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INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING DESIGN AND EVALUATION

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Product & Process Management

PRODUCT DESIGN
AND MANAGEMENT
Authors:

Marta Biegańska: Chapter 6

Anna Dankowska: Chapter 3
Daniela Gwiazdowska: Chapter 7
Tomasz Kalak: Chapter 1
Anna Lewandowska: Chapter 2
Katarzyna Marchwińska: Chapter 7
Iga Rybicka: Chapter 8
Urszula Samotyja: Chapter 4
Maria Sielicka: Chapter 3, 4
Mariusz Tichoniuk: Chapter 5
Karolina Wiszumirska: Chapter 6
Krzysztof Wójcicki: Chapter 8

2
Edited by
Mariusz Tichoniuk

Product & Process Management

PRODUCT DESIGN
AND MANAGEMENT

Poznań 2018

3
Scientific editor and proofreading: Mariusz Tichoniuk
Reviewed by: Dorota Czarnecka-Komorowska
Cover designed by: Mariusz Tichoniuk

Publication within the project POWR/03.03.00-00-M098/16

- A new international education program for second-cycle studies
Product & Process Management at the Faculty of Commodity Science
of Poznań University of Economics and Business supported by the grant
from European Found – Knowledge Education Development 2014-2020

FREE PUBLICATION

Poznań University of Economics and Business bears sole responsibility

for the content of this publication

Copyright by: Poznań University of Economics and Business

Faculty of Commodity Science
Al. Niepodległości 10, 61-875 Poznań

ISBN: 978-83-948206-5-7

Printed by: ESUS Digital Printing, 2018

4
6. INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING DESIGN
AND EVALUATION

6.1. Introduction

Modern packaging has a variety of functions. First of all, it has

to effectively protect the product-content against loss, contamination
or damage. However, we also attribute to it a more creative task in the
market – it should attract customers’ attention and stimulate sales. Modern
packaging symbolizes consumers’ lifestyle and is the outcome of the brand
owner’s vision and the quality this brand represents. Packaging undergoes
constant evolution and is subject to changes in fashion. Market trends are
either entirely new concepts (biodegradable packaging) or the new versions
of earlier solutions with some modifications (the use of wood and metal)
or style variations (jewellery packaging). Inspirations come from different
industries (cosmetic packaging), cultures (inspirations by East Asian
culture or the use of the elements of local culture, e.g. highland or Łowicz
culture) and countries. This multitude of concepts gives rhythm to the
contemporary packaging market. Packaging designers sometimes try to
surprise consumers with some non-obvious graphics. At other times,
they choose simple and terse forms or, quite the opposite, rich and gaudy
design. There are no good or bad designs if only they suit the customers
that they are targeted at, because communication potential is one of the key
aspects of the integrated approach to packaging design.

This chapter provides basic information on packaging design and

evaluation. It firstly describes some selected issues concerning project
management, such as milestones, a project plan, the critical path method,

185
and risk estimation. Then, it focuses on the social, economic and legal
aspects of packaging. It also gives an overview of research on the marketing
aspects of packaging (e.g. product positioning, brand values, market
segmentation, target audience, competitors’ products). As product design
is a complex process requiring interdisciplinary knowledge, this chapter
also takes into consideration the technical aspects of packaging, including:
packaging materials, constructional forms, forms of the management
and utilization of used packaging and the environmental aspects of
packaging. Finally, it describes the stage of conceptual design, which is the
creative phase of the packaging design process.

Keywords: packaging, design, project management, branding, packaging

materials

6.2. Market approach to packaging design

In today’s times, packaging may be considered to be the fifth element

of the marketing mix. Finding the appropriate packaging for a given
brand/product has become the key element of the corporate marketing
strategy in the increasingly competitive market. Regardless of the fact
whether packaging will be designed for the premium cosmetics market or
the FMCG discount store, the designer will always be aware what current
trends, directions, and fashion are and what consumers expect from a given
product. Trend rankings are published in magazines and market reports and
are presented at industry fairs and scientific conferences. The following are
some of the new trends in the field of packaging design:
- ecological and eco-friendly packaging (green colour, earth, natural
materials, recycling, minimalism);

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 - gender neutral trend (products for him and for her);
- active, smart and functional (indicator) packaging;
- customization trend (unique products which express individual needs
and taste of their owner);
- premium trend (rich ornaments or, quite the opposite, minimalism,
the use of high-quality materials or materials stylized to look like high
quality ones);
- “silver” trend (designing targeted at elderly people);
- clean label trend (meaning the minimalistic composition of a product,
reflecting simplicity and health);
- others.

There are different approaches to packaging design in the market. Some

firms have their own design offices, which create complete designs in terms
of materials, construction and graphics, prepared according to in-company
guidelines and principles. Most companies, however, use outsourcing
services, signing contracts with advertising agencies and graphic studios to
draw up a concept, based on which packaging manufacturers optimize
the design and create first prototypes. This task is difficult to the extent
that two or three entities cooperate with one another at the same time,
which gives rise to a number of organizational complications.

Packaging and a product are a special combination, which provides

consumers with unique sensory experiences, such as sound, image, touch
and scent. Some packaging is too rustling or slippery to the touch, which
discourages customers from buying the product. The sound made
by packaging when it is taken off the shop shelf or when it is opened
at home is an unusual experience, which has not been so obvious so far.
The colours, shape and texture of packaging are another set of stimuli that

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affect the consciousness and subconsciousness of consumers. Although
packaging is the outcome of a number of compromises reached on the way
from the designer’s office to the manufacturing stage, it becomes
successful only when a consumer chooses the product again. Designers’
interest in so-called multi-sensory packaging is the result of the availability
of the latest research techniques from the field of experimental psychology
and cognitive neuroscience. Eye-tracking, which has been fashionable
recently, allows us to obtain information such as fixation maps, i.e. paths
of the sequence and time of watching each element, heat maps, which
indicate points of focusing attention on elements, the sum and time
of fixation in a given area, and other statistics. These techniques, however,
are too expensive and time-consuming to be used in most commercial
projects. Nowadays, a lot of companies conduct behavioural research
online (Mechanical Turk; Prolific Academic) (Spence 2016).

The colour of packaging is also a carrier of information and one of

the most important sensory qualities of the product packaging. It is
interesting to see how consumers identify colour with the characteristics
and quality of a product, e.g. painkillers should have red colour,
tranquilizers are associated with light blue or green colour, while water
packaging should be blue. The more intense the colour of packaging is,
the more intensive the flavour/scent of the product is. Beverages in green
or yellow containers are considered to be more acid, while a sweet fizzy
drink in a white bottle seems to be less sweet than the same drink in a red
one. However, it is not possible to define the independent meaning of
colour for consumers from culturally different regions. Sometimes, colour
does not reflect the flavour or kind of a product, but is the manifestation
of a brand, e.g. blue for Pepsi, red for Coca-Cola, blue for Barilla pasta,

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blue Nivea, purple Milka, etc., and lets the brand distinguish itself from
competition in consumers’ minds.

Material is another element of packaging. Polymer, glass, paper or metal

are most often used. Packaging is usually designed and manufactured from
non-renewable materials, which, however, may be recyclable.
The designer’s task is to choose materials in such a way that they could be
easily separated by consumers without using any tools, sorted before being
thrown away and, finally, recycled. Designers are increasingly more
recycling-oriented, so they avoid using materials that cannot be reused,
e.g. multi-material composite (combinations of paper, plastic and
aluminium or combinations of layers made of different materials
that cannot be separated). Another solution that are conducive to the re-use
of materials include the system of returnable containers or designing
packages so that they could be re-used in a different way, e.g. mustard jars,
after tearing off the label, become small glasses (without a screw top), juice
bottles may serve as flower vases or candlesticks, or be used for storing
food in the kitchen.

The purpose of sustainable packaging is to be favourable, safe and

healthy for people and communities in the whole lifecycle. To this end,
packaging must meet market criteria in terms of efficiency and costs; it is
obtained, manufactured, transported and recycled with the use of renewable
energy; maximizes the use of renewable or recycled source materials; is
produced with the application of clean manufacturing technologies and best
practices; is made from healthy materials in all probable lifecycle
scenarios; is designed to optimize materials and energy; and is effectively
reclaimed and used in biological and/or industrial cycles from cradle to
cradle (Baldwin, 2009).

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 At the same time, a number of companies contend with the increasing
opposition from the public and governments concerning what many
perceive as excessive packaging. Packaging which is too large in relation
to contents makes consumers feel deceived, because it implies that it is
filled with a product rather than air (e.g. packets of chips in which
the product fills just a half of the packaging or a box of chocolates with
only a few chocolates). It is commonly accepted that packaging should be
filled with a product in at least 80 per cent, and there should be as little
as possible free space.

Manufacturers have also found another solution which deceives

the consumer’s eye. Packaging of the same size contains smaller amounts
of the product. For example, Polish delicacy “Ptasie mleczko” used to
contain 450 grams of chocolate marshmallows six years ago, then the mass
was reduced to 420 grams, and now customers are “slimmed down”
by being offered packaging with the product weight of 380 grams. Unfair
practices of this type are common in the market, and manufacturers explain
that this is their way of maintaining the same price. This is far from true,
because customers are paying more and more for the kilogram or litre
of a product, but, unfortunately, they are not aware of it.

Speaking of misinforming customers consciously or subconsciously,

we should address legal regulations which protect the consumer’s interest
in the market in a number of aspects. Thus, legal requirements also define
designers’ work and establish inviolable principles. Regulations
concerning packaging concern both the safe use of materials intended
to come into contact with food and labelling these products.

190
 Materials and articles intended to come into contact with food
in the European Union have to meet the requirements of Regulation (EC)
No 1935/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 October
2004 on materials and articles intended to come into contact with food
and repealing Directives 80/590/EEC and 89/109/EEC and Commission
Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 of 14 January 2011 on plastic materials
and articles intended to come into contact with food, as amended.

Principles of labelling food are laid down in a number of legal acts

on the community and national level. In order to simplify and unify rules
in this respect, the European Commission proposed new solutions, which
strictly regulate what labels should look like and what information they
should contain. Under the new requirements, labels should be first of all
clearer and must provide more information. They should also be reliable,
articulate and easily comprehensible. As far as labelling food is concerned,
the main document is Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food
information to consumers. As regards cosmetics packaging, the valid
document is Regulation (EU) No 1223/2009 of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on cosmetics products, which
obliges all cosmetics companies and all business entities responsible for
introducing a cosmetics product into the European market to label
cosmetics packaging in a specified way.

The increasingly mature packaging market understands how important

it is for consumers, but also what threats it might pose to the natural
environment. In order to reduce the negative impact of packaging on
the environment, the concept of sustainable packaging was introduced.
Such packaging is recyclable and energy efficient and meets environmental

191
and economic standards. According to statistics, about 80%
of the product’s impact on the environment develops at the designing stage.
Ecodesign has a variety of other names: design for environment (DfE),
ecological design, environmental design, sustainable product design, green
design, life cycle design, and means including environmental aspects
in the design and development of products. It consists in identifying
environmental aspects connected with the product and including these
aspects in the design process at the early stage of product development.

The product life cycle is defined as “successive and interrelated stages

of the entire life of a product, from sourcing or manufacturing materials
to the ultimate disposal of the product.” Owing to the introduction
of sustainable development solutions, products are of better quality and are
more appreciated by ecologically aware consumers. Sustainable product
design helps to satisfy users’ needs, at the same time reducing the use
of natural resources. Recyclable design involves selecting materials
that can be reused on the highest possible level. From the point of view
of economics, ecodesign helps to use resources more effectively and reduce
impact on the environment at the stages of using, managing and disposing
of the product, as well as providing the possibility of generating
innovations (Rekopol, 2017).

6.3. The review of technical requirements

The form and design of packaging should differentiate products

on the shop shelf, at the same time exposing the maturity and expansion
of the manufacturer in the market. If packaging comes down to the cost that
should be kept as low as possible, it is not design. If a consumer sees

192
packaging only as a container, which soon becomes waste, the design aims
have not been achieved. If packaging stands out from other products
on the shelf, if it conveys information about the product, the brand
and the manufacturer in a clear and, first of all, correct way, and allows
the consumer to use and store the product easily, and if it enables
convenient segregation and utilization in accordance with the local law and
applied technology or can be re-used, then we can say that it is design.
Let us assume that in the further part of the chapter, we will refer to this
case.

In the market, there are a wide variety of standard packaging

constructions (bottles, jars, boxes) available (Fig. 6.1). They are usually
used for fast moving consumer goods. Packaging manufacturers always
have universal solutions in their portfolio, offering prompt delivery
and attractive prices.

Figure 6.1. Standard packaging for liquid cosmetic products with

the volume of 250 ml, with a set of universal closures and dispensers
Source: (MCH, 2018)

193
 There are also a lot of unique solutions, which, however, originate from
the simplest forms (Fig. 6.2-6.5). The constructive approach to design
involves a number of factors which determine the final form of packaging:
users’ ergonomics, adapting to the size of shop shelves, or adapting to
collective packaging in logistics, which corresponds to the size of logistics
units (a stillage, a pallet, a delivery truck). Properly designed packaging
may generate savings through the reduction of material-intensive solutions
and the increased efficiency of packing or shipping. The industry imposes
constant limitations on designers (e.g. requirements concerning
the packaging of products sold to chains of stores) regarding the originality
of the form, shape and choice of materials. Designers’ task is to come
up with creative concepts within the fixed framework.

Figure 6.2. The packaging Figure 6.3. The packaging of pasta

of cereals made of cardboard, made of paper
in the shape of a tube Source: (Pinterest, 2018b)
with a window
Source: (Pinterest, 2018a)

194
 Figure 6.4. The wrapping Figure 6.5. The packaging of socks
of paintbrushes made “Socks stick their tongues out”
of cardboard Source: (Swedbrand-group, 2018)
Source: (Pinterest, 2018c)

Packaging is not only the container for a product, but it also reflects its
function, the role it plays at different stages of market life, as well as its
qualities and options it offers to consumers. Packaging has multiple
functions (protective, practical, marketing, economic, ecological and other
functions). It exhibits a product on the shop shelf (adapting to the shelf in
a shop, to a cold shelf or to a home fridge). It determines the way a product
is stored and shipped (in different conditions, the packaging of a product
fills warehouse space and has an impact on logistics costs) and may
generate problems and losses. Apart from having logistics, trade and
manufacturing knowledge, in the process of packaging design one should
also anticipate, design and measure the qualitative parameters of packa-
ging, e.g. its resistance to damage in distribution, resistance to deformation
during storage and transport, resistance to accidental opening,
the possibility of repeated opening and closing, safe opening or child proof
caps. Such tests are performed in laboratory conditions, often with
the application of standard methodology (they are usually static tests)
and in real use conditions, e.g. transportation tests.

195
 Packaging sells the product; it must meet market and legal requirements,
such as securing advertising space responsible for communication (so-
called labelling space) and having obligatory tags. The clarity of informa-
tion helps to identify the product on a shelf and distinguish it from
competitors’ products, but in the case of food it must meet a number
of legal requirements, concerning, among other things, the minimum size
of font used on the label or the type and place of information about
the product.

The production cycle and manufacturing technology of packaging

is a compromise between the designer’s vision, the customer’s expectations
and technological solutions available in the market. The creation
of the vision of a new product depends mainly on the purpose of a product,
its positioning in the market, the way it is used or consumed, its target
group, a number of technical limitations resulting from the application
of different packaging materials, and on the expected time of project
closure.

Most packaging manufacturers prepare so-called “input data sheets”,

which allow them to gather precise data about the planned project,
e.g. the intended volume and size of packaging, the manner of tagging
(print, label), the type of closure (cork, cap, pump, atomizer, etc.),
the type of materials (glass, plastic, laminate, paper/cardboard),
the preliminary drawing or visualization of the project, the model pattern
(if a prototype is available), information concerning ornaments
or the intended effect (gloss, matt, orange peel, etc.). There are some other,
equally important, aspects, such as aesthetic qualities, the expected quality,
the budget, the time of project implementation, production efficiency,
the unit cost of packaging and delivery time.

196
 Detailed input data determine both the project and the manufacturing
tools that must be launched for the production of a packaging prototype.

The process of designing, prototyping and manufacturing always

requires the preparation of the project schedule. In its simplest form,
it makes it possible to estimate and establish deadlines for the execution
of consecutive stages, such as technical drawings and necessary technical
documentation (at least one week), preparing pilot forms (in
the manufacture of glass and plastics; approximately 7-9 weeks), making
manufacturing moulds, and the launch of the production of target
packaging. The whole process may take from 12 to 18 weeks, depending
on the complexity of the project, the number of changes and modifications
introduced at the implementation stage (Fig. 6.6.) and the final approval
of the project and the budget. Unique packaging, e.g. ceramic, is custom-
made, and must be ordered even six months earlier.

Figure 6.6. Concepts for water bottles

Source: (Plasticstoday 2018)

Adding new elements or changes in the requirements, especially

at the stage of building a mould or after prototype tests, always results
in extending the time of the execution of the project and in the increased
costs for the ordering party.

197
 It is increasingly common, not only in the packaging industry, that
the prototyping stage is supported by 3D printing. Thanks to the availability
of 3D printers, it is possible to create a prototype object (Fig. 6.7),
which enables further optimization.

Figure 6.7. Examples of packaging prototypes made with

the application of 3D printing
Source: (3d-up, 2018)

What other factors determine the final design and its price? The quantity
of the first order and the estimated annual demand for the product,
the number of designs and variants in the product line, the number and type
of offline operations, special quality requirements (mechanical resistance,
resistance to high or low temperatures, chemical resistance and compati-
bility with the product), pre-launch testing (the analysis of the composition
and migration studies, sensory neutrality, the heavy metal content, etc.)
and the way of packing and delivery terms.

Although the whole project may be implemented efficiently and without

any impediments at each of its stages, one should always allow
for incidents that are independent from the contractor, e.g. the maximum
use of assembly lines, mechanical failures, the availability of components

198
for manufacturing (the availability of raw materials and additional
materials, e.g. dyes), seasonality, latent defects, changes occurring in
the materials requiring seasoning, etc. Therefore, how should we carry
the project through to a success without incurring excessive costs?
Even if we choose from among standard solutions, we can still reach
a unique effect. If we choose standard raw material for production and use
a standard printing technique (flexographic, screen, offset) or decorate
by way of cold stamping, instead of diffractive foil or “cast & cure”,
and use one form of decoration for a few product families, we may still
come up with a unique project. Not each exceptional packaging has to
be a great invention. Other ideas which save time and money include
the unification of sizes and extending “label families” based on the size
and type of material, the form of decoration and combined printing,
and another interesting solution, the so-called “multilayer”, i.e. the use of
the same label in a few overseas markets.

Another important aspect is the sequence of operations. It is particularly

important when applying labels. What is of key importance is who
and when places them; whether it is the supplier or the factory only after
the packaging is filled with a product on the assembly line. If we put labels
on empty packaging before filling it, they may get dirty, come unstuck,
crease or even get damaged while being moved on the filling line.

6.4. Process approach in packaging design

Packaging design is a process in which the interaction of elements

and activities make up a typical design study. When designing packaging,
one must take into account the functions of packaging and the products

199
it contains. The technical, environmental, financial and communication
issues need to be balanced and the emphasis on each of them varies between
products. Packaging for fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) has to stand
out from competitors' products; it involves direct consumer interaction and
thus the function of identification plays a significant role here. When it
comes to luxury goods, their packaging can sometimes cost more than
the product itself. In the case of these goods, environmental aspects play
a marginal role.
Table 6.1. shows the elements of a typical packaging design process
that are arranged into three stages: (Research and Concept, Design
Development and Production, Branding and Marketing Strategy).
Each stage is divided into subcategories, which include several services
that go into each step of a packaging design process/study.

The design process is a logical progression of events, beginning with

a brief, followed by a research phase, conceptual designs, through
to developing design candidates’ worthy of progression, testing, refinement
and final recommendations. Most packaging design companies break down
a study into a series of stages. Stage 1 (Research and Concept) usually is
the most time-consuming one. At this stage, creativity is challenged and,
at the end of it, a conceptual design is usually presented to the client with
recommendations for the further development of design candidates.
From now on, the design project comes to Stage 2 (Design Development
and Production). This stage brings forth concept development as well
as pack testing and evaluation and, as in Stage 1, ends with a client
presentation.

200
Table 6.1. Packaging design process

Stage 1 - Research and Concept

Analysis Problem Development
- Research initial idea - Problems with - Thumbnail sketches
existing products
- Daily problems - Interviews with users - Feasibility
- Existing products - User experiences - Function
- Development - Co-design - Anthropometrics
- Target user - Ergonomics

Stage 2 - Design Development and Production

Concept Creation Prototyping User Testing Quality and Safety Sourcing
- Finalized sketch - Rough models from - Target user insight - Safety issues - Manufacturer
options sketches
- Manufacturing process - Group brainstorm - Final selection - Quality control - Final process/ material
selection
- Materials selection - Final selection - Final prototype - User safety - Quality assurance
- Tech Pack / - Edits - Agreed final CAD - Product stats - Manufacturing issues
Mechanical/ Drawings
- CAD - Final rendering

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Stage 3 - Branding and Marketing Strategy
Brand identity Packaging Marketing Strategy Product Launch
- Defining the brand - Point of sale - Visual Marketing
- Brand/ Logo - Marketing - Internet and social
guidelines media
- Story and value - Display/ Visuals - Company
- Target user - Design - Ads, flyers, banners,
brochures
- Hosts - Samples

Source: Authors’ work based on ref. (Exclusive Multibriefs, 2018)

202
 When concepts are accepted by the client, the design team moves to
Stage 3 (Branding and Marketing Strategy). This stage results in specifica-
tions, drawing and artwork being completed. Although it all seems fairly
simple, a packaging design project can take even several months if,
for example, it involves outsourcing work from different countries or
consumer testing in different countries (a quite frequent practice).
The latter can give results requiring modifications or even changing
the design project completely (Stewart, 2012).

The better the quality of the brief, the more likely you are to get a pack
design closer to your expectations. Experienced packaging designers also
know how to unpack the brief and figure out what is missing and what
works and what doesn't work regarding the brief. Another key element
is a project plan that will keep the designer honest and ensure the outcomes
of the project remain on track, without blowing deadlines and budgets
(The 7 steps of packaging design process, 2017).

You must be aware that packaging design is a complex process, which

involves interdisciplinary knowledge. As a process consisting of several
stages, you can view it as a project that can be defined as a sequence
of tasks undertaken to achieve unique goals over a given period of time.
In other words, a project or a packaging project in this case, is a temporary
effort to create a unique work/packaging or service. The Project
Management Institute defines project management as the application
of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques of project operation to satisfy
or even exceed the needs and expectations of project stakeholders (Mingus,
2002; Turley, 2010).

203
 Project management is most often perceived as planning, scheduling
and project control in order to achieve its objectives. A packaging design
process/project can (as any other project) be divided into individual
processes/tasks. Therefore, each of them requires its initiation, planning,
implementation and control and closure (shown in Fig. 6.8). Planning
the action requires the creation of a project plan, work analysis and a pre-
liminary schedule (Mingus, 2002; Turley 2010; Turley 2013). The key
element here is project planning, because the correct planning of activities
enables the significant reduction of time losses during their execution.

Figure 6.8. An example of relations between basic management

processes
Source: own work based on (Mingus 2002)

One of key elements of any project is to complete it within the set

deadline, which is why it is important to create a precise schedule.
In general, when setting schedules, the project launch date is considered
as the starting point. However, it often turns out that the project cannot
be completed within the set deadline. Therefore, after estimating

204
the duration of each project task, all modifications to the schedule should
be considered and applied. What is a useful tool for the graphical
representation of the duration of tasks against the progression of time
is the Gantt diagram/chart (Mingus, 2002). Such a chart was first developed
in the 19th century by Karol Adamiecki, a Polish engineer, who named
it "harmonogram", but it is the Gantt chart that is the most famous chart
used in project management (What is a Gantt Chart?). As shown in figure
6.9, a typical Gantt chart has a list of activities on the left of the chart
and a corresponding time scale along the top. Each task is represented
by a bar; the position and length of the bar reflects the start date, duration
and end date of the task. Next to each task, there could also be information
as to who is responsible for doing it. Each bar can also show the %
completion of the given task. Tasks can be linked to each other using lines
or arrows showing task dependencies. Diamond figures show the project’s
milestones. A milestone is a management tool that is used to outline a point
in a project schedule.

These points can refer to the start and finish of a project and mark
the completion of the major phase of work (Mingus, 2002). Milestones
can be used to symbolize anything that has started or finished. They also
divide the project’s timeline into project phases. Milestones provide a way
to more accurately estimate the time it will take to complete the project,
which makes them essential for precise project scheduling. They are often
used in scheduling methodologies, such as the Critical Path Method
(CPM) (Westland, 2018).

205
 Tasks

Milestone

Task dependencies

Figure 6.9. An example of a Gantt chart

Source: (Project Management, 2015)

206
 The CPM of each project is the longest path in the job network. Tasks
on the critical path, which will not be done within schedule, extend
the duration of the entire project. The critical path does not set the most
important tasks in the project but defines the longest task sequences. Once
the critical path is identified in the project, it should be traced in some way
on the diagram (e.g. marked in red or other colour). Its identification
depends on the complexity of the project and, in some projects, there may
be several parallel and branching paths that cross at various points in the
project (Mingus, 2002; Turley 2010).

All projects are unique, which adds an element of risk to each project.
In project management, it is an event that, if it occurs, may have a positive
or negative effect on the project’s objectives. Risks are constantly reviewed
during the project, using the Risk Register (a log of possible risks that
the project faces; it is kept up to date during the project by the Project
Manager). As projects are unique in nature, they will involve risks,
and these need to be managed. Risk Management refers to the procedure
to follow to identify and assess risk. Moreover, it refers to planning
and how to respond to these risks. In other words, it is about the steps you
take in a systematic way, which will enable you to identify, assess,
and control risk. Risk Management is not something that is done only
at the start of the project but must be a continual activity during the full life
of the project; it is thus one of the main tasks for the Project Manager
(Mingus, 2002; Turley 2010). The Risk Management Procedure is a set
of five steps which are recommended by PRINCE2 (Fig. 6.10): Identify,
Assess, Plan, Implement and Communicate. The first four steps are
sequential, while Communicate will always be done to let stakeholders
know what is going on and to get continual feedback during this process.

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Step 2 – Assess - covers two actions. i.e. the estimation end evaluation
of risk. Estimating risk in a project means that you assess the probability,
impact and proximity of each risk (viewed as a threat or an opportunity).
There are a number of techniques for estimating Risk, such as probability
trees, expected value, Pareto analysis, and probability impact grid.

Figure 6.10. The Prince2® Risk Management Procedure

Source: (Prince2.wiki 2018)

For each threat and opportunity, we should consider:

- the probability of the risk (i.e., the likelihood of it happening),
- the impact, in terms of project objectives,
- the proximity of these threats, i.e. when they are likely to happen
(e.g. icy roads may be five months away for a summer event, but much
nearer if the event is held in November),
- how the impact of the risk may change over the life of the project.

Evaluation means grouping all risks together and obtaining a total Risk
Value for the whole project (Turley, 2010).

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6.5. Conceptual design
With the thorough knowledge of the product, market, consumer profile,
production, distribution and point of sale conditions, design work can
begin. A concept is a description of shapes, functions, and features which
are intended to fulfil the expectations generated, as expressed in the design
brief. During the concept design stage, several packaging concepts
are generated and evaluated, and one or more are selected for additional
development and testing. This stage of packaging design is the creative
phase’ it is also the most critical part of any design study and often the most
extensive in terms of time and cost (Bix et al. 2009; Stewart, 2012).
During the development of the concept design, the needs of the target
market are identified, competitive products are reviewed, product
specifications are defined and refined until selected.

Packaging designers often work in teams, which has the benefit

of combining the differing skills of individuals. but is also valuable
in that ideas can emerge during discussion and debate within the group.
The creation of a stimulating environment based around the project by
bringing in samples of the product, competitor products, mood boards and
other materials that relate to the product or brand is also useful. Sources
of inspiration for the design can be found everywhere. The point here is
that creativity is stimulated by external factors so that it is worth replacing
the situation of blank paper in a sterile office by something a little livelier.
It can be a walk in the park or a busy street, going window shopping, etc.
depending on the type of product being covered by the project. Another
technique used is brainstorming - which is based on the fact that a group
of designers are encouraged to suggest concepts, even the most

209
inconceivable ones, with all ideas being noted for the subsequent
discussion and without any judgement of ideas (Stewart, 2012).

Initial design focuses mainly on colour palettes, shapes, graphics,

materials and other material options that appeal to the consumers many
sensory levels: visually, tactility, emotionally. The basic idea is to
exhaustively explore design solutions in order to reduce the probability
of finding a better alternative late in the development process or,
even worse, having a competitor find one (Bix, 2009).

The designers work with the client to create multiple rough 2-D sketches
(initially present the design of the packaging, records of the designers'
design development process) for the conceptual form that evolves into
a final realistic 2-D rendering (Fig. 6.11). Many work directly with sketches
for both structural and graphic concepts, quickly generating ideas and
exploring both technical and graphical features. Others, particularly
on a structural project, prefer to create three-dimensional rough mock-
ups, using simple materials such as paper, board, solid foam, clay, plastic,
wood or by modifying found objects. Structural packaging design concerns
working with shape and materials. Precision is not required; a standard
capable of communicating a concept is enough. Computer generated work
is far too slow and limiting at this initial stage.

The rising globalism of the marketplace further complicates design

decisions, as the varying systems for distribution, storage, and handling are
not standardized, and large distances, coupled with multiple hand-offs,
cause problems with product security. Technologies like bar codes and
radio-frequency identification (RFID) are often included in package
systems in an attempt to provide a complete history regarding the product’s

210
origin, location, and conditions of handling (Bix, 2009). Different
packaging materials impose design constraints through the nature
of the material and its ability to be converted into packaging.

Figure 6.11. An example of a sketch

Source: (Cristinaland, 2018)

Mock-ups (Fig. 6.12) are a great way of bringing packaging concepts

to life. They need to be good enough to provide a visual reference
to the packaging form they represent.

211
Figure 6.12. An example of a beer packaging mock-up
Source: (Designshack 2018)

Here, we also need to be able to understand what materials are

represented by mock-ups and sketches and how they might be decorated
(Stewart, 2012).

Once designs have been submitted, they are rationalized down to

the ones that most hit the mark. Selection is crucial here and it can be either
intuitive or structured. This process can include: an external client decision,
multi-voting, pros and cons, prototype testing or decision matrices.
As the design has been selected, it goes through the process of refinement.
Selected concepts are evaluated by potential users in the target market
and subjected to appropriate laboratory testing. Then, there is time for
design refinements, which makes sure that the final design communicates
the intended deliverables. At this stage, the client may request changes to
colour, typography and even graphic imagery (The 7 step packaging design
process). Conceptual graphic design work may be done simultaneously
with structural design or follow it. Until the structural design is established
and the materials decided, graphic design can only remain conceptual.

212
Any graphic design must be effective on the panel most seen by consumers
at point-of-sale. The decision as to which panel will become the main panel
is normally a first step (Stewart, 2012).

Another design step is the creation of a dieline, which is the flat template
for the package. It is the digital document that contains the precise drawing
indicating the shape and structural specifications of a package. The dieline
(Fig. 6.13) serves as a package template that ensures proper layout for
the printed product. It is a diagram showing all the cut lines and folds
of a package in a flattened form; usually put together by the packaging
designer in a vector program, like Illustrator, using simple lines and shapes.
The finished art team has to set up and supply the highest quality finished
artwork ensuring that it is print ready (The 7 step packaging design
process).

Figure 6.13. An example of a dieline

Source: (Labeltech 2018)

213
 This stage of the packaging design project also involves the develop-
ment of secondary packaging and the evaluation of packaging performance
on line and in transit. Undecorated containers can often be used for trials,
although designers should be aware that, in some instances, pack
performance could be affected by print. Trials are performed to establish
filling, labelling, coding, collation, and stability on the packaging line.
Transit trials can also be organised at this stage using trial packs sent in
representative warehousing and distribution systems. These should be
designed to replicate typical conditions of pallet use, stack heights,
transport methods and handling. Alternatively, packs can be evaluated with
the use of simulated package testing carried out by specialist companies,
which is often quicker than real-time tests and may incorporate climatic
testing, where packs can be humidity and temperature conditioned as part
of the test sequence. Vibration testing can also simulate transport methods
allowing different vibrations from road, rail or air transport to be
incorporated (Stewart, 2012).

6.6. Bibliography
3d-up (2018) Drukowanie 3d (in Polish, English title: 3d Printing),
http://3d-up.pl/drukowanie-3d/druk-3d-obudowy-i-opakowania/
(access: 20.07 2018).
Bix, L., de la Fuente, J., Sundar, R., & Lockhart, H. (2009), Packaging
Design and Development. in Yam K.L. (Ed.), Wiley Encyclopedia
of Packaging Technology (3rd ed.), Wiley, pp. 859-866.
Baldwin, Ch. (2009). Sustainability in the Food Industry, Wiley-Blackwell,
pp.101-114.
Chrisinaland (2018) Sketch 23 https://cristinaland.files.wordpress.com/
2010/02/sketch-23.jpg (access: 12.07.2018).

214
Designshack (2018) Beer Mock Up https://designshack.net/wp-
content/uploads/Beer-Mock-Up.jpg (access: 12.07.2018).
Exclusive Multibriefs (2018) Industrial Design Chart http://exclusive.
multibriefs.com/images/exclusive/0412industrialdesignchart.png.
(access: 12.07.2018).
Krawczyk, M. (2017). Opakowania. Jak projektować, żeby recyklingować
(in Polish, English title: Packaging. How to design, to recycle), Rekopol
Organizacja Odzysku Opakowań S.A.
Labeltech (2018) Dieline Explanation https://www.labeltech.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/02/Dieline-explanation.png (access: 12.07.2018).
Mingus, N. (2002). Zarządzanie projektami (in Polish, English title:
Project Management.) Gliwice: Wydawnictwo Helion.
MCH (2018) Kosmetyki (in Polish, English title: Cosmetics)
http://www.mch.com.pl/produkty/butelki/kosmetyki/BU868A
(access:20.07.2018).
Pinterest (2018a) https://pl.pinterest.com/pin/489133209521997116/
(access:20.07.2018).
Pinterest (2018b) https://pl.pinterest.com/pin/656399714409555557/
(access:20.07.2018).
Pinterest (2018c) https://pl.pinterest.com/offsite/?token=792-
632&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkunstop.de%2Fbeispiele-fuer-original-
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A (access:20.07.2018).
Plasticstoday (2018) PET Water Bottle… https://www.plasticstoday.com/
packaging/pet-water-bottle-design-attributes-impact-
recycling/129588771957239 (access:20.07.2018).
Prince2wiki (2018) Slide 44 http://prince2.wiki/images/1/11/Slide44.PNG
(accessed:20.07.2018).

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 Project Management (2015) What is a Gantt Chart https://project-
management.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/what-is-a-gantt-chart-
example.png (accessed:20.07.2015).
Spence, C. (2016). Multisensory Packaging Design: Color, Shape, Texture,
Sound, and Smell. In: Burgess, P. (Ed.), Integrating the Packaging and
Product Experience in Food and Beverages: A Road-Map to Consumer
Satisfaction. Woodhead Publishing, pp. 1–22.
Stewart, B. (2012). Packaging Design and Development. In A. Emblem &
H. Emblem (Eds.), Packaging technology. Fundamentals, materials and
processes Woodhead Publishing Ltd. pp. 411-440.
The 7 step packaging design process https://www.slideshare.net/isegail/
the-7-step-packaging-design-process74491018?utm_source=slideshow
&utm_medium=ssemail&utm_campaign=post_upload_view_cta
(access:20.07.2018).
Swedbrand-group (2018) 20 Cutes Sock Packaging Designs
http://www.swedbrand-group.com/blog/20-cutest-sock-packaging-
designs (access:20.07.2018).
Turley, F. (2010). PRINCE2® Foundation Training Manual.
http://www.skillpower.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/P2F-
Training-Manual-MP0015-v12p-Sample.pdf (access:12.07.2018).
Turley, F. (2013). An Introduction to PRINCE2®. The best possible
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content/uploads/2015/11/Introduction-To-PRINCE2-MP0057.pdf
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