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Chapter 9 Reservior Planning and Storage Analysis
Chapter 9 Reservior Planning and Storage Analysis
Chapter 9 Reservior Planning and Storage Analysis
The statement of the objectives, the collection of data, the future projections, the project formulation and
project evaluation as shown in Fig 9.1 all combined form the feasibility study. This may take 1 to 5 years
and would include resource mobilization. The collection of data would include field reconnaissance
surveys to collect extensive topographical, geological and hydrological survey data and also mapping of
data. Feasibility studies would include options with regard to the location, height and type of dam and
comparisons drawn in terms of estimated costs and construction programs.
Initial dam site evaluations are then carried out through extensive investigations to confirm that the site
can be developed to the desired scale at an acceptable cost. These require careful planning and
considerable time and resource investment. After which the type of dam to be constructed is then
confirmed. This may take 2 – 4 years.
Detailed dam site investigations are then carried out. This is done to determine the engineering parameters
to be safely used for foundation stability; to determine seepage patterns and parameters; to confirm the
containment integrity of the reservoir basin and stability of its margins; and confirmation of the nature,
suitability and availability of natural construction materials. Key features of this phase include:
meticulous logging of all natural and excavated exposures and borehole records. This information is used
to prepare the detailed design and may take 1-2 years.
The next stage is implementation which first involves the procurement of a contractor, after which the
contractor can commence; this stage lasts 2-6 years (Novak et al, 1996).
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Statement of Objectives
Collection of Data
Future Projections
Project Formulation
Project Evaluation
Project Implementation
i) Large storage capacity: The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir has a large
capacity to store water.
ii) Suitable site for the dam: There should be good foundation for the dam and the reservoir basin
should have a narrow opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is so small. The cost of
the dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the reservoir.
iii) Water tightness of the reservoir: The geological conditions of the reservoir site should be such
that the reservoir basin is water tight. The reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not suitable.
The reservoir basin having shales, slates, gneiss, granite etc are generally suitable.
iv) Good hydrological conditions: The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir site
should be such the runoff is available for storage. The catchment area of the river should give
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high yield. There should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to evaporation, transpiration
and percolation.
v) Deep reservoir: The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed in the construction of the
dam. A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow one because in the former the evaporation losses
are small, the cost of land acquisition low and the weed growth less.
vi) Small-submerged area: The site should be such that the submerged area is minimum. It should
not affect the ecology of the region. Monuments of historical and architectural importance should
not be submerged.
vii) Low silt inflow: The life of the reservoir is short if the river water at the site has a large quantity
of sediments. The reservoir site should be selected such that is excludes the water from those
tributaries which carry a high percentage of silt.
viii) No objection minerals: The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not contain any
objectionable soluble minerals which may contaminate the water. The stored water should be
suitable for its intended use.
ix) Low cost of real estate: The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwellings, and roads
should be low.
vii) Dead storage: The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called dead storage.
The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating
conditions.
viii) Bank storage: If the banks of the reservoir are porous, they temporarily store some water when
the reservoir is full. The stored water in the banks drains into the reservoir when the water level in
the reservoir falls. Thus the banks of the reservoirs act like mini reservoirs. The bank storage
increases the effective capacity of the reservoir above the capacity indicated by the elevation –
storage curve. However, in most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small because the banks are
usually impervious.
ix) Valley storage: The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley up to the top of
its banks before the construction of a reservoir is called valley storage. The valley storage
depends upon the cross-section of the river, the length of the river and its water level. The net
increase in the storage capacity after the construction of a reservoir is equal to the total capacity
of the reservoir up to FRL minus the valley storage. However, this distinction between the net
storage capacity and the total storage is not of much significance in a conservation or storage
reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for different purposes. But in the
case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net storage capacity and the total
storage capacity is important because the effective storage for flood control is reduced due to the
valley storage. The effective storage is equal to the sum of the useful storage and the surcharge
storage minus the valley storage in the case of a flood control reservoir.
x) Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the volume of water, which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in
a specified period of time. The time period for the estimation of yield is selected according to the
size of the reservoir. It may be a day for a small reservoir and a month or a year for a large
reservoir. The yield is expressed as Mm3/ year for the large reservoirs.
xi) Safe Yield (Firm Yield): Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water, which can be supplied from
a reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year. The lowest recorded natural
flow of the river for a number of years is taken as the critical dry period for determining the safe
yield.
xii) Secondary Yield: Secondary Yield is the quantity of water, which is available during the period of
high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield. There is guarantee to supply the
secondary yield. It is supplied on as and when basis at the lower rates.
xiii) Average Yield: The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary
yield over a long period of time.
xiv) Design Yield: The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design yield
is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of water
involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of the consumers are met with, and at
the same time, the storage required is not unduly large (Arora, 2007).
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M.W.L
Surcharge Storage
Crest
F.R.L
Minimum
Pool Level
Reservoir
M.W.L
Surcharge Storage
Minimum
Pool Level
Reservoir
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a) Dam Site. For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey is
conducted. A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually prepared. The contour interval is
usually 1m or 2m. The contour plan should cover an area at least up to 200m upstream and 400m
downstream and for adequate width beyond the two abutments.
b) Reservoir. For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually1/15,000 with a contour interval of
2m to 3m, depending upon the size of the reservoir. The area-elevation and storage –elevation curves
are prepared for different elevations up to an elevation of 3 to 5m higher than the anticipated
maximum water level (MWL).
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The most important aspect of reservoir planning is to estimate the quantity of water likely to be available
in the river from year to year and season to season. For determination of the required storage capacity of a
reservoir, the runoff pattern of the river at the dam site is required. If the stream gauging has been done
for a number of years before the construction of the dam, the runoff pattern will be available from the
record. It is generally assumed that the runoff pattern will be substantially the same in the future as well.
The available record is used for estimating the storage capacity. The inflow hydrographs of two or three
consecutive dry years when the discharge is low are frequently used for estimating the required capacity.
However, if the stream gauging records are not available, the runoff and yield have to be estimated
indirectly by other methods.
ii). To determine the flood discharge at the site.
The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from the inflow hydrograph for the worst flood when the
discharge in the river is at maximum. Flood routing is done to estimate the maximum outflow and the
maximum water level reached during the worst flood. The methods for estimating the maximum flood
discharge are discussed under flood routing in Chapter 11.
Assessment ii) Forestry iii) Natural Habitats, iv) Pest management, v) Involuntary Resettlement, vi)
Indigenous Persons vii) Cultural Property, viii) Dam Safety ix) International Waterways and x) Disputed
Areas. All are applicable to hydropower except for Forestry and Disputed Areas.
Table 9.1 provides the potential impacts, consequences and mitigation of a hydropower project.
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energy development and ii) develop internationally acceptable criteria guidelines and standards for the
planning, design, appraisal, construction, operation, monitoring and decommissioning of dams.
After more than two years of consultations with stakeholders in favour and against large dams, the
Commission concluded the following:
i. Dams have made an important and significant contribution to human development and the
benefits derived from them have been considerable.
ii. In many cases, an unacceptable and often unnecessary price has been secured to secure dam
benefits, especially in social and environmental terms, by people displaced, by communities, by
taxpayers and by the natural environment.
iii. The lack of equity in the distribution of benefits has brought into question the value of many
dams in meeting water and energy development needs, when compared to other alternatives.
iv. By bringing together all those with rights involved and those who bear the risks associated with
different options for water and energy resources development, the conditions for a positive
resolution for competing interests and conflicts are created.
v. Negotiating outcomes will greatly improve the development effectiveness of water and energy
projects by eliminating unfavourable projects at an early stage and by offering as a choice only
those options that the key stakeholders agree represent their needs.
vi. In future there will be growing competition for water to meet the demands for agriculture,
industry, and drinking water and that as demand increases, loss of water by evaporation in the dry
climates will exacerbate the problem. Therefore decisions on large dams call for rethinking the
management of freshwater resources, so as to minimize dramatic impacts of withdrawing water
from lakes, rivers and aquifers that adversely affect the continued supply of water.
WCD recommended the following:
i. Five core values of equity, sustainability, efficiency, participatory decision making and
accountability are applied to all future dam developments. In order to achieve this, development
choices and decisions on dams and development should be based on public choice guided by
policy and address a wide range of needs.
ii. During planning and developing large dams, a rights and risks approach should be applied that
comprises gaining public acceptance, comprehensive options assessment, addressing existing
dams, sustaining rivers and livelihoods, recognizing entitlements and sharing benefits, ensuring
compliance and sharing rivers for peace and development.
iii. Establish criteria and guidelines for good practices related to strategic options, life cycle,
environmental flows, risk analysis and integrity packs (WCD, 2000).
In Uganda, significant progress has been made through the Uganda Dams Dialogue (UDD), which started
in 2004, to contextualize the WCD recommendations by making them serve as a reference rather than
being applied in totality (UDD, 2006). This approach is partially being operationalised through the
development of a Multi Objective Decision Support System (MODSS), which models the evolving
relationships between decision makers, negotiators, stakeholders and their values, operational goals,
control decisions, criteria and group pReferences. Here stakeholders structure their management
objectives and performance indicators of some preferred management alternative using value trees
(Zaake, 2007).
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250 14000
12000
200
10000
150
8000
100 6000
A1 4000
50
2000
A1
0 0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Year Y ea r
Fig 9.4 shows the mass inflow curve. The ordinate of the curve at the year 1980 is zero and that at the
year 1981 is equal to the volume of water flowed from the year 1980 to 1982. The ordinate of the curve at
the year 1982 represents the total volume of water year from the year 1980 to 1982. Likewise the other
ordinates of the mass are found and plotted. The mass curve is a continuously rising curve as it shows the
accumulated volume against time. If there is no flow during a certain period, the mass curve can be
horizontal but it can never fall. On the other hand the mass curve can rise steeply when there is a large
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inflow. The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of inflow at that time. Relatively dry periods
are indicated as depressions with concavity upwards, whereas the periods of high discharge are indicated
as crests with convexity upwards.
Mass Demand Curve
A mass demand curve is a plot of demand rate against time. The mass demand curve is determined from
the demand curve in the same manner as the mass inflow curve is determined from the hydrograph.
250 14000
12000
200
Discharge (m 3/s)
10000
150
8000
100 6000
A1
4000
50
2000
0 A1
0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Year
Ye a r
When the demand is uniform, the demand curve is a horizontal line (Fig 9.5) and the corresponding mass
demand curve is a straight line, having a slope equal to the demand rate (Fig 9.6)
On the other hand, if the demand is variable, the mass demand curve is obtained from the demand curve
after finding out the area of the demand curve for consecutive years, as in the case of a mass inflow curve.
The assumptions for the mass curve method and others based on it, like the analytical method, the sequent
peak algorithm are as follows: i) If N years of data are available, the inflows and demands are assumed to
repeat themselves in a cyclic progression of N year cycles, which also implies that the future flows will
not contain a more severe drought than historical data.
ii) The reservoir is assumed to be full at the beginning of the dry period. Thus while using the mass curve
method, the beginning of the dry period should be noted and the minimum storage required to pass each
drought period should be calculated.
Procedure
Obtain the adjusted inflow Qa.
Obtain the rate of Demand, D.
Calculate the Cumulative Qa (ΣQa)
Calculate the Cumulative D (ΣD)
Plot a mass (inflow) curve using the calculated values
Plot a mass demand curve (line) corresponding to the given rate of demand superimposing it with the
mass inflow curve.
Draw the lines AB, FG, etc such that they are parallel to the mass demand curve and tangential to the
crests, A, F, etc of the mass curve. The points A, F, etc indicate the beginning of dry periods marked
by depressions as shown in Fig 9.7.
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Determine the vertical intercepts CD, HJ, etc, between the tangential lines and the mass inflow curve.
These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow volumes fall short of demand.
Determine the largest of the vertical intercepts obtained above. The largest vertical intercept
represents the storage capacity required. The vertical distance such as FL between successive tangents
represents the volume of water spilled over the spillway of the dam.
∑Q
Time (Years)
Example 9.1
Twenty-five years of mean monthly flows of River Moroto are recorded in the table below. A monthly
seepage loss of 0.2m3/s is estimated. Determine the required storage capacity if the demand is 80% of the
mean monthly flow and a compensation flow of 0.3m3/s must be maintained in the river.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Q(m3/s) 7.5 8.7 6.8 3.5 2.7 2.3 1.7 2.0 4.7 8.7 9.6 7.8
Solution:
Seepage loss, S = 0.2 m3/s
Compensation, C = 0.3 m3/s
Adjusted flow, Qa = Q - (S+C) = Q – 0.5 m3/s
Demand D=80% of Mean Monthly Flow = 66 x 80% = 4.4 m3 / s
12
The flow Q, adjusted flow Qa, the demand D, the cumulative adjusted flow Σ Qa and cumulative demand
Σ D are all tabulated in Table 9.2, after which the mass curve is drawn as shown in Fig 9.8.and the value
of the intercept is read off.
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M ass C urve
70
60
50
storage
40
m3/s
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M onths
m ass flow curve
m ass dem and curve
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Procedure
The stream flow data at the reservoir site is obtained, Q (monthly or annual low rate)
Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir during the month (P)
Estimate the evaporation losses, which would occur from the reservoir (E)
Determine the compensation required during period(C)
Ascertain the demand during various months (D)
Calculate the adjusted inflow during each month (Qa)
Qa = Q + P- E - C
Compute storage capacity for each month (S)
S = Qa - D
Obtain Cumulative (Qa – D)
Obtain the maxima and minima for each cycle
Note
The maxima represents a full reservoir
The minima represents the minimum reservoir level (maximum depletion)
A cycle is the period from when the reservoir is at maximum level to the next time it returns
to maximum or from when it is at the minimum level to the next time it is at minimum again
To obtain the amount of water that should be stored in any cycle, obtain the difference between the
maxima and the subsequent minima .i.e,
Storage = Max (Σ Σ(Q-D)) - Min (ΣΣ(Q – D)), in a cycle. (9.1)
The maximum value of the storage values gives the necessary capacity of the reservoir
To obtain the amount of spill i, add the storage of the cycle to the minimum (to fill the reservoir) and
subtract from the subsequent maxima, or obtain the maxima of a cycle and subtract the sum of the
storage and the minima.
Spill = Max (ΣΣ(Q-D)) -[ Storage + Min (Σ Σ(Q-D))] (9.2)
Example 9.2
Same Question as in Example 9.1, but use the Analytical Method.
Solution:
In this case the first four columns are the same as for the mass curve; iethe month, the flow Q, the
adjusted flow Qa and the demand D. This is followed by the fifth column, where there is the difference
between the adjusted flow and the demand (Qa-D) and then the cumulative values ∑(Qa-D) in the sixth
column. In the seventh column inflexion points are tabulated from, which the storage can be estimated.
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2. Locate the first peak P1 and the sequent peak P2 which is the next peak of greater magnitude than P1
(Fig. 9.9)
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4. Starting with P2 find the next sequent peak P3 and the lowest through T2 and calculate (P2—T2).
5. Repeat the procedure for all the sequent peaks available in the 2N periods. j.e. determine the sequent
peak Pj, the corresponding Tj) and the jth storage.
(Pj — Tj) for all j values.
Sequent peak, P2
(Positive)
Cumulative Net-Flow Volume, Σ(Xi-Di)
First peak, P1
Lowest trough, T2
Volume units
Time (months)
Lowest trough, T1
(Negative)
Example 9.3. Same Question as in Example 9.1, but use the Sequent Peak Algorithm Method
All the seven columns are the same as in the analytical method, however the data set is repeated as shown
in Table 9.4.
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Qa-D Inflexion
3 3 3
Month Q m /s Qa m /s D m /s m3/s 3
Σ(Qa-)m /s Point m3/s
J 7.5 7 4.4 2.6 2.6
F 8.7 8.2 4.4 3.8 6.4
M 6.8 6.3 4.4 1.9 8.3 (P1 ) 8.3
A 3.5 3 4.4 -1.4 6.9
M 2.7 2.2 4.4 -2.2 4.7
J 2.3 1.8 4.4 -2.6 2.1
J 1.7 1.2 4.4 -3.2 -1.1
A 2 1.5 4.4 -2.9 -4
S 4.7 4.2 4.4 -0.2 -4.2 ( T1) -4.2
O 8.7 8.2 4.4 3.8 -0.4
N 9.6 9.1 4.4 4.7 4.3
D 7.8 7.3 4.4 2.9 7.2
J 7.5 7 4.4 2.6 9.8
F 8.7 8.2 4.4 3.8 13.6
M 6.8 6.3 4.4 1.9 15.5 (P2) 15.5
A 3.5 3 4.4 -1.4 14.1
M 2.7 2.2 4.4 -2.2 11.9
J 2.3 1.8 4.4 -2.6 9.3
J 1.7 1.2 4.4 -3.2 6.1
A 2 1.5 4.4 -2.9 3.2
S 4.7 4.2 4.4 -0.2 3 (T2) 3
O 8.7 8.2 4.4 3.8 6.8
N 9.6 9.1 4.4 4.7 11.5
D 7.8 7.3 4.4 2.9 14.4
As can be seen, P1 – T1 = P2 – T2 = 12.5 m3/s, which is the same value as obtained in the
Analytical Method, Example 9.3. The storage therefore is 12.5 x 30 x 24 x 3600 = 32.4 x 106 m3
A Flow Duration Curve is a plot between the discharge as the ordinate and the percentage of time that the
discharge is exceeded as abscissa. The data used could be daily weekly, ten daily or monthly values.
Before the Flow Duration Curve is drawn, the streamflow data has to be collected.
We can assume that the average daily flow data are available for one year (365 days) for, which the flow
duration curve is to be drawn The following procedure can then be used for plotting the flow duration
curve from the daily flow:
The streamflow data is then arranged in a descending order of discharges, using class intervals especially
since the number of individual values is very large. If n is the number of data points are used in the
listing, the plotting position of any discharge (or class value) Q is
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where m is the order number of the discharge or class value and P is the percentage probability of the
flow magnitude being equaled or exceeded. The plot of discharge against Q and P is the flow duration
curve. Arithmetic scale paper, semi-log or log-log paper is used depending upon the range of data and use
of the plot. The storage can be estimated and will be equal to the area between the demand line and the
flow duration curve, and below the demand line as shown in Fig 9.10.
Flow duration curves are used widely in water resources planning as follows:
i. Estimating dependable flows in water resources engineering projects.
ii. Evaluating characteristics of the hydropower potential of a river.
iii. In the design of drainage systems
iv. In flood control
v. In estimating sediment load and dissolved solids of a stream
vi. In the extension of streamflow data to adjacent catchments,
Example 9.4
Same as Question in Example 9.1, but use the Flow Duration Curve
Solution:
The adjusted flow values are ranked in descending order in column 1 of Table 9.5. The number of times
this amount is equaled or exceeded is given in column 2. Column 3 gives the percentage time exceeded.
Adjusted mean monthly flows (in Number of times equaled or Percentage of time
descending order) ↓Qa (m3/s) exceeded (m) P = (m n X 100)
9.1 1 8.3
8.2 3 25.0
8.2 3 25.0
7.3 4 33.3
7.0 5 41.7
6.3 6 50.0
4.2 7 58.3
3.0 8 66.7
2.2 9 75.0
1.8 10 83.3
1.5 11 91.7
1.2 12 100.0
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(1 00 − 5 7 ) x ( 4.4 − 0.2)
Area A is approximately = 2 x
1
100
= 0.93 m 3 / s / month
= 0.93 x12 = 11.2 m 3 / s
= 11.2 x 30 x 24 x 3600
= 29.03 x10 6 m 3
From the example above, it can be clearly seen that though the value of the answers obtained are close to
each other, the flow duration curve method gives a lower value (compared to the values obtained using
the mass curve, analytical and sequent peak algorithm methods.
7
Flow rate, Q a (m 3/s)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentange of tim e equaled or exceeded
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Example 9.5
Determine the Flow Duration Curve for the data provided in the following table.
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250
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of time exceeded or equalled
Example 9.6
A dam is to be constructed in the River Sezibwa Catchment to store water for a proposed irrigation
scheme. The mean daily flows for the river have been measured for the critical year and are summarised
in the Table 9.6.
A compensation flow must be maintained in the river and hence no water can be abstracted until the flow
exceeds 15% of the average daily flow. In addition it is considered uneconomical to abstract water at a
rate greater than three times the average daily flow. Determine the volume of water that could be
abstracted from the river per year.
Solution:
The Flow Duration Curve Method can be used to solve this problem, because we are given frequencies
for particular flow ranges.
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First, we determine the average daily flow and then construct a flow duration curve from which the
required volume of water is estimated. Column 2 in Table 9.7 gives the mid value, which corresponds to
the range of the flow values for the frequency interval. Column 3 shows the number of days and the
fourth column is the mid value multiplied by the frequency in days and the number of seconds in a day to
give the volume for the number of days given. Table 9.8 is then developed based on the flows and their
frequencies.
Mean daily flow range Mid value-q (m3/s) Frequency (f)(days) Volume = qf x 86400
(m3/s) (m3 x 106)
0.10 – 0.99 0.545 144 6.781
1.00 – 1.99 1.495 63 8.138
2.00 – 2.99 2.495 60 12.934
3.00 –3.99 3.495 29 8.757
4.00 – 7.99 5.995 32 16.575
8.00 –11.99 9.995 18 15.544
12.00 –1 5.99 13.995 8 9.673
16.00 – 23.99 19.995 7 12.093
24.00 – 35.99 29.995 2 5.183
36.00 – 48.00 42.00 2 7.258
365 102.936
The volume discharged from the river in one year is 102.936 x 106 m3.
102.936 × 10 6 m 3
Average daily flow =
60 × 60 × 24 × 365s
= 3.26m 3 / s
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3500 45
40 3139.2
3000
35 2746.8
2500
30 2354.4
Flow, Q (m 3/s)
Power (KW)
2000 25 1962
20 1569.6
1500
15 1177.2
1000
10 784.8
500 5 A B
392.4
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of tim e equalled or exceeded
The volume of water that could be abstracted from the river can be obtained from the area of the hatched
area.
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A Power Duration Curve can be plotted by making the power as the ordinate and the percentage of time a
particular power amount is equaled or exceeded as the abscissa. Since the power generated is a product of
the discharge and head, a flow duration curve can be converted into a power duration curve by changing
the ordinate from discharge into power if the head remains constant according to the equation:
P= ρQgHη
(9.7)
P= Q(ρgHη)
Where Q is the flow, ρ is the density of water (1000kg/m3), g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2),
H is the constant head available (assumed 10m) and η is the efficiency of the turbines and power
generating equipment (assumed 80%). The bracketed portion would be constant and the corresponding
values of power are shown on the additional scale of ordinates on the left of Fig 9.12.
Like in the case of the flow duration curve, the area under the entire curve represents the average yield of
the river, the area under the corresponding power duration curve gives the average yield of power from
the power plant (Arora, 2007).
The Base Load is the energy required to be supplied continuously for most of the time for which the
electrical generator has to be run. The pattern of energy or load variation with time is called Load Curve.
From the load curve it may be noted that at a certain hour of the day, the demand or the requirement for
power reaches the maximum or peak value.
The Peak Load is generally defined as that part of the load, which is carried out at rate greater than 1.33
times the average load so as to supply the fluctuation portion of the load or energy requirement.
The Average Load is taken as the mean of the load for the period considered.
The Load Factor is the ratio of the average load to the peak load over a given period. Depending upon the
mode of variation of load, the load factor maybe calculated daily, weekly, monthly or yearly. Since the
area under the load curve represents the energy consumed in kilowatt hours, the load factor may also be
defined as the ratio of the energy consumed to the peak demand, if assumed to last for 24 hours of the
day.
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It should be noted that, while the peak load determines the capacity of the generating units, the load factor
gives an idea of the degree of utilization of the capacity. Thus, a load factor of 70 per cent would mean
that the electrical machines are producing only 70 per cent of their maximum production capacity.
The Capacity Factor is a measure of the plant use. It is defined as the ratio of the average load to the
installed capacity of the plant. For instance, a plant with an installed capacity of 60,000 KW and
producing on output of 4.5 x l0 KWH while working for a period of 150 hours would have capacity factor
= 4.5 x 106 = 0.5
60,000 x150. If the plant were so operating that 60000x150 the peak load becomes equal to the plant
installed capacity, load factor is identical to the capacity factor.
The Utilization Factor is a measure of plant use as affected by the water supply. More specifically, it is
the ratio of the quantity of water actually utilized for power generation to that available from river source.
When there is sufficient water to run the plant at capacity, the utilization factor is the same as the capacity
factor. However, depending upon the shortage of water supply, output may be curtailed, which may either
decrease or increase the utilization factor, according to the plant load factor. It may, in practice, vary from
0.40 to 0.90.
The Gross Head in a hydroelectric power plant is the total difference in elevation between maximum
surface in the reservoir at the dam and the water level in the river where the tail race is to be located.
The Net Head (also called effective head) is the head available for energy production after deducting
losses in friction, entrance and unrecovered velocity head in the draft tube.
The Firm Power (also called primary power) is the maximum annual rate at which energy in a
hydroelectric plant can be generated without interruption. This is a completely dependable power and
corresponds to the minimum streamflow available for all times. Firm power is thus available to
consumers for all the twenty four hours of the day.
The Secondary Power is the surplus or non-firm power which is available intermittently at off-peak hours.
Its use is primarily to relieve the load of overworked power plants in an interconnected grid system and
thereby ensure some economy or efficiency to the system.(Nagpal, 2000, Duggal, Soni, 2007)
9.4.5 Pondage
While storage refers to large reservoirs to take care of monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the river flow,
pondage usually refers to the small storage at the back of a weir, in run-of river plants, for temporarily
storing water during non-working hours, idle days and low load periods for use during hours of peak load
demand. These fluctuations may arise because of sudden change in the load demand on the turbines or on
the natural inflows of the year. The sudden increase in load demand would necessitate an instantaneous
increase in the inflows to the turbines, which can be met by stored water available in the pond created for
that purpose, or the excess natural inflows can be temporarily stored as pondage to cater for increased
water requirements of peak load demand. Run-of-river plants are feasible for streams which have a
minimum dry weather flow or receive flow as regulated by any storage reservoir upstream (Raghunath,
2005, Duggal and Soni, 2007).
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The pondage factor is the ratio of the total inflow hours in a given period (say a week) to the total number
of hours of working of the power plant in that period (a week). For example, assuming constant stream
flow, if a power plant operates for 6 days in a week at 10 hours per day, then the pondage factor would be
7 × 24 7 × 24
= 2.8, and if the plant works only for 5 days in a week, the pondage factor would be =
6 × 10 5 × 10
3.36 and the pondage required in the latter case would be (2x24 for idle days, 14x5 for idle hours)
48 + 70 59
x daily flow volume = of daily flow-volume. Thus the pondage factor serves as a rough
24 12
guide of the amount of pondage required when the stream flow is constant and the plant works only for a
part of the period. Pondage is needed to cover the following four aspects:
I. To store the idle day flow.
II. For use during hours of peak load.
III. To balance the fluctuations in the stream flow.
IV. To compensate for wastage (due to leakage) and spillage.
Example 9.7
The available flow for 97% of the time (i.e., in a year) in a river is 36cumec. A run-of-river plant is
proposed on this river to operate for 6 days in a week round the clock. The plant supplies power to a
variable load whose variation is given below:
Determine:
I. The average load that can be developed
II. Daily load factor
III. Plant capacity
IV. Weekly energy output
V. Pondage required and
VI. The surface area of the pond for satisfactory operation
Solution:
I. 7 days flow has to be used in 6 days
∴ Average flow available for power development
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7
Q = 36 × = 42 cumecs
6
Since maximum allowable fluctuation of pond level is 1.5 m, average head
18 + 16.5
H= = 17.25 m
2
The average load that can be developed
gQH
P= × ηo
1000
9.81 × 42 × 17.25
= × 0.85 = 6.04 MW
1000
It should be noted that the installed capacity has to be equal to the peak load and the number of units
(kWh) generated will be governed by the average load.
V. Pondage required
a. To store the idle day’s flow = 36 x 60 x 60 x 24hrs = 3.1104 x 106m3
b. To store the excess flow during low loads to meet the peak load demand. Since power developed
is proportional to discharge (assuming constant average head of 17.25m), flow required during
peak load periods of 6.00 to 12.00 hr is (1.4 – 1) 42 cumec and from 12.00 to 18.00 hr is (1.5 – 1)
42 cumec.
∴Pondage to meet peak load demand
= (0.4 + 0.5) 42 cumecs for 6 hr
= (0.9 x 42) (6 x 60 x 60)
= 8.1648x 105 m3, or 0.81648 x 106m3
c. Pondage to cover inflow fluctuations
= (0.20 x 36) 86400
= 6.2208 x 105 m3, or 0.62208 x 106m3
Total of a, b, and c = 4.549 x 106 m3
Add 10% for wastage and spillage = 0.4549 x 106m3
Total pondage required = 5.0039 Mm3 or 5.0039 x 106 m3
Since the maximum fluctuation of pond level is 1.3 m
VI. The surface area of pond = 5.0039 Mm3 = 3.336 x 106 m2 = 3.336 km2, or 334 ha
1.5 m3
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Sn+1= storage at the nth time period and the beginning of the n+1th time period.
Sn = storage at the beginning of the nth time period.
In = inflow during the nth time period.
Dn = release during the nth time period.
∆En = net evaporation loss from the reservoir during the nth time period.
Ln = other losses during the nth time period.
C= active storage capacity (where sedimentation reduces storage capacity during reservoir
life, this should be considered).
The time period is often taken to be one month, but this can be varied accordingly. Also, net evaporation
is taken as the difference between evaporation from the proposed reservoir and the evapotranspiration
from the proposed reservoir site and depends on the surface area of the water in the reservoir. Other losses
are considered negligible.
• Apply the mass storage equation (1) given above for every month or so depending on the time
period chosen. The release Dn can either be constant, assumed to have a seasonal variation, or
vary as a function of Sn. Inclusion of net evaporation may be done only when necessary.
• Consequently, compute the probability of failure by dividing the number of time periods for
which the reservoir is empty by the total number of time periods (total number of months in this
case).
• If the probability derived above is unacceptable, a new C value should be chosen and the steps
repeated (the process is thus iterative to determine the storage size for a particular design
probability of failure).
Conversely, the storage size for which a reservoir empties only once for the period of historical data can
be set. Calculation of this storage could be done using the mass curve and residual mass curve methods.
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i. Handling of non continuous records is difficult because of complexities in applying the initial
reservoir condition after a break in the stream flow data.
ii. Due to the fact that analysis is based on historical records, the sequencing of flows may not be
representative of the population of flows.
iii. The significance of the assumption that the reservoir is initially full on storage size can be
checked through examining a behavior diagram for various starting conditions. Analysis based on
generated data suggests that at least 100 years of stream flow are required for some rivers before
the effect of this assumption can be ignored.
iv. Drafts (demands) related to growth rates in time for example through increased urban water
demand because of population increase are not easily projected because it is hard to relate the
demand in the future year to a specific year in the historical flow record.
ii. The procedure takes into account serial correlation, seasonality and other flow parameters insofar
as they are considered in historical flows used in analysis.
iii. The procedure is fairly simple and displays clearly the behavior of stored water. The behavior
diagram can be readily understood by non technical people.
iv. Not only can seasonal drafts be easily taken into account, but also complicated operating policies
can be modelled.
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Example 9.8
Using behavior analysis, compute the storage required for a river whose data is given below to supply a
uniform draft of 77.1% of the stream flow with a probability of failure of 6.4%. (All values are x 106 m3)
year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec total
1951 5 3 3 18 21 11 19 52 27 12 80 48 299
1952 35 27 22 12 27 29 32 45 131 125 56 13 554
1953 14 16 25 2 22 47 41 58 91 85 19 29 449
1954 9 44 199 130 84 183 159 195 218 263 316 99 1899
1955 42 19 14 3 49 46 42 68 83 58 31 28 483
1956 98 22 64 87 90 62 101 63 110 126 72 53 948
1957 34 52 42 76 112 149 387 235 306 239 159 54 1845
1958 57 30 25 76 51 52 110 139 201 181 113 57 1092
1959 26 12 14 17 64 39 64 63 39 76 46 17 477
1960 14 16 7 14 16 56 42 154 146 101 89 30 685
1961 4 24 59 47 44 91 489 312 174 122 109 78 1553
1962 40 22 35 30 46 80 253 337 276 330 165 94 1708
1963 57 33 22 23 67 69 59 87 156 168 232 75 1048
1964 39 21 33 28 32 78 95 117 174 236 238 86 1177
1965 35 49 67 139 44 49 79 118 164 226 167 73 1210
1966 41 25 19 36 100 159 297 324 250 279 126 63 1719
1967 28 16 22 49 120 496 372 207 472 265 349 241 2637
1968 84 48 28 26 44 58 178 253 297 319 195 84 1614
1969 59 65 28 30 46 64 68 149 129 117 249 153 1157
1970 53 56 53 31 48 121 180 576 495 449 241 123 2426
1971 139 64 88 481 414 521 505 456 402 352 278 116 3816
1972 54 46 28 12 14 65 109 89 99 132 60 53 761
1973 43 22 17 21 89 105 151 271 105 226 104 72 1226
1974 42 26 16 34 23 33 72 86 195 211 96 36 870
1975 23 5 11 20 118 132 207 269 223 208 146 95 1457
1976 77 57 32 13 5 8 5 87 128 95 65 57 629
1977 32 19 12 16 141 109 86 132 119 104 90 43 903
1978 32 24 6 7 9 15 36 85 111 137 105 54 621
1979 17 14 10 22 29 79 367 287 289 409 154 97 1774
1980 32 15 14 16 19 22 54 67 152 78 62 48 579
1981 15 14 15 12 35 44 68 112 207 232 201 138 1093
1982 98 45 36 19 8 4 12 35 52 91 45 10 455
1983 7 2 1 6 76 128 58 222 155 319 152 73 1199
1984 87 54 28 42 45 84 178 132 197 103 75 62 1087
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Solution:
− mean flow = 101.59 x 106 m3/month
− Therefore from the iterations performed as shown for the steady draft (release) given with the
reservoir initially full, the required storage capacity is 865 x 106m3 as shown in Fig 9.13, the
behavior diagram
A study was carried out on two catchments in Uganda (Rugumayo and Kizza, 2001); one is of
bimodal rainfall (Chambura) and the other is of unimodal rainfall (Nyagak) on their response to
within year storage and relate it to reliability of the yield, the Behavior analysis method was
applied for three levels of reliability (90%, 95%and 99%) while the draft selected ranged from 0-
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100% of the mean annual flow (MAF). The results showed that for zero storage a yield of nearly
30% was possible for all reliability levels and was higher for Chambura , that receives bimodal
rainfall, as shown in Fig 9.14. Therefore for run- of- river schemes the demand would fall in this
region. Furthermore, the smaller the capacity of the reservoir, the greater the reliability and as the
yield increases so does the reservoir capacity increase until some assymptotic value of between
50%-70% of the MAF. The shape of the storage yield curve, gives an indication of the relative
costs of reservoir development on the respective rivers. For instance, a steep yield storage curve
means it will require less storage to meet a particular increase in demand, when it is assumed that
material and labour costs are comparable at both sites. The smaller the reservoir capacity, the
less the exposed surface area and hence the lower the evaporation from the surface. Evaporation
losses can be a significant factor during site selection especially in the Equatorial region.
Draft (% MAF)
Draft (% MAF)
Capacity (% MAF)
Capacity (% MAF)
Summary
In order to plan for the sustainable water resources, aspects of site assessment and dam selection must be
considered. This should include the functional and technical suitability of a site and an assessment of
anticipated environmental consequences of the construction and operation of the dam. The above aspects
and the principal stages involved in site appraisal and optimum selection of site and type of dam are
explained in this chapter. The challenges in the development of large dams together with the
environmental and social safeguard policies of the main stakeholders are mentioned. The
commonly used methods for the estimation of the storage capacity of a reservoir are discussed and
examples given.
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References
1. Altinbilek,D., Abdel-Malek, R., Devernay,J-M., Gill, R., Leney,S., Moss,T., Schiffer,H.P.,
Taylor,R.M., Hydropower’s Contribution to Energy Security, World Energy Congress, Rome,
International Hydropower Association, 2007, London, UK.
2. Arora, S,O. Water Resources Hydropower and Irrigation Engineering, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, 1996,New Dehli, India.
3. Basson, G., Hydropower Dams and Fluvial Morphological Impacts – An African Perspective,
Proceedings United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, 27th – 29th
October 2004, Beijing, China.
4. Carty, J.G., Cunnane,C., An Evaluation of Some Methods of Determining the Storage Yield
Relationships for Impounding Reservoirs, Water and Environment Journal, 1997,Vol 4 (1) pp35-45.
5. Duggal,K.N., Soni,J.P., Elements of Water Resources Engineering, New Age International (P)
Limited 2007, New Dehli, India.
6. Environmental and Social Management Framework, A Field Manual, Rural Electrification
Agency, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development 2007, Kampala, Uganda.
7. McMahon T.A., Mein R.G., Reservoir Capacity and Yield, Elsevier Scientific Publishing
Company, 1978, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
8. Nagpal, G.R. Power Plant Engineeering, Khanna Publishers, 2000, New Dehli, India.
9. Novak P., Moffat A.I.B., Nalurri C., .Naranyanan R., Hydraulic Structures, Second Edition,
E&FN Spon,1996, London, UK
10. Raghunath H.M., Hydrology, Principles, Analysis and Design, New Age International (P) Ltd,
2005, New Dehli, India.
11. Rugumayo A.I., Kizza M., Reservoir Yield Reliability Analysis, Proceedings of the 25th WEDC
Conference, 2001, Lusaka, Zambia.
12. Subramanya, K. Engineering Hydrology, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing, 2001, New
Dehli, India.
13. The National Environment Act 1995, Uganda Printing and Publishing Company, Entebbe,
Uganda.
14. The Scoping Report on the Decision Making Processes in Dams and Development in Uganda,
Uganda Dams Dialogue, DDP/GTZ/UNEP, 2006, Kampala, Uganda.
15. Thomas, H. A.,Burden, R.P., Operations Research in Water Quality Management , Havard Water
Resources Group 1963, Havard, USA.
16. World Commission on Dams (WCD), Dams and Development a New Framework. Earthscan
Publications Ltd, 2000, London, UK/Sterling VA, USA.
17. Zaake B., Report on Stakeholder Meeting: Enhancing applicability of innovative methodologies
and tools to improve engagement and participation of stakeholders and decision makers at every
stage of the decision process in the management of dams along the Victoria Nile in Uganda, 19th –
20th July 2007, Directorate of Water Resources Management, Entebbe, Uganda.
Further Reading
1. Chadwick, A., Morfett,J., Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, Allen and Unwin, 1989, London, UK.
2. Dake, J.M.K., Essentials of Engineering Hydraulics, 3rd Edition, Macmillan,London UK.
3. Design of Small Dams, United States Department of the Interior, A Water Resources Technical
Publication, 1974, Washington, USA.
4. Garg S.K. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1998, New Dehli, India.
5. Linsely and Franzini: Water Resources Engineering, McGraw, 1979, London, UK
6. Viessman, W., J.W. Knapp, G.L. Lewis & T.E. Harbaugh (1977). Introduction to Hydrology, Harper
Row, New York, USA
7. Wilson E.M., Engineering Hydrology, 4th Edition, Macmillan, 1996, London UK.
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Questions
1. The flow (in m3/s of River Aswa over 17months (each of 30 days) was:
April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
6.7 16.8 77.1 102.4 238 247 216 63 26.3 20.6 16.8 6.5
39.6 68.8 145 216 162
A hydroelectric plant using a net head of 24m, and developing 15.2MW at 88% efficiency is to take water
from a reservoir on this river. An exceptionally wet season proceeding the first April would have left the
reservoir full.
What reservoir capacity would be necessary to supply 15.2MW, continuously?
What volume of water will escape over the spillway in the above period? Use the i) mass curve method,
ii) analytical method and iii) flow duration curves.
2. A dam is to be constructed to embark on large-scale irrigation in the Kafu plains. Given the following
monthly minimum flows, for River Kafu, over a 15month period, determine the reservoir capacity
required, if the demand will be 75% of the average minimum flow. Seepage losses are estimated at
12,500m3/day, evaporation losses are averaged at 3.00mm/day throughout the year and downstream
compensation requirements are 1.0m3/s. The reservoir surface area is approximately 400 hectares.
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Inflow 12 24 40 12 5 4 7 4 3 3 7 23 37 8 6
volume x 106m3
Use i) mass curve ii) analytical and iii) flow duration curve iv) sequent peak algorithm
3. Which of the above methods do you think gives the most accurate results?
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10 SEDIMENTATION
Sediments are produced in the catchment of a river by erosion. Rivers carry a large amount of sediment
load along with water. These sediments are deposited in the reservoir on the upstream of the dam because
of reduction of velocity. The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as reservoir silting or
sedimentation.
The foothill areas were termed “mature” with more gentle slopes, less active degradation
and a tendency to equilibrium between erosion and sediment deposition. The valley is
both deeper and wider. This can also be termed as the boulder stage as shown in Fig 10.2.
In this stage, the bed and the banks are usually composed of large bouldes, gravels and
shingles. During floods, the river transports boulder and shingles downstream however,
when the flood recedes,these materials are deposited in the river bed. The river section is
well defined. The velocity is high but less than in the rocky stage.
The lower zones characterized by low gradients and low potential energy were termed
“old age” and were dominated by low velocity flows, deposition and low rates of
catchment denudation. This can be considered as both the trough, alluvial and deltaic
stages as shown in Fig 10.2. The river meanders and the cross section is made of alluvial
sand and silt. The river carries sediments which are the same as the bed and the bank. In
the deltaic stage, the last stage before it discharges into the sea, the bed slope and velocity
are further reduced. The river is unable to carry sediments and consequently drops them
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and gets divided into channels on either side of the deposited sediments and forms a delta
(Arora, 2007).
A fluvial system can be further classified in terms of sediment activity into three zones:
an upper zone of sediment production (source) (youthful), a middle zone (transfer)
(mature) essentially in equilibrium, and a lower zone (sink or deposition area), (old)
where controls are base level and diastrophism. The fluvial cycle is the name given to the
series of progressive changes in landforms, which results from the development of a river
system. All the processes of erosion and deposition connected with rivers combine to
bring these changes and in areas of moderate rainfall, they are among the dominat factors
shaping the landscape (Read and Watson, 1972).
iii) Morphological Classification: This approach considers that the basis of any classification
system should be the river reach, a homogenous reach being a stretch of a river of
variable length within which controls of channel form such as hydrology, geology and
adjacent catchment conditions are sufficiently uniform to result in relatively uniform
channel morphology. More comprehensive classifications were developed that
differentiated between straight, meandering and braided channel patterns.
iv) Hierarchical Classification: this links large regional scales (ecoregions) with small
microhabitat scales. The basic assumption for the development of the hierarchical stream
classification is the geomorphologic premise that the structure and dynamics of the
stream are determined by the surrounding catchment.
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A study (Rugumayo et al, 2004) was carried out on three rivers in Uganda, namely, Kagera, Sio and
Katonga, to estimate the amount of sediment load they carried and then develop a simple classification of
rivers in this region, based on the sediment load. The hierarchical system of classification was applied,
because it deals with large spatial variability and can relate to fewer variables than most other systems.
There are three major sources of sediment input into L. Victoria. These are direct runoff from the
catchment, sediment loads from the rivers and from physiochemical and biological processes within the
lake as a result of external factors. Agricultural related activities by the communities living in the river
and Lake Basin, are the most influential cause of sediment inflow into the lake.
The sediment load of rivers carried by moving water is subdivided into two categories namely; suspended
load and bed load. The study focused on the suspended load since according to previous studies
(Mwebembezi et al, 2001), approximately 94% of the sediment yield was found to comprise of suspended
load, hence the significance of the suspended load analysis.
A simple classification model was developed using the Rating Curve method, the Quasi Maximum
Likelihood Estimator and the Smearing Estimator to assist in estimating sediment load per unit area.
Typical characteristics are as shown in the Table 10.1.
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The main causes of soil erosion in Uganda are i) Improper land use or inappropriate farming practices;
complete forest removal, overgrazing, exposure of bare agricultural land, ii) Climatic factors, especially
the amount and intensity of rainfall. The characteristics of rain in many parts of Uganda render it highly
erosive and put the soil at great risk of degradation. The dominant factor on amount of runoff and soil loss
is usually the frequency of high intensity storms rather than the total amount of rainfall. Most often, heavy
downpours are received in very short durations, iii) Other physical causes include a) soil erodibility: In
general the soils are inherently erodible and prone to erosion and erosion induced degradation, b) length
and gradient of slope. In general the magnitude and severity of soil erosion is a function of slope length
and steepness. These vary widely across the ecozones of Uganda ranging from 0% to 30% and so are the
effects; c) mass wasting can occur in natural forests free form anthropogenic perturbations due to
earthquakes., iv) Non agricultural human activities; for instance the construction of roads or buildings
that leave the ground unprotected generates large volumes of surface runoff that cause both on site and off
site erosion and especially since most roads are murrum and there is a housing boom, v) land tenure and
land fragmentation; this occurs more in the heavily populated districts of Kisoro, Mbale , Kapchorwa
and Bushenyi.
The areas most seriously affected by soil erosion are the steep slopes of Kabale, Kisoro, Bundibugyo,
Kasese, Kabarole, Kapchorwa an Mbale. Although this problem is well recognized, the actual quantities
lost per annum and the offsite damage it causes are not known. Several studies have been done to quantify
soil loss from runoff plots and extrapolate them to arable lands but the discrepancies are high (Magunda
and Tenywa, 2001).
Recent work (Bamutaze et al, 2006) in the Mt Elgon region on major cropping systems and three
landscape positions shows that runoff and soil erosion are occurring at catastrophic proportions and is
more severe in annual crops, like beans and maize as compared to perennial crops like bananas.
Furthermore, the greatest runoff and soil loss occurred in the lowest landscape position, whereas the
lowest runoff and soil loss occurred in the middle landscape position. They recommend the promotion of
perennial land use as opposed to annual crops and the sensitization of communities on land use practices.
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Turbid
inflow Floating
Debris Water
Surface
Relatively
clear
water
Delta
Density
Current
Fine Sluiceways
sediments
The sediment load of the river depends upon the following factors:
i) Nature of soil in the catchment: If the soil in the catchment is loose and easily eroded, the sediment
load is large. On the other hand, if the soil is hard and non erodible, the sediment load is quite small.
ii) Vegetal cover: If the catchment area has no vegetal cover, the soil is easily eroded and the sediment
load is large.
iii) Topography of the catchment: In case of catchments having steep slopes, the sediment load is large
because of high velocity of water.
iv) Intensity of rainfall: If the intensity of rainfall is high, the discharge in the river is increased and the
sediment load is large.
v) The size of a water body: has a strong implication for its hydrological and sedimentological
characteristics. In small lakes, wind-induced re-suspension is the only important sediment transport
mechanism, while in oceans current-mediate transport mechanisms assume an equally important role to
wind induced distribution mechanisms.
A study of the pattern and mechanisms of sediment distribution in Lake Victoria (Azza, 2006) suggests
that for large lakes, with relatively shallow basins, surface wave action together with currents can predict
the sediment distribution. He further suggested that morphometric, hydrological and meteorological
factors come together to mix and disperse sediments via the epilimnion and produce alongshore and
cross- isobath currents that transport sediment northwards and northeastwards from the western shore. A
related study (Kimaro et al, 2006) carried out on the northern and southern fringes of Lake Victoria,
showed that the nature of field parcels and overall farming techniques has an overall effect of protecting
the soil structure against raindrop impact, encouraging water infiltration, obstructing runoff and
eventually minimizing soil loss from the gardens. They further noted that the presence of settlements is
associated with very high sediment yield, indicating that future unchecked expansion is likely to
contribute to sedimentation of Lake Victoria. Although aquatic weeds are effective buffers, excessive
sedimentation is likely to reduce filtering capacity and therefore make the lake more vulnerable.
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Trap efficiency: The trap efficiency (ηt) is defined as the percent of the total inflow sediment, which is
retained in the reservoir. Thus;
From the observations of the rate of sedimentation of existing reservoirs, it has been found that the trap
efficiency of a reservoir depends upon the capacity/inflow ratio. Brune (1953) gave the curves relating
the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio on the basis of a large number of existing reservoirs in the
USA as shown in Fig 10.3. He also developed an empirical relationship from which the curves are drawn;
In general the greater the capacity–inflow ratio, the greater the trap efficiency, thus sedimentation is
higher in relatively larger reservoirs. The trap efficiency decreases with the age of the reservoir, because
the available capacity gradually decreases. It also depends on other factors like shape of reservoir basin,
type of outlets, method of operation, size and grading of the sediment and the behaviour of finer sediment
fractions under various conditions. Churchill (1948) developed a relationship between the percentage of
incoming sediment through a reservoir and a reservoir sedimentation index, which is defined as the ratio
of the period of retention to the mean velocity of flow through the reservoir.
Murthy (1980) developed guidelines for use of the above methods. He recommended the using of Brune
method for large storage or normal ponded reservoirs and the Churchill method for settling basins, small
reservoirs, flood retarding structures, semi-dry reservoirs or reservoirs that are continuously sluiced. A
study was carried out on the River Nile Basin Sedimentation Problems (Siyam et al, 2005), which gave
the Table 10.2 on the capacity/inflow ratio and estimate of the trap efficiency using Brune median curve.
The results showed a range between 78% and 98%.
There is ongoing research, which intends to develop a Nile Basin Reservoir Information System,
(NBRIS) that will be used to plan, monitor and manage reservoirs using the various analysis of spatial
and non spatial attribute overlaying, simulation and modeling and integrated analysis of spatial and non
spatial attribute data. With the availability of remote sensing satellite data that provide 1-4 m resolution
and the centimetre level accuracy of GPS, it would be possible to update the data regularly.
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Table 10.2 Trap Efficiency Coefficients for different Nile reservoirs estimated by Median Curve of
Brune Method
Fig 10.3 Curves relating the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio
Source: (Brune, 1953)
Therefore, the complete sedimentation of the reservoir shall be more at the beginning and as its capacity
reduces due to silting, the silting rate will reduce. It can also be concluded that for small reservoirs on
large rivers, the trap efficiency is very low, because the capacity inflow ratio is very small. Such rivers silt
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very little and most of their sediment is passed downstream. On the other hand, large reservoirs on
smaller rivers silt significantly and almost complete deposition of sediment may take place.
ii) Maximising sediment throughflow: This requires flow regulation during floods and /or flushing during
reservoir drawdown. Under certain conditions the sediment laden inflow does not mix with the water in
the reservoir but moves along the old river bed as density current towards the dam, where it can be drawn
off by suitably located and operated outlets. In principle, the development of density currents requires a
significant difference between the density of the incoming flow and the water in the reservoir, a large
reservoir depth, and morphological conditions (steep, straight old river bed).The formation and sediment
transport of density currents can be predicted and should be applied to all reservoirs under various
operational conditions. Turbidity sensors should be applied at several elevations upstream of the dam wall
for management of density currents by releasing high sediment concentrations through low level outlets.
iii) Recovery of Storage: This can be achieved by flushing deposited sediment, a technique, which is very
effective when combined with a substantial reservoir drawdown, by siphoning or dredging; in the latter
case either conventional methods, particularly a suction dredger with a bucket wheel, or special
techniques can be used. Effective flushing requires excess water, suitably large low level outlets, a steep
narrow reservoir basin and judicious operation.
Dredging has been carried out only to a limited extent worldwide, mainly because of the high costs and
environmental problems associated with the disposal of dredged sediments and as a result should be
considered as a last resort (Basson, 2004).
iv) Sedimentation Compensation Measures: There are a number of techniques which can be applied,
which are discussed as follows; a) Dam raising; this provides an economical solution to regain storage
capacity lost due to sedimentation. The rasing options considered are fixed uncontrolled spillways, crest
radial gates, automatic crest gates of fuse gates, b) New dams; dam sites should be selected in regions
with relatively low sediment yields. The upper reaches have relatively high runoff, with low sediment
loads, however this is not always possible due to the location of power demand centresand availability of
dam sites, c) Design for sedimentation: designs should acknowledge the experience in reservoir
sedimentation, whereby 80% occurs in the live storage zones rather than the current practice of designing
for withdrawals from the dead storage zones. d) Augmentation from adjacent catchments; regulation of
runoff and sedimentation control requirements in a reservoir are often in conflict. Transfer of water from
adjacent catchments can provide a solution to sediment control if it is economically feasible and it can
provide sufficient excess runoff (Basson, 2004).
v) Simulation Techniques: The Reservoir Conservation RESCON model is designed to assist in the
selection of a reservoir management strategy that is technically feasible, which maximizes the net
economic benefits of a reservoir using four explicit options of sediment management namely: Flushing;
Hydrosuction; Traditional Dredging and Tracking. In addition the do nothing alternative (i.e. no sediment
removal), where eventual decommissioning is required is also analysed. The RESCON requires project
specific technical and economic data in addition to environmental and social safeguards parameters. The
important parameters with respect to flushing are representative flushing discharge; duration of flushing
events in addition to the parameters related to reservoir geometry, outlet capacities, sediments and water
flow. Before detailed calculations, the flushing scenarios are checked for technical feasibility, by
comparing the amounts of sediments evacuated with respect to amount of sediments inflow in a year. The
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tracking and dredging options are always considered as technically feasible. For the baseline case for no
sediment removal, the model assumes two alternatives: run of river and eventual decommissioning. All
options are taken through an optimization routine to find economically viable options for each. The
results are compared and ranked for final decision by the user (Palmeri et al, 2003, Kawashima et al,
2003). This model was applied to the Tarbela dam in Pakistan and it was found that the reservoir can
achieve a sediment balance ratio of more than 1 even with a flushing for 20 days in a year with a water
depth of 417 m above mean sea level and a discharge of 3,787 m3/s.(Tinsanchi and Khan, 2006).
An empirical reservoir classification system was developed (Basson, 2004) based on a plot of the storage
capacity- mean annual runoff (MAR) against the capacity-sediment yield ratio gives some useful results.
Most reservoirs have a capacity- MAR ratio of between 0.2 to 3 and a life span of 50 to 2000 years when
considering reservoir sedimentation. When the capacity- MAR ratio is less than 0.03 especially in semi-
arid regions, sediment sluicing or flushing, should be carried out during the floods and through large
bottom outlets. When capacity – MAR ratios are however, larger than 0.2, not enough excess water is
available for flushing and the typical operational model is storage operation. The operating rules for a
reservoir need not be inflexible, but can change with different stsges of storage loss Storage operation
may be continued in reservoirs with large capacities relative to the sediment loads, while sluicing
/flushing operation can be introduced once the loss of storage capacity reaches a certain stage. This is
shown in Fig 10.4.
Fig 10.4 Empirical reservoir classification system in terms of storage runoff and sediment yield
Source: Basson, 2004
Qs = mQn (10.3)
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The exponent n for many rivers ranges about a mean of 2 (Garde and Ranga Raju, 1985). They could for
instance have one for the rising flood stage and the other for the falling stage. Observations indicate that
for higher discharges, the exponent will diminish and approach the value of unity.
Sediment rating curves are usually based on short term data unlike water discharge measurements.
However, long term sediment load estimates are required for reservoir sedimentation. As a consequence
Miller (1951) developed a method for finding the average sediment yield by combining the short term
sediment rating curve, with the long term flow duration curve to become the Flow Duration Sediment
Rating Curve Method. Experience indicates that the flow duration sediment rating curve is most reliable
when i) the recording period is long, ii) sufficient data at high flows are available and iii) the sediment
rating curve shows considerable scatter (Julien, 1995).
It is possible to calculate the total load or sediment load from the sum of the bed load and suspended load.
Separate equations are available for bed load and for suspended load. However, experimental data are still
rather sparse, and it is very difficult to separate bed and suspended load from these data. For this reason,
some researchers have tackled directly the problem of total load. Three examples of total load formulae
are outlined below.
n m
q D U ∗ Fgr
G gr = S m V = C A − 1
sD (10.4)
1− n
U ∗n V
Fgr =
gD [s − 1] 32 log (10 D m D )
(10.5)
g [s − 1]
1
3
D gr = D
ν
2
(10.6)
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Where qS = volume of sediment transported per second per unit channel width
q = flow discharge
Dm = mean flow depth
D = representative grain size (Usually D35, that is the size of sediment for which 35% of the
sample is finer)
U ∗ = shear velocity
V = mean cross-section velocity
s = grain specific gravity = ρS ρ
ρS = density of sediments
ρ = density of water
ν = Kinematic viscosity
The index n does have a physical significance, since its magnitude is related to Dgr. For fine grains n =
1, for coarse grains n = 0, and for transitional sizes n = f (log Dgr).
wD 50 U
J = 1 .780 − 0 .360 log − 0 .480 log ∗
v w
wD 50 U
I = 5 .165 − 0 .153 log − 0 .297 log ∗
v w (10.8, 10.9,10.10)
I and J are parameters determined from multiple regression analysis of a large range of experimental data.
2.97
1.47
U∗
g (s − 1)D50
V
qt = k1
3
g (s − 1)D50 w
(10.11)
Where qt is the total sediment discharge per metre width in m2/s and k1 = 0.00139 is a coefficient of
proportionality.
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Capacity 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
inflow ratio
Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic meters, if the
average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual sediment inflow is 200,000
tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.
Solution
Average annual sediment inflow = 200,000 tons
= 2 ×105 tonnes= 2 ×1011gm
Volume of average annual sediment inflow
2 × 1011 2 × 1011 3 0.2
= c.c = m = × 10 6 m 3
1.2 1.2 × 10 6
1.2
1
= M .m 3
6
= 0.1667 x 106 m3
Initial Reservoir Capacity = 25 M.m3
Annual flood inflow=50 M. m3
Let us assume that 20% of the capacity,i.e 5 M. m3 is filled up in the first interval .
25
Capacity inflow ratio at the start of the interval = = 0 .5
50
Trap efficiency at the start of the interval =0.96
20
Capacity inflow at the end of the interval = = 0.4
50
Trap efficiency at the end of interval=0.955
0.96 + 0.955
Average trap efficiency during the interval = = 0.9575
2
1
Volume of sediment deposited annually till the 20% capacity is filled = × 0.9575M .m
3
6
= 0.1596 x 106m3
Therefore number of years during which 20% of the capacity, i.e 5 M. m3 shall be filled up
5
= = 31.3 years
0.1596
15
Capacity inflow at the end = = 0 .3
50
Trap efficiency at the start = 0.955
Trap efficiency at the end = 0.95
Average trap efficiency = 0.9525
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x 106 m3 x 0.9525 = 0.15875 x106 m3
Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
5
= = 31.5 years
0.15875
The above calculations of dividing the entire capacity into intervals (20% each in the above case can also
be carried out in a tabular form, as shown below.
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Capacity
% Capacity Trap Av. Trap Sediment Years reqd. to
Capacity/inflow= Col.(2)
Vol. 50Mcum efficiency eff. trapped per fill up 20%
M.cum η During year ;Col 5x capacity(6
the Av. Annual Mcum)
interval sediment 6
inflow=Col =
Col .( 6)
5x (1/6)
M.cum
100 25 0.5 0.96
0.9575 0.1596 31.3
80 20 0.4 0.955
0.9525 0.1588 31.5
60 15 0.3 0.95
0.94 0.1567 31.9
40 10 0.2 0.93
0.90 0.15 33.3
20 0.1 0.8
∑ =128.0
years
Example 10.2
A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 400 ha-m. The catchment area is 100km2 and the annual stream
flow averages 12 cm of runoff. If the annual sediment production is 0.03 ha.m, what is the probable life of
the reservoir before its capacity is reduced by 10% of its initial capacity by sedimentation? The
relationship between the trap efficiency η (%) and capacity inflow C/I is given below:
C/I 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
η % 43 60 74 80 84 87 93 95 96 97
12 × 10 6 m 3 = 12 M .m 3
It means that 0.03 Mcum of sediment flows every year into the dam/reservoir site, but the quantity of this,
which is trapped in the reservoir, depends on the average trap efficiency, in turn depends on the C/I ratio.
In the question, the total capacity to be filled up by sediment is 10% of the initial reservoir capacity,
i.e. 10% x 4 Mcum=0.4 Mcum
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η at start =95%
3.6
Capacity/inflow at the end = = 0.30
12
η at the end of the interval = 95%
Average η = 95%
Sediment trapped per year = 0.0375x 95% = 0.035625
0.4
Number of years during which 0.5 Mcum 0f sediment will be trapped = years = 11.2 years
0.035625
Hence, after 14 years, the 10% reservoir will get filled up.
Example 10.3
Ackers and White Formula
Solution
g [s − 1] 3
1
C = 10 = 0.01477
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We need the shear velocity U ∗ , which we calculate from the standard formula for parallel flow
U∗ = g Dm S = 0.1401 m/s
0.4717
0.3540 1.5
So Fgr = = 1.293
0.06968 27.29
The units of this are strictly dimensionless that is to say Kg/Kg, and must be multiplied by ρ , density of
water, to convert to mass / volume, the usual expression of concentration. Therefore to convert to the
customary mg/l we multiply by 1000000 ( ρ in mg/l) and obtain
ρ c = 1396 mg / l
Example 10.4
Ackers and White Formula
A stream has a mean flow depth of 0.815m and mean cross section velocity of 1.57ms-1. The sediment in
this stream has a representative grain size of 1.14mm, shear velocity of 0.098ms-1, and a density of
2.65g/cm3. Taking acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81ms-2 and kinematic viscosity of water, υ = 1.04 x
10-6 m2/s, determine;
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− Dgr = 28.09
− Fgr =
− Fgr =
− Fgr = 0.562
− Ggr =
− m = 1.34 + (9.66/Dgr) = 1.34 + 9.66/28.09 = 1.684
− A = 0.14 + (0.23/√ Dgr) = 0.14 + (0.23/√28.09) = 0.183
− Log C = 2.86 log Dgr – (log Dgr)2 – 3.53 = 2.86 log 28.09 – (log 28.09)2 – 3.53
− C = 0.0327
− Ggr = 0.0327
− Ggr = 0.111
Summary
The deposition of sediment in a reservoir is known as reservoir silting or sedimentation. During
sedimentation, when the water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the turbulence
are considerably reduced. The deposition of sediments will reduce the water storing capacity of the
reservoir and if the process of deposition continues without being addressed it will lead to a significant
reduction in reservoir capacity with unfavourable consequences. In this chapter, river classification based
on sediment yield is discussed, followed by land degradation and the processes of sedimentation.This is
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followed by the different effects of sedimentation, measures to control reservoir sedimentation and
various methods of estimating sediment load with examples in the region.
References
1. Ackers P., White W.R. Sediment Transport: A New Approach and Analysis, Journal of the
Hydraulic Division, ASCE, 1973, 99, No NY11 2041-2060, New York, USA.
2. Arora S.O. Water Resources Hydropower and Irrigation Engineering, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, 1996, New Dehli, India.
3. Azza N., The Dynamics of Shoreline Wetlands and Sediments of Northern Lake Victoria PhD
Thesis, UNESCO-IHE Delft 2006, The Netherlands.
4. Bamutaze, Y.,Tenywa, M.M.,Mwanjalolo,M., The Effect of Land Use on Runoff and Soil Loss
from Wanale Micro- Catchment, Mt Elgon, Uganda, , International Sediment Initiative
Conference, 12-15 November 2006, UNESCO Chair in Water Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
5. Basson, G., Hydropower Dams and Fluvial Morphological Impacts – An African Perspective,
Proceedings United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, 27th –
29th October 2004, Beijing, China.
6. Brune, G.M. Trap Efficiency of Reservoirs, Transactions of American Geophysical Union; 1953,
Vol 344, No 3.
7. Chadwick A., Morfett J., Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, Allen and Unwin, 1989, London, UK.
8. Churchill M,A., Discussion of Analysis and Use of Reservoir Sedimentation Data, by L.C.
Gottschalk, Proceedings, Federal Inter Agency Sedimentation Conference 1948, Denver,
Colorado, USA.
9. Das G,, Hydrology and Soil Conservation Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2002, New Dehli, India.
10. Garde, R.J., Ranga Raju, K.G., Mechanics of Sediment Transportation and Alluvial Stream
Problems 3rd Edition, 1985,Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, India.
11. Garg, S.K. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1998, New Dehli,
India.
12. Julein P.Y. Erosion and Sedimentation, Cambridge University Press, 1995 Cambridge UK.
13. Karamisheva R.D. Lyness J.F., Myers W.R.C., Cassells J.B.C. O’ Sullivan J., Sediment Transport
Formulae for Compound Channel Flows, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Water
Management 159, September 2006 Issue WM3, Pages 183-193 London,UK.
14. Karim M.F., Kennedy, J.F. Computer based Predictors for Sediment Discharge and Friction
Factor of Alluvial Streams, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, University of Iowa,1983,
Report No 242, Iowa, USA.
15. Kawashima S., Johndrow T. Annandale G.W. Shah F. Reservoir Conservation Vol II: Rescon
Model and User Manual, The World Bank 2003, Washington D.C. USA.
16. Kimaro, D., Isabirye, M., Semalulu, O., Magunda, M.K., Poesen, J.,Deckers, J., Magnitude of
Lake Victoria Sedimentation: Evaluation of Sediments and Agricultural Land Use on a Shoreline
Microcatchment, International Sediment Initiative Conference, 12-15 November 2006, UNESCO
Chair in Water Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
17. Magunda, M.K., Tenywa, M.M., Soil and Water Conservation in Agriculture in Uganda, Vol 1,
General Information, 2001, Fountain Publishers/National Agriculture Research Organisation,
Technical Centr for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, Kampala, Uganda
18. Miller C.R., Analysis of Flow Duration, Sediment Rating Curve Method of Computing Sediment
Yield, United States Bureau of Reclamation,1953, Virginia USA
19. Mwebembezi L, Kyoburungi G, A Report on Sediment Sampling 2001, Water Resources
Management Department, Entebbe, Uganda.
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20. Novak, P., Moffat, A.I.B., Nalurri, C., Naranyanan, R., Second Edition, Hydraulic Structures,
E&FN Spon, 1996, London UK.
21. Palmieri A., Shah F., Annandale, G.W., Dina A, Reservoir Conservation Vol I, The Rescon
Approach, The World Bank 2003, Washington D.C. USA.
22. Raghunath H.M., Hydrology, Principles, Analysis and Design, New Age International Ltd, 2005,
New Dehli, India.
23. Read, H.H., Watson, J., Beginning Geology, George Allen and Unwin Ltd/ Macmillan Education
Ltd, 1972, London, UK..
24. Rowntree K.M., Wadeson R.A, A Hierarchical Geomorphological Model for the Classification of
selected South African Rivers, Water Research Commission, Report No 497/1/99, Pretoria, South
Africa.
25. Rugumayo A.I., Mwondha I., Musiime T; Sediment Yield Assessment and River Classification
with Limited Data Sets; Proceedings: Sustainable Water Resources Management in the Changing
Environment of Monsoon Region, 2004 Colombo, Sri Lanka.
26. Siyam A.M., El Zein S., El Sayed S.M., Mirghani M, Golla S., Saleh A, Klaassen G.,,
Assessment of the Current State of the Nile Basin Reservoir Sedimentation Problems, NBCBN-
RE, 2005, Khartoum, Sudan
27. Tingasanchali, T. Khan N.M. Combating Reservoir Sedimentation, Proceedings, International
Seminar on Managing Water Supply for Growing Demand Bangkok, Thailand, UNESCO 2006,
Jakarta, Indonesia.
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123-138, London, UK.
Further Reading
2. Design of Small Dams, United States Department of the Interior, A Water Resources Technical
Publication,1974, Washington, USA.
Questions
1. The following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity
inflow ratio.
Capacity inflow ratio 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Trap efficiency percent 87 93 95 95.5 96 96.5 97 97 97 97.5
Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic meters, if the
average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual sediment inflow is 150,000
tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.
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HWRE AR 2010
and using the Ackers and White formula, determine the rate of sediment transport expected per metre
width of flow?
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HWRE AR 2010
56