Reproduction

General Biology 2
2nd Semester (A.Y. 2021 – 2022)

Essential Question:
When do division and multiplication mean the same
thing?

What is reproduction?
Reproduction is the biological process by which
organisms give birth or give rise to a new organism.
This process is seen in all living organism – both
plants and animals.

I. PLANT REPRODUCTION

Sepal
 The green leaf-like structure protecting the bud
as the flower develops
 Collectively, sepals are called calyx.

Petal
 The usually brightly-colored part of the flower A. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Flowering plants – angiosperms
 Collectively, petals are called corolla  Happens in the sexual organs of plants found in
flowers
Stamen  Diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid
 Male organ gametophyte generation
 Long, filamentous structure  Male gametophyte – pollen grains (developed
 The bulging tip is called the anther from microspores)
 The anther contains the pollen grains  Female gametophyte – embryo sac (developed
from megaspores)
Pistil
 Female organ
 Made up of a single carpel or a group of fused
carpels
 A carpel is a vase-like shaped structure which
contains the bulging ovary, the slender stalk
called style, and the stigma with a sticky tip
In the illustration below, you could see the life cycle
of flowering plant. The egg and sperm shown are
both haploid cells. Both will unite and fertilization
will occur to form the diploid cell called ‘zygote.’
After forming the zygote, it will become an embryo
which will become a simple fruit with a seed. That
seed will germinate which will become a mature
sporophyte plant.
Alternation of Generations
If you look closely into the diagram, you will see
that the haploid gametophyte generation gives rise to
the diploid sporophyte generation. Moreover, the
gametophytes form gametes which shall lead to
fusion to create zygote, a diploid cell. Afterwards, it
undergoes cell division (mitosis) to give rise to
sporophytes. Sporophyte will undergo meiosis to
create spores which are haploid cells. After this, it
will experience mitosis again to give rise to the
haploid gametophyte generation.
Variations of Plants (Flower)
 Pollen tube will form the vegetative/tube cell
while the generative cell will divide to form 2
1) Monoecious plants – the same plants, different sperm cells
flowers; having different female and male parts
2) Dioecious plants – separate plants for the female
and male parts
3) Hermaphrodite plants – in the same flower, you
can find the female and male parts (ex. Hibiscus
plants)
Stages of Sexual Reproduction (Plants)
1) Pollen and Egg formation
In each ovule, a megaspore mother cell (2n)
undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspores.
The anther has four regions and it contains
microsporocyte which is a diploid cell. They
undergo meiosis and will give rise to microspores
which are haploid cells. Afterward, the microspores
will undergo mitosis.
 Further mitotic divisions will form pollen grains
with a generative cell and a vegetative/tube cell
OVERVIEW

2) Pollination
 Involves the transfer of pollen grains from the
stamen to the stigma
Types of Pollination
a) Self-pollination – involves the same plant or same
flower
Some plants have developed a mechanism to avoid
self-pollination because it reduces genetic variability.
b) Cross-pollination – involves other plants or
flowers
Agents of Pollination
a) Wind
b) Water
c) Animals
3) Fertilization
 Pollen sticks to the gluey sugary substance
covering the stigma
 A pollen tube forms and grows into the sitgma,
down the style and into the ovary
 The tip of the pollen bursts to release the two
sperm cells
 The sperm cells migrate down the pollen tube
 One pollen unites with the egg cell, forming
zygote
 The othe pollen fertilizes with the two polar
nuclei at the center of the embryo sac which
produces a triploid (3n) primary endosperm
 The zygote will undergo mitotic divisions
 The primary endosperm will develop into
endosperm which provides nourishment for the
embryo
The pollen grain adheres to the stigma, which
contains two cells: a generative cell and a tube cell.
The pollen tube cell grows into the style. Next, the
generative cell travels inside the pollen tube. It
divides to form two spem. Following this, the pollen
tube penetrates an opening in the ovule called a
micropyte. One of the sperm fertilizes the egg to fom
the diploid zygote. The other sperm fertilizes two
polar nuclei to form the triploid endosperm, which
will become a food source for the growing embryo.
4) Seed dispersal and Germination
What is Germination?
 The development of a plant from a seed or
spore after a period of dormancy
 Optimal condition (water, gases, nutrients)
 Starts with plant embryo (root, stem protion,
and one or more cotyledons – the first leaves)
The cotyledons will photosynthesize sugars for the
growing plant. The plant will continue to draw
nutrients from the cotyledon. After, the first true
leaves elongate or extend, those cotyledons will now
wither and fall.
Agents of Dispersal
a) Wind (ex. dandelion)
b) Water (ex. acorn, coconut)
c) Animal (ex. birds, bats)
d) Explosion (ex. pea)  Corms are internally structured with solid
tissues
 Bulbs which are mostly made up of layered
B. Asexual Repoduction in Plants
fleshy scales that are modified leaves
 Produces identical offspring from a single plant
 Ex. lilies, garlic, onions
 Eliminates genetic recombination; all the
offsprings look identical 5) Leaf buds
 (advantageous) adapted to their environment
and genetic variation is not necessary

When different environmental threats arise, there is a

possibility that a certain species that underwent a  Are underground stems that allow some plants
sexual reproduction will be wiped out because they to form a network and produce their kind
don’t have variation to adapt to new environments or  Have nodes from which new plants arise
situations.  Ex. irises, ginger, asparagus

Natural Vegatative Reproduction 3) Tubers  Are leaves modified for reproduction

 A reproduction acheived through plants’  Ex. Kalanchoe daigremontiana
vegatative parts or specialized structures
6) Sprouts or Suckers
 Tubers, corms, rhizomes, shoots, suckers,
stolons or runner, bulbs, corms leaf buds

1) Runners or Stolon

 Are expanded thickeneed portions of a rhizome

branch
 Specialized for storage and reproduction  Plant growing not from a seed but from a
 Ex. potato, yam, cassava meristem of the root at the base or at a certain
4) Bulbs and Corms distance from a tree or shrub
 Ex. guava, apple
 Are long, horizontal stems that run along the
surface soil
Artifical Propagation Methods
 Have nodes or regions where new shoot system
and root system can be produced above or
1) Grafting
below them
 Ex. strawberries and Bermunda grass

2) Rhizomes
 Are short underground stems

 Attaching a piece of stem from one plant to a
root or root bearing stem of another plant
 Root-bearing host is called stock
 The grafted part is called a scion
2) Cutting
 Breaking a piece of plant and stciking it to
water
 New roots or shoots may grow
 Ex. sugarcane, apple, ornamental plants
3) Tissue Culture
 The parents splits into pieces
4) Regeneration
 Renewal, restoration, and growth that makes
organisms
 Ex. Starfish
5) Parthenogenesis
 Growth and developments of embryos without
fertilization
 Growing of plants tissues in an artifical liquid
or solid culture media  Ex. Bees
 Provides an alternative means to grow new
B. Sexual Reproduction in Animals
plants in mass number
 Dioecious
 Ex. carrots
 Hermaphrodites (ex. earthworms and some
fishes)
II. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
 Sequential Hermaphrodites – can change their
Animal reproduction can either be sexual or asexual. sex at a certain season
A. Asexual Reproduction in Animals
 A single parent produces offspring; does not
need sex cells
 Identical
 Advantage: short time (less energy)
 Disadvantage: lacks genetic variation
Different Types of Asexual Reproduction
Steps in Sexual Reproduction
1) Binary Fission
1) Gametogenesis
 Exact copy through mitosis
 Types: regular, longitudinal, transverse
 Ex. Paramecium and Bacteria
2) Budding
 A new organisms develops from an outgrowth
or bud due to cell division at one particular site
 The new organisms remains attached as it
grows, separating from the parent organism
only when it is mature  Production of gametes in gonads
 Ex. Hydra  Gonads (testes and ovaries)
3) Fragmentation 2) Spawning
 Bringing of the gametes together  Ovary

3) Fertilization
 Union of male and female gametes (internal or
external)
What is the difference between External
Fertilization and Internal Fertilization?
Unlike the lungs, heart, liver, and the like, the
gonads are organs that depend on the sex of an
individual. The purpose of the gonads are the
following:
1) The gonads secrete several different sex hormones
2) To produce sex cells called gametes

External fertilization
 “informal fertilization”
 Happens outside of the body
 Common in fish and amphibians
 Reptiles and fish deposit their fertilized eggs in
the water to develop (oviparous); but some
fishes are viviparous Meiosis produces Haploid Cells (n)

Internal Fertilization
 Takes place inside the body
 Requires copulation (physical union that aids in
the delivery of sperm to the female’s body)

Lobules that contain the seminferous tubule where

 Viviparous are animals that carry their young
inside their body until their young are mature
enough to be born and live independently
 Ex. Fertilization between a cock and hen
Meiosis happen in our body to produce haploid cells
like the gametes. Whereas mitosis occurs for the
purpose of repair, growth, and the like.
Male gametes = sperm cells
Female gametes = egg cells
Sperm + egg = fertilization
What are the accessory reproductive organs?
We have ducts, glands, and external genitalia.
sperms are made from spermatogenic cells – a
process called spermatogenesis. These tubules
converge to form a straight tubule that lead to the
rete testis. From there, sperm
will then move through a
system of ducts, starting
with the epididymis where
they are stored until
ejaculation during a sexual act.

C. Human Reproductive System Male Reproductive System

1) Testes / testicles – testosterone production
Primary Sex organs (Gonads)
 Testes

2) Scrotum – a bag of skin that holds and helps to
protect the testicles; divided by a midline
called septum; the lower temperature external to the
body is ideal for sperm production
3) Penis – a copulatory organ whose purpose is to
deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract
c) Bulbo-urethral gland – sitting near the prostate;
produces a mucus that lubricates the glans penis
(head of the penis) during sexual arousal
d) Prostate – a small gland that encircles the urethra
near the bladder; the purpose of the prostate is to
contract during ejaculation in order to allow prostatic
secretion to enter the urethra and join the ejaculate
and activate the sperm

Female Reproductive System

1) Vagina – leads to the external genitalia

2) Accesory ducts:
a) Uterus
b) Fallopian tube

Whenever this happens, sperm cells move through The erectile tissue is spongy, containing smooth and
the vas deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and eventually vascular spaces. And when these spaces are filled up
moving into the urethra. with blood during sexual arousal, the penis will
enlarge and harden – a status called erection.

4) Accessory Glands:
a) Seminal Gland – sits on the surface of the bladder;
produces semen

No sperm cells produced but during ejaculation, 4) Ovary – egg cells or ova (female gametes) are
sperm cells will mix with the semen in the produced; releases sex hormones like estrogen and
ejaculatory duct and the semen wil enhance sperm progesterone
motility or fertilizing ability. It does this through a
mixture of hormones and other compounds that
suppress the immune response the female’s
reproductive tract, destroy bacteria, and helps sperm
stick to the walls of the vagina and prevent drainage.

b) Ejaculatory duct - semen makes up the majority of

the ejaculate by volume.
The ovary is surrounded by a fibrous tunica
albuginea, followed by a germinal epithelium held in
place by various ligaments and supplied by ovarian
arteries.
The uterus has a top region called the fundus and
narrow neck at the bottom called the cervix with its
cervical canal. Moreover, the wall of the uterus is
quite thick, comprised of three layers: perimetrium,
the bulky myometrium made of smooth muscles, and
endometrium which lines the uterine cavity or
lumen.

Going through the cervical canal, we reach the

vagina, the copulatory organ for the female, which
receives the penis during intercourse. Further out, we
arrive at the external genitalia, collectively known as
the vulva. This consists of mons pubis, skin folds
called labia majora & labia minora, clitoris, and the
vestibule.
Each breast has a ring of pigmented skin called an
areola, from which a nipple protrudes. Each
mammary gland contains lobes, separated by fibrous
connective tissue and fat, which themselves contain
smaller units called lobules and which contain
structures named alveoli that produces milk. This
milk is transferred to a lactiferous duct which leads
to a lactiferous sinus where milk collects when a
mother is nursing.

An ovary has an outer layer called cortex and an

inner layer called the medulla. In the cortex, we see
sacs called follicles. Each of which houses an
immature egg called an oocyte. And the production
of mature egg cells is called oogenesis.

When a primordial follicle matures, it becomes a

vesicular follicle with a cavity called an antrum. This
follicle will then bulge out of the surface of the
ovary, allowing it to eject the oocyte and this event is
called ovulation. This will then enter the uterine
tubes or fallopian tubes which have sections called Also qualifying as part of the female reproductive
isthmus, ampulla, and infundibulum which bears system are the mammary glands found in the breasts,
projections called fimbriae. which are similar to sweat glands but they start to
produce milk during pregnancy, before a baby is
Fertilization will occur at some point along the born.
fallopian tubes which end at the uterus or also known
as the womb. This receives the fertilized egg, retains
it in the uterine wall and nourishes it through fetal
development.