_ujâr`a

OWT_A MG ^GMTG@TA
BWCB 2
OAHLGO@JGH]A_ IGTB@_

@htramuéïa
Gqu`pbjghta mg ^ratgéïa @hm`v`mubc
Gqu`pbjghta mg ^ratgéïa Oacgt`vb
_giurbhéb oaj bs Gsobmbs
Igajgtr`b Dâs`ob
Cg`turb g @htgrprgtbéïa mg ^rafgtas
_`stgjb Jàtr`oa Mgo`jbc
 Ârgb,, ^gr
 Ârgb ^grêjgt
êjgtra
ra g Uacujg
Jbtgr`bc pbrb Oahstruéïa
Ugfb sg Bprghmgu

@hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra

Bmj`h`strbéïa M`rgtarb Igrbc
Cu`z Egrhbhma M`h`z Hbsa @rghg Tamr`iugs
Tamr`iug s mg Ac`vg`rb ]g`xg`rb
]g`xg`rb T`dg`ra
Fasà Obrcas M`h`z Hbsa
@hæs M`h`z Hbsa
Oaarmghbéïa M`mât`ob
Igrghtg Igrbc Ybcmaj`ra Tgool`
Jamgsta ^bhtbcàb
Eatairbe`b
M`rgéïa mg Brtg Tadgrta Obrcas Bcvgs
Obrcas Gmubrma ^. Hbsa
Butar 
Bss`stghtg Furêm`ob
Ybcmaj`ra Tgool`
Tbebgcb Hbsa

^ramuéïa Gm`tarbéïa
Jbroas ^rbma mg Obrvbcla @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra

@jbighs @jprgssïa
 Bcgxbhmrg Jars`ccb
@WDTB -
@WDTB  - @hmöstr`b Irâe`ob g Gm`tarb Ctmb.
Tgv`sïa Tamav`b Gstbmubc Da`tuvb - @pgrÿ, kj 2,2
Tasgc` Bhbstâo`a _`cvb Objpas mg Da`tuvb - Da`tuvb - _^
Jbro`b Jarg`rb mg Obrvbcla OG^ 2<77>->>>
]amas as m`rg`tas sïa rgsgrvbmas. Hïa à pgrj`t`mb b rgpramuéïa tatbc au pbro`bc mgstg oursa.
 BWCB 2 jgsja g pbrb as bfumbhtgs g bux`c`brgs qug
OAHLGO@JGH]A_ IGTB@_ gcg oahtrbtbr
oahtrbtbr..
As `hstrujghtas qug oajp÷gj a G^@ hb
oahstruéïa o`v`c sïa gstgs6 obpbogtg, ÿoucas,
@htramuéïa pratgtargs bur`oucbrgs, jâsobrb pbrb pratgéïa
oahtrb pÿ g pramutas quêj`oas, cuvbs mg oaura
A tgrja oahstruéïa o`v`c ghicadb mgsmg g datbs au dat`hbs.
b obsb papucbr bas oahfuhtas rgs`mgho`b`s mg
cuxa, irbhmgs gm`eêo`as rgs`mgho`b`s, oajgr- Obpbogtg mg sgiurbhéb
o`b`s g `hmustr`b`s, oaj pbrt`o`pbéïa mg ghig-
hlg`ras, brqu`tgtas, tàoh`oas g jïa mg adrb Gj qubcqugr bt`v`mbmg mghtra mg ujb
gspgo`bc`zbmb. adrb, à adr`ibtÿr`a a usa mg obpbogtgs mg sg-
A pgmrg`ra à uj prae`ss`ahbc qug trbdb- (e`iurb 2).
iurbhéb (e`iurb 2).
clb hb ârgb mg oahstruéïa o`v`c gxgoutbhma bs
gtbpbs mg euhmbé÷gs, cgvbhtbjghta mg pbrg-
mgs, rgvgst`jghta mg p`sas g pbrgmgs g bob-
dbjg
db jght
htas
as.. Gs
Gssgsg prprae
ae`s
`ss`
s`ah
ahbc
bc mg
mgvg
vg tgtgr 
r 
oahlgo`jghta sadrg cg`turb g `htgrprgtbéïa mg
pcbhtbs g oartgs mg prafgtas brqu`tgtýh`oas,
dgj oaja bciujbs gspgo`e`obé÷gs, s`stgjbs
mg jgm`mbs, oâcouca mg ârgbs g vacujgs qug
clg pgrj`tgj vgr`e`obr a oahsuja g gjprgia
mg jbtgr`b`s, egrrbjghtbs g gqu`pbjghtas
tàoh`oas hb prgpbrbéïa mg bribjbssbs. ]uma
`ssa sïa oahlgo`jghtas gssgho`b`s pbrb ear-
jbéïa mg uj daj pgmrg`ra.
À ju`ta `jpartbhtg qug a bcuha sb`db
qug, pbrb gxgrogr b prae`ssïa, mgvg rgspg`tbr 
bs harjbs mg sgiurbhéb mgtgrj`hbmbs pgca
E`iurb 2 ‟ Obpbogtg
‟ Obpbogtg mg sgiurbhéb
sgiurbhéb..
J`h`stàr`a ma ]rbdbcla g Gjprgia, ut`c`zbhma,
mg boarma oaj b bt`v`mbmg hb adrb, a Gqu`pb-
jghta mg ^ratgéïa @hm`v`mubc (G^@) g a Gqu`- As obpbog
obpbogtgs tgs sïa m`v`m
m`v`m`mas
`mas gj ocbss
ocbssg gBg
pbjghta mg ^ratgéïa Oacgt`vb (G^O). ocbssg
ocbs sg D. As mb ocbssg B sïa pbrb pbrb usa igrbc,
igrbc, gx-
ogta
og ta pb
pbrb
rb tr
trbd
bdbc
bclalass oa
oaj
j gh
ghgr
gri`
i`b
b gc
gcàt
àtr`
r`ob
ob;; fâ as mb
Gqu`pbjghta mg ocbssg D tbjdàj sïa pbrb usa igrbc, `hocus`vg
^ratgéïa @hm`v`mubc pbrb
pb rb tr
trbd
bdbc
bcla
lass oaoajj gh
ghgr
gri`
i`b
b gc
gcàt
àtr`
r`ob
ob.. A ob
obsosoa,
a, mg
uj ja
jama ma ig
igrb
rbc,c, à eb
ebdr
dr`o
`obm
bmaa oa
oajj jb
jbtàtàr`
r`b-
b-pr
pr`j
`jbbî
Rubhma a pgmrg`ra à bmj`t`ma pbrb trb- dbsg mg pac`gt`cgha mg bctb mghs`mbmg.
dbclbr gj ujb adrb oaja euho`ahâr`a, gcg
rgogdgrâ ma gjprgibmar as `hstrujghtas
adr`ibtÿr`as ma G^@. Fâ a pgmrg`ra butýhaja As obpbogtgs mg bdb erahtbc, t`pa dahà
(qug trbdbclb par oahtb prÿpr`b) mgvgrâ m`s- mg fÿqug`, au mg bdb tatbc pamgj sgr tbhta
par mg `hstrujghtas mg sgiurbhéb pbrb s` ocbssg B oaja D.

Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 ? @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra

 ]ïa `jpartbhtg oaja a obsoa, b suspgh- ( e`iurb =).
^amgj sgr mg gspujb au s`c`oahg (e`iurb =).
sïa à eg`tb par olbrhg`rb g o`htas ebdr`obmas mg
tgo`ma, hïa mg pcâst`oa rêi`ma. Gssb suspghsïa
à b rgspahsâvg
rgspahsâvgcc pgca bjartgo`jgh
bjartgo`jghta,ta, gj obsa
( e`iurb 4).
mg pbhobmbs (e`iurb 4).

E`iurb = ‟ ^ratgtargs
‟  ^ratgtargs bur`oucbrg
bur`oucbrgs.
s.

Jâsobrb mgsobrtâvgc mg pratgéïa

E`iurb 4 ‟ _uspghsïa
‟ _uspghsïa hb pbrtg `htgrhb ma obpbogtg.
Gssb jâsobrb pratgig a pgmrg`ra oahtrb
ßoucas mg pratgéïa pag`rbs ar`uhmbs mb rbspbigj au c`xbjghta mg
supgreêo`gs. ^ar sgr mgsobrtâvgc, mgvg sgr tra-
Gssgs ÿoucas sïa as rgoajghmbmas pbrb obmb qubhma gst`vgr ghtup`mb mg sufg`rb, pgr-
pratgéïa mas aclas, gspgo`e`obmas mg boarma eurbmb, rbsibmb au oaj olg`ra au iasta mg
oaj a r`soa oaja pag`rb, jbh`pucbéïa mg pra- oahtbj`hbhtgss (e`iurb 7).
oahtbj`hbhtg 7).
muta
mutass qu
quêj
êj`o
`oas
as g mg jb
jbtg tgr`
r`b`
b`ss sÿ
sÿc`m
c`mas
as pgpgre
reur
urbh
bh--
tgs, rbm`béïa gj sgrv`éas mg sacmb g oartg b
qugh
qughtgtg oa
oaj
j jb
jbéb
ébr`
r`oa
oa,, eg
egrr
rrbi
bigh
ghss gt o. ( e`
gto. e`iu
iurb
rb ?).

E`iurb 7 ‟ Jâsobrb
‟  Jâsobrb mgsobrtâvgc mg pratgéïa.

E`iurb ? ‟ ßoucas
‟ ßoucas mg pratgéïa.
Cuvbs mg pratgéïa
^ratgtargs bur`oucbrgs
 Bs cuvbs mg pratgéïa à a `hstrujghta
Gcgs pratgigj as auv`mas oahtrb ruêmas oaj jb`ar m`vgrs`mbmg mg gspgo`e`obé÷gs. Hb
bo`jb mas c`j`tgs tacgrâvg`s, qug à mg <7 mD oahstruéïa o`v`c, bs jb`s usbmbs sïa bs mg
(mgo
(mgo`d
`dà`
à`s)
s) pb
pbrb
rb a`
a`ta
ta la
larb
rbss mg gx
gxpa
pas`
s`éï
éïa.
a. (e`iurb 5)
câtgx au ^UO (e`iurb 5) g mg rbspb mg oaura.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 = @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 irbhmgs gm`eêo`as, bs harjbs mg sgiurbhéb
adr`ibj a pgmrg`ra b usbr o`hta mg sgiu-
rbhéb c`ibma (btbma) b uj obda mg sgiu-
rbh
rbhéb pbrb tr trbd
bdb
bcl
cla
as rg
rgbc
bc`z
`zb
bmas gj
bhmb`jgs jgoäh`oas suspghsas b ujb bc-
( e`iurb <).
turb mg 4,>> j (e`iurb <).

E`iurb 5 ‟ Cuvbs
‟ Cuvbs mg pratgéïa mg ^UO.

 Bs cuvbs mg câtgx au ^UO pratgigj oah-

trb egr`jghtas g oahtbta oaj a o`jghta g pra-
mutas quêj`oas; fâ bs mg rbspb mg oaura,
oahtrb jbtgr`bc oarras`va g qug passb prava-
obr oartgs oaja cbsobs mg jbmg`rb, dbrrbs mg
egrra gto. À `jpartbhtg qug bs cuvbs sgfbj ma
tbjbhla `mgbc pbrb ibrbht`r sgiurbhéb.

_bpbtas mg sgiurbhéb
E`iurb < ‟ ^gmrg`ra
‟ ^gmrg`ra oaj o`hta mg sgiurbhéb trbdbclbhma
trbdbclbhma gj
 Bs da
datb
tbss au da
dat`t`hb
hbss mg ^U
^UO O oa
oajj sa
sacb
cbma
ma bh
bh-- uj bhmb`jg jgoäh`oa.
t`mgrrbpbhtg sïa `hm`obmbs pbrb caob`s öj`mas au
`huhmbmas, au oaj pramutas quêj`oas; fâ as obc- A o`hta mg sgiurbhéb ut`c`zbma gj bt`v`-
ébmas oaj d`qug`rb mg béa pratgigj oahtrb jb- mbmgs oaj r`soa mg qugmb gj bcturbs supgr`a-
tgr`r`b`
tg b`ss pg
pgsb
sbma
mass qu
qugg pa
pamgmgjj ob
ob`r`r ha pàss (e`
hass pà e`iu
iurb
rb 9). rgs b 4,>> j à a jamgca t`pa pbrbqugm`stb oaj
(e`iurb 0).
c`ibéïa erahtbc au marsbc (e`iurb 0).

E`iurb 9 ‟ _bpbtas
‟ _bpbtas mg sgiurbhéb
sgiurbhéb..

Gqu`pbjghta mg ^ratgéïa Oacgt`vb

Rubhta
Rubhta ba
bass `hs
`hstru
trujgh
jghtas
tas ut`
ut`c`z
c`zbma
bmass
pgca pgmrg`ra gj supgreêo`gs gxtgrhbs mg E`iurb 0 ‟ O`hta
‟ O`hta mg sgiurbhé
sgiurbhéb
b t`pa pbrbqug
pbrbqugm`stb.
m`stb.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 7 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Autra m`spas`t`va mg sgiurbhéb ut`c`-
zbma pbrb trbdbclas gj bcturb à b obmg`rb
suspghsb, qug tbjdàj adr`ib a pgmrg`ra b
usbr a o`hta mg sgiurbhéb t`pa pbrbqugm`stb
c`ibma b uj obda mg sgiurbhéb olbjbma
( e`iurb 2>).
trbvb-qugmb (e`iurb 2>).
E`iurb 2> ‟ Obmg`rb
‟ Obmg`rb suspghsb oaj trbvb-qugmb.
A s`stgjb mg e`xbéïa mb obmg`rb sus-
pghsb mgvg sgr `hmgpghmghtg ma obda-iu`b
ma trbvb-qugmb
trbvb-qugmb..
_giurbhéb
_giurbhéb oaj bs Gsobmbs
Gj trbdbclas oaj bcturbs, a pgmrg`ra
mgvg ut`c`zbr gqu`pbjghtas mg sgiurbhéb
oaja a bhmb`jg, b obmg`rb suspghsb gto.
Fâ gj `jÿvg`s tàrrgas au bssadrbmbmas,
ut`c`zbjas gsobmbs pbrb a trbdbcla gj
ârgbs `htgrhbs g gxtgrhbs oaj ergquæho`b
ergquæho`b..
Gjdarb sgfb dbstbhtg papucbr, ut`c`-
zbmb btà par mahbs mg obsb pbrb bcobhébr 
pgqughbs bcturbs mg jÿvg`s, oart`hbs gto.,
b gsobmb à uj `hstrujghta qug, prae`ss`a-
hbcjghtg, mgvg sgr bprapr`bma ba sgrv`éa
au trbdbcla b sgr rgbc`zbma,
rgbc`zbma, oaj rgspg`ta
b bciujbs harjbs mg sgiurbhéb.
Ugfbjas
Ug fbjas bciuj
bciujbs
bs rgoaj
rgoajghmb
ghmbé÷gs
é÷gs
pbrb a usa mg gsobmbs gj trbdbclas oaj
bcturbs6
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
• A caobc ahmg b gsobmb sgrâ pas`o`a-
hbmb mgvg gstbr c`jpa, `sghta mg irbxb au
qubcqugr autra pramuta qug tarhg a olïa
gsoarrgibm`a.
• @sacg a caobc mg trbdbcla, s`hbc`zbhma-
a pbrb pratgigr b o`roucbéïa mg trbhsguhtgs
(autrbs pgssabs qug obj`hlbj ha caobc).
• _gjprg ba sud`r au mgsogr, pas`-
o`ahb-sg mg erghtg b gsobmb, sgiurbhma has
jahtbhtgs oaj bs mubs jïas.
• Bs gsobmbs mgvgj sgr usbmbs par 
ujb sÿ pgssab. Mg uj jama igrbc, ujb
gsobmb pamg biughtbr uj tatbc mg 22> b
2?7 ki ghtrg pgssabs,
pgssabs, egrrbjghtbs
egrrbjghtbs g jb-
tgr`b`s. Tgspg`tg a pgsa gspgo`e`obma pgca
ebdr`obhtg.
• A oajpr`jghta jâx`ja mas jahtbh-
tgs à mg 5 j, g a gspbébjghta ghtrg mg-
irbus, mg 47 b ?> oj.
• Gv`tb-sg p`htbr bs gsobmbs pbrb qug
b t`htb hïa aouctg passêvg`s rbolbmurbs,
rbolbmurbs, tr`h-
obs au qubcqugr autra mgeg`ta qubhma ear 
`hspgo`ahbmb bhtgs ma sgu usa. Oaja pra-
tgéïa, pamg-sg ghvgrh`zâ-cb.
• Bs gsobmbs mgvgj tgr mgirbus bh-
t`mgrrbpbhtgs dgj bpa`bmbs hb supgreê-
o`g mb dbsg. _g hgogssâ
hgogssâr`a,r`a, ut`c`zg obcéas
( e`iurb 22)
22 ) .
E`iurb 22 ‟ Gsobmb
‟ Gsobmb sadrg obcéas.
• ^brb trbdbclas gj qug lbfb prax`j`-
mbmg oaj `hstbcbé÷gs gcàtr`obs, sÿ à pgrj`t`ma
a usa mg gsobmbs mg jbmg`rb au mg e`drbs, qug
hïa sïa oahmutarbs mg gcgtr`o`mbmg.
5 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 • Wt`c`zg oarmb au autra jg`a pbrb cgvbh-  Bs c`hlbs
c `hlbs pamgj sgr rgtbs au ourvbs. Bs
tbr g db`xbr egrrbjghtbs g autras jbtgr`b`s rgtbs pamgj aoupbr træs m`egrghtgs pas`é÷gs
usbmas ha trbdbcla. ha gspbéa6 lar`zahtbc, vgrt`obc g `hoc`hbmb; fâ
• Hïa oacaobr b gsobmb sadrg qubcqugr  bs c`hlbs ourvbs pamgj earjbr b o`rouhegræh-
gqu`pbjghta au jâqu`hb. ( e`iurbs 2= g
o`b g b gc`psg (e`iurbs 2= g 27
 27).
).
• Hïa sud`r bcàj mas ma`s öct`jas mg-
( e`iurb 24).
irbus mb gsobmb (e`iurb 24).

E`iurb 2= ‟ C`hlbs
‟ C`hlbs rgtbs lar`zahtbc, vgrt`obc g `hoc`hbmb
`hoc`hbmb..

E`iurb 27 ‟ C`hlbs
‟ C`hlbs ourvbs earjbhma ujb o`rouhegræho`b g
ujb gc`psg.
E`iurb 24 ‟ Jbhg`rb
‟ Jbhg`rb `hoarrgtb6 pgmrg`ra trbdbclbhma ha öc-
t`ja mgirbu mb gsobmb.
C`hlb j`stb à oajpastb par pbrtgs mg
Igajgtr`b Dâs`ob c`hlbs rgtbs g ourvbs.

Tgvgr bciuhs oahog`tas dâs`oas mg iga-

jgtr`b oaja c`hlbs, ähiucas g pr`sjbs iga- _ïa oahs`mgrbmbs pbrbcgcbs mubs c`hlbs
jàtr`oas à ju`ta `jpartbhtg pbrb cg`turb g qug, par jb`s qug sg pracahiugj, huhob sg
`htgrprgtbéïa mg mgsghlas g pcbhtbs db`xbs g (e`iurb 25).
ghoahtrbj (e`iurb 25).
oartgs, dgj oaja cgvbhtbjghta mg tgrrghas
(pr`ho`pbc
(pr`ho`pbcjghtg
jghtg as mg earjb
earjbtas
tas `rrgiu
`rrgiucbrgs
cbrgs)) g
caobéïa mb adrb sadrg gcgs.

C`hlbs
C`hlb à mge`h`mb, igajgtr`objghtg, oaja
( e`iurb 2?).
ujb suogssïa mg pahtas (e`iurb 2?).

E`iurb 25 ‟ C`hlbs
‟ C`hlbs pbrbcgcbs.

_ïa pgrpghm`oucbrgs mubs c`hlbs rgtbs

qug sg ghoahtrbj earjbhma uj ähiuca mg 0>¾,
E`iurb 2? ‟ Ma`s
‟ Ma`s t`pas mg c`hlbs. ( e`iurb 29).
au sgfb, a ähiuca rgta (e`iurb 29).
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 9 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
E`iurb 29 ‟ C`hlbs
‟  C`hlbs pgrpghm`oucbrgs. E`iurb 4> ‟ Ähiuca
‟  Ähiuca biuma.

Ähiucas Ähiuca adtusa. À

adtusa. À a qug tgj ujb bdgr-
turb jb`ar qug 0>¾; partbhta, à jb`ar qug a äh-
Olbjbj
Olbj bjas
as mg äh ähiu
iuca
cass b jg
jgm`
m`mb
mb ma (e`iurb 42).
iuca rgta (e`iurb 42).
bebstbjghta ghtrg mubs c`hlbs rgtbs qug jbh-
tæj uj pahta oajuj olbjbma vàrt`og. Bs c`-
hlbs qug earjbj as ähiucas sïa olbjbmbs
( e`iurb 2<).
mg cbmas mg ähiuca (e`iurb 2<).

E`iurb 42 ‟ Ähiuca
‟  Ähiuca adtusa.

A vbcar ma ähiuca hïa mgpghmg ma

E`iurb 2< ‟ Gxgjpca
‟  Gxgjpca mg ähiuca.
oajp
oa jpr`j
r`jght
ghta
a mb
mbss c`h
c`hlb
lbss qu
qug
g ear
earjbj
jbj as
cbmas, jbs ma vbcar mb bdgrturb mgcbs.
Ugfb b ocbss`e`obéïa mas ähiucas6
 B d`ssgtr`z ma ähiuca à b c`hlb qug m`v`mg
Ähiuca rgta. Or`bma
rgta. Or`bma b pbrt`r mg ujb c`hlb ( e`iurb 44).
uj ähiuca gj ma`s ähiucas `iub`s (e`iurb 44).
lar`zahtbc g ujb vgrt`obc pgrpghm`oucbr, ear-
( e`iurb 20).
jbhma gxbtas 0>¾ ghtrg s` (e`iurb 20).

E`iurb 44 ‟ D`ssgtr`z
‟  D`ssgtr`z ma ähiuca mg 5>¾.

E`iurb 20 ‟ Ähiuca
‟  Ähiuca rgta. A ähiuca rgta, pravbvgcjghtg, à a jb`s
v`sta gj bpc`obé÷gs prât`obs hb oahstruéïa
Ähiuca biuma. À
biuma.  À a ähiuca qug jgmg o`v`c6 ghoahtra mg pbrgmgs oaj a olïa, gs-
jghas qug 0>¾; partbhta, à uj ähiuca jghar  qubmr`bs mbs fbhgcbs gto.
(e`iurb 4>).
qug a rgta (e`iurb 4>).
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 < @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 ]r`ähiuca Cg`turb g @htgrprgtbéïa mg ^rafgtas
À b e`iurb igajàtr`ob earjbmb par træs As mgsghlas mg uj prafgta mg brqu`tg-
cbmas g træs ähiucas. Ugfb b ocbss`e`obéïa ma turb oajprgghmgj uj oahfuhta mg prafgé÷gs,
(e`iurb 4?)6
tr`ähiuca (e`iurb 4?)6 v`stbs g oartgs (sgoé÷gs) mg uj gm`eêo`a au
pbrtg mgstg, oaj oahvghé÷gs qug ebo`c`tbj b
• ]r`ähiuca rgtähiuca6 qubhma passu` uj `htgrprg
`htgrprgtbéï
tbéïa
a ma mgs
mgsghla
ghla g, oah
oahsgqu
sgqughtg
ghtg--
ähiuca rgta; jghtg, b gxgouéïa mb adrb.
• ]r`ähiuca `sÿsogcgs6 qubhma ma`s cbmas
tæj b jgsjb jgm`mb; ^cbhtb db`xb
• ]r`ähiuca gsobcgha6 qubhma b jgm`mb
mas træs cbmas à m`egrghtg.  B pcb
pcbhtb
htb db`
db`xb
xb à a mgsg
mgsghla
hla gj pra
prafg-
fg-
éïa lar`zahtbc mb prÿpr`b adrb, gj tbjbhla
rgmuz`ma. Gssb rgmuéïa usbmb pbrb m`j`hu`r 
praparo`ahbcjghtg
praparo`ahbcjgh tg bs jgm`mbs rgb`s ma pra-
 fgta
 fgt a à mgha
mghaj`hb
j`hbmb
mb gsob
gsobcb.
cb.
^ar gxgjpca6 b pcbhtb db`xb mg uj
sbcïa oaj 5,>> x =,>> j, hb gsobcb mg
262>> (uj par ogj), sgr`b mgsghlbmb oaj
5 x = oj. @ssa s`ih`e`ob qug obmb oghtêjg-
tra ma mgsghla oarrgspahmg b 2,>> j hb
E`iurb 4? ‟ ]r`ähiucas.
‟ ]r`ähiucas. jgm`mb rgbc.

O`rouhegræho`b
Mgpa`s qug oahlgogr as gcgjgh-
À ujb c`hlb ourvb g egolbmb s`tubmb huj tas g b s`jdacai`b ut`c`zbmas hb rgprg-
jgsja pcbha. Gssb c`hlb gstâ gqu`m`stbhtg sghtbéïa mas mgsghlas brqu`tgtýh`oas,
(jgsjb m`stäho`b) mg uj pahta olbjbma ogh- mbrgjas bciuhs gxgjpcas mg oâcoucas
tra. B c`hlb qug pbssb pgca oghtra mb o`rouheg- s`jpcgs qug a pgmrg`ra pamgrâ ebzgr 
ræho`
ræ ho`b
b g uhuhgg ma
ma`s
`s pa
pahta
htass mg
mgstb
stb olb
olbjb
jb-sg
-sg pbrb mgtgrj`hbr bs m`jghs÷gs rgb`s db-
m`äjgtra (M), g b c`hlb rgtb qug uhg a oghtra sgbmbs ha mgsghla qubhma gstbs hïa
mb o`rouhegræho`b b qubcqugr pahta mgstb à a eargj gspgo`e`obmbs, au qubhma qu`sgr 
‟ e`iurb 4=.
rb`a (T) ‟ e`iurb 4=. gcbdarbr bciuj prafgta au bprghmgr b
gxgoutbr b rgmuéïa pbrb mgsghlâ-ca.

Hb pcbhtb db`xb, à jastrbmb b m`str`du`-

éïa mamass oý
oýja
jamamass oa
oaj
j sg
sgus
us rgs
rgspg
pgot`
ot`va
vass
hajgs (qubrta, sbcb, oaz`hlb, dbhlg`ra, ârgb
mg sgrv`éa gto.) g subs m`jghs÷gs, bs qub`s
sïa gspgo`e`obmbs gj jgtras au oghtêjgtras,
`hocu`hma b gspgssurb mb pbrgmg, b caobc`zb-
éïa g m`jghs÷gs mg partbs, fbhgcbs g vïas,
E`iurb 4= ‟ O`rouhegræho`b.
‟ O`rouhegræho`b. jbtgr`bc b sgr ut`c`zbma has p`sas, caobc`zbéïa
mg p`bs, bpbrgclas sbh`târ`as, tbhqugs mg cb-
vbhmgr`b, brjâr`as gjdut`mas g btà jgsja
A rb`a à `iubc ba m`äjgtra m`v`m`ma par  jÿvg`s mgpghmghma ma obsa. ]bjdàj à jas-
(T : M ù 4),
ma`s (T 4), au a m`äjgtra à `iubc b mubs trbmb b prafgéïa ma tgclbma qubhma gstg uc-
(M : 4 x T).
vgzgs a rb`a (M T). trbpbssbr as c`j`tgs mb adrb, earjbhma as
dg`rb`s.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 0 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 hb  e`iurb 47,
Ugfb, hb e`iurb 47, a mgsghla mg ujb
pcbhtb db`xb.

E`iurb 49 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg pbrgmg db`xb.

^artbs g fbhgcbs sïa rgprgsghtbmbs mb

( e`iurb 4<)6
sgiu`htg jbhg`rb (e`iurb 4<)6

E`iurb 47 ‟ Jamgca
‟  Jamgca mg pcbhtb db`xb.

^brb cgr g `htgrprgtbr ujb pcbhtb db`xb, à

prgo`sa oahlgogr as sêjdacas irâe`oas qug rg-
prgsghtbj partbs, fbhgcbs, brjâr`as gjdut`-
mas, pgébs sbh`târ`bs, jÿvg`s gto.
 Bs pbrgmgs bctbs (ma p`sa btà a tgta) sïa
rgprgs
rgprgsght
ghtbm
bmbs
bs paparr ma
ma`s
`s trb
trbéas
éas ira
irassa
ssass au
(e`iurb 45).
olg`as (e`iurb 45).

E`iurb 45 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg pbrgmgs bctbs.

^brgmgs db`xbs sïa rgprgsghtbmbs par 

mubs c`hlbs mg gspgssurb jàm`b, hïa olg`b,
( e`iurb 49).
oaj `hm`obéïa mb jgm`mb mg bcturb (e`iurb 49).
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
E`iurb 4< ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg partbs g fbhgcbs.
2> @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Adsgrvg qug, pbrb rgprgsghtbr partbs, jgra bhtgs ma s`hbc mg juct`pc`obéïa ha hu-
b pcbhtb 2 s`ih`e`ob qug b partb sg ghoahtrb jgrbmar rgprgsghtb b cbriurb; a höjgra mg-
ghtrg oýjamas
oýjamas oaj p`sas ma jgsja hêvgc g pa`s mgssg s`hbc, ha hujgrbmar, rgprgsghtb b
jbtgr`bc (tboas, ogräj`ob
ogräj`ob gto.). Hb pcbhtb 4, a bcturb; g a höjgra ha mghaj`hbmar rgprgsghtb
p`sa hïa gstâ ha jgsja hêvgc; partbhta, tgj (e`iurb ?2).
a pg`tar`c (e`iurb ?2).
sacg`rb (mgirbu) au gstâ ghtrg oýjamas oaj
p`sas
p`sas m`e
m`egrg
grghtg
htgss (uj tgj p`s
p`saa ogr
ogräj`
äj`oa;
oa;
autra, tboas).
Rubhta îs m`jghs÷gs mbs partbs g fb-
hgcbs, gcbs pamgj sgr `hm`obmbs mb sgiu`htg
jbhg`rb6

• ^ar uj trbéa mg erbéïa gj qug a hu-

jgrbmar rgprgsghtb b cbriurb g a mghaj`hb-
( e`iurb 40).
mar, b bcturb mb partb au mb fbhgcb (e`iurb 40).

E`iurb ?2 ‟ M`jghsïa
‟  M`jghsïa mg partbs g fbhgcbs par uj s`hbc mg
juct`pc`obéïa g trbéa mg erbéïa.

^g`tar`c à b m`stäho`b gj qug b

 fbhg
 fb hgcb
cb sg s`
s`tu
tubb bo
bo`j
`jbb ma p`
p`sa
sa..

 Bs oatbs qug

qug `hm`obj as
as m`egrghtgs
m`egrghtgs hêvg`s
mg p`sas sïa rgprgsghtbmbs mb sgiu`htg jb-
E`iurb 40 ‟ M`jghsïa
‟  M`jghsïa mg partbs g fbhgcbs par uj trbéa (e`iurb ?4).
hg`rb (e`iurb ?4).
mg erbéïa.

• Bs jgm`mbs tbjdàj pamgj sgr `hm`ob-

mbs par uj s`hbc mg juct`pc`obéïa (x), qug s`ih`-
e`e`ob
ob –p
–par
ar‚,
‚, gj qu
qug
g a pr
pr`j
`jg`
g`ra
ra hö
höjg
jgra ra rg
rgpr
prgs
gsgh
ghtb
tb
( e`iurb ?>).
b cbriurb g a sgiuhma, b bcturb (e`iurb ?>).

E`iurb ?4 ‟ Oatbs
‟ Oatbs `hm`obmarbs mg m`egrghtgs hêvg`s mg p`sa.

 Ba s sê
 Bas sêjd
jdac
acas
as bp
bprg
rgsg
sght
htbm
bmas
as hb öc
öc--
t`jb
t`j b e`
e`iu
iurb
rb,, pa
pamg
mgja
jass bo borg
rgso
sogh
ghtb
tbr 
r 
E`iurb ?> ‟ M`jghsïa
‟  M`jghsïa mg partbs g fbhgcbs par uj s`hbc mg b`hmb bs cgtrbs HB g HA ghtrg pbræh-
juct`pc`obéïa. tgsgs6
tgs gs6 HB `hm`hm`ob
`ob –H`
–H`vgc
vgc Bobdbma
Bobdbma‚‚ g
HA, –Hêvgc ha Assa‚ (oahtrbp`sa pbrb
• Autrb jbhg`rb à par jg`a mg uj s`hbc rgogdgr a bobdbjghta).
mg juct`pc`obéïa g uj trbéa mg erbéïa6 a hö-
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 22 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Hb e`iurb ??,
Hb e`iurb ??, tgjas b rgprgsghtbéïa mg Oartgs
m`vgrsas `tghs mg ut`c`zbéïa oaja dbo`bs sbh`-
târ`bs, dbhlg`rb, tbhqug ghtrg autras. A mgsghla mg ujb pcbhtb db`xb hïa pgr-
j`tg oahlgogr tambs bs m`jghs÷gs g mgtbclgs
mg ujb oahstruéïa. ^ar `ssa, à hgogssâr`a `h-
ocu`r mgsghlas gj oartg.
Oartg à a mgsghla gj prafgéïa vgrt`obc
tbjdàj gxgoutbma gj gsobcb pbrb jastrbr b
bcturb mbs pbrgmgs, oajpahghtgs ma tgclbma,
bcturb qug vb` ma p`sa prahta btà a tgta (pà-m`-
rg`ta), bcturb mg partbs, pg`tar`s g fbhgcbs, bob-
dbjghta mg pbrgmgs (bzucgfa, pbst`clbs gto.),
ghe`j, mgtbclgs hb vgrt`obc qug hïa sïa v`stas
hb pcbhtb db`xb.
A oartg, qug à rgprgsghtbma hb pcbhtb
par ujb c`hlb g sgtbs `hm`obt`vbs mb m`rgéïa
gj qug sg gstâ aclbhma (e`iurb( e`iurb ?=),
?=), mgvg
sgjprg pbssbr par dbhlg`ras g oaz`hlbs.

E`iurb ?= ‟ C`hlb
‟  C`hlb `hm`obt`vb mg oartg.

Adsgrvg hb pcbhtb db`xb (e`iurb 47) qug b

c`hlb mg oartg BB rgprgsghtb a oartg cahi`tum`-
hbc g b c`hlb mg oartg DD, a oartg trbhsvgrsbc.
Ugfb a mgsgh
mgsghlala ma oartg
oartg BB hb  e`iurb ?7,
hb e`iurb ?7, qug
rgprgsghtb bs pbrgmgs g mgtbclgs mb vgrt`obc
E`iurb ?? ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg m`vgrsas `tghs mg ut`c`zbéïa. mb pcbhtb db`xb.

E`iurb ?7 ‟ Oartg
‟  Oartg BB.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 24 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 hbs  e`iurbs ?5 g ?9
Ugfb, hbs e`iurbs ?9,, oaja rgprgsghtbjas partbs g fbhgcbs mg pbrgmgs has
mgsghlas gj oartgs.

E`iurb ?5 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg partbs gj mgsghlas mg oartgs.

E`iurb ?9 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg fbhgcbs gj mgsghlas mg oartgs.

Has mgsghlas gj oartg, à oajuj bpbrgogr b rgprgsghtbéïa mg vïas sgj partbs,

oaja ea` jastrbma hb e`iurb ?5, jgsja pbrb rgprgsghtbr bdgrturbs oaj partbs.

 Bs m` m`jg
jghs
hs÷g
÷gss mg pa
part
rtbs
bs g fb
fbhg
hgcb
cbss mb
mbss pb
pbrg
rg--  Biarb, vgfb, hb  e`iurb ?0,
hb e`iurb ?0, a oartg trbhs-
mgss ha
mg hass mgmgsg
sghl
hlas
asgj
gjoaoart
rtg,
g, au
augj
gjsusubb bp
bpbr
bræh
æho`
o`b,
b, vgrsbc mb pcbhtb db`xb (c`hlb mg oartg DD)6
sïa
sïa eg
eg`t`tbs
bs oa
oahe
hear
arjg
jg ja
jaststrbjass hb e`
rbja e`iu
iurbrb ?<
?<..

E`iurb ?< ‟ M`jghsïa

‟ M`jghsïa mg partbs g fbhgcbs gj oartg. E`iurb ?0 ‟ Oartg DD.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 2? @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Gsobcbs
Oaja m`ssgjas, as mgsghlas sïa gxg-
outbmas gj gsobcbs. Bs jb`s usbmbs gj rg-
prgsghtbé÷gs mg prafgtas brqu`tgtýh`oas sïa
gstbs6
• 262>> (cæ-sg –uj par ogj);
• 267> (cæ-sg –uj par o`hqughtb).
Gx`stgj autrbs gsobcbs, oaja 264>,
2697, 264>>, qug sïa tbjdàj dgj usbmbs.
 B gsobcb sÿ tgrâ geg`ta pbrb a trbébma ha
mgsghla. Rubhma oacaobjas bs oatbs (jgm`-
( e`iurb =>).
mbs), `hsgr`jas bs jgm`mbs rgb`s (e`iurb
E`iurb => ‟ Mgsghla
‟  Mgsghla eg`ta gj gsobcb 262>>.
 Bs jgm`mbs bhiucbrgs hïa saergj trbhs-
earjbé÷gs gj gsobcbs. Bss`j, uj ähiuca mg
5>¾ pgrjbhgogrâ mgssg fg`ta, sgfb qubc ear b
gsobcb gjprgibm
gjprgibmb.
b.
]rbhsearjbéïa mbs jgm`mbs
Jgm`mb rgbc gj jgm`mb ma mgsghla
^brb trbhsearjbr b jgm`mb rgbc pbrb b
jgm`mb ma mgsghla, m`v`m`jas a vbcar mb jg-
m`mb rgbc pgca vbcar hujàr`oa mb gsobcb, vbcar
gssg qug hïa sgfb a 2.
Gxgjpca6
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
]gjas ujb pbrgmg oaj gspgssurb
mg uj t`faca jbo`éa (47 oj) g 4,>> j mg
oajpr`jghta g qugrgjas mgsghlâ-cb hb
gsobcb 267>.
 Bhtgs mg bpc`obr b rgirb, pbrb s`jpc`-
e`obr, pamgjas trbhsearjbr b jgm`mb rgbc
mg jgtras pbrb oghtêjgtras6
2,>> j : 2>> oj
2>> oj : 2.>>> jj
 4,>> j à `iubc b 4>> oj.
^artbhta, 4,>>
^artbhta, oj.
=>).  Bpc`ob hma b rgirb, tgjas qug trbhse
 Bpc`obhma trbhsear-
ar-
jbr b jgm`mb rgbc hb jgm`mb ma mgsghla.
Ghtïa, m`v`m`jas b jgm`b rgbc ma adfgta (4>>
oj g 47 oj) pgca vbcar mb gsobcb (qug hïa
sgfb 2). Hgssg gxgjpca, ut`c`zbjas, oaja
vbcar mg gsobcb, 7>6
:  = oj
4>> (vbcar rgbc) ù 7> (vbcar mb gsobcb) : =
47 (vbcar rgbc) ù 7> (vbcar mb gsobcb) : >,7 oj
: 7 jj
Mgssb jbhg`rb, oahocuêjas qug ujb pb-
rgmg oaj oajpr`jghta mg 4,>> j (4>> oj) g
gspgssurb mg 47 oj, hb gsobcb 267>, sgrâ mg-
sghlbmb bpghbs oaj = oj mg oajpr`jghta g
7 jj mg gspgssurb ( e`iurb =2).
=2).
E`iurb =2 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg ujb pbrgmg hb gsobcb 267>.
 
Jgm`mb ma mgsghla gj jgm`mb rgbc
^brb trbhsearjbr b jgm`mb ma mgsghla
2= @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
gj jgm`mb rgbc, juct`pc`objas a vbcar mb • Lgotýjgtra (lj) ‟ 2>> j;
jgm`mb ma mgsghla pgca vbcar hujàr`oa mb • Mgoäjgtra (mbj) ‟ 2> j.
gsobcb.
As sudjöct`pcas ma jgtra, au jgm`mbs
Gxgjpca6 jghargs, sïa gstgs6

 Ba jg
jgm`m` rj
rjas
as oa
oajj b rà
ràiu
iubb uj
ujbb fb - • Mgoêjgtra (mj) ‟ gqu`vbcg î mào`jb
hgcb mg ujb pcbhtb db`xb, ghoahtrbjas pbrtg ma jgtra, au sgfb, >,2 j;
2,7 oj. Biarb, qugrgjas sbdgr b jgm`mb • Oghtêjgtra (oj) ‟ oghtàs`jb pbrtg ma
rgbc mb cbriurb mgssb fbhgcb, sghma b gs- jgtra (>,>2 j);
obcb 262>>. • J`cêjgtra (jj) ‟ j`càs`jb pbrtg ma
^brb `ssa, juct`pc`objas b jgm`mb ma mg- jgtra (>,>>2 j).
sghla (2,7 oj) pgca vbcar mb gsobcb (2>>).
Caia, tgrgjas6
^amgjas b`hmb m`zgr qug a mgoêjg-
tra à `iubc b 2> oj g a oghtêjgtra, b 2> jj.
:  27> oj
2,7 x 2>> : 27>

^artbhta, b cbriurb mb fbhgcb à mg 27> oj Ugfb, b sgiu`r, uj qubmra oaj a rgsuja

( e`iurb =4).
(2,7> j) (e`iurb =4). mass jö
ma jöctct`p
`pca
cass g su
sudj
djöc
öct`t`pc
pcas
as ma jg
jgtra (tb
tra tbdg
dgcb
cb 2)6

Jöct`p
`pccas _udjöct
ct``pcas

kj   qu`cýjgtra mj   mgoêjgtra
lj   lgotýjgtra oj   oghtêjgtra
mbj   mgoäjgtra jj   j`cêjgtra
E`iurb =4 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg ujb fbhgcb mgsghlbmb hb ]bdgcb
]bdgcb 2 ‟ Jöct`pcas g sudjöct`pcas ma jgtra.
gsobcb 262>>.

_`stgjb Jàtr`oa Mgo`jbc ^amgjas b`hmb adtgr uh`mbmgs jghargs

qug a j`cêjgtra mb sgiu`htg jbhg`rb6
A s`stgjb jàtr`oa mgo`jbc à a bmatbma
ha Drbs`c g tgj, oaja uh`mbmg, a jgtra (j). • M`v`m`hma a j`cêjgtra par 2>, adtgjas a
mào`
mào`ja
ja mg j`j`cêcêjg
jgtr
tra,
a, qu
qug
g oa
oarr
rrgs
gspa
pahm
hmgg b >,
>,2
2 jj
jj;;
Jgm`r s`ih`e`ob oajpbrbr irbhmgzbs mg • M`v`m`hma a mào`ja mg j`cêjgtra par 2>,
jgsjb gspào`g, tajbhma ujb mgcbs oaja pb- tgjas a oghtàs`ja mg j`cêjgtra, qug oarrgs-
mrïa. ^ar gxgjpca6 ujb sbcb oaj `hm`obéïa mg pahmg b >,>2 jj;
7,>> j mg oajpr`jghta s`ih`e`ob qug gstb jg- • M`
M`v`
v`m`
m`hm
hma a a og
oght
htàs
às`j
`ja
a mg j`
j`cêj
cêjgt
gtra
ra pa
parr 2>
2>,,
m`mb mg oajpr`jghta à o`hoa vgzgs jb`ar qug adtgjas a j`càs`ja mg j`cêjgtra, tbjdàj oa-
b uh`mbmg usbmb pbrb jgm`-cb, a jgtra. hlgo`ma oaja j`orýjgtra au jêorah.

Jöct`pcas g sudjöct`pcas ma jgtra Adsgrvbé÷gs

As jöct`pcas, au uh`mbmgs jb`args qug a
jgtra, sïa gstgs6
• Ru`cýjgtra (kj) ‟ gqu`vbcg b 2.>>> j;
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
• As sêjdacas mbs uh`mbmgs mg jgm`-
mbs mgvgj sgr gsor`tas oaj cgtrb j`hösoucb,
sgj pahta mg bdrgv`béïa g sgj b cgtrb –s‚
27 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 ba mgoäjgtra g borgsoghtbjas uj zgra î m`-
obsa gstgfbj ha pcurbc. ^ar gxgjpca6 rg`tb, hb obsb ma jgtra. @ssa s`ih`e`ob a sg-
2> j g hïa 2> j. au 2> js.  = x 2> : => j.
iu`htg6 =
iu`htg6
• Hïa mgvgjas oaheuhm`r j`orýjgtra
oaj a `hstrujghta mg jgm`mb usbma gj jg-
tracai`b. kj lj m
mbbj j mj oj jj
= >
 B sg iu`r`r,, hb tb
sgiu tbdg
dgcb
cb 4, vg
vgfb
fb gx
gxgj
gjpc
pcas
as mg gs
gs-- x 2>
or`tb g mg cg`turb mgssbs jgm`mbs6
Oahvgrtgr mgoäjgtra gj mgoêjgtra.
mgoêjgtra.
Hgssg obsa, borgsoghtbjas ma`s zgras î m`-
Gxgjpcas Cæ-sg Caia,  = x 2> x 2> : =>> mj.
rg`tb mg = mbj. Caia, = mj.
? kj træs qu`cýjgtras kj lj m
mbbj j mj oj jj
7 lj o`hoa lgotýjgtras = > >
x 2> x 2>
24 mbj mazg mgoäjgtras
Oahvgrtgr mgoäjgtra gj oghtêjgtra.
oghtêjgtra.
2j uj jgtra  Borgsoghtbjass træs zgras î m`rg`tb mg = mbj.
 Borgsoghtbja
tgrgjas  = x 2> x 2> x 2> : =.>>> oj.
 Bss`j, tgrgjas = oj.
7 mj o`hoa mgoêjgtras
kj lj m
mbbj j mj oj jj
4> oj v`htg oghtêjgtras = > > >
45 jj v`htg g sg`s j`cêjgtras x 2> x 2> x 2>
]bdgcb 4 ‟ Gxgjpcas
‟  Gxgjpcas mg gsor`tb g mg cg`turb mbs uh`mbmgs Oahvgrtgr mgoäjgt
Oahvgrtgr mgoäjgtrara gj lgotýj
lgotýjgtra
gtra..
mg jgm`mbs.
Hgssg obsa, borgsoghtbjas uj zgra î gs-
qugrmb mg = mbj, au sgfb, hb obsb ma lgotý-
]rbhsearjbéïa mg jgm`mbs Caia,  = ù 2> : >,= lj.
jgtra. Caia, = lj.

Wjb jg
Wjb jgsj
sjb b jg
jgm`
m`mb
mb pa
pamg
mg sg
sgrr `h
`hm`
m`ob
obmb
mb gj kj lj mb
m bj j mj oj jj
uh`mbmgs m`egrghtgs. ^ar gxgjpca6 ujb p`stb mg
oarrr`
oa r`m
mb ma @W
@WD
D tg
tgj
j 7 kj, au 7.>
.>>
>> j; pbrb trtrb
bhs- > =
earjbr ujb jgm`mb mbmb mg ujb uh`mbmg pbrb ù 2>
autrb, mgvgjas ebzgr a sgiu`htg6
Oahvgrtgr mgoäjgtra gj qu`cýjgtra.
qu`cýjgtra.
• Mg ujb uh`mbmg pbrb autrb `jgm`btb-  Borgsoghtbjas ma`s zgras î gsqugrmb mg =
jghtg jb`ar, m`v`m`jas par 2>; tgrgjas  = ù 2> ù 2> : >,>= kj.
mbj g, bss`j, tgrgjas = kj.
• Mg ujb uh`mbmg pbrb autrb `jgm`btb-
jghtg jghar,
jghar, juct`pc`obja
juct`pc`objass par 2>. kj lj mb
m bj j mj oj jj
Ugf
gfb
b as gx
gxgj
gjpc
pcas
as qu
qug
g sg sg
sgiu
iugj
gj gj tb
tbdg
dg-- > > =
cbs qug ebo`c`tbj bs oahvgrs÷gs, sgjprg usbhma ù 2> ù 2>
a höjgra =6
Oahvgrtgr j`cêjgtra gj jgtra. jgtra. Hgssg
Oahvgrtgr mgoäjgtra gj jgtra.
jgtra. ^brb obsa, vbjas trbhsearjbr = jj gj jgtra. ^brb
oahvgrtgr = mgoäjgtras (= mbj) gj jgtra, oa- `ssa
`ssa,, ba bo
borg
rgso
sogh
ghtb
tbrj
rjas
as tr
træs
æs zg
zgra
rass î gs
gsqu
qugr
grmb
mb ma
caobjas a höjgra = hb obsb oarrgspahmghtg höjg
hö jgrara =, tg
tgrgjass =ù2>ù2>ù2>:>,>>=j.
rgja
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 25 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 kj lj mb
m bj j mj oj jj Jöct`p
Jöct`pcas
cas _êj
_êjdac
daca
a _ud
_udjöc
jöct`p
t`pcas
cas _êj
_êjdac
daca
a
> > > =
Ru`cýjgtra   Mgoêjgtra
kj¿ mj¿
ù 2> ù 2> ù 2> oöd`oa oöd`oa
Lgotýjgtra   Oghtêjgtra
lj¿ oj¿
Oahvgrtgr
Oahvgr tgr qu`
qu`cýj
cýjgtr
gtras
as gj jgt
jgtras
ras.. oöd`oa oöd`oa
^brb trbhsearjbr = kj gj jgtra, borgsoghtb-
jas træs zgras î m`rg`tb ma höjgra =. Bss`j, Mgoäjgtra   J`cêjgtra
  mbj¿ jj¿
 = x 2> x 2> x 2> : =.>>> j.
tgrgjas =
tgrgjas j. oöd`oa oöd`oa
]bdgcb = ‟ Jöct`pcas
‟  Jöct`pcas g sudjöct`pcas ma jgtra oöd`oa.
kj lj mb
m bj j mj oj jj
Jgm`mb mg jbssb.
jbssb. A irbjb (i) à b uh`-
= > > > mbmg mg jgm`mb mg jbssb, au pgsa, oufas
x 2> x 2> x 2> jöct`pcas sïa a qu`cairbjb (ki), lgotairbjb
(li) g a mgobirbjb (mbi). Fâ as sudjöct`pcas
sïa a mgo`irbjb (mi), oght`irbjb (oi) g a j`-
_`stgjb mgo`jbc mg jgm`mbs c`irbjb (ji). Obmb uh`mbmg mg jbssb à mgz
vgzgs jb`ar qug b uh`mbmg `jgm`btbjghtg
Ha s`stgjb mgo`jbc mg jgm`mbs, tgjas jghar, oaja pamgjas vgr hb  tbdgcb 7676
autrbs uh`mbmgs oahs`mgrbmbs euhmbjghtb`s.
_ïa bs jgm`mbs mg supgreêo`g (jgtra qub-   Wh`mbmg
mrbma), mg vacujg (jgtra oöd`oa), mg jbssb Jöct`pcas   _udjöct`pcas
^r`ho`pbc
(irbjb) g mg obpbo`mbmg (c`tra).
ki li mbi
li i mi oi ji
Jgm`mb mg supgreêo`g.
supgreêo`g. B uh`mbmg mg su- 2.>>
2.>>>
> i 2>
2>>
> i 2> i 2i >,2 i >,>
>,>2
2 i >,>
>,>>2
>2 i
pgreêo`g, au mg ârgb, à a jgtra qubmrbma (j´).
Gssb
Gs sb uh
uh`m
`mbm
bmg
g mg jg
jgm`
m`mb
mb à `jp
`jpar
artb
tbhtg
htg,, pa
pa`s
`s oa
oajj ]bdgcb
]bdgcb 7 ‟ Jöct`pcas g sudjöct`pcas ma irbjb.
b qubht`mbmg mg j´ mb supgreêo`g, pamgjas mg-
tgrj`hbr b qubht`mbmg mg jbtgr`bc qug sgrâ hg- Jgm`mb mg obpbo`mbmg.
obpbo`mbmg. A c`tra à b uh`-
ogssâr`a. As jöct`pcas g as sudjöct`pcas ma mbmg mg jgm`mb mg obpbo`mbmg oufa sêjdaca
( tbdgcb ?).
jgtra qubmrbma sïa as sgiu`htgs (tbdgcb ?). à –c‚, g obmb c`tra oarrgspahmg b 2 mgoêjgtra oö-
d`oa (2 mj¿). As jöct`pcas ma c`tra sïa a qu`ca-
c`tra (qc), a lgotac`tra (lc) g a mgobc`tra (mbc); as
Jöct`
Jöct`pca
pcass _êj
_êjdac
daca
a _ud
_udjöc
jöct`p
t`pcas
cas _êj
_êjdac
daca
a sudjöct`pcas sïa a mgo`c`tra (mc), a oght`c`tra (oc)
g a j`c`c`tra (jc). Ugfb b tbdgcb oaj bs jgm`mbs
Ru`cýjgtra   Mgoêjgtra ( tbdgcb 5).
mg obpbo`mbmg b sgiu`r (tbdgcb 5).
kj´ mj´
qubmrbma qubmrbma
Lgotýjgtra   Oghtêjgtra   Wh`mbmg
lj´ oj´ Jöct`pcas   _udjöct`pcas
qubmrbma qubmrbma ^r`ho`pbc

Mgoäjgtra   J`cêjgtra kc lc mbc c mc oc jc

  mbj´ jj´
qubmrbma qubmrbma 2.>
.>>>
>> c 2>> c 2> c 2c >,2
>,2c >,>2
>,>2 c >,>
,>>
>2 c
]bdgcb ? ‟ Jöct`pcas
‟  Jöct`pcas g sudjöct`pcas ma jgtra qubmrbma. ]bdgcb 5 ‟ Jöct`pcas
‟  Jöct`pcas g sudjöct`pcas ma c`tra.

Jgm`mb mg vacujg.
vacujg. B uh`mbmg mg jg- Ha c`tra, obmb uh`mbmg à mgz vgzgs jb`ar 
m`mb mg vacujg à a jgtra oöd`oa (j¿). As jöc- qug b `jgm`btbjghtg jghar, bss`j oaja a
t`pcas g as sudjöct`pcas mgssb uh`mbmg mg irbjb. À b uh`mbmg mg jgm`mb pbrb gjdbcb-
( tbdgcb =)6
jgm`mb sïa gstgs (tbdgcb =)6 ighs mg t`htbs, jbssbs, vgrh`zgs gto.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 29 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 @hstrujghtas mg jgm`mb
As `hstrujghtas mg jgm`mb c`hgbr jb`s
ut`c`zbmas pgca pgmrg`ra sïa a jgtra brt`oucbma
(e`iurb =?).
g b trghb (e`iurb =?).
E`iurb =? ‟ Jgtra
‟  Jgtra brt`oucbma g trghb.
 Bjda s as `hs
 Bjdas `hstru
trujght
jghtas
as tæj b gsob
gsobcb
cb
irbvbmb gj oghtêjgtras. G gstg, par sub vgz,
gstâ sudm`v`m`ma par 2>, oarrgspahmghma ba
j`cêjgtra.
A jgtra brt`oucbma à ju`ta ut`c`zbma
pbrb pgqughbs m`jghs÷gs g sïa ghoahtrb-
mas ha oajàro`a hbs vgrs÷gs mg 2,>> g 4,>>
j. Jgm`r oaj gssg `hstrujghta
`hstrujghta à dgj s`j-
pcgs6 dbstb oa`ho`m`r a zgra mb gsobcb ha
pahta mg pbrt`mb ahmg sg mgsgfb jgm`r g geg-
tubr b cg`turb hb oa`ho`mæho`b ma höjgra mb
gsobcb ha pahta btà ahmg sg mgsgfb jgm`r  rgegræho`b.
(e`iurb ==).
==).
E`iurb == ‟ Jgm`hma
‟  Jgm`hma oaj a jgtra brt`oucbma.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
 B tr
trgh
ghbb à oah
oahst
st`t`tuê
uêmb
mb mg uj
ujb
b e`e`tb
tb mg
béa, e`drb au tgo`ma qubmr`oucbma gj ujb
au bjdbs bs ebogs. ^brb irbhmgs m`jgh-
s÷gs mg oajpr`jghtas, a `mgbc à ut`c`zbr 
gssg `hstrujghta, pr`ho`pbcjghtg gj cgvbh-
tbjghtas mg tgrrghas au jbrobé÷gs (caob-
é÷gs) mg adrb. ^amgjas ghoahtrbr b trghb
ha oajàro`a oaj oajpr`jghtas mg 2>,>>
btà 7>,>> j; hgssg obsa, à prgo`sa ujb
pgssab pbrb jbhtgr a zgra mb gsobcb ha
pahta `h`o`bc g autrb pbrb gxgoutbr b cg`turb
( e`iurb =7).
ma pahta mgsgfbma (e`iurb =7).
E`iurb =7 ‟ Jgm`hma
‟  Jgm`hma oaj b trghb.
_g hïa lauvgr bciuàj pbrb bfumbr,
mgvgjas prghmgr a gxtrgja mb trghb (gs-
obcb zgra) mg bciujb jbhg`rb ha caobc mg
Ârgb, ^grêjgtra g Uacujg
Ârgb g pgrêjgtra mg e`iurbs pcbhbs
 Âr gb à b jg
 Ârgb jgm`m`mb
mb mg ujujb b su
supg pgre
reêoêo`g
`g g,
gj igrbc, à `hm`obmb pgcb cgtrb –_‚ hbs
subs eÿrjucbs. ]amb jgm`mb mg ârgb à `h-
m`obmb ba qubmrbma. ^ar gxgjpca6 sg b
uh`mbmg gjprgibmb ear a j`cêjgtra, ghtïa
sgrâ j`cêjgtra ba qubmrbma (jj´).
^grêjgtra à b sajb mas cbmas ma pa-
cêiaha. Gcg à rgprgsghtbma pgcb cgtrb –^‚.
 B s g i u ` r, v g r g j a s b s e ÿ r j u c b s m g
ârgbs g pgrêjgtras mas pr`ho`pb`s pacê-
iahas.
2< @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Tgtähiuca Ârgb6 _
Ârgb6  _ :
 : D + d x l
4
Ha rgtähiuca, tgjas mubs rgprgsghtb-
‟  e`iurb =5.
é÷gs6 b cbriurb (D) g b bcturb (l) ‟ e`iurb =5. ^grêjgtra6 ^
^grêjgtra6  ^ :
 : D + l + d + m

• Ârgb
 Ârgb66 _
 _ :
 : D x l

• ^grêjgtra
 ^grêjgtra66 ^
 ^ :
 : (4 x D) + (4 x l) au
^ : D + l + D + l

E`iurb =< ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa

‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj trbpàz`a.

]r`ähiuca

Ha tr`ähiuca, g ha trbpàz`a, b cgtrb –l‚,

E`iurb =5 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj rgtähiuca. bcàj mg rgprgsghtbr b bcturb, `hm`ob b d`ssgtr`z
(e`iurb =0).
ma ähiuca (e`iurb =0).
Rubmrbma
Ârgb6 _
Ârgb6  _ :
 : D + l
Ha qubmrbma, as qubtra cbmas sïa `iub`s 4
(e`iurb =9)6
(cbriurb). ^artbhta, tgjas (e`iurb =9)6
^grêjgtra66 ^
^grêjgtra  ^ :
 : D + m + m
Ârgb6 _
Ârgb6  _ :
 : D x D

^grêjgtra6 ^
^grêjgtra6  ^ :
 : = x D au
^ : D + D + D + D

E`iurb =0 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj tr`ähiuca.

O`rouhegræho`b

E`iurb =9 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj qubmrbma. ^brb a oâcouca mb ârgb g ma pgrêjgtra mb
o`rouhegræho`b, hb eÿrjucb, ghtrb a vbcar mg
]rbpàz`a ?,2=25 rgprgsghtbma pgcb cgtrb irgib ώ (cæ-sg
–p`‚). B cgtrb –T‚ `hm`ob a rb`a, qug à b jgtbmg
Ha trbpàz`a, b dbsg jb`ar à rgprgsghtbmb (e`iurb 7>).
ma m`äjgtra (e`iurb 7>).
pgcb cgtrb –D‚ g b dbsg jghar, pgcb cgtrb –d‚. Fâ
b cgtrb –m‚ à b jgm`mb mas cbmas pbrb a oâcouca Ârgb6 _
Ârgb6  _ :
 : ώ x T´
( e`iurb =<).
ma pgrêjgtra ma ähiuca (e`iurb =<). ^grêjgtra66 ^
^grêjgtra  ^ :
 : 4 x ώ x T
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 20 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 é÷gs6 –D‚ pbrb cbriurb; –O‚ pbrb oajpr`jghta;
( e`iurb 74)6
g –l‚ pbrb bcturb (e`iurb 74)6

U : D x O x l

E`iurb 7> ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa

‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg ujb o`rouhegræho`b.

Broa (pgrêjgtra o`roucbr)

Ha oâcouca mb ârgb g ma pgrêjgtra ma E`iurb 74 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj pbrbcgcgpêpgma.
broa, ghtrb hb eÿrjucb a vbcar ma ähiuca, rg-
prgsghtbma pgcb cgtrb β (cæ-sg –bceb‚, qug à a ^`räj`mg
‟  e`iurb 72.
vbcar ma ähiuca gj irbus) ‟ e`iurb 72.
^brb obcoucbr a vacujg mb p`räj`mg, mg-
Ârgb66 _
Ârgb  _ :
 : ώ x T´ x β vgjas obcoucbr b ârgb (_) mb dbsg g juct`pc`obr 
?5> ( e`iurb 7?).
pgcb bcturb. Mgpa`s, m`v`m`r par træs (e`iurb 7?).

^grêjgtra (sgt
(sgtar
ar o`ro
o`roucbr)6 ^ :T+T+broa
ucbr)6 U : _ x l
?

E`iurb 72 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj broa. E`iurb 7? ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg ujb p`räj`mg.

Uacujg mg sÿc`mas igajàtr`oas O`c`hmra

As sÿc`mas igajàtr`oas sïa earjbmas ^brb a o`c`hmra, ghtrbj a vbcar ?,2=25 rg-
par træs m`jghs÷gs6 bcturb, cbriurb g pra- ( e`iurb 7=).
prgsghtbma pgca ώ g a rb`a (e`iurb 7=).
euhm`mbmg; partbhta, aoupbj uj cuibr ha
gspbéa. Gssg gspbéa aoupbma pgca oarpa U : ώ x T´ x l
à olbjbma mg vacujg, rgprgsghtbma pgcb
cgtrb –U‚.

A va
vacu
cujg
jg mg uj oa
oarp
rpa
a à ob
obco
couc
ucbm
bma
a oa
oaj
j bs
sgiu`htgss eÿrjucbs6
sgiu`htg

^brbcgcgpêpgma au ouda
 B eÿrjucb pbrb obcoucbr a vacujg mg uj
pbrbcgcgpêpgma tgj bs sgiu`htgs rgprgsghtb-
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
E`iurb 7= ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟  Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj o`c`hmra.
4> @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Oahg ]amb eÿrjucb qug bprgsghtb a hö-
jgra 4 au ? bo`jb g î m`rg`tb mg bciuj mg
^brb obcoucbr a vacujg ma oahg, mgvg- sgus gcgjghtas tgj a sgiu`htg s`ih`e`-
jas bi`r oaja ha obsa mb p`räj`mg, au sgfb, obma6
obcoucbr b ârgb mb dbsg (ώ x T´), juct`pc`obr a
vbcar ghoahtrbma pgcb bcturb g, mgpa`s, m`v`m`r  • Höjgra 4 - Gcgvbma î sgiuhmb pa-
(e`iurb 77).
par træs (e`iurb 77). tæho`b au ba qubmrbma. Gxgjpca6 4´ (cæ-sg
–ma`s gcgvbma î sgiuhmb patæho`b‚ au –ma`s
U : ώ x T´ x l ba qubmrbma‚).
?
• Höjgra ? - Gcgvbma î tgrog`rb pa-
tæho`b au ba ouda. Gxgjpca6 5¿ (cæ-sg
–sg`s gcgvbma î tgrog`rb patæho`b‚ au –sg`s
ba ouda‚).

 Bss`j, –T´‚ rgprgsghtb

rgprgsghtb a vbcar mb jgm`mb
jgm`mb
ma rb`a ba qubmrbma. ]ama bcibr`sja gcgvbma
ba qubmrbma oarrgspahmg b gcg juct`pc`obma
par gcg jgsja.

Gxgjpca6

T : 4> jj
T´ : 4>´ : 4> x 4> : =>>
E`iurb 77 ‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa
‟ Tgprgsghtbéïa mg uj oahg. Caia,  T´ : =>> jj´
Caia, T´

Tgobp`tucbéïa jbtgjât`ob _g qubcqugr `tgj mg ujb eÿrjucb ear gcg-

vbma
vbma ba ou
ouda,
da, db
dbstb
stb ju
juct`p
ct`pc`o
c`oâ-c
â-ca
a pa
parr s`j
Ugfbjas b mgc`j`tbéïa s`jpc`e`obmb mb öc- jgsja træs vgzgs6
t`jb eÿrjucb bprgsghtbmb, pbrb oâcouca ma va-
cujg mg uj oahg6 Gxgjpca6

U : ώ x T´ x l y : 4> jj
? y¿ : 4>¿ : 4> x 4> x 4> : <.>>>
 y¿ : <.>>> jj¿
Caia, y¿
Caia,
Ugfb bs `mght`e`obé÷gs6

irgib  ώ à
• B cgtrb irgib ώ  à ujb oahstbhtg jbtg-  B rgsacuéïa mg uj pradcgjb,
jât`ob g, oaja fâ ea` m`ta, sgu vbcar à `iubc b usbhma-sg b eÿrjucb ma bprgsghtbmb, adg-
bprax`jbmbjghtg
bprax`jbmbj ghtg ?,2=25. mgog î sgiu`htg armgj6

• B cgtrb –T‚, oaja m`ssgjas, à a rb`a mb 2. _ud

_udst`
st`tu`
tu`rr as sêj
sêjda
dacas
cas (cg
(cgtrb
trbs)
s)
o`rouhegræho`b. pgcas höjgras oarrgspahm
oarrgspahmghtgs;
ghtgs;

• B cgtrb –l‚ rgprgsghtb b bcturb. 4. Ebzgr bs apgrbé÷gs;

• A trbéa gjdb`xa mb eÿrjucb s`ih`e`ob m`- ?. _giu`r oaj b juct`pc`obéïa;

v`sïa.
=. Ghogrrbr oaj b m`v`sïa.
• A höjgra –?‚ à a höjgra mb m`v`sïa.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 42 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Jbtgr`bc pbrb Oahstruéïa A o`jghta O^ @-?4 hïa passu` bm`éïa mg
qubcqugr autra jbtgr`bc, b hïa sgr mg igssa
Jbtgr`bc pbrb oahstruéïa à tama g qubcqugr  (?%), g à ut`c`zbma oaja rgtbrmbmar mg pgib.
jbtgr`b
jbt gr`bcc ut`c
ut`c`zbm
`zbmaa hb
hboahoahstru
struéïa
éïao`v`
o`v`cc (ob
(obsbs
sbs,, prà
pràm`as
m`as,, À a o`jghta `hm`obma pbrb oahorgtbigj gj
ibcp
ib cp÷g
÷gs,
s, papahthtgs
gs gt
gto.
o.),
), ad
adt`t`ma
ma hb hb
hbtuturg
rgzb
zb au oa
oajjb igrbc, mgsmg qug gstg hïa e`qug gxpasta b suc-
`htgrvghéïa ma lajgj pbrb pramuz`-ca. Gcg mgvg ebtas mg saca au mg âiubs sudtgrrähgbs.
sbt`sebzgr bs gx`iæho`bs g oahm`é÷gs hgogssâr`bs A o`jghta à gjdbcbma gj sboas mg
mg bo
boar
arma
ma oaoajj b eueuhéhéïa
ïa qu
qug g mg
mgsg
sgjp
jpgh ghlb
lb.. pbpgc   Krbet   pbrb 7> ki, qug oahtàj mbmas
Hb gsoaclb ma jbtgr`bc, hïa à sajghtg a ( e`iurb 75).
sadrg a ebdr`obhtg, t`pa, ocbssg (e`iurb 75).
prgéa qug mgvgjas cgvbr gj oahtb, jbs tbj-
dàj b gsoaclb bmgqubmb g b dab qubc`mbmg
mgstg, pa`s `ssa `hecugho`b ju`ta hb goahaj`b
mg tgjpa g hb qubc`mbmg e`hbc mb adrb.
As jb jbtg tgr`
r`b`
b`ss jb
jb`s `s dâ
dâs`
s`oa
oass qu
qug g eb
ebzg
zgjj pb
pbrt
rtg
g
mb oahstruéïa o`v`c sïa gstgs6 o`jghta, brg`b,
pgmrb, obc, t`faca, sb`dra, jbmg`rb, jgtbc, v`mra,
tgclb,
tgclb, bz
bzucg
ucgfa,
fa, cbm
cbmr`c
r`cla,
la, jâ
jârjarjarg,
rg, irb
irbh`t
h`ta,
a, brg
brgh`t
h`ta,
a,
parogcbhb,, igssa, `jpgrjgbd`c`zbhtg
parogcbhb `jpgrjgbd`c`zbhtg g âiub.

O`jghta
A o`jghta à uj pÿ eg`ta oaj prapr`gmbmgs
bicaj
bi cajgr grbh
bhtgs
tgsg g c`i
c`ibh
bhtgs
tgs,, qu
qug g ghghmumurgo
rgog g sa
sad d b bé
béïa
ïa
mbâi
mb âiubub.. J`s
J`stur
turbm
bma a b au
autra
trass oa
oajp jpah ahghghtg
tgss qu
qug g ea
ear-
r-
jbj
jb j a oaoahohorgrgta
ta,, tr
trbh
bhsesear
arjb
jb-s-sg g gj uj ujb b pg
pgmrmrb
b br
br--
t`e`o`
t`e`o`bc,
bc,oa
oaj j bct
bctbb mu
murbd
rbd`c`
`c`mb
mbmg
mg g rgsrgs`st
`stæh
æho`b
o`bb b obr
obrib
ibss
g ba eaia. Rubhma a o`jghta gstâ b`hmb gj gs- E`iurb 75 ‟
75 ‟ _boa mg o`jghta.
tbma
tb ma er
ergs
gsoaoa,, eb
ebo`
o`c`t
c`tb
b a trtrbd
bdbcbcla
la g b ja jacm cmbi
bigjgj..
A o`jghta ^artcbhm à b mghaj`hbéïa tào- Mgvgjas
Mgvgj as brj
brjbzg
bzghb
hbrr as sb
sboas
oas mg o`-
h`ob
h`o b ut
ut`c`
`c`zb
zbmb
mb ju juhmhm`b`bcjg
cjght htg
g pb pbrbrb a qu
qug g oa
oahlhlgo
gog-g- jghta gj ârgb oadgrtb, sadrg gstrbmas mg jb-
jas oaja o`jghta, m`egrghtg mas autras t`pas mg`rb `sghtas mg uj`mbmg. Hïa à rgoajghmbma
oaja
oa ja as mg bc bcuj
ujêh êh`a
`a,, as mg oâ oâcoco`a
`a,, as am
amah
ahtatacÿ
cÿi`
i`-- ebzgr p`clbs oaj jb`s mg mgz sboas, hgj mg`-
oas gto. Gcg rgogdgu gssg hajg par bprgsghtbr  xbr gstaobmas par jb`s mg uj jæs.
prapr`gmbmgs mg murbd`c`mbmg g sac`mgz sgjg-  Ba rgogdgr a o`jghta hb adrb, a pgmrg`ra
clbh
cl bhtgtgss îs raraol
olbs
bs mb `c`clblb dr
dr`t`täh
äh`o`ob
b mg ^a ^artrtcb
cbhm
hm.. mgvg bpbcpbr g bpgrtbr a sboa pbrb vgr`e`obr sg
A o`jghta à harjbc`zbma, g gx`stgj btà gstg sg ghoahtrb –sacta‚ (daj gstbma) au gj-
22 t`pas ha jgrobma. Ugfb b tbdgcb b  tbdgcb 96 96 pgmrbma au mura (jbu gstbma).

O^ @ O`jghta ^artcbhm oajuj

O^ @-_ O`jghta ^artcbhm oajuj oaj bm`éïa rgmuz`mb mg jbtgr`bc pazacäh`oa
O^ @@-G O`jghta ^artcbhm oajpasta par gsoÿr`b
O^ @@-V O`jghta ^artcbhm oajpasta par pazacbhb
O^ @@-E O`jghta ^artcbhm oajpasta par eêcgr 
O^ @@@ O`jghta ^artcbhm mg bcta-earha
O^ @U O`jghta ^artcbhm pazacäh`oa
O^ U-BT@ O`jghta ^artcbhm mg bctb rgs`stæho`b `h`o`bc
T_ O`jghta ^artcbhm rgs`stghtg b sucebta
DO O`jghta ^artcbhm mg db`xa obcar mg l`mrbtbéïa
O^D O`jghta ^artcbhm drbhoa
]bdgcb 9 ‟
9 ‟ ]`pas mg o`jghta gx`stghtgs ha jgrobma.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 44 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Brg`b Mgvgjas brjbzghbr b brg`b gj uj caobc
oadgrta g sgoa. Jaclbmb, `hecugho`b hb qubht`-
]bj
bjdà
dàjj oah
oahlg
lgo`m
o`mbb oaoaja
ja bibirgi
rgibm
bma
a mbmg mg âiub b sgr bm`o`ahbmb hb oahegoéïa
j`öma, b brg`b pamg sgr ghoahtrbmb gj mubs ma oahorgta.
(e`iurb 79).
jbhg`rbs6 hbturbc g brt`e`o`bc (e`iurb 79). Hb adrb, a oahtracg mg rgogd`jghta mb
brg`b mgvg sgr eg`ta mb sgiu`htg jbhg`rb6 b`hmb
• Hbturbc6 birgibma j`öma qug sg bprg- ha obj
obj`hl
`hlïa
ïa db
dbsou
soucbh
cbhtg,
tg, taj
tajbj
bjas as træ
træss jg
jgm`m
m`mbs
bs
sghtb gj earjb mg irïas, gxtrbêma gj r`as, oaj ujb dbrrb mg egrra oaj b bcturb ma jahtg
j`hbs g vârzgbs. mg brg`b, pas`o`ahbhma-bs hbs mubs gxtrgj`mb-
• Brt`e`o`bc6 rgsêmua e`ha mbs pgmrg`rbs g ma ( e`iurb 7<).
mgs ma obj`hlïa g ha oghtra (e`iurb 7<).
pÿ mg pgmrb.

E`iurb
E`iurb7<
7<-- ]r
]ræs
æsjgm
jgm`mb
`mbss ha
hajah
jahtg
tgmg
mgbrg
brg`b
`bma
maobj
obj`hl
`hlïa
ïadbs
dbsouc
oucbhtg.
bhtg.
E`iurb 79 ‟
79 ‟ Jahtg mg brg`b.
Ubj
bjas
as su
supa
parr qu
qug
g bs jg
jgm`
m`mb
mbss ea
earb
rbj
j gs
gstb
tbs6
s6
 B brg`b à ocbss`e`obmb mg boarma oaj sub
irbhucajgtr`b (jgm`mb ma irïa) gj ju`ta e`hb,e `hb, • ^r`jg`rb dbrrb (gxtrgj`mbmg prÿx`jb î
hb  tbdgcb <,
e`hb, jàm`b g irassb. Ugfb, hb tbdgcb <, tambs obd`hb ma jatar`stb)6 >,<> j;
gssbs jgm`mbs6 • _giuhmb dbrrb (oghtra)6 2,4> j;
• ]gro
grog`r
g`rb
b dbr
dbrrb
rb (gx
(gxtrg
trgj`m
j`mbmg
bmg e`hb
e`hbc)6
c)6 2,>
2,>>
>j
]bjbhla haj`hbc (jj) Oaj gssbs jgm`mbs, ebzgjas as sgiu`h-
]`pa mg brg`b
tgs oâcoucas pbrb adtgrjas b jàm`b mgssbs
Jêh`ja Jâx`ja jgm`mbs6
Ju`ta e`hb >,27 >,5
E`hb >,5 2,4 >,<> + 2,4> + 2,>> : ?,>>
Jàm`b 2,4 4,= :  2,>> j (bcturb
?,>> ù ? : 2,>> j (bcturb jàm`b mb brg`b)
Irassb 4,= =,<
]bdgcb < ‟ Jgm`mbs mb brg`b.  Bpÿs mgs
 Bpÿs mgsobr
obrrgib
rgibrr b brg
brg`b,
`b, taj
tajbja
bjass b jg-
m`mb ma oajpr`jghta g mb cbriurb mb obébjdb.
 B qubc`mbmg mb brg`b à ju`ta `jpartbhtg. Ubjas supar qug a oajpr`jghta sgfb =,>> j g
Gcb mgvg gstbr c`vrg mg `jpurgzbs oaja tgrrb, b cbriurb, 4,4> j. Oaj `ssa, pamgjas sbdgr 
rbêzgs g passu`r ujb irbhucbéïa uh`earjg qubhtas jgtras oöd`oas mg brg`b gstbjas rgog-
(hïa j`sturbmb). B brg`b mb prb`b hïa sgrvg dghma, ebzghma a sgiu`htg oâcouca6
pbrb a trbdbcla gj oahstruéïa o`v`c, pa`s sub
sbc`h`mbmg oajprajgtg b sgiurbhéb mb jbssb :  <,<> j¿
=,>> x 4,4> x 2,>> : <,<>
ma oahorgta.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 4? @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Oajaà
Oaja à oa
oaju
juj
j rg
rgog
ogdg
dgrr b ob
obri
rib
b oa
oajj ujujbb ta
ta-- As erbijghtas rgsuctbhtgs mb gxpca-
cgräh
cgräho`b
o`bmg
mg2>
2>%
% pb
pbrb
rbjb
jb`s
`sau
aupb
pbrbrbjgh
jghasas,, tgr
tgrêbj
êbjas
as66 sïa sïa tr`turbmas par gqu`pbjghtas mgha-
j`hbmas dr`tbmg`rb. Hb sbêmb mb dr`tbmg`rb,
bs pgmrbs sïa sgcgo`ahbmbs, pbssbhma-bs
<,<> + >,<< : 0,5< j¿
par ujb pghg`rb. Mgpa`s, rgogdgj b sg-
iu`htg ocbss`e`obéïa gj euhéïa ma tbjb-
_g b oajprb eassg mg 2>,>> j¿, ebctbr`b hla6 >, 2, 4, ?, = g 7.
>,?4 j¿ mg brg`b.  tbdgcb 0,
Hb tbdgcb
Hb 0, bprgsghtbjas as mbmas
ma tbjbhla mb dr`tb, rgegrghtgs î HDT
9422 (Birgibmas pbrb oahorgta) g HDT
^gmrb 9447 (Jbtgr`b`s mg pgmrb g birgibmas hb-
turb`s) mb Bssao`béïa Drbs`cg`rb mg Har-
]bjd
bjdàjàj oah
oahlgo
lgo`mb
`mb oaj
oaja a bir
birgib
gibmama irb
irbömaöma,, jbs ]àoh`obs (BDH]).
b pg
pgmrb
mrbpa
pamg
mgsgsgrr hb
hbtur
turbc
bc (p
(pgm
gmrgi
rgiucl
ucla)
a),, sg
sg`xa
`xara
racbm
cbma,
a,
obso
ob sobc
bcla
la g dr
dr`tb
`tb (p
(pgm
gmrb
rb dr
dr`tb
`tbmb
mb au pg
pgmrb
mrb br brt`e
t`e`o`
`o`bc
bc).
).
 B dr`t
dr`tb
b à adt`
adt`mb
mb mg ujb uh`mbmg
uh`mbmg `hmustr`b
`hmustr`bcc
j`hgrb
j`h grbmar
marbb oah
oahlgo
lgo`mb
`mb oaj
oaja a pgm
pgmrg`r
rg`rb,b, ahm
ahmg, g, par  Adsgrvbé÷gs
jg`a mg gxpcas÷gs, aoarrg b mgs`htgirbéïa mb
( e`iurb 70).
raolb, mbhma ar`igj î dr`tb (e`iurb 70). • ^brb geg`ta mg masbigj, pamgjas
usbr m`äjgtra jâx`ja mg 47 jj pbrb ujb
j`sturb mg dr`tb 2 jb`s dr`tb 4.

• ]bjbhla jb`ar qug 95 jj à gqu`-

vbcghtg î pgmrb mg jïa.

• Hb oahegræho`b ma rgogd`jghta mb
qubht`mbmg mg pgmrb, a praogm`jghta à a
jgsja mb brg`b.

E`iurb 70 ‟
70 ‟ Dr`tb.

]bjbhla haj`hbc ‟ jbclb mb pghg`rb (jj)

Hujgrbéïa
HDT 9422 / HDT 9447 Oajgro`bc
mb dr`tb
Jêh`ja Jâx`ja Jêh`ja Jâx`ja

Dr`tb > ‟ ‟ =,< 0,7

Dr`tb 2 =,< 24,7 0,7 20

Dr`tb 4 24,7 47 20 ?<

Dr`tb ? 47 7> ?< 7>

Dr`tb = 7> 95 7> 95

Dr`tb 7 95 2>> ‟ ‟
]bdgcb 0 ‟
0 ‟ Hujgrbéï
Hujgrbéïa
a g tbjbhla mbs dr`tbs.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 4= @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Obc A t`faca jbo`éa bprgsghtb bs sgiu`htgs
(e`iurb 52).
obrbotgrêst`obs (e`iurb 52).
 B obc v`rigj, tbjdàj oahlgo`mb oaja
ÿx`ma mg oâco`a, à adt`mb par mgoajpas`éïa tàr- • M`jghsï
M`jghsïa a jb`s oajuj
oajuj (Cbriurb,
(Cbriurb, Bcturb
j`ob mg obcoâr`a b 0>> ¶O. À uj pÿ ju`ta g Oajpr`jghta - C x L x O)6 2> x 7 x 42 oj;
drbhoa g pura, jbs pamg oahtgr `jpurgzbs • ^gsa6 4,7 ki;
qubhma oajgro`bc`zbm
oajgro`bc`zbma. a. • Tgs`stæho`b6
stæho`b64>
4> kie (qu`cairbjb
cairbjb-ear
-earéb)/
éb)/oj´;
oj´;
 Bhtgs mg sgr sgr j`sturbmb
j`sturbmb oaj âiub,
âiub, b obc à • Rubht`mbmg par j´6
mghaj`hbmb v`vb; paràj, ba sgr pastb gj oah- b) ^brgmg mg jg`a-t`faca6 99 t`facas;
tbta oaj b âiub (qug`jb), gcb à mghaj`hbmb d) ^brgmg mg uj t`faca6 2=< t`facas.
l`mrbtbmb au gxt`htb, ut`c`zbmb gj p`hturbs g
gj bribjbssb
bribjbssbs. s.
 Bob
 B obcc bm
bmqu
qu`r`r`m
`mb
b pb
pbrb
rb oa
oahs
hstr
trué
uéïa
ïa,, ig
igrb
rbcj
cjghghtg
tg,,
à boahm`o`ahbmb gj sboas mg pbpgc  Krbet  (e`iurb  (e`iurb
5>).
5> ). Jgsja bss`j, oaj a tgjpa, gcb bdsarvg
ogrtb uj`mbmg ma br, tarhbhma-sg gxt`htb pbucbt`-
hbjghtg; par `ssa gcb hïa mgvg sgr oahsgrvbmb
parr ju
pa ju`t`ta
a tg
tgjp
jpaa ha ob obht
htg`
g`ra
ra mg ad
adrb
rb,, jg
jgsjsja a qu
qug
g
gstg
gstgfb
fb ju
ju`ta`ta dg
dgj
j pr prat
atgi
gi`m
`mb
b oa
oaht
htrb
rb b uj
uj`m`mbm
bmg.
g.

E`iurb 52 ‟
52 ‟ ]`faca jbo`éa.

^brb ob
^brb obmb
mb t`f
t`faca
acajb
jbo`é
o`éa,
a, bs m`j
m`jgh
ghs÷g
s÷gss pb
pb--
mra
rah
h`z
`zb
bmbs pgcbBD
cbBDH H] sïa mg 0 x 7,9 x 20 oj.

Dcaoa ogräj`oa au t`faca eurbma

E`iurb 5> ‟
5> ‟ _boa mg obc. ]bjdàj olbjbma, gj bciujbs rgi`÷gs,
mg t`faca db`bha, à uj t`faca ogräj`oa vbzbma,
]`faca jacmbma oaj brgstbs v`vbs g rgt`cêhgbs, ebdr`-
obma oaj ogräj`ob vgrjgclb adt`mb par jg`a
À uj gcgjghta mg bcvghbr`b bssghtbma mg gxtrusïa.
oaj bribjbssb, ut`c`zbma pbrb gxgoutbr euh-
mbé÷gs g hb oahstruéïa mg pbrgmgs. _ubs obrbotgrêst`obs sïa bs sgiu`htgs
As t`t`pa
pass mg t`t`fa
faca
cass jb
jb`s
`s oa
oaju
juhs
hs sï
sïa
a gs
gstg
tgs6
s6 (e`iurb 54)6
54)6
jbo`éa, dcaoa ogräj`oa, dcaoa mg oahorgta g
saca-o`jghta. • M`jghsïa jb`s oajuj6 0 x 20 x 20 oj;
• ^gsa6 ? ki;
]`faca jbo`éa mg dbrra oaz`ma • Tgs`stæho`b mb pbrgmg6 =7 kie/oj´;
• Tgs
Tgs`st
`stæho
æho`b
`b mb pbr
pbrgmg
gmg-gs
-gspgc
pgcla6
la6?>?> kie
kie/oj
/oj´;
´;
]bjdàj oahlgo`ma oaja t`faca oajuj, à • Tgs`s
Tgs`stæh
tæho`b
o`bmb
mbpb
pbrgm
rgmg
g mg
mguj
ujt`f
t`faca6
aca6 2>
2>kie
kie/oj
/oj´.
´.
eg`ta mg dbrra jbo`éa, oaj brgstbs v`vbs g rgt`cê- • Rubht`mbmg par j´6
hgbs
hg bs,, ja
jacm
cmbm
bmas
as gj ea
earj
rjbs
bs g qu
qug`
g`jb
jbma
mass gj ea
ear-
r- b) ^brgmg mg jg`a-t`faca6 44 dcaoas;
has b ujb tgjpgrbturb ghtrg 0>> g 2>>> ¾O. d) ^brgmg mg uj t`faca6 =4 dcaoas.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 47 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Jgm`mbs M`jghs÷gs haj`hb`s (jj)
gspgo`b`
gspgo`b`ss (oj) Cbri
Cbriur
urbb Bctu
Bcturb
rb Oajpr`jghta
2> x 2> x 4> 0> 0> 20>
2> x 27 x 4> 0> 2=> 20>
2> x 27 x 47 0> 2=> 4=>
24,7 x 27 x 47 227 2=> 4=>
]bdgcb 2> ‟
2>  ‟ M`jghs÷gs harjbc`zbmbs gj j`cêjgtras mas
dcaoas ogräj`oas.

Dcaoa mg oahorgta

_ïa gcgjgh
_ïagcg jghtas
tasha ha earj
earjbta
btamg
mg pbr
pbrbcg
bcgcai
cairbj
rbja a
E`iurb 54 ‟
54 ‟ Dcaoas ogräj`oas
ogräj`oas.. g oa
oajj br
brgst
gstbs
bsv`v
v`vbs
bs,, eb
ebdr`
dr`ob
obmamass oa
oaj
j o`j
o`jgh
ghta,
ta,brg
brg`b,
`b,
pÿ mg pgm gmrbrb g âi
âiub
ub,, gj pr prap
apa
aré
ré÷g
÷gss bm
bmgq
gqub
ubmb
mbss î
As dca
dcaoa
oass og
ogräräj`o
j`oas
as sï
sïaa eb
ebdr`
dr`ob
obma
mass oa
oaj j eu- rgs`
rgs`st
stæh
æho` o`b
b qu
qugg sg
sgmg
mgsgsgfb
fb.. _ï
_ïa
a pr
pram
amuz
uz`m`mas
asgj
gjujujb b
rbéïa o`cêhmr`ob au pr`sjât`ob (oaj pr`sjbs). Ha prghsb l`mrâuc`ob qug pgrj`tg mge`h`r uj earjbta
bssght
bss ghtbjg
bjghta
hta,, b eur
eurbéï
béïa
a e`o
e`ob
b pbr
pbrbcg
bcgcb
cb î sup
supgre
greêo`
êo`g
g rgiu
rgiucb
cbrr, oa
oajj br
brgs
gstbs
tbsg g eb
ebog
ogss gj
gjda daj
j bo
bobd
bdbj
bjgh
ghta.
ta.
mg bs
bssg
sght
htbj
bjgh
ghtata,, au gj pa
pas`é
s`éïa
ïa la
lar`z
r`zah
ahtbtbc.c.  Bs obrbotgrês
obrbotgrêst`obs
t`obs masmas dcaoas
dcaoas mg oahorgta
oahorgta
 Bs ebogs mgssgs dcaoas sïa v`tr`e`obmbs g sïa gstbs6
m`e`ouctbj b bmgræho`b oaj bribjbssb mg bs-
sghtbjghta g rgvgst`jghta; à par `ssa qug as • Rubht`mbmg par j´6 247 dcaoas;
dcaoas passugj rbhlurbs g sbc`æho`bs pbrb • Tgs`stæho`b6 oahsuctbr a ebdr`obhtg;
bujghtbr b bmgræho`b. • Jb`s rbp`mgz ha bssghtbjghta;
hb  tbdgcb 2>,
Ugfb, hb tbdgcb 2>, bs m`jghs÷gs haj`- • Jghar gspgssurb hbs pbrgmgs;
hb`s gj j`cêjgtras mas dcaoas ogräj`oas, har- • Jghar pgsa.
jbc`zbmbs pgcb BDH]6
^brb ebo`c`tbr a bssghtbjghta, bcàj mg
M`jghs÷gs haj`hb`s mg dcaoas mg vgmbéïa gcgjghtas `htg`ras, tbjdàj sïa ebdr`obmas
g gstruturb`s, oajuhs g gspgo`b`s jg`a dcaoa mg oahorgta; bss`j, gv`tb-sg a oartg
M`jghs÷gs haj`hb`s (jj) mg uj dcaoa. _ïa ebdr`obmas, tbjdàj, dcaoas
]`pa (oj) obhbcgtbs pbrb gxgouéïa mg vgribs, oahtrb-
Cbri
Cbriur
urbb Bctu
Bc turb
rb Oajpr`jghta
( e`iurb 5?).
vgribs g v`ibs mg rgspbcma (e`iurb 5?).
2> x 4> x 4> 0> 20> 20>
2> x 4> x 47 0> 20> 4=>
2> x 4> x ?> 0> 20> 40>
2> x 4> x => 0> 20> ?0>
24,7 x 4> x 4> 227 20> 20>
24,7 x 4> x 47 227 20> 4=>
24,7 x 4> x ?> 227 20> 40>
24,7 x 4> x => 227 20> ?0>
27 x 4> x 4> 2=> 20> 20>
27 x 4> x 47 2=> 20> 4=>
27 x 4> x ?> 2=> 20> 40>
27 x 4> x => 2=> 20> ?0>
4> x 4> x 4> 20> 20> 20>
4> x 4> x 47 20> 20> 4=>
4> x 4> x ?> 20> 20> 40>
4> x 4> x => 20> 20> ?0> E`iurb 5? ‟
5? ‟ Dcaoas mg oahorgta.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 45 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 hb  tbdgcb 22,
Ugfb, hb tbdgcb 22, bs m`jghs÷gs haj`- _b`dra
hb`s gj oghtêjgtras g a pgsa gqu`vbcghtg mas
dcaoas mg oahorgta6 A sb`dra à ujb j`sturb mg bri`cb g
brg`b irassb, usbma oaja oajpahghtg mbs
M`jghs÷gs mg ^gsa M`jghs÷gs mg ^gsa bribjbssbs.
uj dcaoa (oj) (ki) jg`a dcaoa (oj) (ki)
20 x 0 x 20 =,<
Jbmg`rb
20 x 0 x ?0 2>
20 x 22 x ?0 2>,9  ‟ ‟ À uj mas jbtgr`b`s mg oahstruéïa mg
20 x 2= x ?0 2?,5 20 x 2= x 20 5,9
irbhmg gjprgia, oufb gsoaclb ma t`pa mg-
pghmg, ghtrgtbhta, mb e`hbc`mbmg mb adrb6
20 x 20 x ?0 27,7 20 x 20 x 20 <,9 trbhs`tÿr`b au prav`sÿr`b (gsoarbjghtas, bh-
]bdgcb 22 ‟
22 ‟ M`jghs÷gs haj`hb`s gj oghtêjgtras mg dcaoas mg mb`jgs, tbpujgs, earjbs gto.) au mge`h`t`vb
oahorgta. (brjbmurbs mas tgclbmas, jbroghbr`bs, bs-
sabclas, gsqubmr`bs, v`ibs mas bssabclas,
]`faca mg saca-o`jghta tboas, tgtas gto.).
Ghtrg bs jbmg`rbs, m`st`hiugj-sg bs
À uj t`faca ebdr`obma pgcb j`sturb mg saca drbhobs, qug sïa, igrbcjghtg, gjprgib-
brghasa, hb praparéïa mg 7> b <>% ma prÿpr`a mbs hbs pbrtgs mb oahstruéïa hïa sufg`tbs
tgrrgha ahmg sg gxgoutb b adrb, jb`s = b 2>% b gsearéas oaja bs pgébs mg bobdbjghta,
mg o`jghta g âiub, prghsbma jgobh`objghtg rgvgst`jghtas, arhbjghtbé÷gs gto., pa`s
au jbhu
jbhubcjgh
bcjghtg.tg. ^brb a bssg
bssghtbjg
htbjghta,
hta, ut`c`- gssbs jbmg`rbs sïa jghas rgs`stghtgs g,
zbjas bribjbssb j`stb mg o`jghta, obc g partbhta, jb`s vuchgrâvg`s ba btbqug mg `h-
brg`b oaj trbéa mg 2646<, au oacb bprapr`bmb. sgtas; g bs mg cg`, bs qub`s sïa murbs, rg-
s`ss tg
s` tgh
h tg
tgss g mg bc bcta
ta v bc
bca
a r oa
oajg
jgro
ro`b
`bc,
c,
 Bs obr
obrbot
botgrê
grêst`o
st`obs
bs ma t`fa
t`faca
ca mg sac
saca-o
a-o`jg
`jghta
hta ut`c`zbmbs pbrb oahegoéïa mg jÿvg`s, `hs-
(e`iurb 5=)6
sïa gstbs (e`iurb 5=)6 trujghtas jus`ob`s g tbjdàj hb oahstru-
éïa o`v`c (p`sas g rgvgst`jghtas, brjâr`as
• M`j
M`jgh
ghsï
sïa
a jb
jb`s
`s oa
oaju
juj6
j6 2> x =,
=,7
7 x 4> oj
oj;; gjdut`mas gto.).
• ^gsa6 2,?= ki; Ugfb as m`vgrsas t`pas mg jbmg`rb g sub
• Tgs`stæho`b6 ?> kie/oj´; bpc`obéïa bmgqubmb hb oahstruéïa o`v`c6
• Rubht`mbmg par j´6
b) ^brgmg mg jg`a-t`faca6 2>> t`facas; • U`ibs6 pgradb, `pæ, obhgcb, jbébrbh-
d) ^brgmg mg uj t`faca6 4>> t`facas. mudb, fbtadâ, iubr`tb gto.

• Bssabclas6 pbu-jbre`j, obhgcb, pgradb,

 fbobrbhmâ, obdr`övb, brbruvb, tb`övb, `pæ
` pæ gto.

• ]gtas6 p`hla, fgqu`t`dâ drbhoa, fgqu`t`dâ

vgrjgcla, ogmra gto.

• Jbroghbr`bs6 ogmra, p`hla, `jdu`b, ob-

v`öhb, fbobrbhmâ, fgqu`t`dâ vgrjgcla gto.

À `jpa
`jpartbht
rtbhtg
g oahl
oahlgogr
gogr b mghs
mghs`mbm
`mbmg
g
mbs jbmg`rbs gj qu`cairbjb par jgtra oö-
d`oa (ki/j¿), oaja tbjdàj bs rgs`stæho`bs
î oaj
oajprg
prgssï
ssïa a gj ququ`ca
`cairb
irbjb
jb pa
parr jgt
jgtra
ra
qubmrbma (ki/j´) mg sgoéïa. ^brb `ssa, vgfb
E`iurb 5= ‟
5= ‟ ]`faca mg saca-o`jghta. b  tbdgcb 24 oaj
24  oaj gssgs vbcargs6
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 49 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
   Mghs`mbmg Tgs`stæho`b Autras jgtb`s oaja a bcujêh`a g a
Jbmg`rbs
(ki/j¿) (ki/j´)
egrra euhm`ma sïa ut`c`zbmas gj gsqubmr`bs
Obhgcb 7?> ?5> mg partbs g fbhgcbs.
Ogmra 7?> ?7>
Obdr`övb 0<> 95> U`mra
Guobc`pta 9<> 7<>
Iubrbhtï 05> 90> A v`mra à uj jbtgr`bc rêi`ma, mg supgreê-
o`g pcbhb g qugdrbm`éb; gj igrbc, à trbhspb-
@jdu`b 57> =7>
rghtg, jbs tbjdàj pamgjas ghoahtrbr v`mra
@pæ 05> 9=> obhgcbma, jbrtgcbma gto.
Fbobrbhmâ 90> =<> À uj jbtgr`bc ut`c`zbma, pr`ho`pbcjghtg,
Fbtadâ 02> 94> gj gsqubmr`bs mg partbs g fbhgcbs, ebdr`-
obma gj bctbs tgjpgrbturbs mg ujb j`sturb
Fgqu`t`dâ 7?> =2>
mg s`cêo`as (brg`b) g obrdahbtas, oaj râp`mb
Jbébrbhmudb 5?> =5> sac`m`e`obéïa.
^bu-jbre`j <9> 5?>
^gradb <>> 7<> ]gclb (2?)
^`hla 74> ?0>
 Bs tgclbs sïa ut`c`zbmbs gj oadgrturbs,
]bdgcb 24 ‟
24 ‟ Mghs`mb
Mghs`mbmg
mg g rgs`stæho`b mg jbmg`rbs. mgvgj sgr `jpgrjgâvg`s, bcàj mg sgr `sa-
cbhtg tàrj`oa g boöst`oa. Gcbs mgvgj tgr ujb
Jgtbc dab murbéïa g sgr mg eâo`c rgpas`éïa, pa`s, lb-
vghma b qugdrb mg bciuj gcgjghta, b sudst`-
A jgtgtb
bc jb
jb`s `sut
ut`c`c`z
`zbm
bma
a gj ad
adrb
rbss à a béa
éa,, qug tu`éïa mgvg sgr a jb`s eâo`c passêvgc.
à vg
vghmhm`m
`ma
a pa
parr qu
qu`c`ca
a gj ea earj
rjbt
bta
a mg db
dbrrrrbs
bs au ra
raca
cas,
s,  Bs tg
tgcl
clbs
bs jb
jb`s
`s ut
ut`c`c`z
`zbm
bmbs
bs gj gm
gm`e`e`o
`ob-
b-
ut`c`z
ut`c`zbm
bmaa hb oa
oahst
hstrué
ruéïa
ïa mg brjbrjbmu
bmurbs
rbsmgmg oa
oahor
horgta
gta é÷gs sïa gstbs6 tgclb mg dbrra, tgclb mg e`-
pbrb
pb rb cb
cbfg
fgs,
s, v`
v`ib
ibs,
s, p`p`cb
cbrg
rgss g vgvgri bs (e`
ribs e`iu
iurbrb 57
57).
). drao`jghta, tgclb mg bcujêh`a g tgclb mg
egrra z`hobma. Mghtrg gssbs, mgstbobjas
bs tgclbs mg dbrra t`pa erbhogsb, par sgr b
jb`ss ut`
jb` ut`c`z
c`zbm
bmb.
b. Gcb à pra pramuz
muz`mb
`mb par uj
dbrra mgv`mbjghtg j`sturbma g lajaig-
hg`zbma gj jâqu`hbs gspgo`b`s; mgpa`s,
sïa qug`jbmbs pbrb ar`i`hbr uj gxogcghtg
( e`iurb 55).
jbtgr`bc `jpgrjgâvgc (e`iurb 55).

E`iurb 57 ‟
57 ‟ Brjbmurb mg béa.

 B brjbmurb mg béa à oahlgo`mb pgcb

s`icb OB (Oah
(Oahorgt
orgta
a Brjb
Brjbma)
ma) oaj as sgiu`htgs
sgiu`htgs
vbcargs6 OB-47, OB-7> gto. Gssgs vbcargs `hm`-
obj b obrib mg trbdbcla qug b dbrrb mgvg su-
part
pa rtbr
br;; pa
parr gx
gxgj
gjpc
pca6
a6 OB
OB-4
-477 `h
`hm`
m`ob
ob qu
qug
g b
brjbmurb supartb 47 ki/jj´. E`iurb 55 ‟
55 ‟ ]gclb mg dbrra erbhogsb.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 4< @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Tgvgst`jghta ogräj`oa
As rgvgst`jghtas ogräj`oas sïa ut`c`zb-
mas pbrb rgvgst`r p`sas (cbmr`clas) g pbrgmgs
(bzucgfas), oaj vâr`as t`pas pbrb qubcqugr bj-
d`ghtg oaja ârgbs oajgro`b`s, `hmustr`b`s, rg-
s`mgho`b`s, ebolbmbs, p`so`hbs gto. _ïa pcbobs
mg jbtgr`bc ogräj`oa `jpgrjgâvgc, oaj ujb
mbs ebogs c`sb g v`mrbmb g autrb röst`ob au pa-
rasb pbrb ebo`c`tbr a bssghtbjghta.
Jârjarg g irbh`ta
_ïa pgmrbs mg irbhmg rgs`stæho`b g mg
oargs vbr`bmbs. A irbh`ta à jb`s jgsocbma, fâ
b oacarbéïa ma jârjarg à jb`s uh`earjg. A
irbh`ta à dgj jb`s mura, rgs`stghtg g jghas
parasa qug a jârjarg, gj qug sg pgrj`tg r`s-
oas oaj jb`s ebo`c`mbmg.
_ïa rgoajghmbmas gj bcvghbr`b gj qug
à gx`i`mb irbhmg `jpgrjgbd`c`mbmg, au jgsja
oaja jbtgr`bc mg rgvgst`jghta pbrb p`sas g
pbrgmgs. ^ar obusb mb sub murgzb, pgrj`tg uj
daj pac`jghta gj sub supgreêo`g.
Brgh`tas
As brgh`tas (gj pbrt`oucbr, as s`c`o`asas)
sïa dabs pgmrbs pbrb oahstruéïa, jbs, oaj a
bpbrgo`jghta mas brgh`tas brt`e`o`b`s, jb`s rg-
s`stghtgs g mg jghar ousta, gcgs sïa pauoas
praourbmas. ^ar `ssa, sïa rgsgrvbmas pbrb
geg`tas mgoarbt`vas.
^arogcbhb
À uj jbtgr`bc drbhoa, `jpgrjgâvgc g
trbhscöo`ma, qug sg m`egrgho`b mg autras pramu-
tas ogräj`oas par sub v`tr`e`obéïa, trbhspbræh-
o`b,
o`b, rgrgs`
s`st
stæh
æho`
o`b
b g oaoajp
jpcg
cgtb
tb `s
`sgh
ghéï
éïa
a mg
paras`mbmg. Gcb à ut`c`zbmb gj rgvgst`jghtas
g, pr`ho`pbcjghtg, hb oahegoéïa mg bpbrgclas
sbh`târ`as6 vbsas, d`mæs, cbvbtÿr`as gto.
Igssa
A igssa à ju`ta ut`c`zbma ha rgvgst`-
jghta mg pbrgmgs g tgta. Ha bobdbjghta oaj
p`hturb, gcg à bpc`obma m`rgtbjghtg gj qubc-
qugr supgreêo`g `htgrhb mg bcvghbr`b g mg dca-
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2
oas mg oahorgta sgj uj`mbmg, jbs à prgo`sa
ibrbht`r b bmgræho`b g ujb gspgssurb `mgbc;
pamg sgr bpc`obma tbjdàj gj supgreêo`gs oaj
rgdaoa.
 B supgreêo`g b sgr rgvgst`mb oaj igssa
mgvg gstbr `sghtb mg pag`rb, acgas`mbmg, uj`-
mbmg g autrbs `jpurgzbs. ^ar sgr bcobc`ha, a
igssa prap`o`b oarrasïa gj pgébs jgtâc`obs,
bs qub`s mgvgj rgogdgr uj trbtbjghta gspg-
o`bc au sgr pratgi`mb.
@jpgrjgbd`c`zbhtg
@jpgrjgbd`c`zbr s`ih`e`ob bpc`obr pramutas
bmgqubmas pbrb pratgigr m`vgrsbs ârgbs oah-
trb b béïa mg âiubs qug pamgj sgr mg oluvb,
dbhlas au mg cbvbighs, gj gstbma cêqu`ma au
sÿc`ma. A `jpgrjgbd`c`zbhtg à uj pramuta bm`-
o`ahbma gj oahorgta, bribjbssb, euhmbé÷gs,
cbfgs mg p`sas g tgrrbéas, rgsgrvbtÿr`as gto.
Gx`stgj ma`s t`pas mg `jpgrjgbd`c`zbéïa6
b rêi`mb, gj qug a oahorgta, au bribjbssb, sg
tarhb `jpgrjgâvgc irbébs î `hocusïa mg bm`t`-
vas `jpgrjgbd`c`zbhtgs murbhtg a sgu prgpbra;
g b ecgxêvgc, eg`tb oaj jbhtbs gcâst`obs (bseâc-
t`obs) prà-ebdr`obmbs, au gcbstýjgras m`ssacv`-
mas g bpc`obmas sadrg b cbfg hb earjb mg
p`hturb.
 B `jpgrjgbd
`jpgrjgbd`c`zbéïa
`c`zbéïa rêi`mb à b jb`s `hm`-
obmb pbrb ârgbs hïa gxpastbs ba sac g hïa su-
 fg`tbs b tr`hoas g e`ssurbs oaja dbhlg`ras,
oaz`hlbs, ârgbs mg sgrv`éa gto; fâ b ecgxêvgc à
eg`tb gj cbfgs gxtgrhbs, gxpastbs b `htgjpàr`gs
g sufg`tbs î oahtrbéïa g m`cbtbéïa.
Âiub
 B qubc`mbmg mb âiub à ju`ta `jpartbh
`jpartbhtg
tg
hb oahstruéïa o`v`c. Bss`j, b âiub pbrb a oah-
orgta g bribjbssb mgvg sgr patâvgc, g hïa sgr-
vgj b âiub pravgh`ghtg mg vbcbs, b sgrv`mb, b
mg paéas g b âiub ma jbr, pa`s gstbs passugj
`jpur
`jp urgzb
gzbss qu
qug
g beg
begtbj
tbj b qu
qubc`
bc`mb
mbmg
mg ma oa
oaho
horgt
rgta.
a.
 B qubht`mbmg mg âiub b sgr bm`o`ahbmb
has mgjb`s oajpahghtgs ma oahorgta mgvg
sgr r`iarasbjghtg a gspgo`e`obma pgca trbéa ma
oahorgta, pa`s âiub gj gxogssa tarhb a oah-
orgta jb`s trbdbclâvgc g jghas rgs`stghtg; oaj
jghas âiub, a oahorgta e`obrâ jb`s rgs`stghtg
g jghas trbdbclâvgc.
40 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 Ugfb sg Bprghmgu

2. Bss`hbcg (2) pbrb Gqu`pbjghta mg ^ratgéïa @hm`v`mubc g (4) pbrb Gqu`pbjghta mg ^ra-
2. Bss`hbcg
tgéïa Oacgt`vb. Gj sgiu`mb, jbrqug b bctgrhbt`vb oarrgtb.

( ) ßouc
ßoucas
as mg prat
pratgéïa
géïa
( ) _bpbt
_bpbtas
as mg sgiu
sgiurbhé
rbhéb
b
( ) O`hta mg sgiu
sgiurbhé
rbhéb
b
( ) Ob
Obpb
pbog
ogtg
tg
( ) Obmg
Obmg`rb
`rb susp
suspghsb
ghsb

b) ( ) 4‟ 2‟ 2‟ 4- 4
d) ( ) 2‟ 2‟ 4‟ 2- 4
o) ( ) 2‟ 4‟ 4‟ 2- 2
m) ( ) 4‟ 4‟ 2‟ 2‟ 4

4 .  Bss`hbcg b bctgrhbt`vb qug h ïa  `hm`ob ujb mbs rgoajghmbé÷gs pbrb a usa mg

gsobmbs.
b) ( ) Bs gsobmbs
gsobmbs mgvgj
mgvgj tgr mgirbus
mgirbus bht`mgrrbpbhtg
bht`mgrrbpbhtgs.
s.
d) ( ) Hïa sud`r
sud`r bcàj mas
mas ma`s öct`jas
öct`jas mgirb
mgirbus
us mb gsobmb
gsobmb..
o) ( ) À rgoajghmb
rgoajghmbma ma qug bs
bs gsobmbs
gsobmbs sgfbj
sgfbj p`htbmb
p`htbmbs.
s.
m) ( ) A oajpr`jgh
oajpr`jghta ta jâx`ja
jâx`ja mas jahtb
jahtbhtgs
htgs mb
mb gsobmb
gsobmb à mg 5 j.

?. Wj ähiuca oaj ujb bdgrturb jb`ar qug 0>¾ à olbjbma mg6
?. Wj
b) ( ) rg
rgta
ta..
d) ( ) bi
bium
uma.a.
o) ( ) ad
adtu
tusa
sa..
m) ( ) d`s
d`ssgt
sgtr`z
r`z..

=. A qug à uj tr`ähiuca `sÿsogcgs1

=. A
b) ( ) Rubhma
Rubhma passu
passu`` uj ähiuc
ähiucaa rgta.
rgta.
d) ( ) Rubhma
Rubhma b jgm`mb
jgm`mb mas
mas træs
træs cbmas
cbmas à m`egrghtg
m`egrghtg..
o) ( ) Rubhma
Rubhma b c`hlb
c`hlb m`v`mg
m`v`mg uj ähiuca
ähiuca gj ma`s
ma`s ähiucas
ähiucas `iub`s.
`iub`s.
m) ( ) Rubhma
Rubhma ma`s
ma`s cbmas
cbmas tæj b jgsjb
jgsjb jgm`
jgm`mb.
mb.

7.  Gj ujb o`rouhegræho`b, b c`hlb qug rgtb uhg a oghtra b qubcqugr pahta mgstb à
olbjbmb mg6
b) ( ) rb
rb`a
`a..
d) ( ) m`ä
m`äjgt
jgtra.ra.
o) ( ) rgt
rgtäh
ähiuc
iuca.a.
m) ( ) äh
ähiu
iucaca..

5. Hb cg`turb g `htgrprgtbéïa mg prafgtas, a mgsghla gj prafgéïa vgrt`obc gxgoutbma

5. Hb gxgoutbma gj gs-
obcbs à olbjbma mg6
b) ( ) pcbh
pcbhtb
tb db`
db`xbxb..
d) ( ) pra
prafgé
fgéïa
ïa..
o) ( ) oý
oýja
jama
ma..
m) ( ) oa
oart
rtg.
g.
Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 ?> @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra
 9. Wj oghtêjgtra à gqu`vbcghtg b6
9. Wj
b) ( ) j`càs`j
j`càs`jbb pbrtg
pbrtg ma jgtra.
jgtra.
d) ( ) 2>
2>>> j.
o) ( ) oghtàs
oghtàs`jb
`jb pbrt
pbrtg
g ma jgtra
jgtra..
m) ( ) 2.
2.>>
>>>> j.

<. Rubc à b eÿrjucb pbrb a oâcouca mb ârgb mg ujb o`rouhegræho`b1

<. Rubc
b) ( ) _ : D x D
d) ( ) _ : ώ x T´
o) ( ) _ : D x l
m) ( ) _ : D + d x l
4

0. Bss`hbcg b bctgrhbt`vb qug `hm`ob b eÿrjucb pbrb obcoucbr a vacujg mg uj o`c`hmra.

0. Bss`hbcg
b) ( ) U : ώ x T´
T´ x l
d) ( ) U : D x O x l
o) ( ) U : ώ x T´
T´ x β
?5>
m) ( ) U : _ x l
?

2>. Rubc à a oarrgta brjbzghbjghta ma o`jghta1

2>. Rubc
b) ( ) Gj ârgb oadgrtb, sadrg
sadrg gstrbmas
gstrbmas mg jbmg`rb
jbmg`rb `sghtas mg uj`mbmg.
uj`mbmg.
d) ( ) Gj ârgb bdgr
bdgrtb,
tb, sadrg
sadrg pgmr
pgmrbs.
bs.
o) ( ) Gj ârgb
ârgb oadgr
oadgrtb,
tb, sadrg
sadrg b brg`b
brg`b..
m) ( ) Gj ârgb
ârgb bdgrtb,
bdgrtb, sadrg
sadrg t`facas
t`facas jbo`é
jbo`éas.
as.

22. Gcgjghta oaj earjbta mg pbrbcgcairbja g brgstbs v`vbs, ebdr`obma oaj o`jghta, brg`b,
22. Gcgjghta
pÿ mg pgmrb g âiub. Gstbjas ebcbhma mg qubc gcgjghta mg bcvghbr`b1
b) ( ) ]`fa
]`faca
ca jbo
jbo`éa
`éa..
d) ( ) Dcaoa
Dcaoa mg oaho
oahorgta
rgta..
o) ( ) ]`faca
]`faca mg saca
saca-o`jg
-o`jghta.
hta.
m) ( ) Dcao
Dcaoaa ogrä
ogräj`o
j`oa.a.

24. Bss`hbcg (U) pbrb vgrmbmg`ra g (E) pbrb ebcsa hbs be`rjbé÷gs b sgiu`r. Mgpa`s, jbrqug
24. Bss`hbcg
b bctgrhbt`vb oarrgtb.

@- ( ) A jgtbc
jgtbc jb`s
jb`s ut`c`zbm
ut`c`zbma a gj adrbs
adrbs à a béa.
béa.
@@- ( ) B tgclb mg
mg dbrra `tbc`b
`tbc`bha
ha à b jb`s ut`c`zb
ut`c`zbmb
mb gj adrbs.
adrbs.
@@@- ( ) @jpgrjgbd`c`zbr
@jpgrjgbd`c`zbr s`ih`e`ob rgvgst`r pbrgmgs
pbrgmgs g tgta oaj igssa.

b) ( ) ]ambs
]ambs sïa vgrmb
vgrmbmg`rb
mg`rbs.
s.
d) ( ) _ajghtg
_ajghtg b pr`jg
pr`jg`rb
`rb à vgrmb
vgrmbmg`rb
mg`rb..
o) ( ) B sgiu
sgiuhmb
hmb g b tgrog`rb
tgrog`rb sïa
sïa vgrmbm
vgrmbmg`rbs
g`rbs..
m) ( ) ]ambs
]ambs sïa ebcsb
ebcsbs.
s.

Oursa mg ^gmrg`ra - Bucb 2 ?2 @hst`tuta Wh`vgrsbc Drbs`cg`ra