NURSING RESEARCH LEC
NURSING RESEARCH
PHASES OF RESEARCH PROCESS
PHASES OF RESEARCH PROCESS
 Conceptual phase
 Design and Planning Phase
 Empirical Phase
 Analytical Phase
 Dissemination Phase
The Conceptual Phase
 Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
 Reviewing the Related Research
Literature
 Undertaking clinical Field Work
 Defining the framework and Developing
Conceptual Definitions
 Formulating Hypothesis
The Design and Planning Phase
 Selecting a Research Design
 Developing Protocols for the
Intervention
 Identifying the Population to be Studied
 Designing the Sampling Plan
 Specifying Methods to Measure
Variables
 Developing Methods to Protect
Human/Animal Rights
 Finalizing and Reviewing the Research
Plan
The Empirical Phase
 Collecting the Data
 Preparing Data for Analysis
The Analytic Phase
 Analyzing the Data
 Interpreting the results
The Dissemination Phase
 Communicating the Findings
 Utilizing Research Evidence in Practice
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. CONCEPTUAL PHASE
 Identifying a Research Problem
What is a problem?
 Area of concern
 A perceived difficulty
 A feeling of discomfort of the ways
things are
 Gap in the knowledge base for practice
 Not previously studied
 No known answer
 Conflicting findings
 When existence of phemonenon
requires explanation
 Significant for Nursing
Identifying a Research Problem
Research Problem – an enigmatic, perplexing,
or troubling condition that the researcher wants
to address through disciplinary inquiry
Problem Statement – articulates the problem
to be addressed, an expression of a dilemma or
disturbing situation that needs investigation
Research questions – specific queries
researchers want to answer in addressing a
research problem
Statement of purpose – summary of the overall
goal of the study; in both qualitative and
quantitative studies
Purpose statement – identifies the key
concepts (variables) and the study group or
population
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

Sources of Research Problem Sample Research Problem

 Clinical Experience  A study on the health condition of a

 Nursing Literature group
 Social Issues  Define Major concepts
 Theories  Health condition
 Ideas from External Sources  Poverty group

Guidelines in Selection of Research Problem  Health condition

 Physical
 Chosen by the researcher himself
 Mental
 Within the interest, intellectual
 Both
curiosity and drive of the researcher
 Relevant and useful to a specific group
 Poverty group
of people
 Total annual income of ______
 Novel – possesses the element of
 With _____ member of the family
newness or freshness
 Specifies the issues or concerns –
 Well-defined or specified –set the
number of family members who had
scope and limits of the study
been ill for the past year
 Measurable
 Area of coverage
 Time bounded
 Who are the respondents- head of the
 Availability of data and method
family….
 Cost and return
 The study will be completed within a
Characteristics of Good Research Problem year
 Data gathering – Quantitative
 Relevant – contribute to knowledge
and development Examples of Topic/Focus
 Feasible – worth the time money and
 Chemotherapy
effort
 Side effects of Chemotherapy– Nausea
 Clear
and vomiting
 Ethical – does not impose danger in
 Interventions – successful or not
research subjects
 New interventions – that can reduce or
Defining a Research Problem prevents the side effects
 Age group of respondents/ certain
 Clearly define the problem disease only
 Limit the scope of the study  Period of time – specify the time
 Issues of concerns coverage
 Area of coverage  Type of data- quantitative, qualitative
 Subjects/respondents or both
 Period of time type of data (qualitative,
quantitative or both) Example Research Problem
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
 Despite the fact that AIDS rates have
been dropping for men but increasing
for women, few studies have described
the health experiences of HIV infected
women or compared them to those of
men. This situation is troubling because
of evidence indicating that, once HIV
infected, women may be at great risk
that men for illness-related morbidity
and adverse outcome
 “Patients’ concerns about reporting
pain and using analgesics… are barriers
to adequate pain management…Despite
extensive attention to issues of pain
management…few studies have been
conducted testing impact of
intervention on cancer pain…”
Purpose Statement
 Clear, concise statement
 Goal, aim, focus, or objective of the
study
 Includes variables, population, & setting
Purpose & Type of Study
The purpose of this study was to
 describe...
 determine differences between
groups...
 examine relationships among...
 determine the effect of
Example Research Purpose
Purpose of Study: The purpose of this mixed-
method descriptive study is to survey pre-
licensure nursing faculty in New York State
about their knowledge, beliefs ineffectiveness
and use of evidence based teaching strategies
which transfer knowledge between theory and
practice.
Example of a Research Purpose
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
effectiveness of normal saline versus normal
saline containing 10 U/mL of heparin for
maintaining heparin-loc sites.
Research Objective
 Describe the aims and goals which are
expected to be attained at the end of
the research process
 Stated right after the well-defined
research problem on which they are
based and from which they logically
follow
Classifications of Research Objective
 General objective – broad statement of
purpose which uses abstract un-
measurable concepts
 Specific objectives – a statement of
purpose which uses well-defined and
measurable concepts, the formulation
of which should be based on and
logically flow from the general objective
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Literature Review
 Written summary of the state of
existing knowledge on a research
problem
 Task consist of:
 Identification
 Selection
 Critical analysis
 Written description
Related Literature
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
 Composed of discussion and facts and
principles to which the present study is
related
 Articles taken from books, journals,
magazines and other sources
Classified as:
 Local
 Foreign
Related Studies
 Studies, inquiries or investigations
already conducted to which the present
proposed study is related or has some
bearing or similarity
 Usually unpublished materials such as
manuscripts, theses and dissertations
(Local /Foreign)
Sources of Information
Primary source:
 Research reports which are descriptions
of studies written by the researchers
who conducted them
 First-hand accounts of events such as
death
 Include letters, eyewitness account,
journals, ethnographies, information
from questionnaires and interviews
Secondary Source:
 Research documents are description of
studies prepared by someone other
than the original researcher
 Include histories, biographies and
textbooks
Where to find Sources
 Community, district or provincial levels
 National level
 International level
Two Kinds of Reviewed Literature
 Research– Includes previously done
studies
 Non-Research– Includes experiences,
opinions and theories of experts along
the problem area
Non-Research
 Related Readings- laws, constitutions
and department directives such as
circulars or memoranda
 Related Literature – Articles taken from
books, journals, magazines and other
sources
 Related Studies – may be published or
unpublished related to the study
Purposes of Reviewing Literature
 To define research questions, methods
and tools that may prove useful in
problem identification, research design
and instrument development
 To reveal difficulties experienced by
others that may save time, money and
error in projected studies
 To provide clear information on the task
carried by the nursing personnel
 To locate findings that may be included
in a similar study to confirm or refute
earlier findings
 To provide comparative data that are
available in the analysis and
interpretation of one’s own
 To identify studies that may be
replicated or re tested
 To compare one’s findings with other
theoretical and conceptual framework
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
 Helps and guide the researcher in
making the research design
Locating Relevant Literature for a Research
Review
Electronic Literature Searches
A. Electronic Databases:
 Huge bibliographic files that can be
accessed by computer
Mapping – a feature that allows you to search
for Topics in your own words
Example topic: Anorexia Nervosa
Look under: anorexia, eating disorders, weight
loss, appetite, eating behavior
Key Electronic Databases for Nurse
Researchers:
 CINAHL – Cumulative Index to Nursing
and Allied Health Literature
 MEDLINE – Medical Literature On Line
 AIDSLINE – AIDS Information On Line
 Cancer Lit – Cancer Literature
B. Electronic Catalogue System
 Books and other holdings of libraries
can be scanned electronically
A. Print Indexes
 books that are used to locate articles in
journals and periodicals, books,
dissertations, publications of
professional organizations and
government documents
 Identify appropriate subject heading
 Subject section with list of actual
references
B. Abstract Journals
 Summarizes articles that have appeared
in other journals
Where to Locate the Sources of Related
Literature and Studies
 Libraries
 Government and Private Offices
 The National Library
 The Library of Department of Education
Characteristics of Good Related Literature
 Must be as recent as possible
 Must be objective and unbiased
 Must be relevant to the study
 Must have been based upon genuinely
original and true facts or data to make
them valid and reliable
 Must not be too few or too many
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Theory
 set of interrelated construct,
definitions, and prepositions that
present a systematic view of
phenomena by specifying relations
among variables with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the
phenomena(Kerlinger, 1973)
Relationship of Theory to the research process
 A theory, conceptual model or
theoretical framework identifies
parameters for the study guides data
collection and provides a perspective in
the interpretation of data to enable the
researcher to structure facts into an
orderly system.
Concepts – are abstractions that categorize
observations based on commonalities and
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

differences. They are building blocks of theories whereas theory encompasses fewer
and they vary in level of abstraction. phenomena.

Construct – group of concepts that are directly Difference between Conceptual and
or indirectly observable. They are derived from Theoretical Models
a combination of academic and clinical
knowledge and add meaning and scope to a Conceptual Model or Theoretical Model or
Paradigm Framework
theory.
1. It is a 1. It proposes a framework
Propositions – are statements that describe the pretheoretic derived from theories
basis from
relationship of two or more concepts. Theory
which
development begins with the identification and substantive
description of concepts and constructs and theories may
proceeds to formulate relationships between be derived.
the two concepts. 2. It is highly 2. It is less abstract than
abstract conceptual models.
Conceptual model – are concepts that provide a 3. Concepts are 3. Concept are narrowly
structure or pattern for organizing phenomena related and bounded, specific, and
of interest in the practice or research. multidimensio explicitly interrelated
nal.
Paradigm – used to mean a model or worldview 4. It provides a 4. It postulate relationship
about major phenomena of concern to a perspective
discipline. for science.
5. It is derived 5. It is constructed from
Conceptual framework – represents a less from available theories and findings
formal attempt at organizing phenomena. It systematic of empirical research.
observation
assembled by virtue of its relevance to a
and intuition.
common theme. 6. It is developed 6. It is developed through the
through the process of induction and
Model – represents some aspects of reality,
process of deduction
concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness intuition
that may be structural, pictorial, diagrammatic 7. It must be 7. It permits empirical tests
or mathematical (Bush 1979) evaluated
through
Theoretical framework – derived from one or logical
more theories or paradigms through the grounds and
processes of induction or deduction. It cannot be
postulates relationships among concepts and empirically
tested.
permits empirical testing.

Theoretical model – a group of interrelated

Conceptual Model: Swanson’s theory of caring
theories that provide rationale for the
(1999)
hypotheses, policies and curricula of science
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Paradigm of Selye’s Adaptation to

Stress Theory: Effects of Music on patients’
level of anxiety

Conceptual Paradigm: Hygienic practices of

selected small scale eateries in Las Pinas City:
Implication to PHC
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
Assumptions
 Assumption – is a statement describing
a fact or condition that is accepted to
be true on the basis of logic and reason
Example:
1. All nurses like to give adequate nursing care,
but there are factors that prevent them from
devoting their full time to the care of patients.
2. The patient who faces surgery has fears and
anxieties, which may be manifested or not.
Scope, Limitations and Delimitations
Scope – deals with the extent to which the
study will be made.
Limitation – are perceived weaknesses that are
discussed and reported. Certain limitations of
research are:
 Insufficient background and skills to
study the subject area, identify the
problem, and carry through the
research process;
 Lack of available information regarding
the study to be undertaken;
 Insufficient of measurement tools to
assess and analyze the data.
Delimitation – are restrictions that the
researcher places the study prior to data
gathering. They may come up in decision
making in the course of the study and are
intermeshed with the operational definitions in
the written report.
Formulate the Hypothesis
Hypothesis – is a shrewd guess or inference
that is formulated and previsionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to
guide further investigation.
Also a statement of the relationship between
the phenomenon and the variable being
studied.
Attributes of a Good Hypothesis:
 It is strong enough to compel an inquiry
and serves as its focus.
 When substantiated through research,
it moves to the realm of theory.
 It can be used to explain phenomena,
guide actions, and predict outcomes.
 It adequately explains observed facts.
 It offers the simplest explanation under
the circumstances.
 It offers an explanation that is as
complex a necessary under the
circumstances.
 It can be brought into an agreement or
disagreement with observations.
Sample of Various Types of Hypothesis
 Simple Hypothesis – predicts the
relationship between one independent
variable and one dependent variable.
 Complex Hypothesis – predicts the
relationship between two or more
independent variables and two or more
dependent variables.
 Directional/Predictive Hypothesis –
specifies the direction of the
relationship between the variables
being studied.
 Non Directional Hypothesis –predicts
only that there is a relationship
between the variables being studied
but does not specify what it is.
 Null Hypothesis – is an assumption that
there is no difference between the
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
studied variables. In stating the
hypothesis, the researcher hopes to
reject the statement of no difference
Variables
 In quantitative studies, concepts are
referred to as variables
 Is a characteristics or quality that takes
on different values
 Varies from one person or object to
another
Different Types of Variables
 Attribute variables – are inherent
characteristics of a person that the
researcher measures and observes (age,
health beliefs, or weight).
 Active variable – when a researcher
actively creates a variable, as when a
special intervention is introduced.
 Continuous variables – variables that
can take an infinite range of values
along a continuum (height & weight)
 Discrete variables – by contrast, is one
that has finite number of values
between two points (number of
children)
 Categorical variables – with distinct
category that do not represent a
quantity (gender and blood type)
 Dependent variable – is the behavior,
characteristics, or outcome the
researcher is interested in
understanding explaining, predicting or
affecting.
 Independent variable – is the
presumed cause of, antecedent to, or
influence on the dependent variable
Identify the independent and dependent
variables
 Performance in College of Nursing is
related to success in the nurses’
licensure examination.
 Heredity, home environment and
quality of instruction are related to
intelligence, motivation, and
performance in school.
 People who smoke are more prone to
lung cancer than those who do not
smoke.
 There is a difference in the level of pre-
surgical patients who receive pre-
operation instruction than those who
do not receive such instruction.
 There will be no correlation between
liberalization of attitudes and
completion of a course in human
sexuality.
 Graduates of the baccalaureate degree
program are more proficient at the
bedside than graduate of the diploma
program.
 The use of tranquilizers is more
effective than shock therapy in treating
disturbed mentally ill patients.
 There is a more significant increase in
the rate of healing of decubitus ulcer
among subjects who receive regular
application of topical insulin than in
those who do not.
 There is no significant difference in skills
inventory performance test between
students having a skills laboratory
experience and students having a free
day preceding the day of test
administration.
Defining Terms
Operational definitions – describe what you are
going to measure and how you will measure it.
First define the term and then state how the
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

term will be studied in this particular research
project.
Example: The purpose of this study is to explore
and describe successful dieting programs.
questionnaire sent to all program participants
from programs listed in the Gold’s Gym
directory.

 First write the conceptual definition of

the variable or term in relation to the
purpose of the study.
 Dieting program: a fee for a service
establish to assist persons to lose
weight.
 Successful: a dieting program that has
high percentage of client who were to
achieve their goal weight and keep off
for one year or more

2. Second write out how you intend to

study that definition or how you intent
to measure the variable. This is the
operational part of the operational
definition of term.

Dieting program: A fee or service regimen,

established to assist person in losing weight, as
listed in the Gold’s Gym directory.

Successful: Dieting program that has a high

percentage of clients who were able to achieve
their goal weight and keep that weight off for
one year or more as measured by successful
dieters questionnaire sent to all program
participants in the previous years.

3. Combine both parts of the definition to

form the operational definition of term
or variable.

Successful Dieting Programs: Fee for service

regimen, established to assist persons in losing
weight, that has a high percentage of clients
who were able to achieve their goal weight and
keep that weight off for one year or more as
measured but the successful dieters
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

PHASES OF NURSING RESEARCH • Interpreting the results

• Conceptual phase The Dissemination Phase

• Design and Planning Phase • Communicating the Findings
• Empirical Phase • Utilizing Research Evidence in Practice
• Analytical Phase
• Dissemination Phase THE RESEARCH PROCESS1.
CONCEPTUAL PHASE
The Conceptual Phase Identifying a Research Problem
• Formulating and Delimiting the Problem • What is the problem?
• Reviewing the Related Research – Area of concern
Literature – A perceived difficulty
• Undertaking clinical Field Work – A feeling of discomfort of the ways things
• Defining the framework and Developing are
Conceptual Definitions
• Formulating Hypothesis THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Gap in the knowledge base for practice
The Design and Planning Phase ◦ Not previously studied
• Selecting a Research Design ◦ No known answer
• Developing Protocols for the Intervention ◦ Conflicting findings
• Identifying the Population to be Studied ◦ When existence of phenomenon requires
• Designing the Sampling Plan explanation

The Design and Planning Phase Significant for Nursing

• Specifying Methods to Measure Variables
• Developing Methods to Protect Identifying a Research Problem
Human/Animal Rights • Research Problem
• Finalizing and Reviewing the Research – an enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling
Plan condition that the researcher wants to
address through disciplinary inquiry
The Empirical Phase
• Collecting the Data • Problem Statement
• Preparing Data for Analysis – articulates the problem to be addressed,
an expression of a dilemma or disturbing
The Analytic Phase situation that needs investigation
• Analyzing the Data
• Interpreting the results
Guidelines in Selection of Research
Problem
The Empirical Phase • Chosen by the researcher himself
• Collecting the Data • Within the interest, intellectual curiosity
• Preparing Data for Analysis and drive of the researcher
The Analytic Phase • Relevant and useful to a specific group of
• Analyzing the Data people
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

• Novel – possesses the element of Purpose & Type of Study

newness or freshness • The purpose of this study was to
– describe..
Guidelines in Selection of Research .– determine differences between groups…
Problem – examine relationships among…
• Well-defined or specified – set the scope – determine the effect of…
and limits of the study
• Measurable Example Research PurposePurpose of
• Time bounded Study :
• Availability of data and method The purpose of this mixed-method
• Cost and return descriptive study is to survey pre-licensure
nursing faculty in New York State About
their knowledge, beliefs ineffectiveness and
Sample Research Problem use of evidence-based teaching strategies
• A study on the health condition of a group which transfer knowledge between theory
• Define Major concepts and practice.
–– Health condition
– Poverty group
Research Objective
Sample Research Problem • Describe the aims and goals which are
• Health condition expected to be attained at the end of the
– Physical research process
– Mental • Stated right after the well-defined research
– both problem on which they are based and from
• Poverty group which they logically follow
– Total annual income of ______– With
_____ member of the family Classifications of Research Objective
• General objective
Sample Research Problem – broad statement of purpose which uses
• Specifies the issues or concerns abstract unmeasurable concepts
– number of family members who had been • Specific objectives
ill for the past year – a statement of purpose which uses well-
• Area of coverage defined and measurable concepts, the
• Who are the respondents - head of the formulation of which should be based on
family…. and logically flow from the general objective.
• The study will be completed within a year
• Data gathering - Quantitative
Sources of Information
• Primary source:
Purpose Statement – Research reports which are descriptions
• Clear, concise statement of studies written by the researchers who
• Goal, aim, focus, or objective of the study conducted them
• Includes variables, population, & setting – First hand accounts of events such as
death
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
– Include letters, eyewitness accounts,
journals, ethnographies, information from
questionnaires and interviews.
Sources of Information
• Secondary Source
– Research documents are description of
studies prepared by someone other than the
original researcher
– Include histories, biographies and
textbooks
Locating Relevant Literature for a Research
Review•
Electronic Literature Searches
A. Electronic Databases:
Huge bibliographic files that can be
accessed by computer
Mapping
– a feature that allows you to search for
Topics in your own words
Example topic: Anorexia Nervosa
Look under: anorexia, eating disorders,
weight loss, appetite, eating behavior
Locating Relevant Literature for a Research
Review
• Key Electronic Databases for Nurse
Researchers:
1. CINAHL
– Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature
2. MEDLINE – Medical Literature OnLine
3. AIDSLINE – AIDS Information OnLine
4. Cancer Lit – Cancer Literature
Locating Relevant Literature for a Research
Review
B. Electronic Catalogue SystemBooks and
other holdings of libraries can be scanned
electronically.
Where to Locate the Sources of Related
Literature and Studies
• Libraries
• Government and Private Offices
• The National Library
• The Library of Department of Education
Characteristics of Good Related Literature
• Must be as recent as possible
• Must be objective and unbiased
• Must be relevant to the study
• Must have been based upon genuinely
original and true facts or data to make them
valid and reliable
• Must not be to few or too many
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Theory
- set of interrelated construct,definitions,
and prepositions that present a systematic
view of phenomena by specifying relations
among variables with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the phenomena
(Kerlinger, 1973).
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Relationship of Theory to the research
process
A theory, conceptual model or
theoretical framework identifies parameters
for the study guide data collection and
provides a perspective in the interpretation
of data to enable the researcher to structure
facts into an orderly system.
Concepts
– are abstractions that categorize
observations based on commonalities and
differences. They are building blocks of
theories and they vary in level of
abstraction.
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
Construct – a group of concepts that are
directly or indirectly observable. They are
derived from a combination of academic
and clinical knowledge and add meaning
and scope to a theory.
Conceptual models
– are concepts that provide a structure or
pattern for organizing phenomena of
interest in the practice or research.
Paradigm
– used to mean a model or worldview about
a major phenomena of concern to a
discipline.
Conceptual framework – represents a less
formal attempt at organizing phenomena. It
was assembled by virtue of its relevance to
a common theme.
Model – represents some aspects of reality,
concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness
that may be structural, pictorial,
diagrammatic or mathematical (Bush 1979)
Theoretical framework
– derived from one or more theories or
paradigms through the processes of
induction or deduction. It postulates
relationships among concepts and permits
empirical testing.
Theoretical model
– a group of interrelated theories that
provide rationale for the hypotheses,
policies and curricula of science whereas
theory encompasses fewer phenomena.
Difference Between Conceptual and
Theoretical Models
Conceptual Model or Paradigm
1. It is a pre theoretic basis from which
substantive theories may be derived.
2. It is highly abstract.
3. Concepts are related and
multidimensional.
4. It provides a perspective for science.
5. It is derived from systematic observation
and intuition.
6. It is developed through the process of
intuition.
7. It must be evaluated through logical
grounds and cannot be empirically tested.
Theoretical Model or Framework
1. It proposes a framework derived from
theories.
2. It is less abstract than conceptual
models.
3. Concepts are narrowly bounded, specific,
and explicitly interrelated.
4. It postulates relationships.
5. It is constructed from available theories
and findings of empirical research
.6. It is developed through the process of
induction and deduction.
7. It permits empirical tests.
Conceptual Model: Swanson’s theory of
caring (1999)
INPUT
Prenatal Context of Caring:1. As
experienced by women who miscarried
2. As provided by parents and professionals
in the newborn ICU3. As released by at risk
mothers who had received a long term
public health nursing intervention
PROCESS
Caring Process Knowing Being with Doing
for Enabling Maintaining belief
OUTPUT
Development of Caring – based Counseling
Intervention
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
Assumptions
Assumption
– is a statement describing a fact or
condition that is accepted to be true on the
basis of logic and reason.
Example:
1. All nurses like to give adequate nursing
care, but there are factors that prevent them
from devoting their full time to the care of
patients.
2. The patient who faces surgery has fears
and anxieties, which may be manifested or
not.
Scope, Limitations and Delimitations
Scope – deals with the extent to which the
study will be made.
Limitation – are perceived weaknesses that
are discussed and reported.
Certain limitations of research are:
1. Insufficient background and skills to study
the subject area, identify the problem, and
carry through the research process;
2. Lack of available information regarding
the study to be undertaken;
3. Insufficient measurement tools to assess
and analyze the data.
Delimitation
– are restrictions that the researcher places
on the study prior to data gathering. They
may come up in decision making in the
course of the study and are intermeshed
with the operational definitions in the written
report.
Formulate the Hypothesis
Hypothesis
– is a shrewd guess or inference that is
formulated and provisionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to
guide further investigation. Also a statement
of the relationship between the
phenomenon and the variable being
studied.
4. Non Directional Hypothesis
–predicts only that there is a relationship
between the variables being studied but
does not specify what it is
.5. Null Hypothesis
– is an assumption that there is no
difference between the studied variables. In
stating the hypothesis, the researcher
hopes to reject the statement of no
difference.
Variables
● In quantitative studies, concepts are
referred to as variables
● Is a characteristics or quality that
takes on different values
● Varies from one person or object to
another
Different Types of Variables
Attribute variables
– are inherent characteristics of a person
that the researcher measures and observes
(age, health beliefs, or weight).
Active variable
– when a researcher actively creates a
variable, as when a special intervention is
introduced.
Continuous variables
– variables that can take an infinite range of
values along a continuum (height & weight)
Discrete variables
– by contrast, is one that has finite number
of values between two points (number of
children)
Categorical variables
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

– with distinct categories that do not

represent a quantity (gender and blood
type).

Dependent variable
– is the behavior, characteristics, or
outcome the researcher is interested in
understanding, explaining, predicting or
affecting.

Independent variable
– is the presumed cause of, antecedent to,
or influence on the dependent variable.

Identify the independent and dependent

variables
1. Performance in College of Nursing is
related to success in the nurses’ licensure
examination.
2. Heredity, home environment and quality
of instruction are related to intelligence,
motivation, and performance in school.
3. People who smoke are more prone to
lung cancer than those who do not smoke.
4.There is a difference in the level of pre-
surgical patients who receive preoperative
instruction than those who do not receive
such instruction.
5.There will be no correlation between
liberalization of attitudes and completion of
a course in human sexuality.
6. Graduates of the baccalaureate degree
program are more proficient at the bedside
than graduates of the diploma program
.7. The use of tranquilizers is more effective
than shock therapy in treating disturbed
mentally ill patients.
8. There is a more significant increase in the
rate of healing of decubitus ulcer among
subjects who receive regular application of
topical insulin than in those who do not.

9. There is no significant difference in skills

inventory performance test between
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
Lesson Objectives:
 Identify the different processes involved
Types of Qualitative Research
in design and planning phase of nursing
research
 Determine the guidelines in selecting a
research design
 Recognize which types of research
design to be used for the study
 Enumerate the different types of
sampling
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
 Selecting a research design
 Developing protocols for the
Quantitative Research Methods
intervention
 Identifying the population to be studied
 Designing the sampling plan
 Specifying methods to measure
variables
 Developing methods to protect
human/animal rights
 Finalizing and reviewing the research
plan
Types of Research
1. Quantitative Research – the
investigation of phenomena that lend
themselves to precise measurement
and quantification, often involving a
rigorous and controlled design
2. Qualitative Research – the investigation
of phenomena, typically in an in-depth
and holistic fashion, through the
collection of rich narrative materials
using a flexible research design
Types of Quantitative Research
 Descriptive research
 Correlational research
 Quasi-experimental research
 Experimental research
 Phenomenological research
 Ground theory research
 Ethnographic research
 Historical research
 Philosophical research
 Foundational inquiry
 Philosophical analyses
 Ethical analyses
 Critical social theory methodology
 Descriptive Research
 According to Seltiz, et. Al., (1976),
provides an accurate portrayal or
account of characteristics of a
characteristic of a particular individual,
situation or group
 Mariner (1981) as a means of
discovering new meanings, describing
what exist, determining the frequency
with which something occurs and
categorizing information
 Conducted when little is known about a
phenomenon
 Correlational Research
 Focuses on the systematic investigation
of relationship between or among two
or more variables
 When relationships are determined, the
researcher identifies the type whether
positive or negative, and the degree or
strength of the relationship
 Useful in generating hypotheses which
guide quasi-experimental and
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
experimental studies which focus on
examining cause and effect interaction
 Quasi-experimental Research
 Seeks to explain relationship, clarify
why certain events happened (Cook and
Campbell, 1979)
 Examine causal relationship, basis for
predicting phenomena
 Powerful than experimental studies due
to lower level of control
 Investigators are usually unable to
manipulate or control certain variables
when studying human behavior,
especially in clinical areas
 In clinical nursing studies, random
selection of subject is not frequently
observed. Convenience sampling is
done
 Conducting quasi-experimental studies
is more convenient than experimental
studies
 When compared with experimental
studies quasi –experimental studies
show insufficient control in at least one
of three aspects:
1. Treatment variable manipulation
2. Setting manipulation, or
3. Subject selection
 Experimental Research
 Focuses on objective, systematic,
controlled, investigation for the
purpose of predicting and controlling
phenomena purports to examine
causality (Kerlinger, 1986) and (Lawson,
1981)
 Has to do with controlled observation
of change and development in variables
 Viewed as “hard science” due to its
rigorous control of variables is also
considered the most effective and
powerful quantitative method
Following characteristics observe in
experimental research
1. Controlled manipulation of at least one
treatment variable also known as
independent variable
2. The experimental group receives the
treatment while the control group does
not
3. Subjects are selected in random so that
each one has a probability greater than
zero
Developing a Quantitative Research design
involves following aspect:
1. Will there be an intervention?
2. What types of comparisons will be
made?
3. How will extraneous variables be
controlled?
4. When and how many times will data be
collected?
5. In what setting will the study take
place?
Characteristics of Qualitative Design
1. Is flexible and elastic, capable of
adjusting to what’s being learned
during the course of data collection
2. Requires researchers to become
intensely involved, often remaining in
the field for lengthy periods of time
3. Requires researchers to become the
research instruments
4. Requires on going analysis of the data
to formulate subsequent strategies and
to determine when fieldwork is done
5. Tends to be holistic, striving for an
understanding of the whole and,
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
6. Typically involves a merging together of
various data collection strategies
Qualitative Research
 Phenomenological Research
 Vary from the methods used in
quantitative research, being a
“rigorous”, critical systematic method
of investigation” (Mariano, 1990,
Streubert and Carpenter, 1999)
 Purposive sampling technique is usually
applied
 Examine human experiences through
the description that are provided by the
people involved, “lived experiences”
 Goal: describe the meaning that
experiences hold for each subject
 Includes the qualities of humanness,
such as individualism, self-
determination, wholeness, uniqueness
and an open system
 Grounded Theory Studies
 Initially developed by Glaser and
Strauss (1967), aims to discover what
problems exist in a social scene and the
process persons use to handle them
 Emphasizes observation and the
development of practice-based intuitive
between variables. Consist of
formulation, testing, and
redevelopment of proposition until a
theory evolves
 Inductive and deductive approaches are
both used. The constructs and concepts
are grounded in data and hypotheses
are tested
 Purposive sampling is used rather than
probability
 Diversity rather than similarity is
applied
 Searches for subject who are able to
share information
 Use gerunds in their titles, which
suggest action and change
 Ethnographic Studies
 It involves the collection and analysis of
data about cultural groups
 Systematic process of observing,
detailing, describing, documenting and
analyzing the life ways or particular
patterns of a cultural (sub cultural) in
order to grasp the life ways or patterns
of the people in their familiar
environment (Leininger, 1985)
 “Learning from people” (Cameron,
1990(
 Involves intensive field work in which
the investigator is immersed in the
culture under study
 Explores with people their rituals and
customs, beliefs and practices
 Historical Studies
 Refer to a narrative description or
analysis of past events that happened in
the remote or recent past
 Reveal the identification, location,
evaluation and synthesis of data from
the past (Leinenger, 1985), “without a
past here is no meaning to the present,
nor we can develop a sense of ourselves
as individuals and as members of
groups”
 Area of interest are clearly stated and
literature is reviewed
 Oral history is a historical methodology.
Materials may be found in libraries,
archives or personal collections
Sources of Historical Data
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
1. Primary sources: first-hand information
or direct evidence (i.e. oral histories,
written records, diaries, eyewitnesses,
pictorial sources and physical evidence(
2. Secondary sources: second-hand
information or maybe third-hand or
fourth-hand (e.g. written-letter,
containing information that has been
summarized or rephrased by another)
Historical research undergo two types of
evaluation
1. External criticism: done to determine
the authenticity or genuineness of the
collected data
2. Internal criticism: evaluates the
accuracy of the data
 Historical research has the potential to
Philosophical Inquiry
provide a foundation for and direct the
future developments of the profession
Qualitative Research
Case Studies
 In depth examination of people or
group of people
 It applies to anthropology, law medicine
and sociology
 In medicine, concerned with particular
disease (Down syndrome, AIDS), in
nursing, it applies to a particular patient
 Hypotheses are not tested. They may
arise in case studies
 Data evaluation is observed by content
analysis means examination of content
of communication messages
 May be time consuming and somewhat
costly
Critical Social Theory
 Provides the basis for research that
focuses on understanding how people
communicate and how they develop
symbolic meaning in society (Burn and
Grove, 1997)
 Uncover the distortions and constraints
that impede free, equal and uncoerced
participation in society (Steven, 1989)
 Critical nursing science, according to
Ford-Gilboe et. Al. (1995) supplies a
framework which one may ask how
social, political, economic, gender and
cultural factors interact to influence
health or illness experiences
 Access to care, care of critically ill, pain
management of terminally ill,
healthcare delivery system
 Involves the use of intellectual analyses
to clarify meanings, make values
manifest, identify ethics, and study the
nature of knowledge (Ellis, 1983)
 There are three categories to guide the
research
1. Foundational inquires, where the
analyses of the structure of science
and a process of thinking and
valuing certain phenomena held in
common by members of a scientific
discipline are contained
2. Philosophical analyses, which are
employed in examining meaning
and developing theories of meaning
that are accomplished through
concept analysis or linguistic
analysis (Rodger 1989)
3. Ethical inquiry, wherein intellectual
analyses of problems of ethics
related to obligation, right, duty,
right and wrong, conscience,
NURSING RESEARCH LEC
justice, choice and responsibility are
highlighted
- Is a way of striving for rational
ends when others are involved
(Burns and Grove, 19797)
Identifying the Population to be studied
 Population – the entire set of
individuals or objects having common
characteristics, sometimes called
universe
 Target population – the entire
population in which the researcher is
interested and to which he or she
would like to generalize study results
 Sampling frame – a list of all the
element in the population from which
the sample is drawn
 Sampling – the process of selecting a
portion of the population to represent
the entire population
 Sample – a subset of population,
selected to participate in a study
 Sampling size –total number of study,
participants participating in a study
Factors that can influence Sample Size
 Accessibility
 Cost
 Amount of time available
Types of Sampling and Selection Techniques
1. Probability sampling – random
selection of elements (participants)
from a population
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Cluster sampling
Types of Sampling and Selection Techniques:
Simple Random Sampling
 Process of selecting sample cases or
subset of a sample cases from a
population
 Example: drawing of lots and table of
random digits
Stratified Random Sampling
 Process of selecting a random sample
from a subgroups or strata into which
population has been subdivided
 Examples: attitude of nurses towards
conventional therapy
 Nurses population: 75
 Sampling frame: list of nurses by type
 Classify: Er nuse, ward nurse, or nurse,
icu nurse
Systematic Sampling
 A method of selecting a sample from a
population by taking the kth units from
an ordered population. Where K is the
sampling interval
 Ex: list and number all the participants
in alphabetical order then divide the
size into desired units. 30/15 = 2
 Take every second name in the list
Cluster Sampling
 Selecting a sample of groups or clusters
of elements
 Example: nursing students each section
is considered as cluster
Non- probability Sampling
 Selection of sampling units
(participants) from a population using
nonrandom procedure
NURSING RESEARCH LEC

1. Convenience or accidental sampling  data collected by observing many

2. Snowball or networking sampling subjects (such as individuals, firms,
3. Judgmental or purposive sampling country or regions) at the same point of
4. Cross-cultural sampling time or without regard to differences in
5. Longitudinal sapling time
6. Cross-sectional sampling
7. Quota sampling

Convenience or accidental Sampling

 Using most conveniently available

people as participants

Snowball or networking sampling

 every sample identifies and refers other

person who meet the inclusion criteria

Judgmental or purposive Sampling

 researcher decide purposely to select

subjects who are judged to be typical of
the population or particularly
knowledgeable about the issues under
study

Quota Sampling

 research identifies population strata

(subpopulation) and determines how
many participants are needed from
each stratum

Longitudinal Sampling

 an observational research method in

which data is gathered for the same
subjects over a period of time

Cross-cultural Sampling (Comparative)

 uses field data from many societies to

examine the scope of human behavior
and test the hypotheses

Cross-sectional Sampling