Educ 312 Prelim Module

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.
National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

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LEARNING MODULE
FOR
EDUC 312: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
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WEEK 1
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EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC. Page 1 of 32
COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE CODE : EDUC 312

TITLE : Facilitating Learner-centered Teaching
TARGET POPULATION: All Education Students
INSTRUCTOR : MR. JUNMARK C. PORAL, LPT
Overview:
This course explores the fundamental principles and practices anchored on learner-centeredness
and other educational psychologies as theses apply to facilitate various teaching-learning delivery
modes to enhance learning.
Objectives:
a. analyze the context, content and perspective of different theories of facilitating learner-centered
teaching;
b. demonstrates understanding of learner-centered psychological principles;
c. apply the different theories related to the learners developmen t; and its implications to teaching;
d. write reflection paper on selected topic related to facilitating learning;
e. give an in-depth explanation of learning theories in facilitating learning;
f. develop awareness on the issues of student’s diversity and multiple intelligences.
The following are the topics to be discussed
Week 1 VISION, MISSION, CORE VALUES, CLASSROOM POLICIES AND

METACOGNITION
Week 2 LEARNER-CENTERED PSCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Week 3 REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS DEVELOPMENT AND

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Week 4 LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES WITH

EXCEPTIONALITIES
Week 5 BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE: BEHAVIORISM AND NEO BEHAVIORISM
Instruction to the Learner
Each chapter in this module contains a major lesson involving the facilitating learner-centered
teaching. The units are characterized by continuity, and are arranged in such a manner that the present
unit is related to the next unit. For this reason, you are advised to read this module. After each unit,
there are exercises to be given. Submission of task given will be every Tuesday during your scheduled
class hour.

WEEK 1
VISION, MISSION, CORE VALUES, CLASSROOM POLICIES AND METACOGNITION
VISION
A premier institution that provides quality education and globally empowered individuals.
MISSION
To produce competent, community-oriented and globally competitive individuals through holistic

education.
Core Values
Service
Excellence
Accountability
Innovation
Teamwork
SEAIT HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The South East Asian Institute of Technology, Inc. located at National Highway, Crossing Rubber,
Tupi, South Cotabato, was founded by Engr. Reynaldo S. Tamayo, Jr. and co-founded by Rochelle P.
Tamayo, his wife, in 2006. Mr. and Mrs. Reynaldo S. Tamayo, Jr. were Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) scholars in Bachelor of Information Technology at Cebu Institute of Technology.
They wish to help the youth in Tupi to earn their college degree so they can become productive citizens
of the country.
Strongly driven by deep commitment to contribute to nation-building by creating a landmark of

social development through education in Tupi, the couple planned to realize this particular dream with
the all-out support of the entire Tamayo family. With the Tamayo family as the couple’s stronghold, they
thought of opening a higher education institution in 2006. However, they decided to open first a
technical-vocational school in the said year.
The school was named SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC. or SEAIT. The
name was anchored in the vision offering quality education to impact not only in the region but also in
the South East Asian countries. At first, the school offered Computer Programming NC -IV and
Computer Hardware Servicing NC II. With respective certificates from the TESDA XII, SEAIT offered
Computer Programming NC-IV and Computer Hardware Servicing NC-I in 2006. After a year, Hotel and
Restaurant Management was added to its program offerings.
The couple manage to upgrade SEAIT in 2008. They added BSIT with very affordable tuition and
other fees per semester. As the year past, SEAIT continue to grow and offered more courses until today.
It also provided assistance and scholarship grants from Tulong-Dunong and CHED to help the youth in
the municipality value affordable and quality education. And in 2016, the Universal Financial Assistance
for Tertiary Education (UNIFAST) became an “amazing come on among higher education institutions,
including SEAIT, in the region.
As an educational institution, SEAIT has existed for 15 years. It has graduated 12 batches in college.
It is known for its Information Technology niche as this is the field of specialization of the founder and
co-founder. It is also known for its Civil Engineering program as this is the field of specialization of the
parents of the founder and the current president.
ACADEMIC POLICIES
A. Academic Rights: Every students has the right to receive competent instruction and relevant
quality education.
B. General Enrolment Procedures: All prospective students with their necessary credentials must
enroll during the prescribed registration period. To facilitate registration, students should read
guidelines posted online via SEAIT official page or on the bulletin board and be guided by the
registration procedures.
C. Class Attendance: Every student is required prompt and regular attendance. Tardiness and
absences are recorded from the first day of classes. There is a corresponding sanction with a
multiple absences or tardiness.
D. Examination and Grading System: There are 3 major examinations administered every
semester, namely Prelim, Midterm, and Final Examination. The registrar determines the
schedule of the major examination. Grading System: 40% Quizzes; 20% Class Standing; 40%
Examination.
E. Graduating with Latin Honors: The office of the Registrar in close coordination with the Office
of the Vice President for Academics shall determine and recommend to the administrator a
student who completes his baccalaureate degree with honors provided with standard
qualifications.
F. Student Fees: Includes the registration and other fees.
G. Scholarship Programs: The school recognizes excellence in academic achievement. This is

manifested in its scholarship programs given to deserving students. Other scholarships funded
by the Government and private benefactors are acknowledged provided that a Memorandum of
Agreement has been duly processed and approved by the School President.
NON-ACADEMIC POLICIES
A. Code of Discipline for Students: The rules and regulations of the institution are intended to
maintain the order necessary for an academic environment and to ensure an atmosphere
conducive to the formation of values for men and women and for others.
B. School Identification Card (SID): SID cards will be issued and validated by the SAO upon
enrolment. Student is required to wear his SID card at all times while he is within the school
premises.
C. Uniforms/Dress Code: The school uniform must be worn with respect and dignity. Only
students wearing the prescribed uniform will be allowed to enter the school premises and the
classroom.
Prescribed haircut for Criminology students: Female- 2/3 (hairnet shall be used to those who don’t
want to cut their hair; Male- 2/0
Classroom Policies
1. Awareness of intended audience
(e.g., classes are meant for students currently enrolled in the course and you must not enter or
share a class meeting with someone.
2. General
(e.g., mute microphones when not speaking, raised hand virtually to ask a question, turn, off
camera if you’re stepping away)
3. Discussion
(e.g., you can disagree with others but should do respectfully and constructively)
4. Privacy
(e.g., students should consult with the instructor to receive permission to)
5. Communicate instances of disruptive behaviors to the proper instructor, faculty member or

escalate the complaint when necessary.

METACOGNITION
What is Metacognition?
The term "metacognition was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell
(1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is thinking
about thinking" or "learning how to learn". It refers to higher order thinking which
involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive
processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes.
Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person
variables, task variables and strategy variables.
Person Variables.
This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers
to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge
of one's own learning processes. For example, you may be aware that you study more effectively if you
study very early 1n the morning than late in the evening, and that you work better in a. quiet library
rather than at home where there are a lot of things that make it hard for you to focus and
Concentrate.
Task Variables.
Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. For example,
you may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational
philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a novel.
Strategy Variables.
Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic
and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may
think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like meta-attention
and meta-memory are related to strategy variables. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific
strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is
your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition. Omrod includes the
following in the practice of metacogniton:
• Knowing the limits of one's own learning and memory capacities
• Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time
• Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
• Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
• Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material
• Monitoring one's own knowledge and comprehension. In other words, knowing when
information has been successfully learned and when it's not
• Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information
• Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure
that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in planning how to do
homework: "I know that I (person variable) have more difficulty with my science assignments
than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable), so I will do my homework in
science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan. (strategy variable). If one is only
aware about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task but does
not use 'this to guide or oversee his/her own learning, then no metacognition has been
applied.
Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following types of questions:
• What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
• Do I know what I need to know?
• Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
• How much time will I need to learn this?
• What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
• Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
• How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
• How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning

Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness was evident in
preschoolers and in students as young as eight years old. Children already have the capacity to be
more aware and reflective of their own learning. However, not many have been taught and encouraged
to apply metacognition.
The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities that would build the
students' capacity to reflect on their own characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the tasks they
are to do (task knowledge) and the strategies that they can use to learn (strategic knowledge).
Remember, metacognition is like any other thing you will teach. Metacognition involves knowledge
and skills which you and your students can learn and master.
Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

(Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely be a rewarding
learning experience for you.)
1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a student monitor a peer's
learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a metacognitive strategy before
listening to a story or presentation.
T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention, and
that he is ready to learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions, or he thinks of questions about what he will soon
learn.
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes aware if he is
momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.
R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.
PQ4R -This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This strategy is used
to study a unit or chapter.
P. -Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for
outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about the important topics and ideas in the
chapter. Read the summary of the chapter first. (But please don't stop at the summary alone. No. No.
No. This is not a good idea at all.
Q-Question. Read the guide questions provided or think of your own questions about the topic.
R- Read. Check out subheadings as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed in bold or
italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker or colored pencil to
highlight important words or phrases. (Do not highlight the whole paragraph!)
R- Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R- Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in order to understand better.

R- Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main points you learned?
How is this relevant or useful to you?
3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have
read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important to have relevant
knowledge structures well learned.)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going on around them
(Have you asked a good question today?)
6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to self-monitor; require students
to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own.)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks.
Novice and Expert Learners

In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the distinctions among learners in the
manner they absorb or process information. They are able to differentiate expert learners from novice
learners. A very important factor that separates these two types of learners mentioned is metacognition.
Expert learners employ metacognitive strategies in learning. They are more aware of their learning
process as they read, study and do problem solving. Expert learners monitor their learning and
consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.
The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an expert learner.
Differences between Novice and Expert Learners
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

Knowledge in different ● Have limited knowledge in the ● Have deeper knowledge-in different
subject areas different subject areas subject area because they look for
interrelationships in the things they learn
Problem solving ● Satisfied at just scratching the ● First try to understand the problem,
surface; hurriedly gives a solution look for boundaries, and create a mental
to the problem picture of the problem
Learning? Thinking ● Employ, rigid strategies that ● Design new strategies that would be
strategies may not be appropriate to the appropriate to the task at hand
task at hand
Selectivity in Processing ● Attempt to process all ● Select important information to
information they receive process, able to breakdown information
to manageable chunks
Production of output ● Do not examine the quality of ● Check their errors and redirect their
their work, nor stop to make efforts to maintain quality output
revisions

ACTIVITY # 1
Discussion Points and Exercise Questions
Direction: Read and understand this module. Provide what is being asked. Write your answer in a
long bond paper (Hand written).
TASKS:
1. Written exercises. (50 points)
Instruction: Research online of teaching strategies that develop metacognition. List down at least 10
metacognitive strategies. Write its definition and state the benefit of using it to make learning more
effective and efficient. Organize your work using a sample table below.
Strategies Definition Benefit to teaching and

learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
End of Week 1
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WEEK 2
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological
Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process.
The 14 principles have the following aspects: They focus on psychological factors that are primarily
internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors.
However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that
interact with these internal factors. The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the
context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational
and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing learners
and learning. Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners - from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
• There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning;
and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
• Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to
construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
• Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
• The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.
• To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must
generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students" short-term goals and learning
may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps,
resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they
can reach longer-term goals.
• Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both
personal and educational aspirations and interests
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
• Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety
of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these
links are made or develop may vary in different ‘subject areas, and among students with varying
talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the
learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this. New knowledge remains isolated, cannot be
used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
• Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies
that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping
and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies
to achieve complex learning goals.
• Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving, and concept learning.
• They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and
performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations:
• They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use
to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by
observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if
educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning
skills.
5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations Facilitate creative
and critical thinking.
• Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress toward these goals.
• In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making
sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their
goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal)
• Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive)
strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
• Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner
and the learning environment
• Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variabl es, such
as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking,
• Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
• The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have
significant impacts on student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn,
in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking.
• The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and information processing.
• Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of
thinking and information processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn.
• Positive emotions. Such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's
attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage,
insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure,
fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere
with learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
• Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners'
intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be
competent and to exercise personal control.
• Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally
relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on
which they believe they can succeed.
• Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and
meet needs for choice and control.
• Educators can encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by
attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
• Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with
persistence over time.
• Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner
effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding.
• Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance
positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners’
perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
• Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented
in an enjoyable and interesting way.
• Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
• Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness such as reading readiness, for example-
may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of
performance.
• The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and how they interpret
life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors
• Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions
and two-way communications between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas.
• Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and without
emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning
contexts.
11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.
• Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks.
• Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible
thinking and social competence.
• In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for
perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and
moral development, as well as self-esteem.

• Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners'
sense of belonging, self-respect and Self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
• Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can
offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in
a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue
pressure to perform well.
• Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking,
feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate
in the learning process, and create a learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
• Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
• In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences
for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not
always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
• Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them,
if necessary.
• The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is
another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
• Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to
learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by
varying instructional methods and materials.
13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
• The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning.
Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
• When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and
experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts,
levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment- are integral
parts of the learning process.
• Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.
• Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately high
goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as
current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal
degree of difficulty.
• Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular material can provide
valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals.
• Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of
information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various
types of programmatic decisions.
• Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcomes.
• Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students’ self-appraisal skills and
enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One's existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The
learner's previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new
information, makes associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts
and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to
learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person because
each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Leaning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.
ACTIVITY # 2
long bond paper (Handwritten).
TASKS:
1. Infographic: (60 points).
Instruction: Cite important concepts of the 14 learner centered psychological principles using an
advance organizer. Give a brief explanation on how these principles aid towards success of the
teaching and learning process.
Rubric for Infographic
Criteria Mastering Developing Beginning

Topic The topic of the infographic The topic of the The topic of the infographic
is specified in nature and is infographic may be a bit is hard to ascertain and
intended to inform or too broad to allow the needs to be made more
convince the viewer. viewer to understand the specific
main points.
Objects The objects included in the Some objects included in Too many different types of
infographic are repeated to the infographic are objects are used in the
support various data points repeated but the infographic and that’s make
and to make it easier for the infographic did not seem it hard for the viewer to
viewer to understand the to include enough understand the content
infographic repeated elements to
make it understandable
Data The data visualization The data visualization Other data visualization
Visualizations formats chosen make the formats chosen formats should be chosen to
data presented easy for the showcase the data, but best showcase the data
viewer to understand the some may make it presentation for the viewer.
information difficult for the viewer to
understand the points
End of Week 2
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WEEK 3
THEORIES RELATED TO LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT, INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Review of Theories Related to Learner’s Development

The ideas of the theorists, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner remain to be
foundational in the teacher's understanding of the learners’ development. Let us recall1 highlights of
their theories.
Freud said, ""The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk
above water." This is of course the very famous' analogy that Freud referred to
when he explained the subconscious mind. He believed that much of what the
person is really about is not what we see in the outside and what is conscious,
but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind As teachers, it is important that
we remember not be too quick in making conclusions about our students'
intentions for their actions. Always consider that there are many factors that may
influence one's behavior.
Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one's personality,
the id, ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego, reality-
centered and the superego, which is related to the ego ideal or conscience. Freud believed that an
individual goes through five psychosexual stages of development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic,
latency and genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in
fixations.
Erikson said, "Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough
not to fear death." He believed in the impact of the significant others in the
development of one's view of himself, life and of the world. He presented a very
comprehensive framework of eight psycho-social stages of development. It is
Erikson who described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a person
goes through; the maladaptations and malignancies that result from failure to
effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance and
resolution of the crisis is attained.
Piaget said, "The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men
and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other
generations have done." Piaget's theory centered on the stages of cognitive
development. He described four stages of cognitive development, namely the
sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete-operational and formal operational
stages. Each has characteristic ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how
one's cognitive abilities develop.
Kohlberg said, "Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual

rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the
whole society." Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development (pre-
conventional, conventional and post-conventional) which are further
subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg believed that one's
cognitive development influenced the development of one's moral reasoning.
Vygotsky said, "The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development
in the child but on tomorrow's." Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction
in learning and development. Scaffolding is the systematic manner of providing
assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill. He
believed that guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a
learner to a higher level of performance than if he were alone. This higher level of
performance then eventually becomes the learner's actual performance when he
works independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal development
(ZPD) illustrates this.
Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the Bioecological Systems Theory

presents child development within the context of relationship systems that
comprise the child's environment. The model is composed of microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. Each layer is
further made up of different structures. The term "bioecological" points out that a
child's own biological make-up impacts on his/her development. The child's growing and developing
body and the interplay between his/her immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuel and steer his/her development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple
throughout other layers. To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and
his/her immediate environment, but also at the larger environment with which the child interacts.
STUDENT DIVERSITY
Individual Differences
You’ve probably heard someone say,
"Everyone is unique." Though it sounds really
like a cliché, one cannot ignore the truth in it. As
a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to
consider the individual differences among the
students in planning for effective instruction.
Factors that Bring about Student Diversity

In all learning environments, individuals
interact with others who are in some ways
different from them. Recall how these
differences were shown in your class tally-gender and racial, ethnic or cultural background (nationality,
province, language). This diversity also comes from other factors like the following:
1.Socioeconomic status - The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle income or
lower income group.
2. Thinking! learning style -Some of you learn better by seeing Something others by just
listening; and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities - In class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language
comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

A teacher may be "challenged" to handle a class with students so diverse. There may be students
having different cultural background, different language abilities, different attitudes and aptitudes and
behaviors. Some teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a more
reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn not just for her students,
but for herself, as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity! Read on to
discover the benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to your classroom.
1. Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with diverse

backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of themselves.
When they see how others are different, students are given reference points or comparative
perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The opportunity to gain access to the
perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially
important for promoting the cognitive development of learners. Supreme Court Justice, William J.
Brennan said: "The classroom is peculiarly the 'marketplace of ideas. The depth and breadth of student
learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the
classroom brings about different points of view and varied approaches to the learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: "The more affects we allow to speak
about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more complete will
our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society.
Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that
capitalize on diversity: "The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and to
appreciate all aspects of diversity". Furthermore, she argues: "The classroom can provide more than
just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a public
place' where community can be practiced.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the classroom
teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations.
Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and
collaborate with one another on learning tasks that emphasize-unity of effort while capitalizing on their
diversity of backgrounds.
Some. Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to' share their personal history and experiences. Students will be made to
realize that they have something in common with the rest. They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students multicultural and cross-
cultural awareness.
▪ You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are aimed at promoting
diversity awareness. These activities could be held to coincide with already-scheduled national
weeks or months which are designated for appreciation of diverse groups: Disability Awareness
Week, Linggo ng Wika, Indigenous People's Week, etc.
▪ Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse backgrounds (foreign
students or students from other ethnic/racial groups). These students of different racial and
ethnic origin serve as source of first-hand information on topics related to their culture. This can
also provide opportunity for interaction among students who may otherwise never come in
contact with each other
▪ Invite students to Internet discussion groups or -mail; have students "visit" foreign countries and
"talk" to natives of those countries.
▪ Ask students if they have ever been the personal target or prejudice or discrimination and have
them share these experiences with other members of the class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences.
Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent lifetime studying human diversity across
different cultures, concluded from his extensive research that, "Every human is, at the same time, like
all other humans, like some humans, and like no other human (Cited in Wong, 1991). His observation
suggests a paradox in the human experience, namely: We are all the same in different ways.
It may be important to point out to students the biological reality that we, human beings, share
approximately 95% of our genes in common, and that less than 5% of our genes account for the
physical differences that exist among us. When focusing on human differences, these commonalities
should not be overlooked; otherwise, our repeated attempts to promote student diversity may
inadvertently promote, student divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk, and promote unity along
with diversity, is to stress the universality" of the learning experience by raising students' consciousness
of common themes that bind all groups of people-in addition to highlighting the variations on those
themes.
▪ Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on the basis of shared demographic

characteristics (e.g., same-gender groups or same-race/ethnicity groups), and have them share
their personal views or experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised
of representatives from each group who will report their group's ideas. You can serve as
moderator and identity the key differences and recurrent themes that emerge across different
groups, or students who are not on the panel can be assigned this task.
▪ Try to form groups of students who are different with respect to one demographic characteristic
but similar with respect to another (e.g. similar gender but different with respect to race/ ethnicity
or similar in age but different gender). This practice can serve to increase student awareness
that humans who are members of different groups can, at the same time, be members of the
same group and share similar experiences, needs or concerns.
▪ After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g. learning style inventories or
personality profiles), have them line up or move to a corner of the room according to their
individual scores or overall profile. This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how
members of different student populations can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles
or personality profiles, i.e., students can see how individual similarities can often overshadow
group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
▪ Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse groups by using effective
questioning techniques that reliably elicit student involvement. In addition to consciously calling
on them in class, other strategies for "drawing in" and involving students include: (a) assigning
them the role of reporter in small-group discussions, i.e., the one who reports back them group's
ideas to the class, and (6) having them engaged in paired discussions with another classmate
with the stipulation that each partner must take turns assuming the role of both listener and
speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them outside the classroom.
▪ Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that you may have difficulty
pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early personal rapport with them which can later
serve as a social/emotional foundation or springboard for encouraging them to participate.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.

▪ Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and present information
(e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial representations, or "hands on" experiences).
▪ Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class

❖ Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussions, small group work) and
teacher-centered (e.g., lectures, demonstrations).
❖ Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-and-error discovery learning) and structured
(e.g., step-by-step instructions).
❖ Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g., independently completed
projects, individual presentations) and interdependent learning (e.g., collaborative
learning in pairs or small groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that
are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are relevant to their varied
backgrounds include the following:
▪ Have students complete personal information cards during the first week of class and use this
information to select examples or illustrations that are relevant to their personal interests and life
experiences
▪ Use ideas, comments and questions that students raise in class, or which they choose to write
about to help you think of examples and illustrations to use.
▪ Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts based on experiences drawn from their
personal lives.
▪ Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is relevant to their
lives (e.g., "How would you show respect to all persons in your home?").
7. Adapt to the students' diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal
choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will
learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning tasks: (a) promotes
positive student attitudes toward the subject matter, (b) fosters more positive interactions among
students, and (c) results in students working more consistently with lesser teacher intervention. Also,
when individuals are allowed to exert some control over a task, they tend to experience less anxiety or
stress while performing that task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.

You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with your teaching, but
also by varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning. In addition to the traditional paper-
and-pencil tests and written assignments, students can demonstrate their learning in a variety of
performance formats, such as: (a) individually-delivered oral reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group
projects, (d) visual presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations, Power Point presentations,
collages, exhibits), or (d) dramatic vignettes- presented live or on videotape. One potential benefit of
allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their learning is that the variety of options exercised
may be a powerful way to promote student awareness of the diversity of human learning styles. You
will have more of assessment in your courses on Assessment of Learning.

9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can
form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student progress to a more advanced
stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may promote this cognitive advancement
because: (a) the instructor is removed from center stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that the
teacher is perceived as the ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students are exposed to the
perspectives of other students, thus increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and different
approaches to learning.
ACTIVITY # 3
Discussion Points and Poster Making
TASKS:
1. Written exercises. (30 points)
Instruction: Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be applied in
teaching and learning.
Theory/Concept Application
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2. Poster Making. (40 points)

Instruction: Think of a slogan that celebrates diversity in the classroom and make a poster it.
Rubric for Evaluating Poster Slogan
Criteria Very Good Good Fair Poor

Required The poster All required elements All required elements All required elements
Elements includes all are included on the are included on the are included on the
required poster. Only few poster. Only few poster. Only few
elements as well required elements are required elements are required elements are
as additional missing on the poster. missing on the poster. missing on the poster.
information. Several required Several required Several required
elements are missing elements are missing elements are missing
on the poster. on the poster. on the poster
Attractiveness The poster is The poster is The poster is The poster is
exceptionally attractive in terms of acceptably attractive distractingly messy or
attractive in design, layout and though it may be a bit very poorly designed.
terms of design, neatness. messy.
layout, and
neatness
Slogan The slogan has The slogan has the The slogan does not The slogan does not
the required required number of follow the required follow the required
number of words. words. It is original number of words. number of words. It is
It is original and but not catchy. However, it is catchy not original and catchy.
catchy. but not original.
Graphic All graphics are All graphics are All graphics relate to Graphics do not relate
Relevance related to the related to the topic the topic. to the topic.
topic and make it and most make it
easier to easier to understand.
understand.
End of Week 3
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WEEK 4
LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES
Learning/Thinking Styles
Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They
describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are
usually considered to be bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking style would
lie at a point in a continuum. Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to
behave in a certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality dimension which influences
your attitudes, values and social interaction.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory
preferences and the global-analytic continuum.
Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and
maintain a dominance in one of the following types:
Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher's actions and facial expressions to fully
understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view.
They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated text books,
overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussion,
visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.
Richard further breaks down visual learners into:
Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are interested in visual imagery such as film,
graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have good "picture
memory," a.k.a. iconic imagery and attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map
better than to read a book.
Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formulae or the written word. They would prefer to read a book than a map
and would like to read about things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract
thinkers who do not require practical means for learning.
Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and
listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech
through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little
meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.
They can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken word easily into the written word, and are not
easily distracted in their listening ability.
Auditory learners also fall into two categories:

The "Listeners". This is the more common type. Listeners most likely do well in school. Out of
school too, they remember things said to them and make the information their own. They may even
carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their
heads what they heard others say.
The "Talkers. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves talking
to those around them. In a class setting when the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal
processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and
may not even realize that they need to talk.
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a hands-on approach,

actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They
may not benefit so much from the discussion or the written materials, and may become distracted by
their need for activity and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward active,
sensorimotor learning. They tend to prefer "learning by doing," preferring the use of psychomotor skills
to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination.

Global-Analytic Continuum
Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step processes of learning. They tend to
see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the "tree seers." They are
more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.
Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather
than particle elements. They are the "forest seers who give attention only to the overall
structure and sometimes ignore details.
Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain continuum. In
accord with Roger Sperry's model, the left-brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear
(analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the right-brained person is one who is viewed as global,
non-linear and holistic in thought preferences.
Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies in an individual, one side may
be more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in approach while the right is
described as holistic or global. A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step
sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A
simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then going
on to specifics. See the comparison on next page:
LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people's names 7. Recalls people's faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying
Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first
described by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind
(1983). Gardner defines intelligence as "an ability or
set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem
or fashion a product that is valued in one or more
cultures". Gardner believes that different intelligences
may be independent abilities -a person can be low in
one domain area but high in another. All of us
possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of
strength.
His most current research indicates that there are

nine distinct forms of intelligences. In order to
facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use
strategies that match these kinds of intelligences. The
nine kinds are:
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) - learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to "see things in one's mind in
planning to create a product or solve a problem.
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) learning through the spoken and written word. This intelligence
is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence and
achievement.
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) – learning through reasoning and problem
solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are asked to adapt to
logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) learning through interaction with environment. This intelligence
is the domain of overly active" learners. It promotes understanding through concrete experience.
(Music Smart)- Learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only auditory
learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses.
Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a decidedly
affective component of learning through which students place value on what they learn and take
ownership for their learning.
Interpersonal (People Smart) - learning through interaction with others. Not the domain of
children who are simply "talkative" or overly social." This intelligence promotes collaboration and
working cooperatively with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart) learning through classification, categories and hierarchies. The
naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply the study of nature;
it can be used in all areas of study.
Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by seeing the "big picture": "Why are we here?" "What is my
role, in the world?"" **What is my place in my family, school and community?" This intelligence
seeks connections to real world understanding and application of new learning.
It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/learning style and multiple
intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively. While researches on these
typologies continue, it is clear that the teachers can no longer just teach the text book. It is a
sensible practice to teach each child according to his/her thinking/learning styles and multiple
intelligence.
Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews, advance
organizers, etc., so that students' past experiences will be associated with the new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the right-and
left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. (Write directions on the
board and give them orally.)
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing summaries,
creating opinion surveys, etc.).
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (The example you've provided is an
excellent one to point to the concept of ..."). (From Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should know
about teaching and learning styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation).
Learners with Exceptionalities

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is the presence
of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as persons who are different in
some way from the normal" or "average". The term "exceptional 1learners" includes those with special
needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments,
emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners require a lot of understanding and
patience as well as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential of
development.

Disability
A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that "interferes with a person's ability, for
example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition".
(Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word disability has become the more accepted term, having
replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional
learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the, word "disabled" in
paragraph (5) "Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with training...
Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability. A handicap is a
disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the
extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his
environment. Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two
persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example,
they both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot.
The first individual would not have as much handicap as the second one. Another example, two persons
who move around on a wheel chair, the one studying in a school campus with wheelchair accessibility
in all areas would be less handicapped than one in a school without wheel chair accessibility.
Categories of Exceptionalities
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special education
practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For this short introduction of categories, we are
basing it on the categories found in Omrod's Educational Psychology (2000).
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language,
memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or
behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia
(reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention
and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
Speech and Communication Disorders.

There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds.
Correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper
classroom performance.
Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism usually have an
intense need for routine and a predictable environment.
Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub- average intelligence and deficits
in adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting
themselves appropriately in social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like depression
and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning and
performance in school.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-
term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental
alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control.

Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different types of
disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make
specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.
Sensory Impairments
Visual lmpairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders
perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.
Giftedness
Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is unusually
high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic
subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.
People-First Language
What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply this language trend involves putting
the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-
first language tells us what conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
This is similar to saying "person with AIDS, rather than "AIDS victim". Other suggestions for referring
to those with disabilities include:
▪ avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the mentally retarded);
▪ emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to confined to
a wheelchair);
▪ avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as condescending

and avoid the real issues that result from a disability; and
▪ avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has multiple
sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to have a more
respectful and accepting attitude toward a learners with exceptionalities. The presence of impairments
requires them to exert more effort to do things that others like us find quite easy to do. They are learners
who may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of compassion (not of pity nor
ridicule), will make you a more effective teacher, one with the hand and the heart who can facilitate
their learning and adjustment.

ACTIVITY # 4
Tasks:
1. Learning Activity Plan. (30 points)
Instruction: Choose a topic from your field of specialization. Think of at least ten learning activities
relevant to the topic you picked. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences that
each learning activity can address. Remember, a learning activity my address both thinking/learning
style and multiple intelligence. Refer to the template below.
Topic Learning activity Learning Style/multiple Intelligences

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2. Infographic. (30 points)

Instruction: By means of an infographic present the basic categories of exceptional learners and
describe each category briefly.
Rubric for Infographic.

Criteria Mastering Developing Beginning
Topic The topic of the infographic The topic of the The topic of the infographic
is specified in nature and is infographic may be a bit is hard to ascertain and
intended to inform or too broad to allow the needs to be made more
convince the viewer. viewer to understand the specific
main points.
Objects The objects included in the Some objects included in Too many different types of
infographic are repeated to the infographic are objects are used in the
support various data points repeated but the infographic and that’s make
and to make it easier for the infographic did not seem it hard for the viewer to
viewer to understand the to include enough understand the content
infographic repeated elements to
make it understandable
Data The data visualization The data visualization Other data visualization
Visualizations formats chosen make the formats chosen formats should be chosen to
data presented easy for the showcase the data, but best showcase the data
viewer to understand the some may make it presentation for the viewer.
information difficult for the viewer to
understand the points
End of Week 4
---------------------------------------Nothing Follows-------------------------------------

WEEK 5
BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE: BEHAVIORISM AND NEO BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most renowned experiment involved
meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog's salivation in order
to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.
Pavlov's Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus)

caused no response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of
the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few
seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned
stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning. See
illustration below:
Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response
to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but
will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell
is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.
Edward L. Thorndike
Edward Thorndike's Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework

of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book
entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He
explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and
responses (R). Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike's theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:
Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus
and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this
"law" when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and
that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. "Practice makes perfect" seem to be associated with this. However. Like
the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when. Thorndike found that practice
without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus,
the stronger will be the bond between them when a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not
made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, "Okay we will
now watch the movie (stimulus) you've been waiting for." And suddenly the power goes off. The students
will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing
so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to a stimuli and is asked to respond, that also
becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the
teacher asks the question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This
will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say the question first, and
wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.
Principles Derived from Thorndike's Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
(law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
John Watson
John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov's ideas.
He too was initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in
human behavior research.
He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional
reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-
response associations through conditioning. He believed in the power of
conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he
can make them into anything you want them to be, basically through making
stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert,
a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a
sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise,
he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child's response was generalized to
other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then extinguished" or made the
child "unlearn" fear by showing the rat without the loud noise, Surely, Watson's research methods would
be questioned today; nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development
of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and
prejudices that people develop.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner
believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory
zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood
of any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two,
is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote,
science and Human Behavior (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles
of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law,
religion, economics and education.
Skinner's work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he
studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory
came to be known as Operant Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior.
Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a
math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded),
the individual is conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example
of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children who
behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cell phone for her son
who gets good grades. Still, other examples include verbal praises, star, stamps and stickers.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when
it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward. For
instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two
grading periods will no longer take the final examination. The negative reinforcer is "removing" the
final exam, which we realize is a form of reward for working hard and getting an average grade
of 1.5.
A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence

intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is
not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment) and, therefore, loses points
for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class
late.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are
not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student's misbehavior may extinguish that
behavior.
Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a
lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior
are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To
begin shaping, the animal may rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for
moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal
would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a
child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire
process of tying the shoelace is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,

reinforcement does not have to be 100%, in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through
Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include
interval schedules and ratio schedules.

Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10
minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that
must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different
intervals, not every ten minutes
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement
may recur, Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after t presses the bar 3 times,
then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it
needs to press the bar before it gets food again.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more
persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will
come although they know that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people
continue to buy lotto tickets even when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win.
While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot
(reinforcement). People cannot predict when the jackpot can be gotten (variable interval) so they
continue to buy tickets (repetition of response).
Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) answer response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles Derived from Skinner's Operant Conditioning:

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping'").
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (stimulus generalization") producing secondary
conditioning.
Neo Behaviorism: Edward Tolman and Behaviorism

With new researches, explanations provided by the basic principles of
behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories
came into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but
excluded others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with
the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional
group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of
learning.
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning
Theory and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Tolman's theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists and those
of John Watson, the behaviorist.
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and
obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and
goal-directed behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning
is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of 1earning: "The stimuli
which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses.
Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into
a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and
paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will
finally make."
Tolman's form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than stimulus-
response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful
stimulus (the significate) through a series of pairings; there is no need for reinforcement in order to
establish a learning.
Tolman's Key Concepts

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive
and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose.
He believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random
starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had
the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their
starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the
other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific
sequence of turns. This is tendency to "learn location" signified that rats somehow formed cognitive
maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that organisms will select the
shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to school every day,
he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when transportation re-routing is done, he
can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest way.
Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until
needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even
without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently "learned
the maze" by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only
when they needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the TV remote control and
observes how the TV is turned on or how channel is changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime,
the parents are surprised that on the first time that their daughter holds the remote control, she already
knows which buttons to press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills
beforehand, even though she has never done them before.
The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen
but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by
expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables.
Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential
for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat
was able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in the
absence of reinforcement.
Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old
boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam's execution on TV and then must have
imitated it. Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent
of this theory.

General principles of social learning theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be
represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that
because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown
in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has become
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future
reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.
How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling
People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to fit in
with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by
that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of
someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and
compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia
class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the
same extra work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's behavior vicariously. This is
known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then
the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having
students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the
model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also
hit the dol.
Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects
on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior
that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning.

Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and attention is influenced by the expectation of
reinforcement. An example would be, when the teacher tells a group of students that what they will
study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know
the information for a test.
Cognitive factors in social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually operant
factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through
observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman's latent
learning.

2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical
factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the

consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring
reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be aware, however, of the
response reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only
when the learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and
the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment
can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person
demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or
action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.
Behaviors that can be learned through modeling

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited
are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of mathematics
problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models.
Research indicates that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent
models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes
moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model
the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention- The person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed.
One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model
has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which
could be a, problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For
example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation. The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learners must
want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary
among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior differently.
Effects of modeling on behavior:

1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors, For example student might see a friend
excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for basketball.
Educational implications of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors
and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and
consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using
shaping, which is operant conditioning modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for
teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four
essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must' model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.
ACTIVITY # 5
Direction: Read and understand this module. Provide what is being asked. Write your answer in a long
bond paper (Hand written) and attached to the last page of this module.
TASKS:
1. Written Exercises (60 points)
A. Instruction: Choose a topic you want to teach. Think of ways you can apply the three primary laws
while you teach the topic. Use the table provided below:
Primary Law How I would apply the Primary Law

Law of Readiness
Law of Effect. (Indicate specifically how you will

use positive/negative reinforcements, rewards)
Law of Exercise
B. Instruction: State a personal message derived from the key concepts of Tolman’s purposive
behaviorism. Use the table provided below:
Key Concept of Tolman’s Theory on Personal Message

Purposive Behaviorism
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
C. Instruction: Choose 3 key concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory then state how you apply
the concept as you teach. Use the table provided for this purpose.
Key Concept of Albert Bandura How I apply it in my teaching

1.
2.
3.
End of Week 5
--------------------------------------Nothing Follows--------------------------------------


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SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

COURSE CODE : EDUC 312

The following are the topics to be discussed

Week 1 VISION, MISSION, CORE VALUES, CLASSROOM POLICIES AND

Week 2 LEARNER-CENTERED PSCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Week 3 REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS DEVELOPMENT AND

Week 4 LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES WITH

Week 5 BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE: BEHAVIORISM AND NEO BEHAVIORISM

Instruction to the Learner

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

To produce competent, community-oriented and globally competitive individuals through holistic

SEAIT HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Strongly driven by deep commitment to contribute to nation-building by creating a landmark of

G. Scholarship Programs: The school recognizes excellence in academic achievement. This is

5. Communicate instances of disruptive behaviors to the proper instructor, faculty member or

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

2. Teach students study or learning strategies.

R- Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Novice and Expert Learners

Differences between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Strategies Definition Benefit to teaching and

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

2. Goals of the learning process

5. Thinking about thinking

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

11. Social influences on learning

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

13. Learning and diversity

14. Standards and assessment

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Rubric for Infographic

Criteria Mastering Developing Beginning

EDUC 312: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Review of Theories Related to Learner’s Development

Kohlberg said, "Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual

Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the Bioecological Systems Theory

Factors that Bring about Student Diversity

How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment