Paper Hagan Variability

The variability of some rockbolt parameters and their

potential impact on anchorage performance
PC Hagan
The University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney

An assessment of the possible risk factors that may affect the intended performance of
fully encapsulated rockbolts was undertaken. The study endeavoured to quantify the
level of variability of some rockbolt parameters from across seven coal mines.

INTRODUCTION factors that may impact the anchorage performance or
load bearing capacity of fully encapsulated rockbolt
Rockbolts are at the core of strata control in most systems; the effect of bolt profile on load transfer; the
Australian underground coal mines. Previous studies nature of the load transfer between rockbolt, resin and
have found however that despite an estimated rock; and, a study on the quality conformance of
industry‐wide annual expenditure of over rockbolts at mine sites.
$A35 million on rockbolts, it is estimated that 30%‐
The objective of this paper is to review current
35% of the rockbolts do not perform to specification
understanding and knowledge on the anchorage
and may represent some risk to the maintenance of a
performance of rockbolts combining this with the
safe workplace environment (Galvin et al 2001).
latest research findings to provide a foundation on
There are several factors contributing to the under‐ which hazards may be identified and improvements
performance of rockbolts including installation made to workplace practices.
procedures and the storage and handling of rockbolts,
the effects of which can be mitigated through effective RISK FACTORS
risk management practices.
The risk factors that can influence the performance of
In an effort to improve the performance of rockbolt a rockbolt support system can be broadly classified
systems, a research facility has been established at the into three groups – design, operation and quality
University of NSW (UNSW) with funding provided control factors. Table 1 lists a number of risk factors
by the Australian Coal Association Research Program related to each of these groups.
(ACARP). The objective of the research is to gain a
Many of the risk factors have a similar outcome in terms
better understanding of the load transfer mechanisms
of a reduction in anchorage performance of rockbolts.
of fully encapsulated rockbolts and identify the risk
The impacts of these risk factors and their underlying
factors that impact on the performance of rockbolt
causes are discussed in the following section.
systems, thereby contributing to an improvement in
safety at mine sites. In addition to these factors, there are other variables
that may also impact on rockbolt performance. Many
Research undertaken using the facility has examined
TABLE 1
Factors that may influence rockbolt anchorage performance
Quality Control
Design Operation
(non-conformance with specifications)
• spacing • resin annulus thickness • rockbolt diameter – core and rib height
• length of rockbolt • roughness of borehole surface • rockbolt straightness
• rockbolt inclination • straightness of borehole • length of rockbolt
• strength of rockbolt • length of borehole • surface corrosion
• resin characteristic • spin and cure times • drill bit size
• location and inclination of boreholes • turnover of resin cartridges – physical environment
(temperature, moisture content, etc) and duration in storage
The variability of some rockbolt parameters and their potential impact on anchorage performance in coal mines
of these lie outside the direct control and monitoring and Viegelahn (1979) argued that increasing the
capabilities of personnel at the mine sites. Such factors borehole diameter must be accompanied by a
include the metallurgical properties and deformation commensurate increase in the diameter of the rockbolt
pattern of the rockbolt, the chemicals used in the as it would otherwise lead to an increase in resin
manufacturing process of resin cartridges and thickness. Hence this would result in poor
consistency of these properties. Other measures are confinement of the resin leading to a reduction in the
required to manage these risk factors by the suppliers load coupling between the rockbolt, resin and rock.
such as quality control systems and independent
Various researchers have noted the importance of
auditing.
minimising resin thickness. For example Franklin and
Resin Annulus Woodfield (1971) found when using a 19 mm rebar, a
In general terms, the anchorage capacity of a rockbolt resin annulus of 6.4 mm resulted in the most rigid and
increases with rockbolt diameter – this holds true so strongest anchorage system. Durham (1973)
long as the resin annulus or thickness of the resin suggested an optimum range of resin annulus of
between rockbolt and rock remains constant. With an between 4 and 6 mm.
increase in borehole diameter not only does the Work reported by Fabjanczyk and Tarrant (1992) on
maximum load bearing capacity increase with rockbolt push tests showed a marked reduction in
rockbolt diameter but also the resistance to shear load transfer performance of over 30% with an
failure of the resin/rock interface with a larger rock increase in borehole diameter from 27 mm to 29 mm
surface area. Karabin and Debevec (1978) confirmed when using a standard 22 mm rockbolt, that is with
this general principal in pullout tests conducted with an increase in resin annulus of only 1 mm. They
three different borehole sizes while maintaining a suggested the optimum borehole size being the
constant resin annulus, the results of which are shown smallest practical diameter taking account of bolt
in Figure 1. installation factors and resin viscosity.
Recent work by Hagan (2003) found in a laboratory
pull test study that there was little significant
variation in rockbolt behaviour with resin annulus
sizes of 4 mm or less when using a standard 22 mm
rockbolt as illustrated in Figure 2.
250 3 mm annulus
4 mm annulus
2 mm annulus
200
5 mm annulus
Load (kN)
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)

Figure 2. Effect of variation in resin annulus on rockbolt
Figure 1. Effect of borehole diameter on the resistance to anchorage characteristic
displacement of a rockbolt (after Hagan, 2003)
(after Karabin and Debevec, 1978)
At an annulus size of 5 mm there was a near 25%
For the case of relatively soft rock such as that
reduction in the load bearing capacity of the rockbolt
associated with coal measures where the resin/rock
compared to that achieved with a 4 mm annulus. In
interface is the weakest link and the length of
addition there was a near 60% reduction in the
encapsulation is limited, borehole diameter can be
resin/rockbolt stiffness. This is likely to have an
increased to achieve the required load capacity per
adverse effect on the load transfer process between
unit length of the anchorage system. Snyder, Gerdeen
the rock mass and rockbolt with the rockbolt offering
PC Hagan, UNSW Mining Research Centre 2
less resistance to the relative displacement of rock

strata.
Similar findings have been made available by
equipment suppliers. For example, Yeaby (1991)
stated that “in essence encapsulation is reduced by
20% per millimetre of bit diameter” in terms of the
reduction in rockbolt performance.

These results highlight the sensitivity of relatively Figure 3. Core diameter and height of deformation ribs
small changes in resin annulus on the performance of
a rockbolt. Hence it is important to control and Sixteen batches of rockbolts were examined across
monitor the dimensions of both the rockbolt and the seven coal mines with between 21 and 50 rockbolts
borehole to ensure consistent performance is examined in each batch. Usually two and in some
achieved. The optimum borehole diameter should be cases three batches were examined at each site.
approximately 4 to 8 mm larger than the core The study found a wide distribution in terms of the
diameter of the rockbolt. A larger borehole diameter is deviation of the average measured core diameter for
likely to result in a marked reduction in the load each batch from the specified or nominal dimension
bearing capacity of the rockbolt. Alternatively, any for the rockbolt as illustrated in Figure 4.
smaller borehole diameter is likely to lead to poor
distribution of resin along the length of the rockbolt 0.4 A
Deviation of core diameter (mm)
due to a combination of small annulus clearance and 0.2 A B
resin viscosity. 0
-0.2 C C D
Some of the actions required to address the various -0.4
E F
E
risks associated with the installation of rockbolts -0.6
include: -0.8 G
G
• selecting the correct drill bit size for a given -1 F

G B
-1.2 F
rockbolt diameter; F
-1.4
• measuring actual drilled diameter of the borehole; Mine site
• regular monitoring to ensure straight drill rods are
Figure 4. Deviation of the average of sample
used in drilling boreholes for rockbolts as bent measurements from the core diameter specified dimension
drill rods will increase hole diameter;
• maintaining thrust force within the recommended The core diameter was measured at 90° to the rolled
design limits for the different rock types; and area of the rockbolt at three locations along the length
• regular monitoring of the rockbolts to ensure they of the bolt; mid‐length and 100 mm from the either
are within specification with respect to core end. The batches included rockbolts from three of the
diameter, rib height, bolt length and straightness. major rockbolt suppliers.
At four of the mine sites (designated as A, C, D and E
FINDINGS OF FIELD STUDY in Figure 4) and in nine of the batches, the average
Variation in rockbolt dimensions measured core diameter was within 0.3 mm of
specification. The deviation for the other seven
A study on the conformance of the physical
batches was such that the average diameter was
dimensions of a rockbolt to manufacturer’s
between 0.7 mm and 1.2 mm less then the
specification was undertaken by Hocking (2000) at
specification.
seven coal mines in New South Wales. The purpose of
the study was to gauge the extent of the variability of Interestingly the batches tended to be consistent in
rockbolts supplied and used at the mine sites. The terms of the level of deviation at each mine site except
study examined several factors including core at sites designated as B & F. This consistency may
diameter and the rib height of a rockbolt as shown in reflect the characteristics of products from the
Figure 3 as well as length and straightness of different manufacturers.
rockbolts and degree of surface corrosion.
This finding emphasises the possible need for a between the resin and rock. The strength of this bond

quality control system to monitor conformance to therefore has a direct bearing on the anchorage
specification of rockbolts from the suppliers. performance and load transfer between the rockbolt
Interestingly if the guidelines of the American Society and rock.
for Testing of Materials were applied, seven out of the
Work by Karabin and Debevec (1978) demonstrated
sixteen batches or nearly 44% of the batches would
that changes in drilling conditions influence the
not comply. Its guidelines for rock bolts (ASTM, 1995)
nature and size of interstitial sites formed along the
state the core diameter should be to within 0.38 mm.
surface of the borehole wherein resin can flow and set.
The study also found in some instances considerable A greater amount and extent of these interstitial sites
variation within each batch of the measured core will lead to an increase in the shear force required to
diameter. At five of the seven sites and in nine of the break the bond between the resin and rock. This
sixteen batches, the standard deviation on the mean finding is illustrated in Figure 6 which compares the
diameter was calculated as ±0.15 mm, indicating a anchorage performance in terms of resistance to
95% confidence interval about the mean reading up to loading between two boreholes that were reamed
0.3 mm. However at one site the standard deviation smooth to 31.8 mm (1¼ in) and 34.9 mm (13/8 in) and a
was as high as ±0.385 in a sample size of 20 rockbolts third borehole with a diameter of 25.5 mm (1 in) that
indicating a 95% confidence interval of 0.77 mm. had the surface roughened.
In terms of the height of ribs or the deformations
0.3
along the length of the rockbolt, the study found the
Deviation of rib thickness (mm)
C C
0.2
average height within each batch at the majority of F
0.1
mine sites was within 0.25 mm of specified
0
dimension, ranging from 0.4 mm below to 0.2 mm E D
-0.1 E F
above the specified height. However as Figure 5 B B
A
F
-0.2
illustrates, there was a bias towards the average rib F A
G
-0.3 G
height being under specification.
-0.4
G
At two of the mine sites (F & G) the batches of -0.5
rockbolts had both the average measured core Mine site
diameter and rib height less than the specified

Figure 5. Deviation in the average of sample
dimensions. measurements from the rib height specified dimension
Borehole roughness
Similar work by Gerdeen et al (1977) found that
It has been argued that as no chemical cross‐linkage random grooving of a borehole increased anchorage
takes place between resin and rock, the resistance to performance three‐fold when compared to smooth
any movement relies solely on the mechanical bond clean boreholes as shown in Table 2. Similarly, “as
TABLE 2
Variation in borehole condition on anchorage capacity (after Gerdeen et al 1977)
hole diameter (mm)
borehole roughness hole condition 19 mm tendon 25 mm tendon
25 28 32 38 32 38
worked smooth clean 38.5 18.1 15.9 27.5 37.8 10.4
clean & wet 31.4 27.3
cast smooth 24.3
56.0 36.6 32.3 75.2 59.7
as drilled clean
(145%) (199%) (203%) (273%) (158%)
74.0
clean & wet
(236%)
dirty 69.1 56.4
116.2 178.8
random grooving clean
(302%) (987%)
dirty 89.9 90.9 86.4 109.6 189.8 87.7
Note: values shown in italics indicate the % change in anchorage capacity with the similar worked-smooth borehole condition
drilled” boreholes were found to have twice the they found mill‐finished indented wire offered greater

anchorage capacity as smooth, clean boreholes. resistance to displacement than plain mill‐finished
Though their test work was incomplete, they found wire. The raised surfaces surrounding the indents
evidence of other factors such as the presence of water were seen as enhancing the resistance to the relative
and the amount of cuttings left in the borehole also movement between the wire and grout.
had a marked affect on anchorage capacity.
Interestingly Snyder, Gerdeen and Viegelahn (1979)
found that while there was a marked variation in test
results under the same conditions, the variation
reduced with increasing surface roughness that is the
results became more consistent.

Figure 7. Effect of surface rust and indents on load
resistance of wire in grout.
(after Cox and Fuller 1977)
Cox and Fuller also observed that even greater

resistance occurred compared to the indented wire
when rusted wire was used as shown in Figure 7. But
performance was slightly degraded with a
combination of rust and indents in the wire.
Figure 6. Effect on borehole surface roughness on the
anchorage resistance of an installed rockbolt
(after Karabin and Debevec, 1978).
These results indicate that in terms of managing this

risk factor on rockbolt performance and ensuring
consistent levels of anchorage, it is important to
maintain the optimum level of rotation speed and
thrust during drilling for the rock conditions as these
parameters effect the surface roughness of the
borehole.
Rockbolt surface condition
While the design of the rib pattern, spacing and
height of a rockbolt does impact the performance of a
rockbolt, it is not a variable that is normally controlled
and monitored at the mine site. There are other factors
however that can impact on rockbolt performance
which vary at the mine site and therefore require
monitoring and control mechanisms. Figure 8. Comparison of the load transfer characteristic
between a clean and rusted bolt
The most significant factor concerning rockbolt (after Fabjanczyk, Hurt and Hindmarsh, 1998)
surface is the degree of surface corrosion. In a study
by Cox and Fuller (1977) on the effects of changes in Fabjanczyk, Hurt and Hindmarsh (1998) found
surface finish of steel reinforcement in cement grout, similar results when testing rock bolts with rusted
bolts compared to clean, non‐corroded surface (Figure
8). The rusted bolts at least initially offer greater surface corrosion. Bundles covered in plastic similarly
stiffness at low displacements. In some ways this is a showed lower levels of corrosion. Also surface
cosmetic effect since once any reasonable movement corrosion appeared to be lower for those rockbolts
in rock strata occurs then both rusted and smooth within the tied bundles rather than on the outside
rockbolts tend to behave in a similar manner. edge of the bundle.
TABLE 3 Finally as would be expected there was a correlation
Qualitative scale used to assess rockbolt surface corrosion between the level of surface corrosion and duration in
1. No visible signs of corrosion along the surface of the storage as shown in Figure 10. Given the wide
rockbolt
variation in the level of surface corrosion that was
2. Mild level of corrosion occurring on less than 5% of the
total surface area. The corrosion spots are usually a light observed across the seven mine sites, it is
bronze colour. Corrosion spots less than 3 mm in diameter recommended that the effect on anchorage
3. Mild level of corrosion of between 5% and 20% of total performance should be quantified.
surface area. Corrosion spots are red or brown in colour
and not more than 10 mm in diameter
4. Moderate corrosion over 20% to 50% of the total surface 8
area. Corrosion spots less than 25 mm in length. Can also 7
Average corrosion level

occur as a short single narrow line along the axis of the
6
rockbolt
5. Moderate corrosion over 50% to 80% of the total surface 5
area. Corrosion spots less than 50 mm in length and also 4

seen as a single narrow line plus other corrosion spots 3
6. Moderate corrosion over the entire surface area though 2
some parts of metal still visible
1
7. High level of corrosion over the entire surface area.
Corrosion is red or brown in colour. The deform ribs are 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
discernable from a distance of 2 m
Days in storage
8. Severe corrosion with platelets formed over the surface.
The deform ribs are not discernable from a distance of 2 m
Figure 10. Variation in average level of surface corrosion in
The study by Hocking also examined the extent of batches with the length of storage
surface corrosion on rockbolts. The study used a
qualitative scale factor of one through eight as shown CONCLUSION
in Table 3. The full spectrum was observed in the
With reference to the risks associated with
average level of surface corrosion for each batch of
maintaining the stability of underground excavations,
rockbolts examined across the mine sites as shown in
certain hazards have been identified regarding the use
Figure 9.
of fully encapsulated rock bolts. An increase in resin
annulus from 4 mm thickness to 5 mm has been
8
B shown to result in a near 25 per cent reduction in the
7
load bearing capacity of a rockbolt. There are several
Average corrosion level
A
6
types of hazards that need to be controlled in order to
5 F
C G
B C
ensure optimum performance of the rockbolt at the
4
G A operational level such as consistently in achieving the
3 D
E
F F designed diameter and length of borehole diameter
2
E
and, the quality of rockbolts with respect to meeting
1
specifications on core diameter and height of deform
0
Mine site
ribs.

A field study on the variability in the quality of
Figure 9. Variation in the average level of surface corrosion
observed in batches between mine sites rockbolts across seven mine sites found that 43% of
the bundles tested had an average core diameter less
Corrosion appeared to be less affected by proximity to than the specification by 0.7 mm or greater. The
the sea than to the level of protective covering such as deviation from specification for the other 57% of
plastic wrapping and grease, position in the bundled bundles was less than 0.3 mm. The deviation in rib
batch of rockbolts, exposure to mine water and time thickness was on the whole less significant although
spent in storage. Rockbolts which were covered in for 81% of the bundles, the rib thickness was less than
grease at one mine site were observed to show little specification. The study also found a large degree of
variation in the level of observed surface corrosion on fully grouted nontensioned bolts to reinforce bedded

the rockbolts reflecting differences in storage mine roof. USBM Contract No. JO366004.
conditions and practices between the mine sites. Hagan, P C, 2003. The effect of resin annulus on
The risks can be reduced by implementing quality anchorage performance of fully encapsulated
systems that incorporate standard procedures and rockbolts, in Proceedings 10th International Congress
regular auditing of the quality of materials supplied, on Rock Mechanics ISRM 2003, (South African
storage and handling and, the process of rockbolt Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
installation so that the intended performance of fully Johannesburg).
encapsulated rockbolts in ground support is Hagan, P C and Weckert, S, 2002. Anchorage and
consistently achieved. failure mechanisms of fully encapsulated rockbolts
– Stage 2, UNSW Mining Research Centre, ACARP
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Project C10022.
The author wishes to acknowledge the various Hocking, R J, 2000. A study of the variation of
contributions made by Rodney Hocking, Daniel Peel, important rockbolt parameters and their impact on
Steven Weckert and Alison Whitaker to the research performance, BE thesis (unpublished), University
on rockbolting at the UNSW Mining Research Centre. of New South Wales, Sydney.
Karabin, G J and Debevec, W J, 1978. Comparative
REFERENCES evaluation of conventional and resin bolting systems,
ASTM 1995. Standard Specifications for Roof and MESA Report IR1033 (USA Dept of Interior).
Rock Bolts and Accessories, F432 (American Snyder, V W, Gerdeen, J C and Viegelahn, G L, 1979.
Society for Testing Materials). Factors governing the effectiveness of roof bolting
Cox, R H T and Fuller, P G, 1977. Load transfer systems using fully resin‐grouted nontensioned
behaviour between steel reinforcement and cement bolts, in Proceedings 20th Symposium on Rock
based grout, CSIRO Division of Applied Mechanics, pp 607‐613.
Geomechanics, Technical Rpt No 40. Yeaby, M, 1991. Practical guide to rock bolting. (ANI
Fabjanczyk, M and Tarrant, G C, 1992. Load transfer Arnall).
mechanisms in reinforcing tendons, in Proceedings
11th International Conference on Ground Control in
Mining, pp 1‐8 (The Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Fabjanczyk, M, Hurt, K and Hindmarsh, D, 1998.
Optimisation of roof bolt performance, in
Proceedings International Conference on
Geomechanics/Ground Control in Mining and
Underground Construction, pp 413‐424 (The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Melbourne).
Franklin, J and Woodfield, P, 1971. Comparison of a
polyester resin and a mechanical rockbolt anchor,
Transactions of the Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, (A)80:91‐A100.
Galvin, J M, Offner, J C, Whitaker, A, Fabjanczyk, M,
and Watson, J O, 2001. Establishing anchorage and
failure mechanisms of fully encapsulated roof
support systems – end of grant summary report.
UNSW Mining Research Centre, ACARP Project
C7018.
Gerdeen, J C, Synder, V W, Viegelahn, G L and Parker,
J, 1977. Design criteria for roof bolting plans using

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The variability of some rockbolt parameters and their

less resistance to the relative displacement of rock

due to a combination of small annulus clearance and 0.2 A B

• selecting the correct drill bit size for a given -1 F

• measuring actual drilled diameter of the borehole; Mine site

This finding emphasises the possible need for a between the resin and rock. The strength of this bond

rockbolts had both the average measured core Mine site

diameter and rib height less than the specified

drilled” boreholes were found to have twice the they found mill‐finished indented wire offered greater

Cox and Fuller also observed that even greater

These results indicate that in terms of managing this

Average corrosion level

area. Corrosion spots less than 50 mm in length and also 4

variation in the level of observed surface corrosion on fully grouted nontensioned bolts to reinforce bedded

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