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Phases of The Research Process and Lesson 1 1
Phases of The Research Process and Lesson 1 1
Despite the fact that AIDS rates have Example of a Research Purpose
been dropping for men but increasing
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
for women, few studies have described
effectiveness of normal saline versus normal
the health experiences of HIV infected
saline containing 10 U/mL of heparin for
women or compared them to those of
maintaining heparin-loc sites.
men. This situation is troubling because
of evidence indicating that, once HIV Research Objective
infected, women may be at great risk
that men for illness-related morbidity Describe the aims and goals which are
and adverse outcome expected to be attained at the end of
“Patients’ concerns about reporting the research process
pain and using analgesics… are barriers Stated right after the well-defined
to adequate pain management…Despite research problem on which they are
extensive attention to issues of pain based and from which they logically
management…few studies have been follow
conducted testing impact of
Classifications of Research Objective
intervention on cancer pain…”
General objective – broad statement of
Purpose Statement
purpose which uses abstract un-
Clear, concise statement measurable concepts
Goal, aim, focus, or objective of the Specific objectives – a statement of
study purpose which uses well-defined and
Includes variables, population, & setting measurable concepts, the formulation
of which should be based on and
Purpose & Type of Study logically flow from the general objective
The purpose of this study was to REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
describe... Literature Review
determine differences between
groups... Written summary of the state of
examine relationships among... existing knowledge on a research
determine the effect of problem
Task consist of:
Example Research Purpose Identification
Selection
Purpose of Study: The purpose of this mixed-
Critical analysis
method descriptive study is to survey pre-
Written description
licensure nursing faculty in New York State
about their knowledge, beliefs ineffectiveness Related Literature
and use of evidence based teaching strategies
which transfer knowledge between theory and
practice.
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
Helps and guide the researcher in Summarizes articles that have appeared
making the research design in other journals
Locating Relevant Literature for a Research Where to Locate the Sources of Related
Review Literature and Studies
differences. They are building blocks of theories whereas theory encompasses fewer
and they vary in level of abstraction. phenomena.
Construct – group of concepts that are directly Difference between Conceptual and
or indirectly observable. They are derived from Theoretical Models
a combination of academic and clinical
knowledge and add meaning and scope to a Conceptual Model or Theoretical Model or
Paradigm Framework
theory.
1. It is a 1. It proposes a framework
Propositions – are statements that describe the pretheoretic derived from theories
basis from
relationship of two or more concepts. Theory
which
development begins with the identification and substantive
description of concepts and constructs and theories may
proceeds to formulate relationships between be derived.
the two concepts. 2. It is highly 2. It is less abstract than
abstract conceptual models.
Conceptual model – are concepts that provide a 3. Concepts are 3. Concept are narrowly
structure or pattern for organizing phenomena related and bounded, specific, and
of interest in the practice or research. multidimensio explicitly interrelated
nal.
Paradigm – used to mean a model or worldview 4. It provides a 4. It postulate relationship
about major phenomena of concern to a perspective
discipline. for science.
5. It is derived 5. It is constructed from
Conceptual framework – represents a less from available theories and findings
formal attempt at organizing phenomena. It systematic of empirical research.
observation
assembled by virtue of its relevance to a
and intuition.
common theme. 6. It is developed 6. It is developed through the
through the process of induction and
Model – represents some aspects of reality,
process of deduction
concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness intuition
that may be structural, pictorial, diagrammatic 7. It must be 7. It permits empirical tests
or mathematical (Bush 1979) evaluated
through
Theoretical framework – derived from one or logical
more theories or paradigms through the grounds and
processes of induction or deduction. It cannot be
postulates relationships among concepts and empirically
tested.
permits empirical testing.
Conceptual Framework
term will be studied in this particular research questionnaire sent to all program participants
project. from programs listed in the Gold’s Gym
directory.
Example: The purpose of this study is to explore
and describe successful dieting programs.
Construct – a group of concepts that are 1. It is a pre theoretic basis from which
directly or indirectly observable. They are substantive theories may be derived.
derived from a combination of academic 2. It is highly abstract.
and clinical knowledge and add meaning 3. Concepts are related and
and scope to a theory. multidimensional.
4. It provides a perspective for science.
5. It is derived from systematic observation
Conceptual models and intuition.
– are concepts that provide a structure or 6. It is developed through the process of
pattern for organizing phenomena of intuition.
interest in the practice or research. 7. It must be evaluated through logical
grounds and cannot be empirically tested.
Paradigm
– used to mean a model or worldview about Theoretical Model or Framework
a major phenomena of concern to a 1. It proposes a framework derived from
discipline. theories.
Conceptual framework – represents a less 2. It is less abstract than conceptual
formal attempt at organizing phenomena. It models.
was assembled by virtue of its relevance to 3. Concepts are narrowly bounded, specific,
a common theme. and explicitly interrelated.
4. It postulates relationships.
Model – represents some aspects of reality, 5. It is constructed from available theories
concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness and findings of empirical research
that may be structural, pictorial, .6. It is developed through the process of
diagrammatic or mathematical (Bush 1979) induction and deduction.
7. It permits empirical tests.
Theoretical framework
– derived from one or more theories or Conceptual Model: Swanson’s theory of
paradigms through the processes of caring (1999)
induction or deduction. It postulates INPUT
relationships among concepts and permits Prenatal Context of Caring:1. As
empirical testing. experienced by women who miscarried
2. As provided by parents and professionals
Theoretical model in the newborn ICU3. As released by at risk
– a group of interrelated theories that mothers who had received a long term
provide rationale for the hypotheses, public health nursing intervention
policies and curricula of science whereas
theory encompasses fewer phenomena. PROCESS
Caring Process Knowing Being with Doing
Difference Between Conceptual and for Enabling Maintaining belief
Theoretical Models
OUTPUT
Conceptual Model or Paradigm Development of Caring – based Counseling
Intervention
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
Dependent variable
– is the behavior, characteristics, or
outcome the researcher is interested in
understanding, explaining, predicting or
affecting.
Independent variable
– is the presumed cause of, antecedent to,
or influence on the dependent variable.
6. Typically involves a merging together of Searches for subject who are able to
various data collection strategies share information
Use gerunds in their titles, which
Qualitative Research suggest action and change
Phenomenological Research
Vary from the methods used in Ethnographic Studies
quantitative research, being a It involves the collection and analysis of
“rigorous”, critical systematic method data about cultural groups
of investigation” (Mariano, 1990, Systematic process of observing,
Streubert and Carpenter, 1999) detailing, describing, documenting and
Purposive sampling technique is usually analyzing the life ways or particular
applied patterns of a cultural (sub cultural) in
Examine human experiences through order to grasp the life ways or patterns
the description that are provided by the of the people in their familiar
people involved, “lived experiences” environment (Leininger, 1985)
Goal: describe the meaning that “Learning from people” (Cameron,
experiences hold for each subject 1990(
Includes the qualities of humanness, Involves intensive field work in which
such as individualism, self- the investigator is immersed in the
determination, wholeness, uniqueness culture under study
and an open system Explores with people their rituals and
customs, beliefs and practices
Grounded Theory Studies
Initially developed by Glaser and Historical Studies
Strauss (1967), aims to discover what Refer to a narrative description or
problems exist in a social scene and the analysis of past events that happened in
process persons use to handle them the remote or recent past
Emphasizes observation and the Reveal the identification, location,
development of practice-based intuitive evaluation and synthesis of data from
between variables. Consist of the past (Leinenger, 1985), “without a
formulation, testing, and past here is no meaning to the present,
redevelopment of proposition until a nor we can develop a sense of ourselves
theory evolves as individuals and as members of
Inductive and deductive approaches are groups”
both used. The constructs and concepts Area of interest are clearly stated and
are grounded in data and hypotheses literature is reviewed
are tested Oral history is a historical methodology.
Purposive sampling is used rather than Materials may be found in libraries,
probability archives or personal collections
Diversity rather than similarity is Sources of Historical Data
applied
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
1. Primary sources: first-hand information Provides the basis for research that
or direct evidence (i.e. oral histories, focuses on understanding how people
written records, diaries, eyewitnesses, communicate and how they develop
pictorial sources and physical evidence( symbolic meaning in society (Burn and
2. Secondary sources: second-hand Grove, 1997)
information or maybe third-hand or Uncover the distortions and constraints
fourth-hand (e.g. written-letter, that impede free, equal and uncoerced
containing information that has been participation in society (Steven, 1989)
summarized or rephrased by another) Critical nursing science, according to
Ford-Gilboe et. Al. (1995) supplies a
Historical research undergo two types of
framework which one may ask how
evaluation
social, political, economic, gender and
1. External criticism: done to determine cultural factors interact to influence
the authenticity or genuineness of the health or illness experiences
collected data Access to care, care of critically ill, pain
2. Internal criticism: evaluates the management of terminally ill,
accuracy of the data healthcare delivery system
Historical research has the potential to
Philosophical Inquiry
provide a foundation for and direct the
future developments of the profession Involves the use of intellectual analyses
to clarify meanings, make values
Qualitative Research
manifest, identify ethics, and study the
Case Studies nature of knowledge (Ellis, 1983)
There are three categories to guide the
In depth examination of people or research
group of people 1. Foundational inquires, where the
It applies to anthropology, law medicine analyses of the structure of science
and sociology and a process of thinking and
In medicine, concerned with particular valuing certain phenomena held in
disease (Down syndrome, AIDS), in common by members of a scientific
nursing, it applies to a particular patient discipline are contained
Hypotheses are not tested. They may 2. Philosophical analyses, which are
arise in case studies employed in examining meaning
Data evaluation is observed by content and developing theories of meaning
analysis means examination of content that are accomplished through
of communication messages concept analysis or linguistic
May be time consuming and somewhat analysis (Rodger 1989)
costly 3. Ethical inquiry, wherein intellectual
analyses of problems of ethics
Critical Social Theory
related to obligation, right, duty,
right and wrong, conscience,
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
justice, choice and responsibility are Types of Sampling and Selection Techniques:
highlighted Simple Random Sampling
- Is a way of striving for rational
ends when others are involved Process of selecting sample cases or
(Burns and Grove, 19797) subset of a sample cases from a
population
Identifying the Population to be studied Example: drawing of lots and table of
random digits
Population – the entire set of
individuals or objects having common Stratified Random Sampling
characteristics, sometimes called
universe Process of selecting a random sample
Target population – the entire from a subgroups or strata into which
population in which the researcher is population has been subdivided
interested and to which he or she Examples: attitude of nurses towards
would like to generalize study results conventional therapy
Sampling frame – a list of all the Nurses population: 75
element in the population from which Sampling frame: list of nurses by type
the sample is drawn Classify: Er nuse, ward nurse, or nurse,
Sampling – the process of selecting a icu nurse
portion of the population to represent
Systematic Sampling
the entire population
Sample – a subset of population, A method of selecting a sample from a
selected to participate in a study population by taking the kth units from
Sampling size –total number of study, an ordered population. Where K is the
participants participating in a study sampling interval
Ex: list and number all the participants
Factors that can influence Sample Size
in alphabetical order then divide the
Accessibility size into desired units. 30/15 = 2
Cost Take every second name in the list
Amount of time available Cluster Sampling
Types of Sampling and Selection Techniques Selecting a sample of groups or clusters
1. Probability sampling – random of elements
selection of elements (participants) Example: nursing students each section
from a population is considered as cluster
Simple random sampling Non- probability Sampling
Stratified random sampling
Systematic sampling Selection of sampling units
Cluster sampling (participants) from a population using
nonrandom procedure
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
Quota Sampling
Longitudinal Sampling
Cross-sectional Sampling