THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM OF MAMMALS

3.1 Describe the structure of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, erythrocytes
(rbc), leucocytes (wbc) relating their structures to their functions.

Artery (aorta, pulmonary artery)

T.S of an Artery

● Arteries transport blood away from the heart.

● Pressure of blood flow is high and has a pulse.
● Tunica media is thick and composed of elastic and smooth muscle tissue.
● No semilunar valves
● Blood flow is rapid.
● Low blood volume.
● Oxygenated blood is transported except in the pulmonary artery.
● An inner endothelium (lining tissue) is made up of a layer of flat cells fitting together like a
jigsaw puzzle. These are called squamous epithelium - very smooth and reduces friction as
blood flows over its surface.

Vein (vena cava, pulmonary vein)

T.S of a Vein
L.S Through A Small Vein Showing A Valve

 
● They transport blood towards the heart.
● Pressure of blood flowing through the vein is low and not pulsatile (no pulse).
● Tunica media is relatively thin and slightly muscular. There are few elastic fibres.
● Semilunar valves are present at intervals along the length of the vein to prevent a backflow of
blood. Blood flows slowly.
● There is a much higher blood volume in veins than in capillaries and arteries.
● The blood is deoxygenated except in pulmonary veins.

Capillary
A Section of a Capillary
Capillary Network

● Capillaries link arteries to veins and are the site of exchange of materials between blood and
tissues as seen in the capillary network above.
● In capillaries, the pressure of blood falls and no pulse is detectable.
● No tunica media is present. The only tissue present is squamous epithelium.
● No elastic fibres.
● No semilunar valves.
● Blood flows slowly.
● There is high blood volume.
● There is a mix of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood across the capillary network.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) (biconcave disc)

● Size: very small ≈ 7𝞵m in diameter.
● The red blood cells are biconcave discs which lose their nuclei early in development. This
enucleated condition permits more haemoglobin to be packed into the cell.
● In addition to no nucleus, there is no endoplasmic reticulum, and no mitochondria.
● They are surrounded by thin, flexible plasma membranes.
● Life span ≈ 120 days.
● They are made in the bone marrow.
● They function to carry oxygen around the body.
● The biconcave disc provides a large surface area to volume ratio for the absorption of oxygen.

Carriage of Oxygen
● Oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells across the plasma membrane and combines with
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
● The haemoglobin molecule has 4 haem groups, each of which can combine with a molecule of
oxygen.
● The attachment of oxygen does not involve chemical oxidation of the ion which remains in
the Fe​2+​ state throughout the process.
● The union is a loose one, with the molecules being attached to the haemoglobin in the lungs
and detached equally, readily in the tissues.
​lung

Hb + 4O​2​ ​⇆​ ​HbO​8

​ tissues (oxyhaemoglobin)

Leucocytes
Leucocytes are white blood cells. Leucocytes function to recognize ‘foreign cells’ or molecules
that enter the body.
Section of the Heart
● The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body of an animal.
● The heart of mammals may be considered as a pump which acts/functions with other organs to
circulate blood around the body.
● The pump is made up of a relatively thin walled atrium or auricle to which blood is delivered
from the capillary system and a thick walled muscular ventricle which is responsible for
raising the pressure in each circuit or chamber.
● The ventricles contract almost simultaneously and blood is forced into the aorta and
pulmonary artery from the left and right sides respectively.
● Ventricular systole​ - blood is prevented from flowing back into the atria by atrioventricular
valves. These are one way valves formed from flaps of tissue between atria and ventricles
which allow blood to pass from atria into ventricles but closes when pressure in the ventricles
is greater than that in the atria.
● Backflow of blood is prevented by the valves, by strands called ​chordae tendinae ​which are
attached between the valves and the cardiac muscle.
* The valve on the right side of the heart is the tricuspid valve.
* The bicuspid valve or mitral valve lies on the left side of the heart and is held in position
by larger muscles in the left ventricles which is the largest chamber in the heart.

Pericardium ​(lies outside the heart muscle) and movements in the heart occurs between these
two layers.
● Lining the inside of the heart muscle and therefore coming into contact with the blood is the
endocardium​ (within) and this too has surface cells which produce a lubricant to minimise
friction.
● These cardia (pericardium, endocardium) help to maintain the heart muscle fibres within their
effective working lengths.

Generalised Structure of a Mammalian Heart

● The pumping action of the heart is described by the cardiac cycle. Rhythmicity is a
characteristic feature of all hearts in vertebrates. The heart is myogenic in origin, i.e., it is
initiated from muscle tissues.
● In mammals, the rhythm originates in a special region of the heart known as the ​sino-auricular
node (SAN) ​or the ​sino-atrial node (SAN) ​aka the pacemaker.
● This pacemaker region is made up of special muscle cells and it is also the region where the
nerves controlling the heart have their endings.

3.2 Explain the cardiac cycle and its initiation

● Cardiac muscle (the heart) work together to produce the heartbeat in a sequence of events
called the ​cardiac cycle​.

1) ​Atrial Systole ​(0.1 s)

● Atria contract.
● Bicuspid and tricuspid valves open.
● Semilunar valves close.
● Blood is forced from atria into ventricles.

2) ​Ventricular Systole ​(0.3 s)

● Ventricles contract.
● Blood forced into pulmonary artery (deoxygenated) and aorta (oxygenated).
● Semilunar valves open.
● Bicuspid and tricuspid valves close.
● First heart sound (​lub​), volume of blood in ventricles ↓, pressure of ventricles ↑, aortic
pressure ↑.

3) ​Diastole
● Whole heart relax (0.4 s)
● Atria relaxed and filled with blood.
● Ventricles relax.
● Bicuspid and tricuspid valves open.
● Semilunar valves closes (second heart sound,​ dub​), shorter and higher pitch.
● Relaxation of the ventricles draws blood from atria. Volume of the ventricles ↑, atrial pressure
> ventricular pressure.

Purkyne tissue ​is a special type of which helps to coordinate muscular contractions in the heart.
It originates from the bundle of His and spreads out over the ventricles of the heart. Electrical
activity generated by the sino-atrial node is conducted rapidly through purkyne tissue, ensuring
that both ventricles contract together.

Initiation of Heart Action

1) Myogenic in origin - originates within heart muscle in sino-atrial node (SAN)
* SAN is a collection of specialised muscle cells in the right atrium of the heart.
 ● Patch of heart tissue with its own rhythm of contraction (aka the pacemaker)

2)​ SAN causes contraction of atrial muscles first. Contraction spreads through the walls of the
atria and pass onto ventricles via atrioventricular nodes (AVN).
3) AVN connects to specialised fibres called ​bundles of His​ containing purkyne tissue which
conducts impulses to the base of the ventricles and contraction of ventricles begin.
4) Contraction spreads upwards, squeezing blood into arteries out of the heart.
* It is important that the two ventricles contract simultaneously and this is ensured by a
special conducting system formed by modified cardiac muscle fibres called the purkyne
tissues which are vital for transmitting beats through the non-conducting tissue which
separates the auricles from the ventricles.

The wave of excitation which spreads from the sino-atrial node (SAN) reach the atrioventricular
node (AVN) which becomes excited and eventually transmits to the AV bundle (the bundle of
His) along the inner walls and the sides of the interventricular septum. The electrical
phenomenon associated with contraction of the heart can be recorded from electrodes placed at
different points on the body’s surface. It is called an electrocardiogram (ECG) and gives valuable
information concerning the state of the heart.

● Electrical charges across the heart generate currents that can be detected on the body surface
using electrodes. This record is called an electrocardiogram.
● The closing of valves is a passive process. It depends on relative pressures on either sides of
the valves.
Atrial pressure > ventricular pressure (bicuspid and tricuspid valves open)

Ventricular pressure > atrial pressure (bicuspid and tricuspid valves close)

Diagram Illustrating Atrioventricular Pressures

A Typical ECG for a Healthy Adult Illustrated by a PQRST Wave

An ECG is a graph showing the electrical activity in the heart during a cardiac cycle (heartbeat).
● Small peak at P = atrial systole (atria contracts).
● QRS complex represents = ventricular systole (ventricles contract).
● Peak at T = atrial and ventricular diastole (relaxation of the atria and ventricles).
* Changes from this wave/pattern may indicate a heart disease.

3.3 Discuss the internal factors that control heart action

Starling’s Law
Cardiac Output = stroke volume × heart rate

Cardiac Output ​is the amount of blood flowing from the heart over a given period of time.

Stroke volume ​depends on the volume of blood pumped out of the heart with each heartbeat.

Heart rate ​is the number of beats per minute.

While rhythmicity is an inherent feature of heart muscle such that the beat is initiated from the
muscle itself, it may be controlled by the nervous system as well as the effects of hormones, i.e.,
the heart rate may be slowed down or increased to suit the body’s requirements.
Nervous Control of Heart Rate
In the medulla of the brain, there are cardiovascular centres which control heart rate/ heartbeat.
Recall: The nervous system consists of the CNS, ANS and PNS.
● The PNS includes the afferent or sensory nerves which receives impulses from receptors and
transmits them to the CNS.
● Impulses may be transmitted from the CNS along motor neurones to the PNS towards
effectors which respond accordingly.
C.S of Spinal Cord
● The sympathetic and parasympathetic N.S emerges from the cardiac centres (cardiovascular
system).
● The ​sympathetic N.S​ secretes noradrenaline which speeds up cardiac contractions.
● The sympathetic N.S regulates physiological functions when the body is active.
● Additionally, acetylcholine is secreted as a neurotransmitter used in the sympathetic nervous
system.

Examples of Sympathetic Stimulations

Increased ventilation rate, dilation of pupils and an increase in cardiac output.

Parasympathetic N.S
● Parasympathetic N.S is that part of the ANS which regulates physiological functions when the
body is at rest.
● Acetylcholine is also used as a neurotransmitter substance.

Examples of Parasympathetic Stimulations

Decrease in ventilation rate, constriction of pupils and a decrease in cardiac output.

The acetylcholine decreases the heart rate and stroke volume (volume of blood pumped out) and
therefore cadiac output is regulated to meet the physiological demands of the body.

Hormonal Control
Adrenaline ​- secreted from the adrenal gland, functions to ↑ heart rate.
Thyroxin ​- ↑ Basal Metabolic Rate (↑ BMR)
↑ O​2​ demand
↑ Cardiac Output
↑ Heart Rate
Summary

3.4 Discuss factors affecting blood pressure. Define blood pressure and pulse.
Blood pressure ​is caused by blood pushing against the inside walls of the main arteries. Normal
120 systole
blood pressure is 80
= diastole
.

Pulse ​is a wave of pressure passing along arteries causing them to expand and recoil
rhythmically.

Blood pressure can be affected by:

1) Cardiac Output
2) Resistance it meets as it passes through vessels.

Homeostasis ​is the maintenance of a balanced internal environment. This includes temperature,
pH, [CO​2​].

● Hypertension = high blood pressure

● Vasoconstriction (Blood vessel ↓ in diameter) ⇒ ↑ blood pressure (since it is the same volume
of blood flowing through the smaller lumen of the blood vessel).
● Vasodilation (blood vessel ↑ in diameter) ⇒ ↓ blood pressure (same volume of blood flows
through a wider lumen)
* High CO​2​ in blood causes vasoconstriction therefore increases blood pressure therefore
increases the removal of CO​2​ for O​2​.

Other factors affecting blood pressure are:

1) Excess salts
2) High fat diet - atherosclerosis
3) Lack of exercise
4) Obesity
5) Stress ⇒ vasoconstriction ⇒ ↑ blood pressure
6) Smoking - nicotine causes vasoconstriction ⇒ ↑ blood pressure
7) Alcohol

● Blood pressure is a measure of how hard the heart is working to pump blood around the body.
Hypertension occurs if systolic and diastolic pressures are high at rest. This indicates that the
heart is working hard to pump blood.
● Hypertension is called the “silent killer” as there is often no prior symptoms to give a warning
of coming heart failure: heart attack or stroke. 90 % causes of hypertension is diet.
● Moderate to excessive alcohol intake often increases blood pressure and increases the risk of
atherosclerosis.
● Atherosclerosis​ is where walls of the coronary arteries become deposited with fats and salt.
The artery becomes partially blocked and blood flow to the heart is reduced. Smoking
combined with other factors tends to multiply the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)
promoting the development of atherosclerosis.
● Diabetes also increases the risk of CHD.
● Salts and fats in the diet increases the risk associated with high intake of animal, (saturated)
fats and salts in manufactured foods. Atherosclerosis may also result where the walls of the
arteries may harden with age.
3.5 Explain the role of haemoglobin in oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.
Haemoglobin is responsible for the transport of oxygen.
Recall: the structure of haemoglobin

The Structure of Hb
● It contains four haem groups.
● Four polypeptide chains wrapped around each haem.
● Haem has and Fe​2+​ ion at its centre (non-protein).
● Each Fe​2+​ of Hb combine loosely and reversibly with a molecule of oxygen therefore one
molecule of Hb could take upto four molecules of oxygen (eight oxygen atoms).
● Hb has a high affinity for O​2​ when its concentration is high, but this is reduced when O​2
concentrations are low. O​2​ concentration is measured ​by partial pressure ​or oxygen
tension.
● The partial pressure of gas: in a mixture of gases each component gas exerts a pressure in
proportion to its % in the mixture.

∴ Partial pressure of O2 in atmosphere

= 20% of 760mm Hg = 152 molecules
OR 20% of 100kPa=20kPa

3.6 Describe the oxygen dissociation curve for adult haemoglobin.

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve
● It is the ability of the blood to transport enough oxygen to meet the needs of the body and is
largely attributed to the affinity of Hb to O​2​.
● This can be demonstrated experimentally by subjecting blood samples to different partial
pressures of oxygen and then determining the percentage saturation of the blood with oxygen
in each case.
The Oxygen Dissociation Curve of Haemoglobin (adult)

A- low partial pressure, few haem groups bound to oxygen, so Hb does not carry much O​2​.
B- At high partial pressures, more haem, bound to O​2​ making it easier for more O​2​ to be picked
up.
C- At very high partial pressures, Hb becomes saturated as all haem groups become bound to O​2​.

The above graph represents a plot of percentage saturation of Hb against partial pressures of
oxygen.
The oxygen dissociation curve is a curve describing the relationship between oxygen
concentration and the percentage saturation with oxygen of a respiratory pigment such as
haemoglobin.
*Oxygen concentration is usually represented as the partial pressure of oxygen (pO​2​).
● The curve is described as being sigmoid shaped. This shape is due to the way in which oxygen
binds with haemoglobin. The first molecule to bind does so with difficulty, distorting the
shape of the haemoglobin molecule in the process. As a result of the initial distortion, the next
three molecules of O​2​ are taken up progressively more quickly.
● The steep rise in the curve at low partial pressures of oxygen indicates a small change in pO​2
resulting in a large change in the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen. Therefore, in the
lungs where pO​2​ is high, the blood is rapidly saturated with O​2​ (region C on the above graph).
● Similarly, in rapidly respiring tissue where the pO​2​ is low (region A), O​2​ is released from
haemoglobin for use by the tissue. The affinity of Hb for O​2​ depends upon the concentration
of CO​2​ in the blood as described by the Bohr effect.

● If the curve shifts to the left, haemoglobin will have a high affinity to O​2​, i.e., it will more
readily pick up O​2​ releasing it less readily.
● If the curve shifts to the right, Hb will have a lower affinity for O​2​ (higher affinity for CO​2​),
therefore, it will more easily release O​2​, and is less likely to pick it up.
Hint:
If there is a shift of the curve to the Right, it makes it more likely that Hb will Release oxygen.

● When [CO​2​] ↑ (tissues), O​2​ release ↑.

● When [CO​2​] ↓ (lungs), O​2​ uptake ↑.

3.7 Explain the significance of the effect of CO​2​ on oxygen dissociation curves
(Bohr Effect)
Bohr effect​ is the effect of CO​2​ concentrations on the release of O​2​ from Hb in red blood cells.

● The affinity of Hb for O​2​ is represented by the oxygen dissociation curve. An increase in CO​2
concentrations or a decrease in pH causes the curve to shift to the right causing Hb to release
more O​2​.
● A decrease in CO​2​ concentration or an increase in pH causes the curve to shift to the left
making it less likely that Hb will release O​2​.
● In actively respiring tissue where the concentration of CO​2​ in the blood is high, Hb readily
releases its O​2​.
● In the lungs, on the other hand, where the [CO​2​] in the blood is low, Hb readily combines with
O​2​.
Graph Showing the Bohr Shift

Transport of CO​2
There are three methods by which CO​2​ can be transported in the blood:
1) In aqueous solution- 5% CO​2​ in plasma
2) In combination with Hb- 10% CO​2​ which combines with amino groups (-NH​2​) of the four
polypeptide chains of each Hb molecule.

3) In the form of hydrogen carbonate (85%)

● In tissues, when [CO​2​] are high, pO​2​ are low.

● CO​2​ enters red blood cells and combines with water to form carbonic acid. This reaction is
catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
● Carbonic acid = weak acid
● It dissociates into H​+​ and HCO​3​-​ ions.

● An increase in H​+​ ions in the cell causes an increase in acidic conditions.

● The acidity is prevented by Hb acting as a ​buffer​, where Hb gives up O​2​ and it combines with
H​+​ ions instead (Bohr effect). The O​2​ is now free to enter tissues.
Hb + H​+​ → HHb (haemoglobinic acid)
Hydrogen carbonate diffuses out of red blood cells and combines with Na​+​ ions in plasma (Na​+
comes from the breakdown of NaCl) forming sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO​3​). Red blood cell
walls are permeable to negative ions and not positive ions. Therefore, the loss of negatively
charged HCO​3​- ​is balanced by an influx of Cl​-​ ions from plasma preserving the electrochemical
neutrality. This is called a ​chloride shift​.
* In the lungs, when CO​2​ levels decrease and pO​2​ increase, the conditions are reversed, i.e.,
Hb takes up O​2​ and CO​2​ is released at the respiratory surface.