ship length rule: 66-67
Ship-to-ship lightering: discussed,
217-24; preparations, 217; equip-
ment, 219; fenders, 21/-18, 220;
mooring lines, 219, 221, 222
Ship trial data, 43-45
Shoaling: affeeting shiphandling, 42,
81; and quickwater, 134-35, 142;
turning basin,153; twin-ships, 238
Shottel tug, 110
Signals. See Hand signals; Whistle
signals
Simulator: practicing turns, 75; in-
novative training aid, 261-62;
computer-generated, 257,
264-70; comparison of model
and computer, 271-72; tools of
instruction, 272-73; briefing
and debriefing sessions, 282-41;
validatiun, 273-74; vs.
hands-on, 286-87; advantages
of, 260, 261; components of in-
struction, 225, 226, 238, 239,
240-43; general discussion of,
225-36; rule of threes, 260-61,
282; vs. classroom, 261-62;
380 INDEX
Simulator (continued)
as a fórum, 276, 279, 281, 282;
limitations, 261, 270;
moáei-baseci, 271-72; tvpes dis-
cussed, 262; computer-based,
264—70; field ofview, 266; disad-
vantages, 261, 270, 279; impor-
tance of realism, 2-70; playback
capability, 272, 281; instructor
qualifications, 274-75; validation,
273-74; instructor involvement,
275; for deck officers, 275-78; for
pilot training, 278-82; for testing,
285-86; Alaskan pilot program,
286; future of, 284—85
Simultaneou3 tasks, 267
Single point moorings: discussed,
211-17; riding up, 216, See also
SPM
Single rudder, twin-screw, 234
Singling up, 141
Sinkage: defined, 83; discussed,
83-85, 89; component of squat,
85; calculating, 88-89
Situational awareness: bridge re-
source majiagement, 68; and
Azipods, 62
Slewing to ieduce headway, 25
"Smelling" bottom, 21
Solid-face wharf, twin-screw ships,
238
Southamptcn Institute, model-based
simulator, 263, 272
Spede rudders, 51
Speed: measuring slow rates of, 132;
affecting bow thruster, 16; reduc-
ing, 121; steerageway, 35-36;
narrow channels, 47-48; meet-
ing, 78-80; overtaking, 80; shal-
low water, 85-88, 158; vs.
blockage factor, 86, 88; tug on
hawser, 111; vs. ability, 118;
approaching berth, 118-19; de-
termining, 119-21, 132; over
ground, 119, 121; through water,
119-21; and squat, 86-87; wind
effects, 130, 168; at departure,
157-59; instructor, 274; curricu-
lum for deck officers, 275-78;
curriculum for pilots, 278-82;
anchoring, 264; measuring slow
rates of, 132
SPM: current meters, 212-13; wind
effects, 212, 216; current effects,
212-13; externai forces, 212; ap-
proach, 212; reducing speed, 213,
214, 217; chafing chain, 214; pick
up line, 214; chain stoppers, 214;
Smit brackets, 214, 216; mooring
equipment, 216
Spring line, 111, 123, 145, 147, 148,
274
Squat: discussed 18; basics, 83-87;
defined, 83, 85; calculating,
87-90; vs. sinkage, 83, 84; com-
mon useage, 85; cause, 85; illus-
trated, 87; open water, 87-88;
shallow water, 88; vs. speed,
86-87, 90, 95-96; by the head, 85,
90; by the stern, 85, 90; vs. cargo
capacity, 91; blockage factor, 85,
87, 90
Stability: directional discussed,
18-20; impact on underkeel clear-
ance, 96-97; simulating direc-
tional, 268
Stability and trim booklet, 73
Standardized commands, 63-64
Starting engine: twin-screw, 238
Static friction of anchor brake, 194
Steaming: on anchor, 118; lightering,
222
Steam turbine: steering characteris-
tics, 51-
INDEX
Steering: ar.chors assist in, 198-99;
astern, 151-52; bow thruster,
15-17; shallow water, 17, 158;
VLCCs, 22, 244; standing by
gear, 22-23, 249; froin steering
gear flat, 22, 23, 249; engine
stopped, 22, 26; steerageway, 25,
80, 118, 189,201,213,214,217,
219; trimmed by the head, 71, 73;
lightering, 219; at sea replenish-
ment, 249; simulated, 315; wind
effects on, 31-36
Stemming current: at wharf, 126;
docking, 121; stern anchor, 191;
a.ichor, 155
Stern: bank effect, 47; tug, 108, 125,
154; motion to port, 133-34; to-
wards danger, 150; in approach-
ing pier, 124-26
Stern anchor: emergency use,
199-201; danger to rudder and
propeller, 189; heaving up, 189;
use, 188-91; open roadstead,
189-90
Stern tug: uses, 108; standing off,
108, 125; dismissing, 154-55
Sternway: steering with, 12, 200;
handling 15; digging in, 182-83;
wind effects, 35, 36, 168; with
stern anchor, 189, 190; with an-
chor, 176; simulated maneuvers,
277; reduce, 151,152; laying out
the chain, 181-82
Stoppers at moorings, 215, 216
Stopping ship: shallow water, 13-14;
distances, 244; lashed up tug,
112; maneuvering in channel,
100; n: aintaining heading, 14—15;
with anchor, 179, 182, 200; on
simulator, 277; reducing head-
way, 24-26; as safety measure,
159; moorings, 226-27
381
Suction: discussed. 47-48, 219, 238;
meeting in channel, 48, 78
Surging at dock, 137-38
"Sweeping a lee," 27-28
Swing room at anchor, 183-85
Synthetic tails/pendants, 219
Tailoring. simulator models, 267
Teaching techniques, simulation,
274-75, 281; curriculum, 291-95
Team: crews, 4, 37, 42, 54, 57, 65,
109-10, 171; bridge, 296-300;
concept, 295; multicultural, 281
Terminology: standard for Azipod,
57; for conning, 63-64; and BRM,
67-69
Terrorism: pilot-master relationship,
69
Testing, with simulation, 262, 272,
2S5-S6; validated, 238; perfor-
mance based, 286; criUria, 286;
methodology, 286; pilot, 285; deck
officers, 286; simulator, 285-86
Thinking ahead: 49
Tide and current, 49-50
Tonnage.'horsepower ratio, 244
Torque, 140, 144-46
Traditional skills: importance, 54, 70:
vs. equivalency, 287
Traffic management: pilot navigation
equipment, 312, 316-17; simu-
lated maneuvers, 320-22; laptop
systems and DGPS, 320-22; pas-
sive vs. active, 320-21; filtered
information, 320
Training: onboard for ship's officer,
254-57; helmsman, 73; for
non-traditional systems, 70; unit
crew, 128-29; anchors, 191,
200-1; Williamson turn, 231-34;
discussed, 253-54; formal vs. in-
formal, 253-54; sources, 253-54;
382 INDEX
Training (continued)
onboard for pilots, 257-60; by
over navigation, 258; structured
environment, 260, 261, 270, 279;
pilot training in structured envi-
ronment, 279, 287; pilct training
surcharge, 282; for VMax, 242
Transfer, skill, 282, 285
Trial data: collecting, 9; maneuvers,
11, 14, 17, 71, 74, 80, 97, 165, 179
Trim: shallow weter, 18; affeeting di-
rectional stability, 19, 71; tactical
diameter affected, 70; general ef-
feets, 70-73; by the head, 71;
wind effeets, 71; as component of
squat, 85; defined, 83; effect of
block coefficient, 90-91; simu-
lated, 268
Triple-screw propuision, 239
Tugs: making up a, 103-5; docking or
undocking, 103; alongside, 103,
106; stern line, 103—4; on hawser,
104, 109, 110-11; patented drive,
104, 105; communicating with,
105, 111; use discussed, 105-7;
bow, 107; stern (after tug), 108;
two bows, 108-9; astern, 109;
safety, 109-10; lashing up,
111-13; helm orders, 112; twin
screw, 104; compared ta bow
thruster, 15; lines, 105; at stem,
107; effeets on ship, 106, 107,
108, 109; minimize use, 105-6; in
current, 107, 126; stem to stem,
107; docking stern in, 124-26; at
wharf, 127; pivoting ship, 144;
dismissing, 154-55; to anchor,
171; with twin-screw ships,
235-36; simulating, 268, 277
Turbine: steering, 51; sea speed, 162;
going astern, 51; engine, handling
twin-screw, 234
Turning couples, 211
Turning diameter: right turn, 9; left
turn, 10-11; backing and filling,
11-13; shallow water, ò, lu, 17-18,
25, 246; discussed, 18, 51, 70-71,
74, 152, 192; in anchorage, 198-99;
VLCC, 72, 214, 231, 232, 234
Turning rate: at equilibrium, 12-13;
buoy as indicator, 75
Turning to sea, 151-54
Turning, twin-screw, 235^10
Twin-rudder, 235, 236
Twin-screw: tugs, 72, 73, 104; disad-
vantages, 234-35; turning,
235—40; ships discussed, 234-40;
compared to single-screw, 234;
diesel vs. turbine, 234; sin-
gle-rudder, 234; twisting, 235,
236; rudder flow, 235; inboard
turning vs. outboard turning, 236
Twisting effect: backing, 14; dis-
cussed, 94, 133,146, 175; VLCC,
246; simulated, 268; backing from
a slip, 146; turn to starboard,
178; twin screw, 235, 236
ULCC: single-point moorings,
211-12; handling, 214, 244. See
also SPM
Undocking: tug lashed up, 112-13;
planning, 139-40; current astern,
142; turning to sea, 151-54; "one
ship length rule," 66; skills, 70,
140, 239, 327; berthed port side
to, 145-46; slack water 144; sim-
ulated, 268; draft and trim in bal-
last, 140^11; singling up, 141;
using quickwater, 141—42; from
wharf, 142-44; backing from slip,
144—48; coming ahead from slip,
148; coming off parallel to berth,
149
INDEX
Underkeel clearance: discussed,
92-100; measuring, 92-93; ana-
lyzing, 92-95; components of, 95;
safe speed, 95-96; and stability,
96-97; acceleration and, 97-98;
meeting and passing, 98-100;
overtaking 100
Unit crews, 129
Unniooring: slern anchor, 190-91
Unstable, simulated directional,
268-69
Unstable ship. See Directional stabil-
ity
Valentine, Captain Robert D., 306
Validation, simulator model, 273-74
Vantine, Captain Wilbur H., 306
Variable pitch: discussed, 51-52, 112;
steering, 52; astern, 51; docking,
51; flow to rudder, 51-52; vs.
fixed propellers, 150-51; vs. tur-
bine, 51; left-hand turning,
150-51
VHF: use cf, 27, 36-39; at arrival, 25,
37; at departure, 159-60; in traf-
fic, 36; call identification, 38; with
helicopter, 251; avoiding bad situ-
ations, 36, 138, 228; relaying in-
tentions, 39, 159; as backup, 215;
as conning station equipment,
310; practices, 36-37
Vibration in shallow water, 17, 90, 158
Video: simulator tool, 272, 276, 281;
training material, 254; recorder,
256; debriefing, 283-84
Visibility, simulating, 267; are of,
267; bridge height, 322-24; dia-
gram. 289
Visibility : VMax, 87-88; bridge de-
sign, 306-11
VLCCs: diameter of turn, 10, 246;
shallow water, 22; reducing head-
383
way, 2õ: low speeds, 214; steer-
ing, 62: 3PM, 215-17; sail area,
'212, 216; ship-to-ship lightering,
217-24: Williamson turn, 231--3-1;
handlir.g. 22, 193-94, 243-47;
stresseí. 245-46; helicopter oper-
ations, 251-52; storing, 251;
bridge design, 307; calculated to-
tal squat, 87-88. See also ULCC
VMax: 240-43; carry capacity, 240;
description, 240—12; handling,
239; breakthrough design, 24);
rudder/skeg design, 240
Voith-Schneider, 52, 104, 110
Voyage planning, simulator training,
278
Walking: at berth 142; moor, 185;
stern, 202; twin-screw ships,
235-36
"Walking the stern": twin-screw, 144
Watchkeeping experience: simula-
tion, 261, 277; instruction, 261
Watchkeeping: training, 275-8; pilot
waters, 278-82
Waterway Simulation Technology-,
Inc.: work of, 92-100; measure-
inents speed vs. squat, 95; vs.
block coefficient, 94; measure-
ments of ships meeting, 98-99
Weather conditions: SPM, 217; light-
ering, 221-22; 5-point moorings
227-28; using anchor, 197-98
Wharf: importance of solid face, 238;
approaching'with current astern,
126-27
Wheelhouse windows, 307-11, 322
Whistle signals: communication, 105;
in simulator training, 256, 274;
importance of, 38, 39, 159, 208
Williamson turn: defined, 232; vari-
ables, 231-32; simulator, 277
384
Winches, 105, 110, 141, 207, 209.
250
Wind: moving ship astern, 15, an-
choring, 168-70; effects dis-
cussed, 31-36, 117, 122, 129-32,
197-98, 200; "feeling," 129; "tak-
ing charge," 130; vs. current,
130-31; as tool, 129-32; docking,
123, 130-31; undocking, 139;
leaving berth, 146-48; lightering,
221, 224; indicators, 310; simulat-
ing, 269; as feature, 270
Wind effects: discussed, 14, 31-36;
affecting handling, 31-63, 165; at
INDEX
reduced speeds, 35; using to
advantage, 129-32, 168-70; af-
fecting final heading, 168; back-
ing from a slip, 146-48;
simulated, 242
Windlass to stop ship, 171, 195
Wires at 5-point moorings, 225
Work habits: correcting, 247, 262,
282; importance of, S06, 327;
shiphandling, 284, 307
X-Y plotter, for simulator, 272
"Zero pitch" steering, 52
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Daniel H. MacElrevey was raised near the Delaware River where he de-
veloped an interest in the sea watching the ships come and go from the
port of Philadelphia. He graduated from the U.S. M e r c h a n t Marine Acad-
emy in 1933 a n d went to sea as a deck officer with Moore-McCormack
Lines aboard cargo and passenger ships trading to South and East Africa,
South America, and northern Europe. He also worked with the same com-
pany in m a r i n e operations a n d stevedoring in New York.
l i e and his family movedto Panama in 1970 w h e r e he worked as a Pan-
a m a Canal pilot for eight years. Living in P a n a m a provided the opportu-
nity for him to pursue another strong interest—ocean sailing—and later
he and his family lived aboard and cruised before he r e t u r n e d to sea. He
subsequently spent four years as master of LNG vessels with El Paso Ma-
rine Company and served as mooring master for VLCCs at the Louisiana
Offshore Oil Port.
Captain MacElrevey resumed a career in P a n a m a and spent more
t h a n 24 years piloting ships in the Canal and t h e ports of Balboa and
Cristobal. He h a s also become very involved in the use of simulation for
s h i p h a n d l i n g training and evaluation including service as a member of
the Committee on Ship Bridge Simulation Training sponsored by t h e Na-
tional Academy of Science's Marine Board in 1993-95. He was chairman
of the P a n a m a Canal Pilot Association's technical committee while work-
ing on studies of ship behavior and squat in narrow channels with Water-
way Simulation Technology, Inc. and developing a real-time vessel traffic
a n d communications system fcr pilots (CTANSj with the D e p a r t m e n t of
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s Volpe Center. Captain MacElrevey retired from his posi-
tion as pilot a n d port captain at the Panama Car.al in 1998.
MacElrevey provides consulting, training, technical writing, and ship-
h a n d l i n g services to the marine industry through Offshore Services Com-
pany, which he formed in 1980. Curren„ woik includes services as
c ô n s u l t a n t a n d expert witness for various m a r i t i m e law firms and simula-
tor-based training for pilots and ship's officers including a contract at the
385
386 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

RTM STAR Center in Dania, Florida, for t r a i n i n g and performance evalu-

ation of Alaska state pilots.

Daniel E. MacElrevey celebrated his second b i r t h d a y aboard the S.S.

Cristobal, while e n r o a t e to P a n a m a . His early childhood w a s spent living
n e a r the locks of the P a n a m a Canal and it was t h e r e t h a t he developed his
fondness for ships and apprcciation for the m a r i n e r s who guide them. He
m a d e his fírst t r a n s i t of the P a n a m a Canal with his f a t h e r at age eight.
Following this trip he deciared his intention to one day be a pilot.
Dan's family left P a n a m a in 1977, living aboard t h e i r boat for a year
before settling in Cape May, New Jersey. Dan developed his love of life on
the w a t e r d u r i n g s u b s e q u e n t s u m m e r s spent sailing on t h e waters of the
Delaware and C h e s a p e a k e Bays, and racing small boats in New Jersey.
He graduated from t h e U. S. M e r c h a n t M a r i n e Academy in 1990 and
went to sea with Mormac Marine T r a n s p o r t as a deck officer aboard tank-
ers engaged in the c h a r t e r trade. During his t i m e as deck officer with
Mormac, he traveled to m a n y ports on both coasts of t h e U n i t e d States, to
C a n a d a , to South and C e n t r a l America, t h e Caribbean, Europe, northern
Africa, p a r t s of Asia, a n d the Mediterranean.
In 1994, Mr. MacElrevey began a three-year a p p r e n t i c e program with
the Pilotfs Association for the Bay a n d River Delaware. In addition to
m a k i n g trips with experienced pilots, his t r a i n i n g included simulator-
based classes at M1TAGS in Maryland a n d at the STAR C e n t e r in Florida,
a n d manned-model instruction at the S o u t h a m p t o n I n s t i t u t e in England.
He is now a first-class pilot handling ships in t h e D e l a w a r e Bay a n d River,
guiding ships through t h e Cliesapeake and D e l a w a r e Canal, a n d docking
ships at berths in Salem, New Jersey.
Dan was first involved with Shiphandling for the Mariner as a teen-
ager, checking for spelling mistakes by reading sentences from the tèxt
backwards, and he is tremendously honored to h a v e worked with his fa-
t h e r on this fourth edition. Ships and e q u i p m e n t evolved d u r i n g the past
t w e n t y years, b u t the t e x t remain» c u r r e n t because s h i p h a n d l e r s share
t h e i r specialized skills w i t h their peers. Dan hopes those who read this lat-
est edition will continue t h a t tradition.
Daniel E. MacElrevey lives in one of the oldest pilot towns in the
United States—Lewes, Delaware—with his wife, D a n a , a n d their two
children, Austin and Madison. Their home is a s h o r t distance from the pi-
lot station at the e n t r a n c e to the Delaware Bay. A love of t h e sea and the
practice of shiphandling have passed to the next generation.