FuseTek™ Hybrid Drill Bits

VOLUME 07 ISSUE 6-JUNE 2014

A Fusion of Drill Bit Technologies

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22 37

Contents June 2014

Volume 07 Issue 06

03 Comment 27 Factoring in the top 5

Gefei Liu, Pegasus Vertex, Inc., USA, examines five main factors that must be
taken into account when centralising casing during cementing operations.
05 World News
32 Forever blowing bubbles
10 Taking action against sanctions Hector T. B. Medeiros, Sergio E.A. Filho, Clara E. Mata, and Mikaella B. Oliveira,
Emma Hodges, Forensic Risk Alliance, UK, looks at the recent US/EU 3M, discuss the use of glass microspheres (or bubbles) in the cementing and
sanctions imposed on Russian businesses and outlines the steps that completions process.
companies should take in order to avoid being exposed to sanctions
breaches through their oil and gas partners.
37 Considering completion hardware
Fredrik Harestad, Omega Completion Technology, Norway, examines some
13 Pulling the plug recent developments in completions hardware that are allowing the oil and
Doug Smith, Varel International, USA, explains how specially designed drill gas industry to push into deeper and more demanding reservoirs.
bits can make the task of drilling out frac plugs in multizone completions
more efficient.
40 X marks the spot
Adam Baig, Sheri Bowman and Katie Jeziorski, ESG Solutions, explain how
16 At the cutting edge microseismic monitoring has evolved to become more than just mapping
Aron Deen and Casey Kitagawa, Ulterra Drilling Technologies, fractures.
Barry Schneider and Gary G. King, Shell, explain how new advances in
PDC bit construction and design are helping to cut drilling costs in the
Marcellus Shale. 45 Gas bonanza
Unconventional resources have revolutionised the O&G sector in
North America, Oilfield Technology correspondent, Gordon Cope, explains
22 Powering through the permafrost how their potential across the rest of the world is equally enticing.
Gurban Veliyev, Andrey Bakhtin, and Stanislav Kulikov, Weatherford,
Russian Federation, explain how drilling with casing (DwC) methods are
being utilised in order to isolate the permafrost sections of wellbores in 49 Being selective for success
Arctic fields. Frank Preiss, DynaEnergetics, Germany, describes the development of
selective perforating technologies from pressure activated polarity sensitive
switches over digital coded systems to the integrated switch detonator.

53 Raising recovery rates

Garrett Leahy and Lars Anders Ruden, Emerson Process Management,
Front cover
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE

provide an overview of various software and hardware developments that

FuseTek™ hybrid drill bits VOLUME 06 ISSUE 11-NOVEMBER 2013 are improving oil and gas recovery rates.
from National Oilwell Varco
bridge the gap between FuseTek™ Hybrid Drill Bits 56 High resolution revolution
NOVEMBER 2013

Polycrystalline Diamond A Fusion of Drill Bit Technologies Craig Lippus, Geometrics, USA, examines new ultra high-resolution
Compact (PDC) and 3D marine seismic that is opening new vistas in the shallow seabed.
diamond impregnated drill
bit applications. This fusion 63 Deepwater motion compensation
of drill bit designs allows Trey Miller and Patrick Vilyus, NOV Devin, describe the benefits of using
for continued drilling past motion compensation systems in rigless/riserless well intervention for
the conventional PDC life deepwater projects.
by engaging the formation
with diamond impregnated
material. FuseTek bits extend 69 The digital oilfield - understanding the potential
drilling intervals and reduce Nick Kamen, Vodafone, UK, reviews the importance of wireless
communications and M2M technology in the ongoing search for oil and gas.
Non Productive Time (NPT)
in difficult, interbedded
www.energyglobal.com

lithologies, while maximising

durability in the hardest rock
sections and increasing ROP
DH Fusing Drill Bit Technologies
OFC_OT_November13.indd 1 cover ad OT REV 10-17-13.indd 1 10/22/2013 7:35:13 10:04
30/10/2013 AM

in medium-hard to hard
lithologies. More from Follow us on Twitter
@Energy_Global
Join us on LinkedIn
Oilfield Technology

Read on the go Connect on Google+ Like us on Facebook

App available on Apple/Android Oilfield Technology Energy Global

ISSN 1757-2134
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Oilfield Technology is audited by the Audit Bureau in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
of Circulations (ABC). An audit certificate is
All views expressed in this journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers
available on request from our sales department.
endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK. Images courtesy of www.bigstockphoto.com.
 Behind every bit is a
company that knows
every bit about it.
®

An ESCO Oil & Gas Company

®

As a true drilling-focused organization we direct all our resources, expertise and technologies
to deliver the ultimate PDC bit solution to lower your drilling costs. Period.
Contact an Ulterra drilling expert When Every Run CountsTM

www.ulterra.com | 420 Throckmorton Street | Suite 1110 | Fort Worth, Texas 76102 | 1-844-ULTERRA

© Copyright 1998-2014 Ulterra | All Rights Reserved. | Ulterra is a registered trademark of Ulterra.
 Comment Cecilia Rehn, Editor
June 2014

cecilia.rehn@oilfieldtechnology.com Contact us

A
s the largest energy consumer in the world, it is not surprising to hear Editorial
that China is, albeit reluctantly, shifting to a more meddlesome policy Managing Editor: James Little
james.little@oilfieldtechnology.com
to protect its oil and gas imports, even from smaller markets such as
Editor: Cecilia Rehn
South Sudan. Traditionally more taciturn, recent events suggest the country is cecilia.rehn@oilfieldtechnology.com
looking to protect its interests in Africa’s youngest country. Assistant Editor: David Bizley
South Sudan’s economy is 98% dependent on petroleum exports, and david.bizley@oilfieldtechnology.com
contributed 5% of Beijing’s total imports when production was at its peak in 2011.
In January 2012, South Sudan voluntarily shut in all of its oil production following conflicts, border disputes
Design
Production: Natalie Callow
and quarrels over pipeline transit tariffs with Sudan, and production was only restarted in April 2013, with natalie.callow@oilfieldtechnology.com
varying flows.
Today, oil production is currently at a third of the level it was at in December 2013, before the latest Sales
conflict flared up between factions loyal to President Salva Kiir and his former deputy, rebel leader Advertisement Director: Rod Hardy
rod.hardy@oilfieldtechnology.com
Riek Machar, and is now in the region of 165 000 bpd.
Advertisement Sales Executive: Ben Macleod
China, traditionally not keen to promote the secession of states due to its own internal issues, stated ben.macleod@oilfieldtechnology.com
from the beginning that it would support both Sudans and help promote peace. Now, with state firm China Business Development Manager: Chris Lethbridge
National Petroleum Corp (CNPC) having a 40% stake in a joint venture developing the South Sudanese fields, chris.lethbridge@oilfieldtechnology.com
diplomatic patience over this low production is clearly wearing thin. Last year, several Chinese workers had to
Website
be evacuated from an oilfield in northern South Sudan as fighting reached the area.
Website Manager: Tom Fullerton
South Sudan’s Petroleum Minister Stephen Dhieu Dau expressed “optimism” in a recent statement that tom.fullerton@oilfieldtechnology.com
“current operational challenges” to oil production will be resolved and output restored to its level in 2011, Website Editor: Callum O’Reilly
before the country claimed independence. China appears to be doing its best to help promote mediation and callum.oreilly@oilfieldtechnology.com
stability, firstly by pushing the rival factions to talk, and reportedly halting arms deal negotiations with the Digital Editorial Assistant: Katie Woodward
katie.woodward@oilfieldtechnology.com
government late last year.
China’s direct involvement can also be seen in its latest US$ 1 million donation to the Intergovernmental Marketing
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of a second ceasefire agreed in May (the first deal in January crumpled almost immediately). victoria.mcconnell@oilfieldtechnology.com
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“We have huge interests in South Sudan so we have to make a greater effort to persuade the two sides Publisher
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a point of highlighting China’s “substantial political, diplomatic and financial assets, which, if fully applied, Subscription
would be a game-changer in the region’s peace and security.” Premier Li, however, reiterated the customary
position, that China will not interfere in Africa’s internal politics. It remains to be seen if China, as its economic Oilfield Technology subscription rates: Annual subscription
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June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 3

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World news
Marathon Oil sells Norway
business for US$ 2.1 billion
Marathon Oil has announced that it is
planning to sell its Norwegian business
unit for US$ 2.1 billion to Det Norske as the
company works to move its focus from the
North Sea and onto US operations.
Chief Executive, Lee M. Tillman, said:
“The sale of our Norway assets advances
one of our key 2014 priorities and further
demonstrates our commitment to rigorous
portfolio management to simplify and
concentrate our business.”
The company’s decision to refocus on
the US is fuelled by booming production
levels in the region; indeed the company is
planning to use the money raised from the
sales to buy into US shale oil operations.
The deal, which is still subject to
regulatory approval is due to close by the
end of this year.
ExxonMobil ops in Russia
not yet hit by sanctions
Rex Tillerson, the CEO of ExxonMobil, has
stated that the situation in Ukraine and the
sanctions imposed on Russia by the US and
EU have had no impact on the company’s
Russian operations.
Tillerson was quoted as saying, “We’re
extremely proud of what we’ve been able
to accomplish in Russia [...] They’ve been
very good partners to us.” The CEO also
added that ExxonMobil does not usually
support the use of sanctions and has
previously made its position clear to the
US government. At the time of writing,
it is believed that the sanctions imposed
by the US and EU have yet to cause any
damage to the relationship between
ExxonMobil and Rosneft.
A difficult business climate and
increasing political tensions between the
West and Russia have seen many companies
cease operations in Russia. However,
ExxonMobil is not alone, with BP and
Chevron keeping ties to Russia.
Premier makes gas find
offshore Indonesia
Premier Oil has struck wet gas offshore
Indonesia at the Singa Laut-1 well.
The company said the well had
penetrated 177 ft of net gas-bearing
reservoir sands within the targeted
Oligocene sequence. Gas gradients have
been measured and gas samples recovered,
with the gas appearing to be of similar
quality to the liquids-rich gas already
found in the adjacent Kuda Laut well. The
Kuda Laut well struck oil earlier this year.
The well will now be plugged and
abandoned before further appraisal drilling
goes ahead elsewhere.
Andrew Lodge, Exploration Director,
was quoted as saying, “We are pleased that
the Singa Laut discovery has increased our
gross resource estimate on the Tuna Block
to a potential 100 million boe.”
Statoil launches drilling at
Barents Sea Apollo project
Statoil has begun drilling at the Apollo
wildcat prospect in the Barents Sea in the
wake of protests by Greenpeace.
Greenpeace activists began attempts
to prevent drilling activity by boarding the
Transocean Spitsbergen rig in late May as
it set out for the drilling location. Several
activists refused to leave the rig despite
being ordered to by police, meaning that
they had to be forcibly removed with the
assistance of the emergency response unit.
Greenpeace then used a vessel to obstruct
the drilling zone, compelling Norwegian
authorities to put an exclusion zone around
the site.
Irene Rummelhoff, Senior Vice
President for Exploration on the Norwegian
Continental Shelf said, “Greenpeace has
once again performed an illegal action.
Statoil respects people’s right to make a
legal protest, and we feel it is important to
have a democratic debate around the oil
industry.”
June 2014
In brief
Uganda
The government of Uganda has
announced plans to award new oil and
gas exploration licenses next year after an
eight year hiatus.
The reason behind the ban, first
put in place back in 2007, was to give
the government time to establish the
required regulatory framework. The last
legal bill required for the sector to be
fully regulated is now being finalised by
lawmakers.
Thus far, a total of 88 oil and
exploration wells have been drilled in
Uganda, 76 of which have struck oil.
UK
The UK Onshore Operators Group
(UKOOG) has welcomed the
announcement made in the most recent
Queen’s speech at parliament, that “the
Government is to legislate on land access
issues for the onshore oil and gas and
geothermal industries.”
Ken Cronin, CEO of UKOOG, said
“The proposed legislation will bring the
onshore oil and gas and geothermal
industries into line with other activities
such as mining and utilities” without
negatively impacting the lives of property
owners.
Germany
According to reports, Germany’s
Chancellor, Angela Merkel, is outlining a
framework that would allow companies
to use hydraulic fracturing in order extract
oil and gas.
In a bid to reduce dependency on
Russian gas the guidelines, though strict,
mark a step towards boosting domestic
hydrocarbon production. Hydraulic
fracturing has been banned in Germany
for a number of years, even when applied
to conventional reservoirs.
June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 5
 World news June 2014

Diary dates
BG & Ophir Energy hit gas
25 - 28 August, 2014 offshore Tanzania
ONS 2014 BG and Ophir Energy have announced a
Stavanger, Norway new gas discovery offshore Tanzania at
E: booking@ons.no
the Taachui‑1/Taachui‑1 ST1 well located
www.ons.no/2014
in Block 1.
The well, which was drilled to a
26 - 31 October, 2014 depth of 4215 m, encountered 298 m of
SEG International Exposition and 84th gas column in the targeted Cretaceous
Annual Meeting reservoir. At present, estimates for the
Denver, USA likely recoverable resources from the
www.seg.org/web/annual-meeting-2014 find are approximately 28 billion m3.
The size of the discovery has raised the
27 - 29 October, 2014 likelihood that it might extend into a
second compartment to the west, which
SPE ATCE has the potential to be of a similar size. An
Amsterdam, the Netherlands
E: cmoritz@spe.org additional appraisal well will be needed to
www.spe.org/atce/2014 confirm this possibility.
Nick Cooper, the CEO of Ophir Energy
said, “The Taachui-1 discovery continues
10 - 13 November, 2014 the 100% drilling success rate on Blocks
ADIPEC 1, 3 and 4. [...] The result is important to
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Ophir [because] it extends the proven
E: noursoliman@dmgeventsme.com hydrocarbon to the eastern limit of, and
www.adipec.com
partly de-risks, [the] East Pande permit on
which the Tende-1 well will be drilled later
in 2014.”  production levels.
Putin: O&G should cut
reliance on foreign tech
In the wake of five successive months
of output decline, the President of the
Russian Federation, Vladimir Putin, has
called for Russia’s oil and gas industry to
reduce its reliance on foreign equipment
and increase efforts to exploit oil and
gas reserves located in Siberia and the
country’s far east.
Putin was quoted as saying, “Import
substitution is not a panacea for all the
problems but we understand that it may
allow us to guarantee the implementation
of many projects”. Gazprom Neft, a major
Russian producer, has announced that it
may acquire drilling rigs from domestic
or Asian suppliers in a bid to reduce
dependency on Western companies.
However, Putin did mention that
Russia would not stop imports of
equipment completely. Indeed, it is
foreign technology and expertise that
will open up the unconventional and
hard‑to‑reach reserves that Russia needs
to exploit in order to prop up its flagging
 

Web news
highlights Iraq threatens legal action against buyers of Kurdistan
oil exports
ÌÌRosneft keen to increase its presence in
Azerbaijan Iraq’s continuing debate with autonomous region of Kurdistan has reached a new level,
ÌÌCloud monitoring for the O&G industry with Baghdad threatening legal action against any buyers of oil exported from Kurdistan
via a new pipeline.
ÌÌION announces multi-client 2D seismic The Baghdad government maintains that the right to manage sales of crude oil from
survey in Libya the nation is held exclusively by the State Oil Marketing Organisation (SOMO) and has
ÌÌTroll under pressure referred to exports made without SOMO’s involvement as “smuggling”.
ÌÌMajorities of North Carolina voters The most recent flare up in tensions has come about after a shipment of oil from
Kurdistan was exported through a new pipeline to Turkey and then taken via tanker from
support oil and gas investment
the port of Ceyhan; the final destination of the cargo remains unclear.
To read more about these articles General Director of SOMO, Majid Alhilfi, said in a signed statement that “SOMO, on
behalf of the Iraqi federal ministry of oil, is hereby warning all companies, individuals and
and for more event listings go to:
bodies from buying the Iraqi crude oil that is loaded on the vessel [...] The Iraqi federal
ministry and SOMO shall reserve the right to take all legal measures against any company,
individual and/or body that bought or might consider buying the said cargo”. Baghdad has
filed for international arbitration against Turkey for enabling the sale.
Whilst previous threats to go after purchasers of Kurdistan oil with legal action have
Scan for the come to nothing, this most recent warning appears to have gained more attention; the
ENERGY GLOBAL
iPhone/iPad App Italian government has warned oil traders against purchasing oil from Kurdistan in the first
Get the free mobile app at sign of a European government responding to diplomatic pressure from Baghdad.
http:/ / gettag.mobi

6 | Oilfield Technology June 2014

 World news June 2014

ExxonMobil could takeover Romania to provide fairer Seismic survey offshore

at Kashagan
According to industry reports, US oil major
ExxonMobil is next in line to take over the
operatorship of the super-giant Kashagan
project offshore Kazakhstan.
The US$ 50 billion Kashagan project has
encountered repeated delays; the previous
operator, Eni, was removed from the role
after significant delays and additional
costs. Production did actually start in
September 2013, but was shut down again by
October after the discovery of gas leaks in the
pipeline network.
Oil and Gas Minister, Uzakbai Karabilin
was quoted as saying that production may not
resume until early 2016; it is then likely to take
an additional three years before production
reaches a target of 370 000 bpd.  huge differences in investment and profit.”  security or HSE incidents.”
oil and gas tax system
According to Victor Ponta, Prime Minister
of Romania, the country will introduce a
new royalty tax system designed to more
fairly represent the differences between the
costs of extracting oil and gas onshore and
offshore.
Under the current system, companies
are required to pay a royalty ranging from
3 - 13.5% depending on the amount of oil or
gas produced. The new system, which will not
be applied to current contracts due to legal
reasons, is due to be completed by November
this year.  for both Soma Oil & Gas and the Federal
Ponta said, “On a European and global
level, one cannot have the same royalty tax
for offshore and onshore because there are
Somalia completed
Soma Oil and Gas Exploration has completed
a 2D seismic survey programme offshore
Somalia. The seismic acquisition, which was
conducted by SeaBird Exploration, covered an
area of 122 000 km2.
The processing of this data is expected to
take until late 2014. Once processed, the data
will be handed over to Somalia’s ministry of
petroleum and mineral resources.
Robert Sheppard, CEO of Soma, said,
“The completion of the 2D seismic acquisition
programmed is a significant milestone
Government of Somalia.” He continued, “The
quantity and quality of seismic data acquired
is at the top end of our expectations with no

Oil & Gas Drilling

from energyglobal.com
A digest of recent news on Energy Global, read the full articles online

Drilling completed on fourth well in
Kazakh gas campaign
Tethys has announced the completion of drilling and logging of
the AKK20 exploration well, the fourth well in its 2014 shallow gas
drilling programme in Kazakhstan.
The well was drilled to a depth of 681 m (2234 ft) with
hydrocarbon shows and electric logs indicating the presence of
hydrocarbons within the target Tasaran sand, although testing will
be required on this well to confirm commerciality. The well is located
some 4.4 km (2.76 miles) north of the AKK15 well which encountered
a gas-bearing interval within the Tasaran which tested gas at a stable
rate of approximately 195 000 m3 (7 million ft3 or 1167 boe) per day.
Production casing is now being run and the well will be prepared
for flow testing as part of a comprehensive testing programme,
along with AKK17, AKK18 and AKK19, to commence later this month.
The results of this programme will then be submitted to the State
Committee for Reserves in order for the wells to be incorporated into
the existing Akkulka Production Contract.
This prolific oil and gas area is rapidly developing and Tethys
believes that significant potential exists in both exploration and in
discovered deposits. GO TO
FULL VERSION
Tullow drilling update: North Sea wildcat
well
Tullow Oil Norge AS, operator of production licence 550, is about
to complete drilling of wildcat well 31/2-21 S. The well was drilled
approximately 12 km northwest of the Troll C platform in the
North Sea.
The primary exploration target for the well was to prove
petroleum in Upper Jurassic reservoir rocks (Draupne formation).
The secondary exploration target was proving petroleum in
Upper and Middle Jurassic reservoir rocks (Sognefjord, Fensfjord,
Krossfjord formations and the Brent Group).
The well did not encounter reservoir rocks in the Draupne
formation. In the secondary target, reservoir rocks were
encountered in the Sognefjord, Fensfjord, Krossfjord formations and
the Brent Group. The reservoirs are of good quality, however are
water-filled. The well is dry. Data acquisition has been carried out.
This is the first exploration well in production licence 550.
The well was drilled to a vertical depth of 3217 m below the
sea surface and terminated in Lower Jurassic reservoir rocks
(Cook formation). The water depth is 348 m. The well will now be
permanently plugged and abandoned. GO TO
FULL VERSION

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of the upstream, midstream and downstream energy sectors.
To read more, please visit www.energyglobal.com/news/drilling-and-production
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 Taking action
against sanctions
Emma Hodges, Forensic Risk Alliance, UK, looks at the
recent US/EU sanctions imposed on Russian businesses
and outlines the steps that companies should take in
order to avoid being exposed to sanctions breaches
through their oil and gas partners.

10 |
R
ussia is the world’s third largest producer of oil and the second-largest
producer of natural gas. It generates over two-thirds of its export
earnings from the sector, which is largely responsible for its impressive
US$ 486 billion cushion of foreign exchange reserves.1,2 It is also the country
to watch at the moment as the political landscape in the region continues to
shift and Western governments respond ever more aggressively.
Russia has never been an easy place to do business. The recent political
upheaval surrounding it and Ukraine has resulted in the EU and US placing
targeted sanctions on the country, with both individuals and numerous
companies placed on sanctions lists – some the affected companies are
involved in the oil and gas industry in both the supply and development of gas
deposits. Throughout April and May further Russian officials were placed on an
EU sanctions list, banning them from visiting any member state and freezing
any assets they may hold. In the oil and gas arena Igor Sechin, the Chairman of
Rosneft, has been added to the sanctions list and further US sanctions are also
likely to follow in the coming months.
It is worth being aware that there is limited legal defence against sanctions
violations – one either deals with a sanctioned entity or does not, and there
is little due process around regulatory investigations and fines. This means
the regulators have a lot of power – ask Bank Paris Nationale (BNP) and the
growing number banks who have already paid up billions of dollars in fines
(Barclays, Lloyds, Standard Chartered, RBS, etc.). The US has also been more than
willing to criminally prosecute corporations (again BNP and also Credit Suisse).
In this current climate, it is therefore unsurprising to see compliance issues move
up the agenda. There has also been a shift in focus from bribery and corruption to

| 11
concerns surrounding sanctions exposure – a compliance risk area that,
until recently, has taken a bit of a back seat.
It remains to be seen how extensive the impact of Ukraine-based
sanctions will be – particularly in the oil and gas sector. The changing
and unstable nature of the region and extreme likelihood that current
sanctions will only get tougher in the future, leaves oil and gas companies
considering what precautions to take to ensure that they do not suddenly
end up dealing with a designated person or regime.
The consequences of breaching sanctions are extremely serious
and severe. Aside from the huge fines that can be levied, there are the
very significant costs incurred in investigations – legal costs in defending
prosecutions, business interruption and loss of profits in cases where
the relevant authorities order business activity to be suspended or
cease entirely. There is also the ultimate cost: the loss of one’s liberty if
a custodial sentence is imposed. This is the reality facing anyone who
breaches sanctions, whether deliberately or inadvertently, and is a risk that
companies need to be particularly aware of as they partner with Russian
entities.
Exposure to risk of sanctions breaches through oil
and gas partners
The Russian government has historically been reluctant to use production
sharing agreements (PSAs). Across the oil and gas industry foreign
companies’ investment in Russia is primarily accomplished through joint
ventures (JVs) with a Russian local partner company. JVs can take various
forms; in essence they are business structures intended to manage and
apportion risk and raise funding. A key question is: ‘Who are you dealing
with?’ Russians, for legitimate (and maybe less legitimate) reasons, often
use shell companies and intermediaries – disguising beneficial ownership
is part of the corporate landscape.
The issue surrounding this lack of transparency at the operational
level is applicable to many types of JV partnerships. The level of
accounting detail provided to partners varies case by case, but is rarely
down to an individual transaction level for practical accounting and
operational reasons. While the actual list of sanctioned individuals and
corporate entities is relatively small, it has been growing, and the risk for
foreign companies is difficult to quantify but could potentially be very high.
Companies that do not have adequate oversight of the JV’s operations will
find it difficult to monitor their own risk exposure, particularly in respect of
sanctions.
For multinational oil and gas companies in particular, the
interconnected nature of primary and subsidiary operations, supply
chains as well as points of sale have become so expansive, that the
chances dramatically escalate that they could, even in some small way,
be connected to sanctioned individuals or companies. As the pressure
intensifies companies are faced with a large burden to uncover their
potential exposure to the moving target of sanctioned people, corporate
entities and potentially technologies that could constitute a sanctioned
regime. Associating even a small part of a company’s operations could
represent an enormous compliance cost depending upon the penalties
the US and EU decide to impose. It is therefore important to put in place
controls that evidence consideration of the key risks and attempts to
mitigate and avoid breaches – intentional as well as the more arcane
unintentional.
Appreciably, with the long-established US Foreign Corrupt Practices
Act (FCPA) and the UK Bribery Act, which came into force in the summer
of 2011, some companies have gone a little way to implementing improved
anti-bribery and corruption measures, as well as an increased vetting of
direct counterparties, to ensure that they are not designated persons.
The problem, however, is that the concentration tends to be on gifts and
entertainment, third party payments and only direct counterparties or
dealings.
12 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
Essentially, the accusation can be, and often is (from regulators), that
the due diligence conducted has not gone far enough, deep enough or
wide enough. Even standard good business practice such as setting up
critical insurance cover required to back many oil and gas exploration and
extraction operations could potentially expose companies to sanctions
breaches through working with distant (and sometimes even unknown)
third‑parties. In some cases, this could even be front companies founded
by governments with sanctions imposed against them. For example, many
commercial insurance transactions will involve the client insured, a local
agent and/or introducer and/or a producing broker, a placing broker and
finally the insurer in a placing contract. A claim can involve the insurer,
the placing broker, the local agent (and/or introducer and/or producing
broker), a loss adjuster and finally the client insured and/or nominated
loss payee. With this in mind, it is absolutely crucial that ‘Know Your Client’
(KYC) and ‘Anti-Money Laundering’ (AML) measures are sufficient and
robust.
It is important to remember that within sanctions and embargoes
legislation, the designation of individuals and entities, and the penalties
that may be incurred for any actual or alleged breach is a constantly
‘moving feast’. Take the examples of Myanmar and Zimbabwe, where
sanctions have eased, compared to the likes of Russia, North Korea
and Syria, where they are increasingly tightening. Even if there are no
direct dealings with sanctioned or embargoed regimes or individuals
and/or entities therefrom, it is vital to be sure and evidence to the
various regulatory authorities that there are no DPs standing behind the
individuals and entities being dealt with.
What to do?
Ensure the tone from the top – and across the JV and agree a plan to
educate management and employees at the asset level as well as their
agents and suppliers on the likely impacts of the sanctions risks, and show
people how to avoid falling foul of the law.
Check high risk areas: set out a programme to review past practice to
identify areas, relationships or transactions at risk, and seek independent
help and advice to deal with problems and to improve processes so
that they are fluid enough to capture changes in the environment that
may expose the company to further risk. Allow JV members to review,
comment and enhance as appropriate. Do so on an iterative risk based
basis – just because the risk did not exist yesterday does not mean it will
not tomorrow.
Business partners: the operating partner must structure their
business to ensure there are contracts with key business partners that
require clear, honest practice. They must put contingency arrangements
in place wherever risks lie and retain the right to audit a business
partner’s practices – and be prepared to audit in the event of a red flag or
whistle‑blower allegations.
Due diligence: effective due diligence is at the heart of a robust
compliance programme and should start with a risk assessment of both
third-party customers and suppliers. Due diligence is often now thought
of as being important from an anti-bribery and corruption perspective,
but can be effectively designed to also satisfy diligence requirements from
a sanctions perspective. As with many other compliance activities, the
effort needs to be proportionate and reasonable to the risk exposure. At a
basic level, companies should be running checks of counterparties against
sanctions lists. Again, it is crucial that this is not a one-off check, but one
that is done with sufficient regularity. It will only be worthwhile if it is
performed on the most up‑to‑date information (checked against the latest
sanctions list) about who a company is doing business with. 
References
1. ‘Russia’s economy: Tipping the scales’, The Economist, (3 May 2014).
2. The US Energy Information Administration.
Doug Smith, Varel International, USA,
explains how specially designed drill
bits can make the task of drilling out
frac plugs in multizone completions
more efficient.

D
rilling out bridge and frac plugs is a
regular and inefficient task in multi‑zone
completions. The job is commonly
carried out using a variety of standard drill bits.
However, removing between 15 and 40 plugs
comprised of very hard outer slips surrounded
by ductile composites and elastomer materials
presents several challenges to bit performance.
Similar to drilling operations, the completions
objective is to efficiently drill as much as
possible before having to trip to replace the bit.
The plug’s hard outer slips can quickly
wear bit teeth so that the bit is increasingly
less effective with each plug drilled. It is also
difficult to achieve a small cuttings size across
the various plug materials, which can limit
hole‑cleaning efficiency.
Two bits – a roller cone (RC) and a
fixed cutter (FC) design – have been developed
to specifically address these plug drilling
challenges. The RC bit features a dual cutting
structure comprised of both steel tooth and
tungsten carbide inserts (TCI) on each cone.
In an extensive study in south Texas, the
RC bits have improved performance
with greater efficiency and less wear.
The FC design, which provides solid
body reliability using PDC cutters

| 13
developed specially to drill plug materials, is in the field pending its
first commercial run.
The dominance of long multi‑zone completions and the drive
for overall efficiency in completing unconventional resources
means that the ability of these bits to improve plug drill out has
the potential to significantly reduce the time and cost of producing
assets.
Figure 1. SlipStream RC Pro drill bit.
Figure 2. SlipStream FC Pro.
14 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
Eagle Ford completions
In a 57 well study conducted in the Eagle Ford shale play in south Texas,
4 ½ in. SlipStream RC Pro roller cone bits drilled frac plugs at an average of
8.1 min/plug – 13.6% faster than standard tooth bits. The SRP624 bits also
averaged 3.3 more plugs per use than the competitive tooth bit and as a
result required less trip time. Fewer trips reduced stress on coiled tubing.
The bits produced much smaller cuttings to significantly decrease
wash down time between plugs. The bits drilled consistently over the full
set of plugs compared to conventional bits where wear resulted in slower
drilling after multiple plugs. Beyond the 15th plug, where drilling with
conventional bits typically slows, the SlipStream RC Pro bits commonly
resulted in higher rates. Runs with the SlipStream bits have drilled as many
as 33 plugs with excellent cutting structure dull conditions.
In an Atascosa County well, the bit drilled one composite plug and
25 composite frac plus in 234 minutes total drilling time. The average
drilling time was nine minutes per plug. Run parameters include
2.75 bbl/min pump rate, 3.9 bbl/min return rate with a circulating pressure
of 3800 psi, and wellhead pressure of 2300 psi.
A Gonzales County completion drilled one composite plug and
21 composite frac plugs in 175 minutes for an average drill time of
eight minutes per plug. Pump rate was 2.75 bbl/min with a return rate of
3.9 bbl/min with a circulation pressure of 3800 psi and wellhead pressure
of 2300 psi.
The bits used in both well completion drill‑outs experienced minimal
wear and had dull grades of 1‑2‑WT‑G‑EEE‑X‑ER‑TD.
Operating parameters vary with the application. Weight on bit
is difficult to accurately predict but typical applications run with
3000 to 5000 lbs. The RPM can range from 80 to 400 depending on a rotary
or motor application. Typical motor speeds are between 230 and 270 RPM.
Plug drill out
A wide variety of bit types are commonly used to drill out frac and
bridge plugs, including flat‑faced tungsten carbide mill bits, PDC bits,
steel tooth bits and TCI bits. The bits are run on rotary and motor
applications and are often used with coiled tubing. Bit sizes are driven
by the casing size used in the completion process and range from
3 ⅞ to 5 in. for most applications.
Each standard bit poses a problem when used for plug drill out.
These difficulties range from being overly aggressive and requiring too
much torque, to being too passive or not sufficiently aggressive. The
results include motor stalls, producing large pieces of plug material
that are difficult to circulate out of the hole and prematurely worn or
severely damaged cutting structures.
Bit wear problems are a key issue in drilling out plugs. Common
bridge and frac plugs consist of various combinations of bodies – made
of brass, composites and thermoplastics – and cast iron or ceramic
slips and metal inserts. These materials and designs present several
general drilling zone challenges that the bit must specifically address.
The hole wall, casing, slips and inserts areas require the bit cutting
structure to be able to destroy ceramic or cast iron slips and dislodge
titanium alloy inserts from the casing wall. The bit must also be
sufficiently durable to withstand continuous contact with the hole wall
or lodged inserts.
To drill the plug body and filler materials, the cutting structure
must be able to reduce rubber and composite filler cutting size for easy
circulation out, as well as withstand occasional insert or slip impact.
Cuttings caught from surface tests and wells using the SlipStream bit
are typically less than half the size of conventional tooth bit cuttings.
The mandrel and filler materials require that the cutting structure
is able to destroy the aluminium, brass or composite mandrel and that
the cutting surface is thick enough to withstand non‑standard torque
associated with cutting them.
 In addition, the bit must withstand fluid pressure from drilling into
the completion’s isolated zones and exposure to the high hydrocarbon
content of returns. During hydraulic fracturing operations, the plugs
isolate high‑pressure fluid. When the plug is drilled, the pressurised fluid
is released and subjects the drill bit to pressure spikes. Refinements were
made to the compensation system to overcome these pressure spikes and
elevated levels of hydrocarbons.
Plug drilling technology
Materials, manufacturing and design flexibility were significant in
developing the RC bit design being used in the Eagle Ford drilling
programme and the recently introduced FC bit.
The SlipStream RC Pro bit design has both steel tooth and TCI
cutting structures on each cone. The design places the TCI cutting
structure on the outside of the cone where heavy wear occurs from
drilling hard plug components, and a steel tooth cutting structure
on the inside to drill the composite part of the plugs.
The fit‑for‑purpose inserts are subjected to a high‑energy
tumble (HET) process to increase durability. Short and closely
spaced steel tooth inner rows are fully covered by DuraClad
premium welded hard metal to provide high durability and small
cuttings for easy transport.
Bit life is further enhanced with a patented seal design that
increases reliability with greater resistance to pressure spikes and
mud packing, and a lower operating temperature.
Pressure fluctuations experienced when drilling out each
completion interval are addressed with a number of features
including a conical seal gland that is positioned to better handle
and maintain a preferred sealing location and interface. A common
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result of these pressure spikes is cone pumping in which grease can
be lost, resulting in greater bearing wear. The seal is made of highly
saturated nitrile (HSN) material that achieves greater thermal
stability, broader chemical resistance and greater tensile strength
than regular nitrate compounds.
A specialised attenuator added to the lubrication system
mitigates pressure spikes at the seal by providing the compensator
time to react without releasing grease. In addition, the
compensation system has undergone significant design changes,
including a much larger grease reservoir that provides nearly
250% more grease than in previous designs and a fully contained
diaphragm, which is more durable under the rapid cone pumping.
The FC bit design was achieved through cutter research
and design specifically focused on PDC cutter performance
when drilling out the metal and composite materials commonly
encountered with bridge and frac plugs. Compared to PDC‑style
bits with tungsten carbide cutters that are also used in plug
drilling, the Varel design improves efficiency and wear while still
providing the inherently greater reliability of a solid body bit while
enhancing performance.
Improving multi‑zone drill‑outs
The two bits designed specifically for plug drill‑out in multi‑zone
completions are helping improve the efficiency and reduce
the costs of producing unconventional assets. The roller cone
and fixed cutter bit designs address new challenges presented
by the metal, composite and elastomer components used
in manufacturing bridge and frac plugs and the downhole
conditions associated with multi‑zone completions. 
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Aron Deen and
Casey Kitagawa,
Ulterra Drilling Technologies,
Barry Schneider and
Gary G. King, Shell, explain
how new advances in
PDC bit construction and
design are helping to
cut drilling costs in the
Marcellus Shale.

A
new‑generation PDC bit
design, which makes optimal
use of available weight on bit
(WOB) to accentuate cutter engagement
with the formation, is delivering
appreciable increases in both footage
drilled and penetration rates in the
high‑angle curves and longer laterals
typical of Marcellus Shale wells.
The durability of the design
methodology is reflected in
comparable per‑run footage increases
averaging 36%, with overall rates of
penetration (ROP) roughly 52% faster
than standard PDC bits. Accordingly,
combining longer bit life and higher
ROP with enhanced toolface
control has translated to estimated
cost‑per‑foot savings amounting to
nearly US$ 57 000 per run, based
on contemporary Marcellus spread
rates.
Fundamentally, one of the
key contributors to the improved
performance and the primary
differentiator of the FastBack™
steel body PDC bit design is
the specialised geometry,
which is designed to enhance
the delivery of mechanic
specific energy (MSE) into the
rock. The capacity to divert
more energy into actually
failing rock is a function

16 |
| 17

Figure 1. FastBack Technology puts the cutters deep into formation to
help increase overall ROP and reduce cost‑per‑foot.
of the bit’s streamlined blade configuration, which in a sweeping
departure from traditional PDC bit designs, features a minimalist
approach to supporting the cutters. In other words, the smaller
profile diverts energy directly to the diamond cutting surfaces and
into the formation. In the larger bodies intrinsic of conventional steel
or matrix PDC bit designs, the blade surfaces absorb a considerable
share of applied weight, thus putting the brakes on cost‑effective
ROP and overall drilling efficiency. Moreover, the slimmed down
blade configuration likewise enlarges the junk slot area, optimising
hydraulics for highly effective hole cleaning, even in extreme gumbo
and swelling shale environments.
The new blade top geometry allowed Ulterra to simultaneously
increase both potential top‑end ROP and durability. Despite making
the switch to a 13 mm cutter from a 16 mm cutter, the company
was able to increase cutter exposure by 66%. This additional
exposure significantly increased the potential ROP of the bit
while the additional cutters increased durability of the shoulder,
ensuring the bit would maintain the additional ROP throughout the
run. Complementing the novel cutter configuration is a specially
formulated and applied hard facing material to resist erosion on
the bit surface without compromising tensile strength, a prevailing
issue in high‑speed directional drilling programmes.
While the advanced PDC bit design has been employed in many
applications and downhole environments throughout North America,
the genesis of the new concept can be traced to the Marcellus Shale
where challenging well trajectories often target intermittently hard
and abrasive formations.
Reinventing PDC bit designs
A major operator had used the previous generation Ulterra PDC bit to drill
more than 80% of the curve and laterals in its Marcellus drilling campaign,
18 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
where it generated top‑end instantaneous ROP of up to 320 ft/hr while
rotating. While delivering good drilling rates, the earlier PDC bit type
had reached a performance ceiling, prompting the operator to request a
directional bit that could increase instantaneous ROP to around
500 ft/hr, while also effectively building the curve and holding azimuth
during rotation to reduce walking tendencies in the longer laterals.
Specifically, the prototypical directional bit would couple high
instantaneous drilling rates with the capacity to build angle and exhibit
enhanced tracking and response to steering inputs in the horizontal
interval, thereby increasing overall ROP and footage drilled.
The operator request spurred a wholesale re‑evaluation of
conventional steel body PDC bit design protocol, especially for the longer
laterals intrinsic of the Marcellus and other shale plays. The primary
challenge for design engineers was to overcome the ROP restrictions
that traditionally accompanied the proportionate increases in the
WOB required for drilling longer horizontal sections. With conventional
PDC bit designs, much of the additional weight is transferred to the
drillstring where it is manifested in the form of increased torque and drag.
Consequently, maximising the transfer of weight and torque directly to the
toolface would produce a directional PDC bit that would conceivably drill
faster, longer and exhibit enhanced steerability.
Simulations of standard PDC bit designs confirmed that when
ROP reached a certain point, weight transmission to the bit was largely
inefficient in drilling new hole, as a considerable portion of the blades
simultaneously were being buried in the formation. Therefore energy that
could be directed to drilling was being wasted by pushing unproductive
blade surfaces, whose sole function ostensibly is to hold the cutters in
place rather than serve as de facto bearing surfaces. In so doing, the blades
and bit body consume hole‑producing weight that otherwise could be
transmitted to the cutters.
Clearly, with standard PDC bit designs, conventional material and
manufacturing limitations precluded the simple extension of the cutter
projections to increase drilling rates and footage. Owing to this and other
considerations, it was determined that the optimum approach was to
completely transform the generally accepted platform for PDC bit design.
Basically, the primary criteria of the re‑design were to ensure sufficient
material strength for securing the cutters, while at the same time lessening
the energy‑draining impact of the blades.
The ensuing development programme and subsequent testing
resulted in a total overhaul of the design framework for PDC bits and, for
the first time, reduced the performance‑inhibitive engagement of the bit
body, thereby transmitting once‑wasted energy straightaway to the cutters
for making new hole. In essence, the design strategy removes the blades
from the actual well construction equation.
The new design methodology creates PDC bits without the limitations
of material weaknesses and instead strategically aligns the individual
components to seamlessly capitalise on their individual strengths. The
centrepiece of the technology is the inclusion of thinner blades that,
nonetheless, are roughly four times stronger than those of conventional
PDC bit designs. These thinner, yet more durable, blades clear the way for
steel body PDC bits to be designed to maximise the ROP potential from
every size of cutter. The ability to significantly raise the traditional ROP
ceiling associated with cutter size reduces conflicting durability tradeoffs
based on cutter size and count. Despite the comparably leaner blades,
and potentially even smaller cutters, exposure is optimised for high‑speed
drilling with up to 40% less weight than that required of a standard
PDC bit. Basically, increasing the cutter exposure translates into less
formation rubbing the bit during high‑ROP drilling applications. Moreover,
the customised selection and application of the premium diamond cutters
is bolstered through a state‑of‑the‑art cutter testing initiative.
Hand‑in‑hand with the increased exposure, the novel layout enlarges
the junk slot area some 20% compared to conventional steel‑body
PDC bits and up to 40% larger than their matrix counterparts. Even
under extreme ROP, the geometrical configuration with its more
liberal junk slot area prevents the micro balling that can quickly build
up on the tops of blades contacting the formation. Essentially, the
drilling fluid flows more efficiently through the cutters and, because
of the increased exposure, maintains a cleaner hole bottom for
continuous cuttings evacuation.
The steel bit body itself is fabricated with high‑strength
material that poses no restrictions on either cutting action or solids
evacuation. To eliminate erosion and maintain overall integrity of
the bit body and cutter pockets, the newly engineered PDC bits
are specially overlaid with proprietary tungsten carbide alloy hard
facing. Unlike typical hard facing applications, the newly engineered
material has no negative impact on either body strength or
directional performance.
The energy‑centric design framework has resulted in an
evolutionary steel‑body PDC bit that consistently allows operators to
drill more footage, more aggressively and maintain improved toolface
control and steerability in horizontal zones. The performance benefits
of the breakthrough in PDC bit performance is clearly illustrated in
the curve and lateral sections of Marcellus Shale wells.
Performance recap
Normally, the curve and lateral sections of Pennsylvania Marcellus
Shale horizontal wells penetrate the Tully limestone and the
underlying Hamilton, Burkett and Upper Marcellus shales that
overlay the targeted Lower Marcellus pay zone. Occasionally, well
trajectories require drilling troublesome Cherry Valley limestone
stringers while building the curve, or drilling the lateral where
historically PDC bits have sustained severe impact damage to the
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point of coring out. Further, operators frequently must contend with
the difficult transition from the interbedded chert stringers in the
extremely hard Onondaga limestone below the Marcellus, which has
proven equally detrimental to PDC bit longevity and performance.
Representative Marcellus wells are batch drilled on pads
averaging four to six wells, with programmed laterals that have
been extended sequentially from 4000 ft to 7000 ft. Typical curve
build rates range from 8 to 10˚/100 ft with turns of 60˚ to 120˚
commonplace in today’s wells. Furthermore, owing to the melding
of environmental limitations and downhole characteristics,
Marcellus wells generally are drilled with invert emulsion
synthetic‑based mud (SBM) with densities ranging between
11.7 and 13 lb/gal.
An examination of the bit record dataset over a one‑year period
showed the operator drilling a cumulative 182 580 ft of Marcellus
curve and lateral sections with earlier generation PDC bits in
2352 total hours at an average ROP of 76 ft/hr, thereby accumulating
an aggregate 1863 ft over every 24 hour drilling period. By
comparison, the later change to the new generation PDC bit resulted
in the drilling of 92 929 ft of curve and lateral intervals in 990.7 hours
for an average penetration rate of 93.8 ft/hr. Consequently, the
new design allowed the operator to drill an average 2251 ft of new
formation over 24 hours.
Cumulatively, the new PDC bit design has increased average
per run footage drilled 36% to 1311 ft. When compared to offsets
employing competitor PDC bits, the increased ROP with the new
generation design, in turn resulted in 52% more daily footage drilled.
Assuming a US$ 48 000 daily spread rate, the improved
drilling efficiencies saved the operator US$ 56 976 per run for an
aggregate saving of just over US$ 1.08 million. 
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19th Middle East Oil & Gas Show and Conference

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22 |
 Gurban Veliyev, Andrey Bakhtin, and
Stanislav Kulikov, Weatherford, Russian Federation,
explain how drilling with casing (DwC) methods
are being utilised in order to isolate the permafrost
sections of wellbores in Arctic fields.
P
ermafrost as deep as 85 m has been
a problem for wellbore construction
in the Bovanenkovskoe oil/gas
condensate field in the Russian arctic.
Thawing the frozen layer while drilling
can cause wellbore instability that can
significantly impair efficiency.
Drilling with casing (DwC) methods are
being used for the first time to isolate the
permafrost section and provide high rates
of penetration with minimal hole instability.
In the eight initial wells, the application
of DwC technology saved an estimated
4 million rubles per well (US$ 112 114.54
at the time of writing), and resulted in an
average of two days less well construction
time, and longer drill pipe and equipment
service life. The drilling method has a special
application in northern Arctic areas, including
Russia, Canada and Alaska, where permafrost
is a significant challenge.
Weatherford has used DwC technology
to drill 0 to 450 m permafrost intervals in
six wells for a major operator in the western
Siberia field. The success of the DwC approach
has led to plans to extend the evaluation of
Arctic permafrost applications, including use
in exploration wells.
| 23

Figure 1. Time saving analysis DwC (red) versus conventional drilling, performed by third party
project institute for an operating company.
Permafrost challenge
Permafrost occurs when the permanent subterranean temperature
is below the freezing temperature of the formation water, which
is typically fresh. It is a relic condition from the last ice age in the
Wisconsin Period. Over geologic time, the base of the permafrost has
been shallowing. In the Bovanenkovskoe oil/gas condensate field,
the base permafrost varies from surface to over 85 m thick. Within
the quaternary deposits the permafrost section consist of claystones,
sand, gravel sediments and ice. The ice content in the permafrost
contrasts with more consolidated, coarser sand and gravel sediment,
which results in instability problems from degradation or thawing of
the permafrost.
Oil and gas operators have explored in the Arctic regions of Russia
for more than 40 years. From the beginning, those early drilling
campaigns encountered significant problems drilling through the
shallow permafrost sections. As drilling was conducted, operations
resulted in thawing and degradation of drilling conditions.
Experience in these early operations and experiments showed
the need to maintain a cool drilling mud in order to minimise
thawing of the permafrost thaw due to the well construction process.
Casing drilling speeds the process by drilling and casing the well
simultaneously, before the ice begins to melt.
Field conditions
The tests took place in the Bovanenkovskoye field located in the
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Area of Russia. The gas field is the
largest gas field on the Yamal Peninsula with estimated reserves
of 4.9 trillion m3. Annual production of 8 billion m3 is expected to
increase to 75 - 115 billion m3 by 2015.
The upper horizon of the structure consists of about 300 m
of thick Quaternary deposits of marine origin (silt, loam, clay).
Permafrost is continuous with shallow taliks (unfrozen areas)
beneath large rivers and lakes.
The thickness of the permafrost layer varies between 200 m in
river valleys and 250 m in hilly terrain. It is characterised by high
values of water and ice content that decreases with depth (from
85% to 25%). The unfrozen water content increases with depth
(from 1% to 20%).
Operations
The use of the DwC method in a permafrost application is a new
adaptation of technology that has been used for many years for
24 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
a variety of applications. Casing drilling
was designed primarily for multi-well
offshore platforms and land operations,
deepwater operations, and for situations
requiring operators to drill through and
place casing across problem formations
quickly. A key factor in the technology’s
broad application is the reduction of
nonproductive time (NPT) associated with
drilling related problems, inefficiencies
and tool failure.
Active development of DwC technology
in the Yamal area began in 2008 as
operator Gazprom, Gazprom Drilling
and Weatherford sought a way to avoid
thawing as a solution to the permafrost
problem. Since then, more than 30 wells
have been successfully drilled on different
fields of the Yamal Peninsula.
The main objectives of DwC in the
Bovanenkovskoye field were to economically isolate the
permafrost section while providing a high rate of penetration
and hole stability. The permafrost applications involved
drilling with 324 mm surface casing using a 393.7 mm OD Defyer
drillable bit threaded on the first joint of casing. Well drilling
and casing operations were performed simultaneously without
the need for drill pipes or pipe tripping operations. The casing
served as a conduit for drilling mud circulation and as a means
to transfer torque to the bit. The bit was a drillable design with
blades made of titanium-aluminium alloy and equipped with
PDC cutters.
The Russian DwC project documented the technology’s
ability to enhance time and cost savings in Arctic drilling. The
system enabled quicker drilling of the permafrost sections in
single trips, reducing wellbore exposure to thawing. As a result,
fluid losses and wellbore instability were mitigated along
with associated NPT for 1 - 2 fewer days of rig time per well in
average.
Several challenges were addressed in the trials. The drilling
crew’s initial lack of experience with DwC technology resulted in
a longer equipment assembly time to start with, but familiarity
quickly improved the pace of operations. For example, the
same rig crew that had a 45 minute connection time on the first
job was operating at 20 minutes per connection by the fourth.
While average total ROP of 14.6 m/hr was considered good, total
drilling time increased because problems with the formation
of foam, which did not allow a vertical sludge pump to work
efficiently and led to a halting of drilling pumps. Repeated
reaming was needed to clean the hole after passing the 200 m
mark.
The drilling process also faced problems with low pump rates
and achieving the necessary pressure for effectively circulating
the wells. The consequence was periodic surges in standpipe
pressure associated with the bit balling on the nozzles of the
drill shoe. There were also issues with the drilling mud, including
foam formation and high colloidal and sand content that
impaired circulation.
These early issues are addressed in several ways. Adequate
solids-control equipment capacity will help to eliminate the mud
problems. The inability to reduce the colloidal fractions may
have contributed to the bit balling and mud ring problems. Good
control of the mud properties, including selection and sizing
 The adaptable solution
to unpredictable
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– Maximized durability without sacrificing

efficiency and ROP

– Increased impact resistance for high

vibration environments

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conglomerates/stringers

FuseTek
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– Fewer bit trips to TD results in reduced

Hybrid Drill Bits cost per foot

FuseTek Hybrid Drill Bits from NOV Downhole bridge the gap – NPT reduction through longer intervals
between PDC and diamond impregnated drill bit applications. drilled in interbedded lithologies
The unique design continues drilling past the PDC life by
engaging the formation with diamond impregnated material
to extend drilling intervals and reduce non-productive time
in difficult, interbedded lithologies. FuseTek Hybrid bits
maximize durability in the hardest rock sections and increase
ROP in medium-hard to hard lithologies.
Reduce trips. Increase efficiency.
Go to www.nov.com/ot/FuseTek or contact your NOV
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Email: downhole@nov.com
D392005540-MKT-002 Rev 02
© 2014 National Oilwell Varco
All Rights Reserved

Figure 2. Utilised DwC technique.
of the mud-cleaning equipment, is important for ROP. Proper
selection of the nozzle configurations to optimise HHP at the bit
is key to preventing bit balling.
It was also determined that assembling the DwC string
components and the casing bit system prior to the rig site will
save handling time on the rig floor.
The last six wells had several common objectives, including
the elimination of drilling NPT and improved efficiency. Other
objectives included a reduction in fluid losses in the permafrost
section, a satisfactory cement bond and reduced cement volume.
In addition, the operator wanted to use plugs during cement
operations.
The 15.5 in. vertical sections of the wells were drilled by
Weatherford total depth services group using a DwC system
and drillable casing bit. The system enabled the drilling of
permafrost sections in all six wells in single trips, improving hole
quality, eliminating NPT and saving a total of eight days rig time.
A Defyer drillable casing bit and 12 ¾ in. float equipment was
run in each well. In the first well, the permafrost interval was
drilled to 1351 ft (442 m) TD; the second and third wells were
drilled to 1486 ft (453 m). Average ROP was 14.6 m/hr. Each job
was completed in less than two days with no drilling fluid losses
or hole instability problems.
In a later well, the 12 ¾ in. DwC system was deployed with
Weatherford SpiraGlider centralisers to improve standoff and
cement results. The permafrost section was drilled to 1476 ft
26 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
(450 m) TD without losses or instability to save 40 hours of rig
time. Average ROP was 16 m/hr.
Technology
The procedures for rotary drilling with casing are relatively simple,
and involve little additional equipment that is not normally present
on a typical rig. Configuration of the bottom hole assembly (BHA)
is simple compared to a traditional drilling BHA because the DwC
assembly is left in the ground. When total depth (TD) is reached the
wellbore is circulated bottom-up. Cementing can begin immediately
since a float collar is present in the string throughout the drilling
operation.
DwC methodology in Arctic wells is facilitated by several
technologies:
The Defyer DPA drillable casing bit is designed for
drilling‑with‑casing or liners in medium to medium-hard formations
with confined compressive strengths up to 20 000 psi (the drillability
analysis requires prior to utilisation of the casing bit, to choose the
optimal size and design). PDC cutting structure, with optimised
standoff and a wave cutting profile, enhances cutting efficiency,
rate of penetration and durability – saving time and reducing hole
problems.
The Defyer is able to drill at 2 to 15 t with rpm ranges from 30 to
180 rpm at 25 to 50 l/s flow rates. It has a steel body and is designed
to drill up to 20 000 psi (137 МПа) CCS formations in aggressive hole
conditions.
A double valve stab-in float collar is designed specifically to
withstand the rigors imposed by casing drilling. It is manufactured
from a 353 mm Grade D (K-55) steel body and has a pin-down and
box-up TMK FMC connections for 323.9 mm, 51.15 ppf casing. Its main
purpose is to maintain the hydrostatic head of the cement slurry
during cementing, and to prevent process junk from getting into the
bit ID when breaking circulation. Bump pressure rating is 4500 psi and
backpressure rating is 3600 psi.
Heavy-duty SpiraGlider centralisers used in some of the
permafrost wells are extra strong to withstand the rotational force of
the casing for a long time and are designed for maximum resistance
to wear and tear. The rugged centraliser case cannot rotate relative to
the rotating casing.
In the Bovanenkovskoe field applications, a modified spear
replaced the sub between the top drive spindle and the casing.
This change reduced the time of connection to the casing, and
enhanced drill floor safety. The tool is simple in operation and
can be maintained in the field.
The modified spear was connected through to the top drive.
It is engaged by a ¼ turn to the left and disengaged by setting
down and applying a ¼ turn to the right. The tool worked well
with no losses of fluid being noted, even at low pressures in the
early stages of drilling.
A casing drive tool consists of a tapered body, which has a
grapple on the top sub. The grapple holds the casing internally
below the connection by travelling on the taper. It has a top sub
with a 6 ⅝ in. REG box-up connection, which connects the spear
to the top drive and stops the grapple from moving up.
Carving an icy niche
Broadly used in a variety of drilling applications, casing drilling
is finding a new niche in the Arctic, where permafrost formations
present wellbore stability challenges. In the harsh conditions
found in Russia, Canada and Alaska, the ability to drill and case
frozen intervals in a single trip is eliminating instability problems
and improving efficiency, cutting out days of rig time. 
 FACTORING IN
THE TOP 5

Gefei Liu, Pegasus Vertex, Inc., USA, examines five main

factors that must be taken into account when centralising
casing during cementing operations.

C
reating a good casing standoff profile along vertical, deviated
and horizontal wellbores is the first step towards a successful
cementing job. Different types of centralisers are strategically
installed on casing to achieve this goal.
There are four types of commonly used centralisers (Figure 1):
ÌÌ The bow-spring centraliser’s steel bows act as spring to push the pipe
away from wellbore. The shape and stiffness of bows determine the
restoring force, which is defined as the resistance force when a bow
is compressed to ⅓ of its uncompressed height. The effectiveness of
this type of centraliser is heavily dependent on the restoring force.
For a casing in a deviated well, the side force, which pulls the pipe
to either higher or lower side of borehole, varies along the depth,
causing the variation of standoff at the centralisers along the pipe.
API has minimum requirements on restoring forces. For example, for
centralisers on 9 ⅝ in. casing, the minimum restoring force at 67%
standoff is 1600 lbf. Most centraliser vendors exceed API requirements
on restoring force.

| 27
ÌÌ The rigid body centraliser uses solid blades to support the pipe.
Because of the fixed blade OD, the standoff at the centralisers is
the same even in a deviated well. Keep in mind that the casing
between rigid body centralisers still sags.
ÌÌ The semi-rigid centraliser combines the benefits of restoring
force and blade. When the side force is big enough to compress
the bow severely, it turns itself into a rigid type blade or a blade
takes over in a supporting role.
Figure 1. Four different types of centralisers.
Figure 2. Casing standoff.
Figure 3. Displacement efficiency for casing standoff of 0%.
Figure 4. Displacement efficiency for casing standoff of 70%.
28 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
ÌÌ Mould-on centralisers utilise resin, carbon fibre and ceramic
technologies to create blades, which are moulded onto casing.
This kind of centraliser provides greater flow area than standard
centralisers, helping prevent ‘packing-off’ while allowing for
more even cement distribution.
Centraliser usage is huge: approximately 10 million centralisers
are used globally every year. The question still remains: “Are we
using too many or too few?” The challenge that both operators and
service companies face is to place the right amount of centralisers
at the optimum positions on the casing. While operators may be
conservative, service companies tend to be liberal in selecting the
number of centralisers for a given application.
To describe casing centralisation, the concept of standoff needs
to be defined.
The standoff of a perfectly centred casing is 100%. When casing
touches wellbore, the standoff is 0%. Regardless of centraliser type,
the goal is to provide a positive standoff, preferably above 67%,
throughout casing string. Incomplete mud removal causes a poor
cement seal and non-productive time. A good casing standoff helps
to reduce the mud channelling and improves the displacement
efficiency. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the impact of casing standoff on
displacement efficiency. The third track in Figure 3 shows the mud
concentration in the annulus after a cementing job with 0% casing
standoff.
There are some large red areas, representing high percentage of
remaining mud, in the narrow side (NS) of eccentric annulus.
Everything was kept the same except the casing standoff, which
was changed to 70%. Now the displacement efficiency improved
significantly, as shown in Figure 4.
Casing deflection between centralisers obeys the laws of
physics and engineering analysis can help both operators and
service companies arrive at an optimised number and placement of
centralisers for a particular well. These are the five things that affect
casing centralisation:
ÌÌ Well trajectory.
ÌÌ Casing size and weight.
ÌÌ Fluids inside the casing and annulus.
ÌÌ Centraliser properties.
ÌÌ Centraliser placement.
Well trajectory
Well trajectory is normally expressed in terms of survey data,
consisting of measured depth, inclination and azimuthal angles. It
defines the shape of the well path and thus has a great impact on the
direction and magnitude of side forces pulling the casing string to the
wellbore. Figure 5 shows the magnitude and direction of side force
distribution on a casing in a horizontal well.
For a casing section in a build-up or horizontal section of
wellbore, the weight of pipe pulls the casing toward to the lower side
of hole. The blue lines indicate that the casing touches the lower
side of wellbore. The upper section of casing string has to sustain
the weight of lower casing sections. This creates tension force along
the casing string. Wellbore doglegs cause the resultant force to pull
the casing toward the upper side of hole, as indicated by the red
lines. Therefore, casing string in a deviated or horizontal well always
touches either the wellbore’s upper or lower side.
Generally speaking, horizontal or extended reach wells require
more support from centralisers to maintain a good standoff profile.
Taking an example of casing (OD 4.5 in., 15.1 lb/ft, ID 3.826 in.) in a
12 ppg fluid, to achieve a standoff of 70%, the spacing (the distance
between two adjacent centralisers) required decreases steadily,
as the wellbore inclination angle goes up, as shown in Figure 7.
Therefore, the number required to obtain a standoff of 70% for a The example well has a kick-off point at 2000 ft. The previous
given length of casing goes up as the wellbore deviates. casing (ID = 8.535 in.) was set at the same depth. The goal is to
Figure 8 illustrates the decreasing of standoff for casing with centralise the 12 345 ft of 4 ½ in. casing, deviated from 0˚ to 90˚.
given centraliser spacing of 20 ft, 40 ft, and 60 ft, respectively. It
can be seen that the casing standoff will drop below 70% when the
inclination angle reaches 30˚ for a spacing of 60 ft.

Casing size and weight

Casing weight determines the gravitational force, which pulls the
pipe toward the lower side of borehole. The heavier the casing string,
more or stronger centralisers are required. The term ‘casing weight’
refers to the weight of pipe in air. When the casing string is in a well, it
is always immersed in one or more fluids. The buoyancy force exerted
by fluids opposes the weight of casing and tends to lift the casing
upward.

Fluids inside casing and in annulus

The buoyancy force calculation is further complicated by the
multi‑fluid configuration during a cementing job. When heavy cement
slurry is inside the casing and a light drilling mud is in the annulus,
the effective weight of the casing is at its greatest. On the other Figure 5. Side force profile.
hand, when cement slurry is in place and displacement fluid, inside
casing, the buoyancy is at its peak and the effective weight of pipe is
at its lowest. Figure 9 shows the three instances of a cement job with
corresponding casing deflection between centralisers.
When designing the placement for the scenario of cement slurry
in place, it is preferable to have less effective casing weight, pulling
casing string downwards. But when the cement slurry is inside
casing during the displacement, the lower standoff could cause
mud-channelling problems. It is better to study standoff for all the
situations. To better design centraliser placement, the top of cement Figure 6. Side forces with casing positions.
(TOC), cement slurry densities, mud weight, etc., all need to be
known. The density differential of cement slurry and mud improves
the standoff profile.

Centraliser properties
Not all centralisers are created equal; manufacturers are striving to
improve the performance of their products.
For solid centralisers including mould-on type, the blade OD is
the key parameter as far as the casing centralisation is concerned.
For bow-spring centralisers, the restoring force is the
measurement of the strength of a centraliser. It is defined as the side
force required to deflect the bow by ⅓ of its original height.
Since the bows on a bow-spring centraliser will deflect under the
action of side force, the calculation of casing standoff is a little bit Figure 7. Centraliser spacing versus inclination angle.
more involved: the amount of bow deflections on centralisers and
casing sagging between them needs to be calculated. The standoff at
the middle point of two centralisers, being the worst, is the result of
these two contributions.

Centraliser placement
Once a well is planned, the casing designed, the cementing procedure
prepared and the centraliser type selected, there are not many
options other than placing centralisers strategically to achieve
desired standoff. However, this can still be very important: poor
spacing will result in poor standoff even with the best centralisers on
the market.
With the help of computer modelling, centraliser placement
optimisation becomes easy to perform for all types of wells. Ideally,
this kind of optimisation should be carried out before each casing
job. Consider an example of centraliser placement optimisation using
CentraDesign software. Figure 8. Casing standoff versus inclination angle.

June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 29

The centraliser considered is a bow spring type with a restoring force
of 800 lbf.
One approach to centraliser placement optimisation is to specify
spacing using experience and then let software check if it yields
a satisfactory standoff profile. Consider the following two cases:
one with 40 ft (one centraliser per joint) and the other with 20 ft
(two centralisers per joint) for the centraliser spacing. Figure 11
shows the resulting standoff profiles. The blue line is the standoff
at the centraliser, while the red line is the standoff at the middle
point between centralisers, which is always lower than that of at
the centralisers. Since bow spring centralisers are being used, the
Figure 9. Casing deflection between centralisers. (Left: prior to
cementing job. Centre: Cement inside casing. Right: Cement in annulus.)
Csg
Figure 10. Example well.
Figure 11. Standoff profiles.
Figure 12. Calculated spacing required to achieve 70% standoff.
30 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
standoff at the middle point between centralisers is the summation
of casing sagging between them and the bow spring compression at
the centralisers.
For a spacing of 40 ft, the number of centralisers required is
251. From 2000 ft to 7000 ft (deviation from 0˚ to 30˚), the standoff
is between 100% and 70%, which meets the minimum industry
standard of 67%. From 7000 ft to 12 345 ft (deviation from 30˚ to
90˚), the standoff drops from 70% to 20%, which is problematic: a
poor standoff profile at this section may cause potential cementing
problems.
The natural way to solve this problem is to try two centralisers
per joint (spacing of 20 ft). The new standoff profile is much
better than the normal industry standard, but with the number
of centralisers being doubled, this new approach may be too
conservative, leaving doubts in the engineer’s mind as to whether
they are using too many.
Alternatively, the required standoff can be specified and the
software will explain how to space the centralisers. With the required
70% standoff throughout 4 ½ in. casing, CentraDesign displays the
following spacing necessary to achieve the specified standoff. The
total number of centralisers used is 200, a significant reduction from
previous approaches.
Logically, as the well builds up from 0˚ to 90˚ inclination
angle, spacing decreases: the casing needs more support in more
deviated or horizontal sections. A more advanced approach is to
combine the software’s ‘Specify spacing’ and ‘Specify standoff’
modes to yield the simple‑to‑install centraliser placement whilst
maintaining a satisfactory standoff profile, by using the incremental
spacing option. Optimised centraliser placement not only produces
good standoff, but also increases efficiency of field installation of
centralisers and avoids their excessive and unnecessary use.
Conclusion
Experience coupled with software technology enables both vendors
and operators to conduct centraliser optimisation prior to field
execution:
ÌÌ Each well is different. Consider the five factors that affect casing
centralisation.
ÌÌ Select the correct type of centraliser and
properties for a particular well.
ÌÌ Use software to check the standoff profile for
a specified spacing.
ÌÌ Optimise the placement.
ÌÌ Computer modelling reduces risk and saves
money.
ÌÌ Centraliser placement can make or break a
good cementing job. 
References
1. Liu, G., Weber, L., ‘Centralizer Selection and Placement
Optimization’, SPE 150345, SPE Deepwater Drilling and
Completions Conference held in Galveston, Texas, USA,
(20 - 21 June 2012).
2. API Specification 10D, ‘Casing Centralizers’, Sixth
Edition, (2002).
3. Juvkam-Word, H.C. and Wu, J., ‘Casing Deflection
and Centralizer Spacing Calculations,’ SPE Drilling
Engineering, (December, 1992), 268 - 274.
4. Lee, H. K., Smith, R. C. and Tighe, R. E., ‘Optimal
Spacing for Casing Centralizers’, SPE Drilling
Engineering, (April, 1986), 122 - 130.
5. Wu, J., Chen, P., and Juvkam – Word H. C., ‘Casing
Centralization in Horizontal Wells’, Popular Horizontal,
(April/June 14 - 21, 1991).
6. C.A. Johancsik, et al., ‘Torque and Drag in Directional
Wells – Prediction and Measurement’, SPE Reprint
Series, No. 30, Directional Drilling, (1990), 130.
When the problem is complex, the solution is often simple. Volant Casing Running Tools
simplify well construction, reducing both manpower requirements and problems leading to
hole instability and non-productive time. Volant HydroFORM™ Centralizers greatly improve
casing runability with an enviable 100% failure-free track record. Volant MLT Rings™ provide
high torsional capacity, critical for liner drilling operations.

sales@volantproducts.ca volantproducts.ca | sales@volantoiltoolsUS.com volantoiltoolsUS.com

 blowing
bubbles
Forever

Hector T. B. Medeiros, Sergio E.A. Filho, Clara E. Mata, and

Mikaella B. Oliveira, 3M, discuss the use of glass microspheres (or bubbles)
in the cementing and completions process.

32 |
 W
 ith the increasing global
demand for energy, there is a
need for energy companies to search
for resources in more challenging environments. In order
to accomplish these enterprises, the use of new technologies is
essential in increasing productivity and reducing costs.
The latest oil and gas discoveries in the pre-salt layer offshore Brazil
present a great opportunity for future development. There are several
technological and logistical challenges that are being considered by the
industry to develop new families of subsea devices to support the service
requirements.
The pre-salt layer is a large oil and gas reservoir located in the
Santos Basin/SP, Campos Basin/RJ and Espírito Santo Basin/ES. These
reservoirs are located under the salt layer, which can be up to 2 km thick
and lies 5 - 7 km below sea level.
These reserves were formed approximately 100 million years
ago, from the decomposition of organic materials. Technicians
have not yet been able to estimate the total amount of
oil and gas contained in the pre-salt layer, but
Brazil could become one of the largest oil

| 33
 Table 1. 3M™ Glass Bubbles HGS Series portfolio ÌÌ Hydrostatic pressure. (The pressure at any point in a
column of fluid caused by the weight of fluid above that point.
Isostatic crush strength True density Controlling the hydrostatic pressure of a mud column is a
Product
Pressure (psi) Minimum fractional survival (%) critical part of mud engineering).
Typical (g/cc)

HGS2000 2000 80
HGS3000 3000 80
HGS4000 4000 80
HGS5000 5500 80
HGS6000 6000 80
HGS8000X 8000 90
HGS10000 10 000 80
HGS18000 18 000 80
HGS19000 19 000 80
producers and exporters in the world. However, investment costs are
expected to be very high due to the technical challenges associated
with the subsea depth and geological configuration of the reservoir. It
is believed that only around 2016 these reserves are being exploited
on a large scale.
Offshore production is complex due to the numerous
variables involved and the requirements for reaching deep
and ultra‑deepwater, pre-salt petroleum with aggressive fluid
characteristics, fields in remote areas and other environmental
issues. The selection of the most suitable field development
strategies and production system for a given scenario depends on
the field characteristics such as geographical location, water depth,
environmental conditions, as well as previous knowledge based on
similar systems already in use for oil and gas production. Elements
of a field production system include different types of production
platforms, mooring systems, subsea equipments, reservoir main
characteristics, wells and lifting processes.
Ultra deep well construction
One of the technological challenges of pre-salt exploration is the
well construction process, in which drilling and cementing through
layers of ultra deepwater, and particularly challenging sediments
and salt layers is required. For example, to reach the oil reservoir in
the Campos Basin drilling operations involve drilling and cementing
through two layers. The first layer, water, can be up to 2 km deep.
The second layer, which can be up to 7 km deep, presents additional
challenges such as: high temperatures ranging from 80 - 150˚C, high
pressures and corrosive gases such as H2S and CO2.
The well construction process includes drilling a borehole,
lowering a steel pipe (casing) through the borehole and placing a
cement sheath in the annulus between the casing and the formation.
Primary cementing is a critical procedure in the well construction
process. The cement sheath provides a hydraulic seal that establishes
zonal isolation, preventing fluid communication between producing
zones in the borehole and blocking the escape of fluids to the surface.
The cement sheath also anchors and supports the casing string and
protects the steel casing against corrosion by formation fluids. Failure
to achieve these objectives may severely limit the well’s ability to
reach its full production potential.1
Parameters to consider when designing a cement slurry include:
ÌÌ Vertical well depth.
ÌÌ Well angle.
ÌÌ Casing dimensions.
ÌÌ Formation temperature.
ÌÌ Pore pressure.
ÌÌ Fracture pressure.
0.32 The differential pressure between the pore pressure and
0.35 the fracture pressure, also known as ‘operational window’,
will determine the specific mass of the cement slurry. If the
0.38
bottomhole pressure due to the weight of cement slurry
0.38
column plus frictional losses is greater than the pore pressure,
0.46
or exceeds the rock strength, fractures in the rock will open,
0.42 and cement will be lost to the formation. On the other
0.60 hand, if the bottomhole pressure is smaller than the pore
0.60 pressure formation fluids, including oil or gas, will enter the
well, which can lead to blowouts. Both scenarios are to be
0.46
considered when designing a cement slurry in order to prevent
undesirable outcomes such as formation damage, which
could compromise the well productivity, and/or accidents on the
rig. Drilling and cementing through weaker formations and depleted
zones requires the use of lightweight cements to line, seal and
reinforce the borehole. Lightweight cement slurries can be achieved
by water extension, foam cement or lightweight microspheres.
Advantages associated with the use of lightweight microspheres
include the simplicity of operations and a reduced equipment and
resources footprint, which is always an advantage offshore or at
remote inland locations.
Reduced density cement slurries
3M™ Glass Bubbles HGS Series are engineered hollow glass
spheres that can used as a density reducing agent for oil and
gas drilling fluids and cements. The spherical shape of these
glass bubbles offer a number of important benefits, including
lower viscosity and improved flow. The chemically-stable
soda‑lime‑borosilicate glass composition of the bubbles makes
them virtually insoluble in water or oil. Their low alkalinity gives
them compatibility with most resins, stable viscosity and long
shelf life. They are also non-compressible.
The bubbles are formulated for a high strength‑to‑weight
ratio. This allows greater survivability under demanding
downhole conditions. They are available in varying densities
and crush strengths to help meet specific downhole conditions
(Table 1).
The low-density and high compressive strength cements
made with glass bubbles can offer a number of advantages over
other density-reducing materials such as nitrogen foam and
cenospheres:
ÌÌ Improved production: Helps wells produce at their maximum
capacity, and keep on producing over a longer period of
time.
ÌÌ Less remediation: Helps strengthen cements that can
mean less remediation due to cement failures. According
to Cementing Solutions, Inc., 15% of new wells need to be
fixed before they are put into service because of cementing
failures.
ÌÌ Lower cost over the life of the well: Cements made with glass
bubbles offer improved durability to the stresses of pressure
and temperature cycles, and can help lower costs over the
life of the well.
ÌÌ Helps eliminate multi-stage cementing, saving time and
labour costs.
ÌÌ Reduced formation damage, helping keep product flowing at
optimal rates.
ÌÌ Improved bonding of the cement to the strata and the casing
– fewer cement failures, less remediation.

34 | Oilfield Technology June 2014

 specific well conditions (e.g. pressure, temperature,
High formation).

Increased Max. Relative ÌÌ Easily transportable: Glass bubbles are well suited
for formulating high performance cements in remote,
Density Compress
hard‑to‑supply areas, using semi-skilled personnel able to
Strength
Standard work with conventional equipment.
Slurry
ÌÌ
Slurry Density

Versatile: With the glass bubbles, cements can easily be

Water Extended formulated to achieve desired properties, such as low density,
Min temperature resistance, etc.
ÌÌ
Foamed Slurry
Safe handling: Glass bubbles can be easily and safely blended
with other materials, using standard mixing equipment,
Cenospheres avoiding the need to use pressurised equipment such as
nitrogen tanks.
Glass Microbubbles

Comparing the compressive strength between the different kinds

Low
Figure 1. Relative compressive strength of different technologies.
ÌÌ Better zonal isolation, preventing permeation of gases and
fluid migration.
ÌÌ Ease-of-use: The glass bubbles HGS series mix into the
cement slurry more easily, quickly and uniformly. The
resulting slurry can then be used to pour the well in a
single‑phase rather than a multi-phase process, with more
precise density control.
ÌÌ Less guesswork: Helps service companies achieve better
quality lightweight cement with more predictable results and
less rework.
ÌÌ Simplified formulation: With just one additive, service
companies can design a variety of cements to meet their
of technologies used to reduce the density of cement slurries, it is
noticeable that these bubbles have the greater range of use due to
their low density and high resistance. Only normal and increased
weight cements have more compressive strength, as shown In
Figure 1.
In Brazil, the operators estimate that approximately 20% to 30%
of offshore well operations require the use of lightweight cement
(slurries that have density lower than 12.5 lb/gal.). The glass bubbles
have been used in Campos Basin/RJ as a reducing density additive
material for cementing operations. For offshore cement applications
the most used microspheres, in Brazil, are HGS10000 and HGS18000
due to its high pressure resistance and its light weight. 
Reference
1. Nelson, E. B. ‘Well Cementing Fundamentals’, Oilfield Review Summer
2012:24, No.2.

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 T
he evolving nature of the global oil and
gas market and its more challenging

Considering
operating environments are pushing
completions technology into deeper and
more demanding reservoirs. Over the
past decade the completions sector of
the oil and gas industry has seen major

completion
improvements in the ability of speciality
tools and hardware to reach production
faster, more efficiently and ultimately
in minimising life-of-well cost. The
technology is also adapting for use in
more challenging subsea developments.
The complexity of the construction

hardware
of wells can dictate if more traditional
intervention methods such as coiled
tubing or tractors can be used, therefore
the need and demand for extended reach
horizontal wells is also increasing the use
of more innovative completion techniques.

Fredrik Harestad,
Omega Completion Technology,
Norway, examines some recent
developments in completions
hardware that are allowing
the oil and gas industry to push
into deeper and more demanding
reservoirs.

plications.
te across multiple ap
s ra
100% succes
well proven and has a
logy is
Figure 1.
SFV techno

| 37

Figure 2. The CCV is a more cost-efficient and timesaving alternative to traditional
methods.
Figure 3. The COV can enhance well production by minimising plugging
of sand screens and reducing the length of sand screens required in
some situations.
As the advancement of well construction presents its own variety
of physical limitations, this type of operation is becoming more
and more expensive and time consuming. In some cases it can
be impossible to fully deploy intervention techniques meaning
the functionality of the well is sacrificed. The demand for
more innovative, remotely activated, real time equipment is
now required for wellbore workovers and maintenance of long
extended reach wells.
In subsea developments, where the complexity and cost
involved with intervention operations is extensive, the use of
bespoke completions tools to exacting customer specifications
can perform the same purpose remotely and without the need
for intervention equipment, thus greatly reducing cost and risk.
Understanding the inflow distribution, location of water
break-through and integrity of the completion equipment
is fundamental to reservoir management decision making
for issues such as field development, optimising completion
design, stimulation effectiveness and drainage. This information
is useful if it can be used to control the production from
the different zones. So, the remotely actuated completion
technology combined with tracer technology makes a unique
system. Combined, the system offers remote and wireless
production monitoring and control of the producing zones.
Tracer subs containing tracer DNAs provide a wireless
monitoring of oil and water production from each zone.
Sampling of each zone can take place at the surface as each
section has a unique ID or tracer DNA. This allows engineers
at the surface to determine which zones are producing oil and
which are producing water. A pressure signal can then be sent to
a particular valve in a water producing zone to close it.
38 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
The system provides a unique combination,
as there is no need to run either logging tools or
intervention equipment, in particular mobilisation
of tractors or coiled tubing in highly deviated
wells. There is also a saving in not having to deal
with the produced water and the environmental
issues that surround this. This, accompanied with
remote monitoring/surveillance of the valve, and
remote operation of the well creates a compact and
innovative completion system.
Remotely activated valves can greatly enhance
reservoir conformance. They increase reservoir
recovery factors that can significantly reduce
completion complexity, capital expenditure
and operating overheads. Omega Completion
Technology has designed and developed a range of
remotely activated valves that can be used across a broad range
of services, these include the completion circulating valve (CCV),
sandface valve (SFV) and the clean out valve (COV).
Completion circulation valve (CCV)
Before the development of this type of sleeve, control lines were
run into the valve above the packer. Due to limited feedthrough
capability in the wellheads, this was a difficult procedure as it
necessitated the need to either run an intervention in order to
shift the valve or somehow separate it with a circulating string.
The CCV was first developed following bespoke requirements
of a major operator in Norway. The sleeve is run above the
upper completion hydraulic packer and can be deployed above
any type of packer. It is run closed to allow for tubing tests and
hydraulic packer setting. Once the completion packer is set, a
pre‑determined pressure is applied to the annulus, which opens
the communication ports and allows for lighter fluid to circulate
down into the tubing to assist start-up of production.
Once the tool is open, tubing fluid is then circulated out
to a lighter fluid to allow the well to reduce the hydrostatic
pressure. The reduction of hydrostatic pressure makes it easier
for the well to flow naturally. Once the fluid has been displaced,
the CCV is then closed by applying either a predetermined
pressure for a pre‑set time period or allowed to close off using a
pre‑programmed timer. The whole operation is performed with
no intervention and without the use of control lines.
This is a more cost-efficient and timesaving alternative to
traditional methods as the same operations can be performed
with less equipment, less operational rig up and fewer runs.
Sandface valve (SFV)
The SFV is normally used as part of the lower completion
string. It is a permanently installed electronically actuated
sleeve, which is normally run in the reservoir section of the
well in the closed position. It opens or closes by the expiry of a
pre‑programmed delay period or by sending pressure signals
from surface. Multiple tools may be run in one well with differing
start-up times separated by swellpackers, for example.
In order to provide staged start-up of a producer well,
without the requirement for intervention, several SFVs are
installed in a wellbore with isolation packers mounted in
between. Sequential start-up of the reservoir is in some cases
essential to ensure a good wellbore clean-up across the entire
reservoir section. A number of SFVs can be positioned across the
reservoir. This allows the operator to effectively choose which
zones should open first or sequentially to achieve the ultimate
production start-up profile to optimise production and overall recovery from the
well.
Another application for these valves is for water shut-off purposes in wells where
early water breakthrough is expected. The SFV can be used in many applications and
achieves increased production due to better contribution for minor zones, improved
recovery, subsequent water shut-off and overall well clean-up for the lifetime of the
well.
This was demonstrated in a project with a major operator in the North Sea,
which required sequential clean-up after it was discovered that almost 80% of the
production was coming from 20% of the well and did not achieve production from
the remaining part of the well. The SFVs were then deployed across the reservoir
section. Once the technology was run through, it generated extra production across
ten similar wells housing this technology. Without using the sequential start-up
procedure, the client confirmed that the field would not have been economically
feasible to develop.

Clean out valve (COV)

Certain sections of some wellbores require many sections of sand screens to prevent
the influx of sand into the completion. However, the success of this may be jeopardised
due to mud and solids uploading through the screens and permanently plugging them
off. The COV is often used in conjunction with sand screens as a measurement to reduce
the plugging of the screens. This is especially important in short sand screen sections;
sections of the well prone to sand screen plugging, and in certain multilateral well
applications.
As a time delay device, the COV is used for unloading mud and clean-up of the
wellbore and is run as an integral part of the completion string where sand screens are
utilised. The COV is run in the open position with a pre-set time delay so that the initial
drilling fluid particles are produced through the larger slots in the COV, hence preventing
plugging of the sand screens. Due to the increased clean-up of the wellbore, it enhances
well production by minimising plugging of sand screens, thereby reducing the length
of sand screens required in some situations. This has been installed across a number of
wells in the Norwegian North Sea. DEVELOPMENT DRIVEN
The COV presents very large open flow ports for uploading drilling mud, solids
or loss circulation material (LCM). It is important to remove this prior to production
FIELD FOCUSED
to increase the effective permeability and ease the oil flow. Following a delay from
typically 30 to up to 150 days, and once the well flow is clean and stable, an electronic
timer system actuates a mechanism that allows well pressure to flood an atmospheric
chamber and provide a large closing force to shut off these flow ports. The clean well
flow is now directed through the sand screens in the main bore for the remainder of the
lifetime of the well. Therefore, the whole well can be cleaned-up without plugging the
screens.
In the majority of cases this has been carried out across short screen sections where it is
critical to plug the screens. It can also be deployed in open hole multi-laterals where there is
a large amount of flow being taken out of the clean-out valve.

Advancing completion technology

Obtaining accurate, real time surveillance information from the reservoir and
across complex wellbores using conventional techniques can be extremely risky and
financially demanding; this means that in many cases it is never obtained and the
greater reward of increased production is sacrificed.
The development of advanced completion technology has allowed operators and
service companies to step closer to their goal of optimising completion results while
at the same time minimising costs from existing completion configurations through
better reservoir-fluid analysis and management, and less complex equipment
demanding more of installations and operations. Reliable and field-proven
completion solutions allow the ideal conduit from pay zone to surface, regardless of
well type.
The drive to slimline the application of sleeve technology in the completions
sector has produced truly innovative technology that can negate the use of
traditional and more costly procedures and interventions and deliver more
intelligent, accurate, flexible and real time results for a greater variety of tasks and
functions. 

WWW.CSI-TECH.NET | Tel +1.281.784.7990

A SUPERIOR ENERGY SERVICES COMPANY
X
marks
the spot

Adam Baig,
Sheri Bowman and
Katie Jeziorski,
ESG Solutions, explain
how microseismic monitoring
has evolved to become more
than just mapping fractures.
H
ydraulic fracture stimulation has become a widely applied
technique to exploit hydrocarbon reservoirs with low natural
permeability. Although the technology was introduced
more than 60 years ago, the recent growth of horizontal
well and pad drilling technology, multi-stage fracturing and improved
seismic surveillance have dramatically increased production economics
for hydraulic fracturing, making the method much more appealing to
operators across North America.
In unconventional reservoirs, well production success depends on
a number of factors. A key aspect is whether the well has been optimally
drilled within productive zones, or so called ‘sweet-spots.’ Following
well placement, effective stimulation of the desired pay zone depends
not only on the successful generation of complex fracture networks, but
whether there exists good connection pathways from the reservoir to the
production well. Often, complex fracture networks are achieved through
activation of existing natural fractures, rather than the generation of new
fractures. It is therefore useful to accurately characterise these natural
fracture systems and understand fracture behaviour within the formation
in order to optimise drilling and completions designs.
Microseismic, or passive seismic monitoring has emerged as a
powerful fracture characterisation and production optimisation tool for
hydraulic fracturing operations. Unlike large-scale earthquakes, which
can be felt on the surface, microseismic events are very small and usually
range from -4 to 0 on the magnitude scale. Microseismic events are caused
by changing stress conditions in a formation during high-pressure fluid
injections that cause failures and shear slippage along existing weaknesses
in the rock. These failures release acoustic energy that can be detected
with sensitive monitoring equipment positioned near the production zone.
| 41

Figure 1. Microseismic methods have a wide range of applications to help improve production
from unconventional reservoirs including well and field planning, completion optimisation and
reservoir characterisation.
Figure 2. Example of a phased approach to optimising well spacing in an unconventional
reservoir.
provide yet another tool in the quest to maximise recovery from complex
unconventional plays.
Typically, sensor arrays of triaxial geophones are
deployed downhole in nearby observation wells, on the
surface in near-surface arrays, or a combination of both
(hybrid) to ‘listen’ to the microseismic activity. Detection,
location and visualisation of these microseismic events
provide a continuous, image of underground fracture
propagation.
When ESG’s FRACMAP® service was launched
in 2000, mapping fracture dimensions for individual
stages was the primary goal of microseismic hydraulic
fracture monitoring. Since then, technological advances
in computing and monitoring equipment, along with
changes in the industry have transformed microseismic
services into something quite unrecognisable. A
strong focus on data integration between geophysical,
geological and engineering sources continues to unlock
new ways to interpret microseismic results beyond
simply plotting event locations on a map.
Microseismic fracture monitoring solutions provide
feedback to engineers and geoscientists on the success
of their operations at various stages of field development
(Figure 1). For example, microseismic results can be
used to refine reservoir models or assist with reservoir
characterisation, helping to optimise well position and
spacing within a field. Evaluation of seismicity generated
during different completions methods enables a direct
comparison of techniques and technologies to identify
the optimal treatment design for a given formation layer.
Assessment of microseismicity within the context of a
developed fracture network and connection pathways to
the well contribute to estimates of stimulated reservoir
volume (SRV) and expected production volumes.
Regardless of the application, microseismic results

Well and field planning

At a basic level, visualisation of microseismic event locations provides
a cursory indication of stimulation success, and is commonly used in
well planning and field design. Measurements of fracture azimuth and
half‑length are readily used to adjust well orientation and spacing within
a field. In formations with multiple stacked zones or presumed fracture
barriers, observed fracture height may help determine the optimal depth
to land a lateral well. Over time, microseismic results may be used to
evaluate downspacing schemes (Figure 2) for optimal field development.
As production in unconventional formations matures and operators are no
longer concerned with drilling to maintain leases, infill wells may be added
to properties with existing wells on production. When treating infill wells,
the presence of nearby depleted zones may pose challenges for operators,
as fracture fluid can migrate into open fracture networks surrounding
previously treated wells rather than stimulating the target zone. Patterns in
seismicity, including event clustering, out-of-zone events or a conspicuous
lack of seismicity where it would otherwise be expected, may help
diagnose fluid communication between treatment wells and depleted
zones, assisting in the optimal placement of these infill wells.

Microseismic events recorded during a 14 stage horizontal
fracture stimulation. Events are coloured by stage.
Optimising completions
Completions evaluation begins with an assessment of whether all aspects
of a hydraulic fracture treatment were executed as planned; namely, was
each stage successfully initiated in the correct zone? Were the fracture fluid
and proppant able to generate and maintain a complex fracture network
within the target zone? And was this fracture network well connected to

42 | Oilfield Technology June 2014

the production well? Traditional plug-and-perf completions make use of
a cased well and a sequence of perforations to define individual stages
for treatment along the well. Perforation shots are easily detected by
microseismic equipment, enabling clear assessment of fracture initiation
at each stage. Continued real time monitoring of fracture development
during the treatment may also provide warning of unexpected behaviour
or interaction with geohazards, which could compromise operations.
Completions methods using open-hole wells equipped with sliding
sleeve fracture ports are also gaining in popularity for their associated
cost savings. Once installed, sliding sleeve fracture ports are activated
using a series of different sized balls inserted into the well. Each ball is
pumped into the well and comes to a rest at the target, where an increase
in pressure stimulates the sliding sleeve and opens the fracture port.
Microseismic monitoring of open-hole completion programmes often
observes characteristic seismic signals following the addition of a ball into
the well. These seismic signals are referred to as ‘ball-seat events’ and help
evaluate the success of the completion or diagnose unexpected fracture
development related to problems with stage isolation.
In an example of an open-hole completion, ESG acquired and
processed microseismic data from a 14-stage horizontal sliding sleeve
hydraulic fracture programme in a North American tight-oil play using
a 16-level vertical geophone array. The operators were interested in
observing fracture behaviour, in order to optimise well position and
completion design for subsequent wells in the same field. Observed
microseismic results are provided in Figure 3.
Most stages exhibited a consistent fracture azimuth close to 45˚,
suggesting that the well was not drilled perpendicular to the maximum
principle stress. Near the heel of the well, seismicity recorded during stages
12 and 13 (red and green dots in Figure 3) overlapped significantly, and
was accompanied by a conspicuous region of minimal seismicity within
the stage 13 zone (Figure 4A). A detection bias due to distance from the
monitor well was ruled out as the cause of the lack of seismicity in the
stage 13 zone. As previously described, ball seats during sliding sleeve
completions have distinctive seismic signatures. Ball seat signals for stages
12 and 13 were detected and located in the stage 12 zone (Figure 4B)
suggesting that an error occurred with the activation of the sliding sleeve
for stage 13. This error caused the stage 12 zone to be stimulated twice,
while bypassing the stage 13 zone completely. If the programme had been
monitored in real time, the error with the stage 13 ball seat may have been Figure 4. Seismicity observed during stages 12 - 14 (A) and the location
recognised and remedied to avoid bypassing the zone, or at the very least of ball seats associated with the same stages during the completion (B).
avoid wasting valuable time and materials associated with re-stimulating
stage 12.
microseismic processing methods are applied to high-quality multi-array
Understanding the reservoir microseismic data. Integration with existing reservoir modelling platforms
In hydraulic fracturing operations, achieving maximum production means that operators can combine such microseismic information with
along an entire well depends not only on effective well placement and other geophysical and geological data sources to guide decision processes.
completions design, but also on the inherent characteristics of the Fuelling much of the development of advanced microseismic analysis
reservoir including the mineral makeup of the rock, local and regional has been new, multi-array microseismic sensor deployments. Multiple
stress conditions and the presence of natural fracture networks. Ideally, geophone arrays are now routinely deployed in a number of vertical or
completions designs are tailored to the specific reservoir conditions, horizontal wells on a site, or complimented by near-surface buried arrays.
however considerable formation heterogeneity coupled with a poor The rise of pad drilling provides considerably more options for downhole
understanding of the subsurface are often cited as key challenges for monitoring, making use of adjacent laterals as temporary observation
producers in maximising production from hydraulic fracture stimulations. wells while innovative approaches such as the whip-array further support
In many instances where wells were treated identically, operators across multi-array monitoring by functioning as two geophone arrays deployed
North America have demonstrated cases where hydrocarbon production into the same lateral. Multi-array deployments considerably improve
rates vary not only between wells in the same field, but between stages the quality and quantity of microseismic data, and enable advanced
along the same well. geophysical analysis to distinguish how rock failures occurred, evaluate
Perhaps the least recognised, but potentially most powerful stress conditions in the vicinity of the failure, establish discrete fracture
application of microseismic monitoring relates to the ability to use network (DFN) models and determine whether effective flow pathways
information contained within the full seismic signals to improve have been created.
understanding of reservoir conditions, reservoir behaviour and fracture A key advanced processing technique that has emerged within the
development processes. To achieve this level of detail, advanced microseismic industry and is driving much of the recent innovation in

June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 43

 Modelling reservoir drainage pathways using a microseismic-based discrete fracture network (DFN) and knowledge of local stresses helps
evaluate drainage potential across lithological units.
understanding reservoir behaviour is seismic moment tensor inversion
(SMTI). A well established method in the field of earthquake seismology,
SMTI may be applied to microseismic data to connect seismic observations
to physical processes at the source. SMTI analysis reveals the event failure
mechanism, principle strain axes and potential failure orientations.
Evaluating event failure mechanisms is a key aspect to understanding how
the treatment programmes will improve the drainage characteristics of
the reservoir. Each microseismic event can be viewed as failure in shear,
tensile opening/closing or some combination thereof. The failure occurs
on a fracture plane (strike and dip) of a certain size that is itself, part of a
network of new or pre‑existing fractures. Therefore, microseismic event
distributions can be used to reconstruct the DFN that is activating in
response to the stimulation program. Coupled with the dimensions of the
failure planes, fracture orientations inferred from the moment tensor can
generate an activated DFN model.
During the generation of this DFN, it is imperative that values such
as fracture length be accurately characterised, particularly for larger
magnitude events. In faulted formations, it is not uncommon to observe
some events that measure above zero on the magnitude scale. Naturally,
larger events release more energy and will be related to failure along
a longer fracture surface. It has become well known in the industry
that typical microseismic equipment, namely 15 Hz geophones, may
underestimate these values; therefore the incorporation of 4.5 Hz
geophones and force‑balanced accelerometers (FBAs) that are tuned
for the low frequency characteristics of larger magnitude events in
ESG’s hybrid approach may offer increased accuracy in characterising
fracture networks across a range of scales.
Describing fracture processes in the context of
production
Microseismicity may be fluid-induced or it may be caused by changing
stress conditions in the reservoir, therefore not all seismicity will
contribute to production. Development of a microseismic-based DFN
model can describe fracture networks that have been activated during
stimulation, but further interpretation is required to determine how
these fractures will impact reservoir drainage. This interpretation starts
with an examination of stimulated reservoir volume (SRV).
44 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
Estimates of SRVs have evolved over the lifetime of the
technology. Early attempts to define SRV by using envelope functions
around microseismic event distributions generally resulted in large
overestimates of the stimulated zone by incorrectly accounting for
outlier events and an inability to distinguish between fluid-induced and
stress induced events. Further refining SRV to an estimate of the most
seismically deformed volume addressed the issue of outliers, but does
not incorporate knowledge of failure mechanisms or activated fracture
sets. By considering that stimulated fractures can form a number of
intersections the stimulated volume can be interpreted in terms of
fracture complexity (FC).
A final consideration to the stimulated reservoir volume is to
determine where fracture complexity allows for a part of the reservoir
to be well connected back to the perforations, in essence providing a
drainage pathway. Using advanced SMTI analysis, high‑quality events
can be inverted for a general solution, which enables determination
of whether mixed-mode shear-tensile events exhibit fracture opening
or closing components. With reference to a geomechanical model,
the amount of net opening within the fracture networks defines a
volume of enhanced fluid flow (EFF) in the reservoir. By evaluating the
orientation, density and size of fractures as they intersect within the
fracture network, it is possible to better delineate drainage pathways
within the reservoir. Using a geomechanical model of strain imparted
on the rock mass, stream lines are developed to visualise fluid flow
paths with seed points at individual stimulation ports (Figure 5).
Overlying this analysis with calculated seismic deformation and
fracture complexity within the reservoir then provides some indication
of reservoir drainage.
Microseismic methods can offer key insight during all phases of
well‑planning and completion. The microseismic industry has come a
long way over the last 15 years, both as an accepted technology and
also as a comprehensive geophysical service that offers more than just
mapping fractures. New and emerging advanced methods continue
to discern more information about reservoir makeup/conditions
and fracture network generation, giving engineers and geoscientists
the information they need to maximise production in challenging
formations. 
Unconventional resources have revolutionised the oil
and gas sector in North America. Oilfield Technology
correspondent, Gordon Cope, explains how their
potential across the rest of the world is equally
enticing.

I
n North America, shale gas is king. Ongoing advances in
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing have led to vast
reserves of gas being released from shale and other low
permeability rock. In the US, gas production had stood at
48 billion ft3/d in 2007; by late-2013, the Energy Information
Administration (EIA) reported that total wet gas production for the
lower 48 states had exceeded 75 billion ft3/d.
Major shale gas plays include the Barnett Shale in Texas, the
Lafayette in Louisiana, the Marcellus in Pennsylvania and the
Utica Shale in the Appalachia. The Utica contains an estimated
20 trillion ft3 of natural gas in its eastern portions. Analysts predict
production from this formation alone could hit 6.5 billion ft3/d by 2020.
The glut of gas has led to huge boosts to the economy and the
environment. Petrochemical manufacturers are returning to the US in

| 45
droves, planning an estimated US$ 100 billion in new plants. Utilities,
eager to lower GHG emissions, are switching many of their coal-fired plants
to cleaner-burning natural gas. Exporters hankering to take advantage of
higher prices in Europe and Asia are scrambling to build LNG facilities in
the Gulf Coast and western states.
In Canada, shale formations in northeast British Columbia (BC) and
northwest Alberta hold several hundred trillion ft3 in place. The National
Energy Board (NEB) recently announced that the Montney Formation
alone has 449 trillion ft3 of marketable natural gas, 14 billion bbls of
marketable natural gas liquids and 1.1 billion bbls of marketable oil.
Because of its proximity to Asian markets, several companies are
planning LNG export facilities.
Royal Dutch Shell, Korea Gas, Mitsubishi and China National
Petroleum Corp. are proposing the LNG Canada project; a Kitimat
facility that would convert 1.8 billion ft3/d. BG Canada has proposed
the Ridley Island LNG project that would handle 4.2 billion ft3/d in
Port Rupert, BC. All in all, the NEB has approved over 14 billion ft3/d
LNG capacity.
Europe
The EU has abundant shale gas potential as well. In 2013, the
UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) issued a
British Geological Survey that estimated the Bowland shale and Hodder
shale (in the north of England) held 1328 trillion ft3 in place. The EIA has
estimated that 26 trillion ft3 are technically recoverable. Industry analysis
suggests shale gas in Lancashire alone could deliver £6 billion of gas a year
for the next three decades.
The UK government is generally favourable to shale gas development,
seeing it as a means to slow the decline of North Sea gas that has resulted
in recent imports of almost 5 billion ft3/d from European pipelines and LNG.
According to the Digest of UK Energy Statistics, gas accounted for 47% of
electricity generation in 2011 (with coal 28%, nuclear 16% and renewables
7%). Approximately 21 GW of coal, oil and nuclear power stations are set to
close by 2025, with an estimated 26 GW of gas-fired capacity being added
by 2030.
The UK’s road to replace conventional gas with shale gas production
has been rather rocky, however. In 2010, exploration wells drilled by
Cuadrilla Resources are thought to have set off minor earthquakes,
alarming residents and spurring a moratorium on hydraulic fracturing.
In 2012, after consultations, the UK government lifted the moratorium,
and announced various fiscal and regulatory changes that made shale gas
exploration more attractive.
Environmentalists and NGOs have taken exception, however. When
Cuadrilla Resources resumed exploration in rural West Sussex, protesters
arrived to denounce the activity. British police dispersed hundreds of
demonstrators who blocked access to the fenced site. Frustrated activists
vowed to continue with their dissent until shale gas exploration ceased.
Regardless, government opinion towards shale gas remains strong.
After Russia seized the Crimea, the British Energy Minister, Michael Fallon,
went on record to say that reliance on Russia should be taken as a
call‑to‑action, and the UK needs more ‘home grown energy.’
France
France is one of the most promising – and frustrating – custodians
of shale gas. The EIA estimates that the country has 137 trillion ft3
of technically recoverable shale gas (much of it beneath the capital,
within the Paris sedimentary basin). However, spurred on by
activists such as Jose Bové (who famously once drove a farm vehicle
through a partially‑constructed McDonald’s restaurant), the French
government initiated a moratorium on hydraulic fracturing in 2011.
Subsequently, several exploration licenses were revoked. In 2012,
46 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
President François Hollande announced a continued ban, and assured
the media that the conversation was closed.
Never say never. Currently, gas accounts for only 14% of France’s
gross energy consumption. Much of the gas originates in Russia,
Nigeria and Egypt, regions that are either politically unstable or prone
to meddling with energy delivery. In addition, the country relies upon
nuclear power to generate 75% of its electricity; although France has
been blessedly free of adverse developments, one only has to see how
unforeseen events in Japan paralysed their nuclear power sector. Finally,
various sectors of government, including the Parliamentary Office for
the Evaluation of Scientific and Technological Choices, has endorsed
shale gas, noting that hydraulic fracturing has been used 45 times in the
country without any harm. Another parliament study concluded that
shale gas could create 100 000 new jobs within the decade, a potential
antidote to chronically high unemployment.
Poland
According to The US Department of Energy, Poland has shale gas reserves
of 785 trillion ft3, of which 185 trillion ft3 is immediately available for
extraction. ConocoPhillips, BNK, Talisman, Marathon, Chevron and
ExxonMobil are all actively drilling in the country. So far, results have been
less than stellar, but Poland’s shale gas play is still in the early stages,
where operators work out the sweet spots and the drilling and stimulation
packages necessary to optimise production.
Of greater concern is Poland’s regulatory and fiscal framework.
The Polish Exploration and Production Industry Organisation recently
pointed out that red tape is holding up the evaluation stage of shale gas
production, and, at the rate wells are being drilled, it will take more than
20 years to adequately assess the country’s deposits.
The administration of Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk is aware of
the importance of shale gas. The country is heavily dependent on coal for
electricity production, which puts it at odds with the EU’s push to lower
GHG emissions. Switching to natural gas is an effective way of reducing
GHG emissions, but Poland imports 66% of its natural gas from Russia, and
it does not wish to increase its dependence on a source that uses energy
for political leverage. Tusk recently approved a new shale gas bill that
promises to cut red tape and regulatory delays.
Ukraine
East of the EU, Ukraine sees shale gas as a means of gaining energy
independence from Russia, which has cut off supplies several times over
payment disputes. According to the EIA, it contains 42 trillion ft3 of gas
reserves. Recently, the government signed a US$ 10 billion, 50 year deal
with Royal Dutch Shell to explore for shale gas in the country’s eastern
regions. The Ukraine government estimates that the concession could
have 4 trillion ft3 of reserves. Analysts note that while its potential is vast,
bureaucratic red tape, nascent regulatory and fiscal policies and the
confusion and uncertainty associated with Russia’s recent annexation of
the Crimea make investment a high-risk endeavour in the region.
China
Shale gas potential exists in many jurisdictions outside of North America
and the EU. The EIA examined 137 shale basins around the world and
concluded that there were almost 8000 trillion ft3 of technically recoverable
natural gas in regions outside North America, including China, Argentina,
Mexico and Australia.
China is the leader in shale gas reserves, holding approximately
1275 trillion ft3. Faced with mounting pollution from coal-fired utilities
and industry, the country is keen to develope these massive deposits.
Although production currently stands at only 20 million ft3/d,
the Ministry of Land Resources has set goals for 500 million ft3/d
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in 2015, and 5 billion ft3/d by 2020, about 50% of current production
levels.
Although few doubt the ability of China to reach ambitious targets
when it unleashes the might of central planning, several significant
obstacles stand in its way. Many of China’s reserves are located in the
remote, mountainous Sichuan Basin. Seismic is difficult to procure due
to rough terrain, and rigs and related equipment must be transported
along steep, winding roads. Operators have to contend with folded and
faulted strata that make reservoirs complicated to drill and complete. All
of this makes production that much more expensive and unpredictable.
Above ground, operators face state bureaucracy and other barriers.
In October 2010, China held a shale gas auction, but only awarded
rights to Chinese NOCs. Although Total, Shell and ConocoPhillips
are participating in JVs, most of the prime shale gas leases are under
control of the NOCs, some of which have never drilled gas wells, let
alone shale gas wells. Geologic information is considered a state secret
and not widely available. Costs per well are double that of the US, and
equipment and expertise are scarce. Once out of the ground, it will be
difficult to deliver to market, as all pipelines are built and controlled by
an inefficient state provider.
China’s energy sector is also dominated by state entities like
Sinopec and CNCP. Shale gas in the US was pioneered by independent
companies that were able to innovate and find solutions to technological
challenges. Although China’s national oil companies have made
numerous investments with shale gas operators in North America (such
as CNOOC’s purchase of Nexen in Canada), the technologies are not
easily transferrable from one shale play to another, and any effort to
exploit Chinese shale will face a daunting learning curve.
Argentina
Argentina contains significant unconventional reserves; according to
the  IA, the country could hold up to 774 trillion ft3 of recoverable shale
gas, mostly in the Neuquen basin in western-central Argentina, and
Golfo San Jorge, in the southeast.
In order to test out the potential, Chevron inked a deal with Argentina’s
YPF to develop shale oil and gas reserves in the Vaca Muerta formation
in Neuquen province. The company will invest US$ 1.24 billion in the
first phase, which will see 100 wells drilled in a 5000 acre parcel. Bridas, a
China‑based firm, signed a similar deal with YPF to invest US$ 1.5 billion.
However, Argentina’s price and export controls on oil and natural
gas have reduced production while, at the same time, encouraged
domestic consumption to rise, leading to frequent shortages. Argentina
also nationalised the country’s largest hydrocarbon producer, seizing
51% of oil producer YPF SA from Spain’s Repsol. The significant risk factor
has given oil companies pause; Apache, which held large land positions
in the Vaca Muerta play, has since sold its Argentina holdings in order to
concentrate on much less volatile acreage in North America.
Mexico
Interest in Mexico’s vast shale resources increased after
President Enrique Peña Nieto made announcements regarding
sweeping changes to its hydrocarbon sector monopoly. According to
the EIA, the country possesses 555 trillion ft3 of recoverable shale gas,
the sixth largest reserves in the world. Pemex has already started shale
exploration; following Texas’ Eagle Ford shale play trend, it drilled
several wells in the Burgos basin, six of which are productive.
Mexico’s historic constitutional restriction on hydrocarbon
extraction however has resulted in oil companies seeking out other
jurisdictions where they are allowed to participate, and the billions
of dollars necessary to bring shale gas plays to fruition are being
invested where returns are much higher. If Mexico wishes to create a
multinational, deep-pocketed oilpatch in its country, it will have to
48 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
offer generous fiscal terms, independent and efficient regulatory bodies
and projects that do not necessitate the involvement of corruption-ridden
national oil companies.
Australia
Australia recently announced its first shale gas well when Santos drilled
below its conventional Moomba gas field, located in the Cooper Basin,
and struck hydrocarbons at 3.5 km depth. The company says the well
produces enough shale gas to power 40 000 homes.
And there is much more where that came from. The EIA estimates
that Australia has about 437 trillion ft3 of recoverable shale gas
reserves, ten times the existing conventional reserves. The largest
reserves are in the Canning basin in the north of Western Australia, the
Georgina and Beetaloo basin in the Northern Territory and western
Queensland and the Cooper Basin, in central Australia.
It may take some time for shale gas to grow to significant volumes,
however. Australia’s energy sector strategy is to invest heavily in
exports, like LNG and coal. Any shale gas development is likely to be
confined to areas of existing production (such as Santos’ Moomba
gas field), in which field life can be extended by tapping into adjacent
shale formations.
The future
Regardless of their location in the world, energy developments
face opposition, and shale gas is no exception. Environmentalists
are concerned that fracturing additives (which reduce the viscosity
of water) may befoul groundwater and surface bodies. Farmers
and rural communities in arid regions are worried that the huge
amounts of water used in hydraulic fracturing may aggravate
drought conditions. Misinformation and misperceptions have many
of the general public alarmed and wary.
Industry is moving to address sundry issues. Alternate,
benign fracturing additives are being devised. New stimulation
technologies and processes are reducing the amount of water used
(and, in some cases, eliminating it). Industry groups are engaging
the public in discussions to allay unfounded concerns. But all
stakeholders agree that much more needs to be done in order to
reinforce shale gas’ social licence to operate.
As shale gas plays grow around the world, they are likely to
emerge in a manner that has already evolved in North America:
as liquids-rich plays. The Williston Basin, which straddles
North Dakota, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, contains large
deposits of tight gas, but it also holds 3.6 billion bbls of technically
recoverable oil, which is targeted by operators. North Dakota’s
Department of Mineral Resources notes that, thanks to the Bakken
formation, crude production has risen from 100 000 bpd in 2005
to over 1 million bpd in early 2014 (most of the associated gas is
burned off, for lack of pipeline capacity). The Eagle Ford Shale
formation in Texas was originally targeted as a shale gas play, but
drillers have shifted their attention to the liquids-rich portion. In
2010, crude production was literally zero; today, it stands in excess
of 1.2 million bpd. It could be that when oil companies finally target
the Paris Basin, they will go after the estimated 100 billion bbls of
tight oil in place, rather than the gas.
Regardless, jurisdictions that want to reap the shale gas
dividend will have to perform due diligence. The revolution in
North America was founded on government agencies that supplied
technical support for R&D, regulatory bodies that provided timely
oversight and approval of new drilling and stimulation processes
and fiscal legislation that encouraged investment in unproven
resources. Transparency and open markets are also essential. But
for those who play it right, the payout will be significant indeed. 
 Frank Preiss,
DynaEnergetics,
Germany,
describes the
development
of selective
perforating
technologies from
pressure activated
polarity sensitive

I
switches over n the early days of oil production, wells were ‘open hole/barefoot’
completions, which sometimes utilised liners for production purposes.
digital coded When the wells got deeper, and reservoir conditions became more and

systems to the more complex, casing completions were required, whereby the casing had to
be perforated to allow the oil to be produced. The first mechanical perforator
integrated switch was patented in 1910, but the depth of the perforation was limited and the
perforated interval was generally short. Gun perforators, first patented in
detonator. 1926, have been successfully used as a well completion method since at

| 49
Figure 1. Time delay selective perforating using a transfer module and time delay sub.
Figure 2. Pressure activated diode switch schematics.
Figure 3. Schematic of the detonator switch combination and an
example of a switch.
least 1927. Early gun perforators were ‘bullet’ devices, utilising
actual projectiles (usually steel bullets) to penetrate the casing
and create a flow path in the formation. Since 1946 shaped
charges have been used.
Over time the perforated intervals got longer and wells
were drilled in such a way that multiple production zones were
completed. The majority of these wells were vertical and only in
the last decades the trend to drill horizontal wells has increased.
With the changing drilling and completion technologies the
50 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
perforating intervals got longer and operators started to
selectively perforate only specific intervals of the well.
Generally there are two conveyance methods for perforating.
One is to use tubing (tubing conveyed perforating – TCP),
the other is to use a wireline. The majority of wirelines, (also
known as electric lines), that are used for perforating are
monoconductor cables.
In TCP the individual guns can be spread out to achieve
the desired spacing between differing perforating zones. As an
alternative when a maximum of two zones are to be perforated
independently two firing heads can be used. The first firing
head will be initiated through an annular pressure increase, the
second firing head can be initiated either mechanically if the
well is vertical or hydraulically through an increase of the tubing
pressure. If multiple zones are to be perforated, time delay
devices can be used between gun sections and the perforating
string can be repositioned after each perforation. The delay
time will have to be chosen dependent on the time needed to
reposition the guns. Figure 1 shows the example of a transfer
module with time delay.
In this example the booster attached to the end of the
detonating cord of the perforating gun initiates the percussion
initiator through a ballistic output controller - BOC. The
percussion initiator sets off the pyrotechnic time delay that in
return will initiate the next perforating gun after the defined
time delay. Several time delays may be connected to extend
this delay time. A virtually indefinite number of delay and gun
combinations can be connected to cover the desired perforating
interval. This method is often used to perforate the toe section of
a horizontal well in preparation for hydraulic fracturing.
The majority of selective perforating is carried out using
wireline conveyance. In 1964 a rotary select fire switch was
patented. It allowed selectively firing multiple guns using the
rotary switch and pressure activated dart seals to successively
connect and fire one gun after the other. In the 1970s an
enhanced dart system was introduced that used diodes in
conjunction with the dart seals. The bottom most gun was
electrically connected to the wireline through the individual dart
connectors. After initiation the pressure inside the gun activated
the dart to cut through the connecting wire and attach the
next detonator. The detonators were protected by alternating
positive and negative diodes to keep the next gun from firing.
Due to a history of poor grounding, a new generation of pressure
activated switches using positive and negative diodes was
introduced in the 1980s.
Instead of a dart, this system uses a pressure activated
piston. The reliability was greatly increased and this
system is still used today due to the cost efficiency and the
virtually unlimited number of guns that can be connected.
Figure 4. Plug and perf string with selective switch.
Figure 5. DynaStage gun system with top fire integrated switch detonator.
The disadvantage is that the system is sequentially operated
and must be retrieved from the well should a misfire occur and
the next switch is not activated. In addition, moving parts are
used and the system is dependent on the gun and/or wellbore
pressure to shift the piston. Furthermore an interactive control
or communication from surface is not possible. A diode that may
be connected incorrectly can result in the continued initiation of
the wrong gun, resulting in perforating off depth.
In 2000, a new idea of selectively perforating on wireline was
introduced. The idea behind the system was to eliminate any
moving parts and to have active control of the guns downhole.
This was done by combining each individual detonator with a
selective switch and using a surface control panel and software
that allows continuous communication to all downhole
components. The switch added an increased level of safety,
as the detonator is never connected to the wireline until the
specific software command is sent and internal relays have been
activated. In addition the initiation of the next gun does not rely
on the previous gun to be shot.
The control software allows continuous communication
with all downhole components commencing with the descent
into the wellbore. Any wrong connections, defective parts or
wires that may have come lose can be directly identified and
lengthy retrieval trips can be avoided. Should any problems
occur downhole the operator can decide to skip the faulty
gun and continue the operation or to retrieve the system from
the wellbore. After a gun has been fired, the software does an
automatic shot verification to assure that the gun has been
initiated successfully. This means that the operator does
not have to rely on subjective wireline vibration, CCL or gun
movement for shot verification, which may be especially difficult
to interpret in long horizontal wells.
In addition to being able to convey and selectively fire
multiple guns on wireline, the system allows for the addition
of a setting tool. This way a combination of plug setting
and perforating is achieved. This makes these systems the
technology of choice when it comes to efficient, safe and
reliable shale perforating for staged fracture treatment. Several
companies provide these selective systems in combination with
various detonators. The number of selections per run varies by
supplier. Up to 40 selections are advertised, but the majority of
runs made use an average of three to five guns plus a plug. Other
completion methods and regions, such as the North Sea might
require up to 40 selections.
The majority of drilling sites for shale oil or gas are
configured in such a way that operations can be carried out
on several boreholes at the same time. While one well is
being perforated another can be fractured simultaneously,
thus reducing overall cost and increasing efficiencies.
However, this necessitates special safety requirements. To
enable the simultaneous perforating and fracturing work the
detonators in use have to be immune to induced currents and
voltages, which can be created by the equipment onsite and
the necessary radio communication. The requirements are
regulated by the recommended practice RP67 issued by the
American Petroleum Institute (API). A range of differing initiating
systems that meet these requirements are offered by the
industry.
All of the selective systems available to the perforating
service suppliers share a common characteristic that the
June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 51
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in horizontal wellbores, it is imperative to
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fracturing additives allow oil and gas wells
to produce to their maximum capability.
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switches require the connection of five wires per gun. A line-in
coming from uphole, the line-out going downhole, one connecting
to ground and two connecting to the detonator. To assure that
these high numbers of connections are coupled correctly several
companies offer surface testers that allow the assembled gun
strings to be tested before they are connected to the wireline.
Some testers only test the function of the switches, others test all
the way down to the individual detonators verifying that they are
functional. This way the operator has an assurance of a functioning
and correctly wired system before the gun string is deployed
into the well. All of the systems presently offered are tested in
accordance with the above mentioned RP 67.
With the introduction of the more complex selective
perforating technique an increase in the failure rate of the
perforation operation (usually described in runs/misrun or guns/
misgun) was observed. When looking at an average shale well site
with three well bores, twelve sections per well with a plug and five
perforation intervals in each section, it has been calculated that
an overall of 36 plugs, 180 perforation guns with 216 electronic
switches and over 1000 associated electrical connections will
be needed. This is a huge number of potential failure sources.
While an efficiency rate of 95% may be accepted for traditional
perforation operations it would mean that every 20 runs there
would be a fault. This means that out of the entire completion
process of the three well bores, two runs with problems could
be encountered. Taking the complexity of the system into
consideration this could be seen as an acceptable failure ratio,
but at a spread cost of up to US$ 500 000/d for the fracturing and
perforating operation (to take an example from North America)
this is not acceptable. Through the use of selective perforating
switches combined with RF-safe detonators and intensive training
of the crews, one user managed to reduce the initial failure rate
of 10 runs/misrun in Q4, 2008 to over 90 runs/misrun on average
for 2010. So even though the selective systems today are more
expensive than in the past, the increase in reliability and efficiency
has greatly reduced the overall cost to the oil companies. However,
It does have to be pointed out that a high level of operator training
and impeccable equipment are essential to running a smooth
operation when using these complex systems.
To further enhance the efficiency and reduce the number of
connections per gun, one supplier has introduced an integrated
switch detonator. This system incorporates the selective switch
into the detonator housing, thus reducing the number of wires
from five to three per gun as the connecting wires between switch
and detonator are eliminated. This system incorporates the
functionality of the widely used selective switch – detonator and
software combination with a reduction in potential failure points.
In addition it is third party tested for being intrinsically RF, stray
voltage and current safe. The next generation, a top fire integrated
switch detonator is presently in field testing. This new product will
eliminate the requirement to connect lead wires altogether.
With today’s existing drilling and completion methods
unconventional hydrocarbons such as shale gas have become
commercially viable to explore and produce. A further optimisation
of the techniques and processes used will continue to reduce
cost and improve efficiencies. This is particularly important when
keeping today’s (and the future’s) oil and gas pricing in mind. 
References
1. Govil, A. ‘Selective Perforation: A Game Changer in Perforating Technology-
Case Study’, European and West African Perforating Symposium, (2012).
RAISING
RECOVERY
RATES
W
hen thinking of

Garrett Leahy and Lars Anders Ruden, enhanced oil

recovery (EOR)

Emerson Process Management, today, the focus would

most likely be primary and

provide an overview of various secondary recovery techniques

and traditional EOR technologies

software and hardware linked to gas injection, chemical

injection and thermal recovery.

developments that are Together these technologies are playing

a vital role in increasing global oil and

improving oil gas recovery rates from their currently

low number at around 30%.

and gas Yet, there are other means of

increasing oil and gas recovery as well.

recovery Two such examples are reservoir modelling

on the software side and multiphase meters

rates. on the hardware side. Real time flow rate

data from multiphase meters integrated
with predictive models generated
from reservoir modelling software can
separately and jointly play a crucial role in
existing and future field production plans. This
article will examine how both technologies are
having an impact on the bottom line.

The growth in reservoir modelling

Reservoir models are the default platform for examining and
understanding subsurface geology, building a realistic representation
of the geometry of the reservoir that represents fluid flow and volumes as
correctly as possible.
Today, reservoir modelling is playing an important role in helping operators
increase oil and gas recovery and design future production strategies in a number of
key areas.

Embracing the seismic

Firstly, the ability of reservoir modelling software to combine 3D and 4D seismic data into
the reservoir model has helped generate the most accurate and best-constrained models the
industry has ever seen.
By incorporating 3D and 4D seismic and reservoir heterogeneities into the model and
extending the depth of static modelling, reservoir models are more realistic than ever, with the

| 53

Figure 1. Modelling on an offshore Latin American field.
Figure 2. RMS 2013 enables users to not only create the geological
model while conducting seismic interpretation but also capture
uncertainty during the interpretation process.
Figure 3. The Roxar Subsea Multiphase Meter comes with a new
measurement principle.
54 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
ability to map the most complex of reservoir geometries. 4D seismic can also
be highly effective in the mapping and monitoring of fluid movements.
Whereas previously interpreters might have claimed that the resolution
of seismic is too coarse to resolve the true geometries of the heterogeneities
or uncertainty in depth can make it difficult to represent wells correctly,
recent technology developments have ensured that there is a much tighter
integration of seismic within the reservoir model.
Emerson’s reservoir modelling software, Roxar RMS, for example, includes
an object-based, facies modelling tool that incorporates information derived
from seismic directly into the facies model. In this way, data extracted from
seismic can be blended with geostatistical tools, such as guide lines and
trends, to generate well‑constrained sedimentary bodies, a more realistic
property model conditioned to well observations, and accurate volume
calculations.
The software also comes with seismic inversion and seismic attribute tools
that allow geoscientists to use seismic data to create a rock property model
quickly and accurately.
Emerson has also recently developed an alternative to seismic
auto‑tracking known as model-based seismic conditioning, where a
geologically consistent structural framework based on either user‑defined
interpretation data or other constraints (for example, well markers) is built.
The framework is then conditioned globally to the seismic data resulting
in an interpretation that has a spatial resolution comparable to the survey
acquisition parameters and yet still obeys geologic constraints. The result
is a highly efficient interpretation workflow that is able to handle complex
geometries, faulting and poor data quality, and plays a crucial role in future
reservoir management decisions.
The rise in fracture modelling
Fractures and the modelling of these fractures can also play an important
role in helping operators understand their reservoirs and as an input
into EOR strategies. Fractures have a direct influence over the fluid flow
behaviour of many fields greatly enhancing the permeability of rocks and
changing the distribution of flow in the reservoir.
In fractured reservoirs (up to two-thirds of the world’s proven reserves
lie in areas with acknowledged fracture-affected recovery), however,
fields are often being poorly swept, wells are encountering early water
breakthrough and oil is being lost.
Against this backdrop, effective fracture models can condition models
to the well fracture data, provide geologically reasonable extrapolation
trends for the well data and constrain the model based on interpreted well
test permeability.
The fracture-modelling module in Roxar RMS, for example, includes
the option of using a discrete fracture network (DFN) to build a fracture
model. Here, the distribution of fractures can be described through fracture
density 3D parameters with the maps determined by a number of different
methods, including proximity to fault, curvature and stress models.
The end product is an improved understanding of fracture-prone
reservoirs with crucial input to increased oil and gas performance.
Taking interpretation to a new level
The latest version of Roxar RMS (RMS 2013) has taken seismic interpretation
and modelling to a new level through model-driven interpretation that
enables users to not only create a geological model while conducting seismic
interpretation, but to also capture uncertainty during the interpretation
process.
Rather than creating one model with thousands of individual
measurements, with this software modellers can create thousands of models
by estimating uncertainty in their interpretations. In addition, the software
also allows geoscientists to guide and update a 3D geologically consistent
structural model directly from the data with important implications for
reservoir management strategies.
 From the incorporation of the seismic into the data through to fracture
modelling, well correlation, upscaling and simulation, reservoir modelling is
providing an important contribution to oil and gas recovery today not only
at the field development stage but also during production.
Reservoir modelling in practice
So how is this impact on increased oil and gas recovery being seen in
practice?
One example is an offshore field, Latin America. The field was placed
on nitrogen injection in 2000 with production having declined since
2003. The geological complexities and reservoir heterogeneities within
the field required fracture, fault and object-based facies modelling tools,
simulation‑friendly grids and uncertainty analysis features to support
updated field development plans based around its 12 existing wells.
To this end, Roxar RMS helped develop a high resolution modelling
grid of 13 million cells using corner-point geometry and incorporating
ten faults. The software’s fault modelling tool also allowed geologists
and reservoir engineers to quickly and easily analyse the fault sealing
properties and fluid flow properties across faults in the 3D reservoir
model.
Reservoir properties in the field were also distributed using
3D modelling tools for both the modelling of the facies and in developing
a petrophysics model. Finally, uncertainty and probability analysis took
place to estimate recovery from the field and future production trends
with 50 realisations taking place.
The result was a robust and accurate model of the field that addressed
all geological complexities and honoured reservoir heterogeneity. The
model will be used for the further development of the field, in future
simulation processes, and in maximising oil recovery through water, gas,
CO2 and nitrogen injection processes.
There are examples from the North Sea as well. Statoil’s Statfjord field,
one of the oldest producing fields on the Norwegian Continental Shelf
is delivering recovery rates of up to 66% and is scheduled to remain
active until 2019. According to INTSOK, a joint partnership between the
Norwegian oil and gas industry and the Norwegian government, Roxar
RMS has played an important role generating predictive models for the
field and providing input to well intervention, 4D seismic and water
management decisions.
Hardware developments: multiphase meters
Yet it is not just the software side that is providing a major contribution to
increased oil and gas recovery. The same is being seen on the hardware
side with one example (among many) being multiphase metering.
Many existing EOR technologies today, such as gas lift, water injection
and submersible pumping, impact the well stream and contribute to
variations in water cuts and gas volume fraction (GVF). Ageing wells, such
as in the North Sea, also produce over a wider range of process conditions
with more liquid and water present and factors such as changing salinity
and composition needing to be compensated for.
In such circumstances, operators need multiphase meters to measure
the flow rates of oil, water and gas in all reservoir conditions – from
fields that have just come on-stream through to older wet gas fields
with high GVF. Meters that are operationally effective and can maintain
accuracy over the entire GVF range are key to preventing lost profit
opportunities and maximising production.
Improving accuracy
It is in response to this need for greater accuracy across more varied
conditions that the new Roxar third generation meter – both subsea
and topside – comes with a new measurement principle based on
an electrode geometry sensor that allows for measurements in separate
sectors in addition to the full cross-sectional area.
The new meter also incorporates real time capacitance measurements,
pressure and temperature measurements and algorithms that take into
account the hydrocarbon composition of the fluid using PVT simulations.
The meter can also be set up to switch between wet gas and multiphase
mode automatically or be fixed in either mode, thereby improving accuracy
and reliability and ensuring that the meter is customised for all reservoir
conditions and levels of GVF.
Measuring salinity
Measuring water salinity has also become increasingly important – often
viewed as a key operational parameter for reservoir management and
increasing oil and gas recovery. Salinity measurement tells the reservoir
engineer whether formation water is entering the flow and also helps the
process engineer adjust injection rates of scale and corrosion inhibitors.
To this end, the meter comes with a salinity sensor that enables
absolute measurements of the salinity of the produced water. The dedicated
salinity sensor is based on differential microwave transmissions and is
operational in three-phase gas-liquid flows. The sensor measures the
effect of the flow on the propagation of the microwave signal in the volume
between three probes, with the salinity of the water phase and the local
water-liquid ratio then able to be deduced.
Field examples
One example of wet gas meters in operation is on the North Sea
Ormen Lange development, one of the North Sea’s highest profile fields that
comes with production challenges including a 120 km pipeline, no offshore
platforms, sub-zero seabed conditions, and the need to protect the wells
from water formation build-up.
Here, Emerson has deployed 22 Roxar Subsea Wetgas Meters for daily
water production monitoring and gas measurement. The meter’s compact
design and enhanced water detection sensitivity (a detection accuracy of
9 gal./hr in a 100 million ft3/d gas well) have been critical in daily monitoring
and optimising production.
Another field offshore India has also used the meter for improved well
testing. The field in question had ambitious production targets but also had
a high GVF where the accuracy of multiphase meters in detecting liquid flow
rates and water cuts tends to decrease.
To meet these challenges, an integrated and flexible well testing system
that consisted of a compact, multi-component skid assembly was deployed
and connected to a Roxar Multiphase Meter and supported by Emerson’s
valve automation solutions. The system also included the
Bettis Multiport Flow Selector that allows the selecting and diverting of well
fluids from an individual well to a single test outlet, flow loop or sampling
device.
The result was a highly automated, intelligent and integrated
solution, where multiphase meters and automation solutions could be
combined to provide a complete well testing service and improve oil and
gas recovery.
An integrated approach
It is important to stress that the hardware and software technologies
described in this article do not operate in a vacuum from one another.
In order to maximise field production today, operators need
to firstly, initiate production at an early stage, secondly, accelerate
production through improved production measurement and real time
reservoir models, and finally, extend the lifetime of the field through the
regular monitoring of offshore assets and updating of reservoir models.
By using real time data from meters and gauges and predictive
modelling and simulation technology to rapidly assimilate new
production data into the reservoir models, operators can achieve
all three of these goals and look forward to better operational
decision‑making and increased oil and gas recovery. 
June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 55
 Craig Lippus, Geometrics, USA, examines
new ultra high-resolution 3D marine seismic
that is opening new vistas in the shallow seabed.

56 |
High
resolution
revolution
s the world’s thirst for energy continues unabated,

A the risks involved in finding and producing fossil

fuels will only intensify. Not just monetary risks,
but safety and environmental risks as well. The human
and environmental tragedy of the explosion and fire on
the Deepwater Horizon is a prime example. Oil and gas
is being produced in more and more difficult conditions
all the time; most of the low-hanging fruit has been picked.
The recent blow to the nuclear industry at Fukushima only
puts additional pressure on fossil fuels.

| 57

Figure 1. P-Cable 3D platform.
Figure 2. Typical P-Cable deck layout.
Figure 3. Deployment of a P-Cable.
58 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
Continuing innovation in seismic imaging is crucial to minimising
risk as the industry continues its search for new sources of energy in
the world’s oceans. Assessing potential drilling hazards in this brave
new world requires new methods of high-resolution imaging.
The last 30 years have witnessed amazing progress and
innovation in 3D imaging for deep exploration, but relatively
little has been done at the other end of the spectrum. The main
application for high-resolution seismic in the marine oil patch
has always been geohazard mapping, an endeavour bereft of
profit and not much of a magnet for development resources.
Less-expensive, high-resolution single-streamer 2D (HR2D)
has always been considered sufficient, if a separate geohazard
survey was conducted at all. In many, if not most cases, existing
low-resolution ‘industry’ 3D data are reprocessed to tease out
shallower, smaller features, mainly by focusing only on the
near‑offset traces, minimising the resolution-killing effects of
normal moveout stretch. This can be a perfectly acceptable
approach, depending on the specific geological environment.
But no amount of processing can make up for the fact that
industry 3D surveys are optimised for much deeper and larger
targets. For instance, cross-line hydrophone group spacings
are 50 - 100 m, and in-line spacings can be 25 m or more. By
contrast, HR2D geohazard surveys are typified by 12.5 m groups,
and this is tending in recent years towards 6.25 m. Further,
industry 3D sources are many times larger, with much lower
associated peak frequencies, than those used for HR2D. In
short, reprocessing of industry 3D data for geohazard purposes
has significant limitations, as this article will show. The
following discussion focuses on a new platform for carrying out
ultra‑high-resolution 3D seismic surveys (UHR3D).
There is no evidence that the Macondo disaster could have
been avoided had an UHR3D geohazard survey been conducted
prior to drilling. But it is an instructive example of what is at stake
as the industry moves further into the frontiers of oil production.
In the minds of many, it changed the value equation of geohazard
surveys. Specifically, the National Commission on the BP
Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill & Offshore Drilling Recommendations
of 2011 identified “ultra-deepwater (more than 5000 ft) areas,
areas with complex geology, and any other frontier or high-risk
areas – such as the Arctic” as areas deserving greater attention.
2D versus 3D
Two-dimensional seismic, by its nature, works best in structurally
simple environments where, for geohazard purposes, it is often
least needed. In general, the more structurally complex
 Duraband®NC
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Figure 4. Fully-deployed P-Cable system (Image courtesy of Fugro Consultants).

Figure 5. Comparison of CMP coverage between single-streamer HR2D and 12-streamer

P-Cable UHR3D. Group spacing in both cases is 12.5 m, streamer spacing in P-Cable is 12.5 m.
Black dots represent P-Cable CMPs, red dots represent single-streamer CMPs.

the geology, the greater potential for

Figure 6. ‘Stingray’ configuration of
P-Cable, employing one long streamer for
velocity purposes.
geohazards and the greater the need for
the imaging advantages afforded by true
3D acquisition.
But how to acquire UHR3D data
cost-effectively? Historically, towing
multiple parallel streamers has required
an individual, not to mention expensive,
winch for each one. This, in turn, requires
a vessel big enough to accommodate
these winches, and a crew big enough
to operate them. In short, things
start getting expensive fast. A simple
‘back‑of‑the‑envelope’ drawing makes it
clear that traditional towing methods do
not scale down to geohazard dimensions
very well. A different approach is
necessary. www.hardbandingsolutions.com
hbs400@hardbandingsolutions.com
The P-Cable UHR3D system
Over the last decade, a small group of
people in Europe and the US have focused
significant resources on this problem,
culminating in a 3D towing platform called the P-Cable™,
manufactured by Geometrics, Inc. Very simply, it consists of a
‘cross cable’ strung between two paravanes to which GeoEel™
digital streamers are connected.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the P-Cable system. Up to
24 short (typically 50 – 100 m) GeoEel solid streamers can be
deployed from only 4 winches. A typical deck layout is shown in
Figure 2.
The deployment process is illustrated in Figure 3. As the
starboard paravane is deployed, it pulls the signal cable and the
cross cable with it. The cross cable is populated with ‘junction
boxes’ at intervals of 6.25 or 12.5 m (typical). As junction boxes
come off the cross cable winch, GeoEels from the storage drum
are connected before being deployed off the back deck. Once all
of the GeoEels are in the water, the port paravane is deployed.
The whole process takes approximately 45 minutes.
A fully deployed P-Cable system is shown in Figure 4. For
scale, the vessel in this case is 53 m long, with a beam of only
Figure 7. P-Cable data (top) versus reprocessed industry 3D data (bottom).
Figure 8. Conventional HR2D (left) versus P-Cable UHR3D (right).
60 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
11 m. A crew of 6 people was required for deployment and
retrieval; once surveying, the survey procedure is as uneventful
as conventional HR2D surveying.
Value proposition
This towing configuration yields unprecedented data density.
It would be reasonable to assume that such improvements in
data acquisition come at a high cost. But in fact, the opposite is
true when all costs, including those of the vessel and crew, are
considered.
A typical array consisting of 12 streamers spaced at 12.5 m
yields a swath 137.5 m wide; HR2D geohazard sail lines are
spaced at 50 - 100 m. Even with a streamer or two of overlap
between each 3D swath, sail line spacing is still greater than
what is ordinarily used in HR2D. Overlap eliminates the need
for costly in-fill work that plagues HR2D. Additionally, because
of the relatively short streamers, turns can be completed much
more rapidly.
Figure 5 compares data density and
operational efficiency of a typical P-Cable
versus a single streamer. 2D lines are spaced
at 50 m; P-Cable sail lines are spaced at 125 m,
giving one streamer of overlap. Areal coverage
is shown after 1.3 hours of surveying at 4 knots.
Turn times were assumed to be equal, and
infill was assumed not to be required. From the
figure it is clear that when compared to HR2D
surveying using typical geohazard line spacings,
the P-Cable not only yields much higher data
density, it is also more operationally efficient.
This is true even after assumptions favourable
to the single-streamer case.
It must be acknowledged, though, that
the costs of a seismic survey do not end when
the streamers are pulled in for the last time.
Lots of data requires lots of processing. Some
of the savings realised in acquisition will be
offset by larger processing and interpretation
costs. Determining whether UHR3D is right for
a project requires consideration of all costs,
weighed against the additional value of a more
accurate, detailed and complete picture.
 Hardbanding
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Figure 9. P-Cable data (top) versus reprocessed industry 3D data (bottom). End uSErS
• Educational
In defence of short streamers technical Forums
A common (but decreasingly so) objection to this towing methodology is the
relatively short offsets. As seismic streamer technology has advanced, streamers • Worldwide
have grown in length dramatically. Whereas a common streamer length in the technical Support
early 1980s was 1200 m, it is not uncommon for today’s streamers to be 8 km
long and more. There are very good reasons for this, which are beyond the
scope of this discussion. But during the course of this evolution, it has become
axiomatic in the industry that the streamer length must be on the order of the
depth of interest (including water depth) in order to be of any use – i.e., depth of
penetration ≅ length of streamer. Fortunately, this axiom is not strictly true.
What is true is that good velocity control is essential for seismic reflection
work. Without a good understanding of the seismic velocities involved, the data
cannot be processed properly and the final image suffers. It is also true that, in
order to adequately measure velocities from the seismic data, the amount of total
offset between the source and the farthest hydrophone should, in fact, be on the
order of the depth of interest.
However, geohazard seismic is generally conducted in support of drilling, after
exploration seismic has been used to determine the site of the well. The velocities
are therefore, in most cases, already well constrained. In cases where they are
not, a single long streamer can (and has, most recently by Tromsø University)
be easily deployed, along with the P-Cable system, for the purpose of gaining
velocity control (Figure 6). It is not necessary for all of the streamers in the array
to be long enough to measure velocities; one is enough.
Ocean-bottom seismometers can also be deployed throughout the survey area
if towing a long streamer is impractical.
It is also worth noting that, since the velocity required to image a given
reflecting horizon (the ‘stacking’ velocity) is the average velocity of the materials
(including that of the water) above that horizon, then the deeper the water, the
closer the stacking velocity approaches that of water. A reflection caused by a
layer having a seismic velocity of five times that of water will still have a stacking
velocity close to that of water, if the water is deep enough relative to the reflector
depth. Imaging gets infinitely easier with a priori knowledge of velocities,
especially when those velocities are constant. In this sense, when the water is www.hardbandingsolutions.com
deep relative to the depth of interest beneath the seabed (a common occurrence hbs400@hardbandingsolutions.com
in geohazard studies), the P-Cable system can be thought of as more akin to a
multibeam system, but with the added ability to image the shallow subsurface
rather than just the seabed itself.

Figure 10. UHR3D cube acquired with the P-Cable system in ~800 m of water.
There are many benefits to towing short streamers. Already
mentioned are short turn times; a typical turn with a P-Cable
takes around 20 - 30 minutes, compared to 45 - 60 minutes
with a standard 1200 m 2D streamer. This is a corollary of
ease of manoeuvre in general. Geohazard surveys are often
conducted in areas already populated by drilling rigs and other
infrastructure; the manoeuvrability afforded by short streamers
is crucial to surveying efficiently and safely in this environment.
Another important benefit is the preservation of high
frequencies. Due to distortion of the wavelet with offset (‘normal
moveout stretch’), the peak frequency content and consequent
resolution of the final stack can be compromised, particularly
in shallow water. This is why, as hinted at earlier, the first step
in reprocessing industry 3D data for geohazard purposes is to
eliminate the far-offset traces. Since the operation is focused
only on high‑resolution, why record them in the first place?
Last, but certainly not least, is cost. Remember, geohazard
surveying is by and large a non-profit endeavour. The cost
and difficulty rise exponentially as the streamer lengths grow.
Keeping the streamers short keeps the costs roughly in line
with HR2D, something for which the industry is already used to
budgeting.
Data examples and comparisons
Then there are the data. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show comparisons
between P-Cable data and reprocessed industry data from the
Barents Sea. Both are vertical slices taken out of a 3D cube. It is
clear, and hardly surprising, that acquiring UHR3D data with a
purpose-built system yields a result far superior to that obtained
by repurposing data acquired with a completely different
system aimed at different objectives. The subtle sedimentary
structures visible in the P-Cable data, particularly the steeply
dipping clinoforms in the T. Hekkingen formation in Figure 8, are
unprecedented, and in this case tell a geological story important
to understanding the evolution of the basin and the occurrence
of shallow natural gas.
In a sense, this is an unfair comparison. Of course data
acquired with the P-Cable and a high-frequency source are
62 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
going to yield higher resolutions in the
shallow seabed. When reprocessing 3D data
is inadequate, an HR2D survey can be done.
So how does P-Cable data compare to HR2D
data?
Like every other question in geophysics,
the answer is, it depends: in areas of very
simple structure, the difference is minimal.
But in areas of more complex structure, the
very areas where geohazards are most likely
to exist, the differences can be significant.
Why? Because true 3D acquisition allows a
true 3D migration of the data. What does this
mean?
In 2D single-streamer surveying, it must
be assumed that all energy reflected back
to the streamer originates from some point
directly below the streamer. In other words,
it must be assumed that any structural
changes occur within a vertical plane
hanging from the streamer. Components
of structural changes that occur outside of
this plane are assumed not to exist. To the
extent that this is true, there will be little
difference between 2D and 3D data. But of course this is rarely
the case, and much of the energy returning to the streamer
actually comes from outside the vertical plane below it. In the
case of a single streamer, it is not possible to tell which energy
comes from within the plane and which does not, so it must
all be treated the same. The net effect of this is that the ‘real’
reflectors are interfered with by reflections from out of the
plane that arrive at a slightly different time. This destructive
interference with the primary reflection causes a reduction in
overall frequency.
Figure 9 shows a comparison of an HR2D line with a
slice from a P-Cable 3D cube. The same small air gun and
streamers were used to acquire each dataset, and acquisition
parameters were identical. In the latter, true 3D acquisition
allowed events from outside the plane to be migrated back
to where they belong. This minimised the frequency-reducing
destructive interference inherent in HR2D data, resulting in a
higher‑resolution image. Note that this is in an area of relatively
simple structure; the difference becomes even more significant
as structure becomes more complex.
Another difference, of course, is that 3D surveying results in
a 3D image, such as the one shown in Figure 10. This dataset was
acquired in about 800 m of water with streamers only 12.5 m
long. The prominent reflector at 1.25 seconds is interpreted
to represent the top of free gas, held in place by impermeable
gas hydrates. Numerous gas migration structures are visible,
manifest as pock‑marks on the ocean floor. Note that the
bathymetry in this case was acquired from the P-Cable data
itself, rather than with multibeam.
Summary
There will always be a place for 2D seismic. UHR3D is not
applicable everywhere. But its use can be advantageous; it
delivers a higher‑quality picture for less money. In today’s
exploration environment, it seems likely that more, rather than
less, scrutiny will be required prior to drilling. When a powerful
microscope is needed, UHR3D is an important tool to have
available.
Trey Miller and Patrick Vilyus,
NOV Devin, describe the benefits of using
motion compensation systems in
rigless/riserless well intervention for
deepwater projects.

D
eepwater oil and gas projects operate at the
cutting edge of what is technologically possible,
and nature has many ways to further challenge
operations in these hostile environments. Extremes in
temperature, which can be experienced both subsea and
above the waves, can impact both the crew’s ability to
work and the effectiveness of the equipment in use. Strong
winds and high waves are unavoidable, and will test the
operational limits of any offshore project from time to time.
Rigless/riserless well intervention is a growing
necessity for those looking to reduce mobilisation and
demobilisation time and costs. The approach allows
operators to increase their intervention capabilities by
expanding available resources (not just limited to drill
ships, semisubmersibles and mobile rigs) and increasing
the number of subsea wells that require light or medium
scale interventions. The presence of suspended loads,
which can prove hazardous in a work site, is eliminated
with rigless/riserless intervention and non‑productive time
related to crane constraints is reduced by providing an
independent means of self-sustainable well operation.

| 63
 The service of well intervention can include installing lightweight
surface test trees and safety packages for deepwater operations.
Equipment such as crossover subs, safety valves and inside blowout
preventers can help operators to guard against problems in the
offshore field. Critical interventions and assemblies need to be done
quickly, safely and cost-effectively with special equipment (including
difficult-to-find tools such as elevator bails and coiled tubing lift
frames) and proven processes.
NOV Devin is a specialist in rigless well intervention. To date,
the company has completed 27 towers, seven of them of the
‘compensating’ variety. Compensating towers employ nitrogen and
air‑over-hydraulic passive compensators, which account for tidal
movements, vessel heave and swells associated with inclement
weather.
Figure 1. Motion Buster/track stack well intervention tower configuration.
Figure 2. Dual DIME well intervention tower configuration.
64 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
Motion compensation
When operating in deepwater environments, special challenges are
faced. Platform motion can cause work conditions to be particularly
dangerous. Left uncorrected, extremes in platform movement can
even shut down the operation. NOV Devin’s Motion Compensation
System (Motion Buster™ and gimble table) is a passive compensator
that reacts to the motion it encounters and allows equipment to stay
in place, relative to the sea floor (Figures 1 & 3). The system helps
reduce movement - due to weather, loop currents or tidal changes –
by providing vertical and lateral compensation. Working off air-over-
nitrogen, the system is designed to be easy to operate. The stability
provided reduces the risk of injury and allows for it to be operated in
difficult conditions, meaning operators can perform well intervention
on a rigless floating vessel safely and cost-effectively. The company’s
modular compensating well intervention towers
vary from US$ 3000 ‑ 10 000/d depending on job
duration, as opposed to costly rig mobilisation/
demobilisation, personnel and day rate costs
(estimates range from US$ 1 million+). The Motion
Buster handles up to 250 000 lbs (113 398 kgs)
of compressed load and provides a total of 6 ft
(1.83 m) of correction 3 ft (0.91 m) up and 3 ft
(0.91 m) down with the option of 8 ft (2.44 m) and
10 ft (3.04 m). It is a passive system that works off
a 150 gal. (567.81 l) pressure vessel and is supplied
with its own source of nitrogen.
Plug and abandonment alternatives
An example of a safe alternative to well
interventions and plug and abandonments
is the Devin Inline Motion Eliminator (DIME).
Similar to the Motion Buster, it compensates
for the vertical movement (due to tidal or wave
action effects) of well intervention equipment on
floating production facilities (SPARs, TLPs etc.)
and/or mobile offshore drilling units (MODUs),
dynamic positioning vessels (DPSVs) and barges.
Deepwater well interventions require an efficient
system for motion compensation, and systems
such as the DIME are safer to set up and use and are also more
versatile; being suitable for use on either a rig or rigless platform.
The benefits of employing such a system include lower set-up
and operating costs, which can add up to substantial savings for
operators. The DIME has an in-line compensation system capable of
up to 250 000 lbs (113 398 kg), 6/8/10/20 ft stroke and an economical
way of compensating for coiled tubing.
Flexible options
The Dual Compensating Intervention Tower (Dual DIME) can be used
on any type of vessel, platform or rig that is experiencing motion, in
even the most challenging conditions (Figure 2). The tower allows
operators to work a single well for light and medium coiled tubing
interventions, or even work two wells simultaneously in support of
light and medium wireline, slickline and eLine operations. It also lets
operators choose the height depending on depth of water and size
of tubing or wireline. It can work over a moon pool or cantilever over
the side or rear of the vessel, and it can compensate from 6 ft to 10 ft
(1.83 m to 3.05 m) of motion. The Dual DIME is used for wireline or
coiled tubing and its lift capacity ranges from 12.5 - 75 t (11.34 mt -
68.04 mt). It is designed to compensate from 6 - 10 ft (1.83 m - 3.05 m)
of motion and can be used on a single well or split for two wells.
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Figure 3. Gimble table.
Figure 4. Hydraulic workover support – Devin Motion Buster
compensation well intervention tower configuration.
Figure 5. DIME/Aframe cantilevered well intervention tower configuration.
66 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
Vital connections on deepwater rigs
Lift frames provide a motion-compensated connection to the
rig’s compensated block, or active heave drawworks, that can
significantly enhance performance and safety, particularly in deep
water. With a designated work window to improve safety on the rig
floor, a lift frame system consists of several optional components
that are specially designed to provide a stable work environment.
Frames also include top hinges, which allow the vertical I.D. to
be customised with extensions. These features allow continuous
work in situations that would normally postpone a project.
The lift frame is complemented with the Swing Arm Crane™
and the Mini Track™; equipment that allows operators to leave
the injector head in place while performing slickline or wireline.
This offers a means of supporting the coiled tubing injector
head with primary and secondary retention, whilst housing the
injector safely offline without rigging it down to change-out BHA,
or perform wireline operations independently of rig tugger/crane
assistance. This can reduce non‑productive time by more than
8 hours during each trip or change‑out, and dramatically improves
safe working conditions by eliminating hazardous overhead lifts in
deepwater applications.
Case study 1: Three-well intervention programme
onboard floating SPAR platform in the US GoM
NOV Devin was tasked to provide motion compensation during
hydraulic workover (snubbing) well intervention operations onboard
a floating production platform, accounting for high and low tide
cycle variations. Part of the challenge was to enable a safe working
platform during inclement weather constraints, while assisting dry
tree buoyancy can compensation and weight capacity limitations.
For hydraulic workover tubing repair, communication (measured
between the wellbore pressure and the secondary barriers/casing)
had to be observed between tubing, casing and riser due to
corrosion. The operator had three wells to intervene, which required
a degree of equipment transfer capabilities between wells.
Results
The company installed recompletion string using packers to isolate
communication and return wells to production, and provided
a nitrogen compensation structure that accounted for all tidal
movements as well as inclement weather constraints by ensuring
the snubbing unit maintained relativity
to the sea floor. This meant that the
hydraulic workover unit did not move,
while everything else moved around it.
The weight of the added intervention
equipment was minimised and the
completion string ran in the existing
completion as well as the can/tensioner
system, providing redundant safety
measures in the event of a can failure
and during normal well intervention
operations. The entire well intervention
tower was transferred from well to well in
a safe and time-efficient manner (Figure 4).
Conclusions
Conventional rig RU/MOB times were
reduced by 92%, resulting in cost savings
of 37.5% versus conventional rig costs. The
client experienced an increased facility
production rate of 7000 bpd.
 The tower helped provide a mishap-free troubleshooting window
during a temporary can/tensioner failure, becoming the primary
means of support for the entire SPAR A4 tensioner system, dry tree
and completion design, protecting the SPAR A4 well asset value.
The skidding package afforded a safe and cost-effective means of
transferring the compensating intervention tower from well to well,
reducing rig up/rig down time by 36 hours.

Case study 2: Subsea well intervention P&A

programme onboard DP2 vessel
NOV Devin was asked to provide a cantilevered compensated well
intervention tower on a diving support vessel for downed platform
subsea coiled tubing and wireline plug and abandonment operations
in the Gulf of Mexico. The company needed to enable independent
means of well intervention, afford deployment/retrieval capabilities of
a 3 in. landing string in support of coiled tubing operations, tools and
subsea umbilicals, and to provide surface support for diver assistance,
independent from the vessel crane and moon pool.

Results
The client was successfully compensated for slickline/eLine riserless
subsea operations in nearly 300 ft of seawater utilising the DIME
systems, accounting for tidal variations, inclement weather, surface
winds and 10 ft swells. This was achieved by ensuring that downhole
precision tool placement was maintained when applicable. The well
intervention tower provided the primary means of compensation
and independent well intervention support for subsea coiled tubing
operations by ensuring the injector head and well control stack-up
maintained relativity to the sea floor. It also afforded simultaneous
operating capabilities, allowing the crane to work independently for
added diver assistance and day-to-day logistical support (Figure 5).

Conclusions Figure 6. Service/maintenance/operation of CCTLFs.

The client saved a spread cost of approximately US$ 300 000 each day
the sim-ops was performed. Cost savings of 38% were observed versus
semi-submersible options, and up to 78% versus drill ship options.
Results demonstrated the successful plug and abandonment of
nine subsea wells. An increased weather working window was afforded
each time winds exceeded 30 mph due to crane boom limitations.
Case study 3: Compensating Coiled Tubing Lift Frame
(CCTLF) system integration test, maintenance and
offshore operation
An operator had four wells that needed intervention, and NOV Devin
was tasked with providing a rig option to meet the requirements for
CCTLF for immediate upcoming operations. The operator’s CCTLF was
in its original shipping crates and stored for approximately one year,
having never been used. Part of the job was to successfully perform
an on-location inventory, assembly and system integration test of the
CCTLF, as well as successfully rig up the CCTLF. NOV Devin needed
to provide motion compensation offshore technicians to operate the
CCTLF for completion operations.
Results
Visas were obtained on short notice and accommodation was
arranged for crews to stay in Nigeria for up to 68 days per hitch.
NOV Devin created inspection and commissioning documents
and emergency procedures and offshore technicians rigged up
the CCTLF in pieces to meet the rig’s crane capacity of 86 000 lbs.
After performing a complete system integration test in the
derrick of the rig, offshore technicians operated the CCTLF #3
during the landing of the upper completion and compensated
well centre, while working in up to 14 ft heave conditions.
Downtime was reduced to 30 min., with more than 1000 hours
of operation compensating over well centre during the four‑well
campaign (Figure 6).
Conclusion
The operator saved a significant amount of time and money by
eliminating the need to source a CCTLF externally or from another
rig. Furthermore, the operator was provided with experienced
offshore motion compensation specialists and engineering
support with online intervention running wireline, slick line and
coil tubing operations. With technicians able to support the
requirement for services in Nigeria, NOV Devin was able to offer
the added value of providing international support to the client.
The future
Rigless/riserless well interventions will continue to be an
efficient approach for operators aiming to save time/reduce
costs by mitigating against downtime associated with hazardous
environments (increasing weather working windows), as well as
eliminating the need for a rig depending on the application. These
cost‑effective intervention alternatives will afford economical
methodologies in confronting rig availability constraints/excessive
cost as the 7000+ installed subsea wells globally reach
light/medium intervention requirements. Recent studies indicate
that more than 4000 of these wells currently require a means of
intervention to accomplish a preferred/mandatory increase in
production. 

June 2014 Oilfield Technology | 67

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The digital oilfield –
understanding
the potential
Nick Kamen, Vodafone, UK, reviews the importance of
wireless communications and M2M technology in the
ongoing search for oil and gas.

T
oday’s oil and gas industry is confronting twin pressures. Demand for
hydrocarbon fuels continues to rise, but extraction is becoming more and
more challenging. While the high cost of energy has enabled the commercial
exploitation of shale gas, traditional oil and gas companies are having to go further and
deeper to locate new fields.
The global appetite for energy is insatiable, so new sources of oil and gas must
be found and tapped. However, today’s operational realities demand that this must
be done with greater transparency, greater investment in safety and with greater

| 69
consideration for the environment and the bottom-line than ever
before.
How does the industry square this circle? The answer that is
increasingly being offered is: the digital oilfield.
The digital oilfield can improve employee safety by ensuring
lone workers can always be located through end-to-end
remote tracking. It can increase operational agility by enabling
management to make real time decisions based on digitally
transmitted data. It can improve the security of physical assets
through portable asset tagging that pinpoints parts, tools
and equipment in the event of theft. These are transformative
new ways of working that can help the industry meet modern
challenges.
This is achievable through M2M (machine-to-machine)
technology. Popularly called the ‘Internet of Things’, M2M
technology allows devices to communicate with each other and
transmit and exchange real time data without the need for human
intervention.
Wireless communications have a pivotal role to play in the
M2M technology that powers the digital oilfield. Already 75% of
companies have wireless networks in place, having moved away
from high latency and limited bandwidth satellite systems (VSATs),
and this infrastructure provides the connectivity the digital oilfield
requires to fulfil its potential.
In order to get a clear picture of this ambition and where
industry is in terms of adoption, Vodafone Global Enterprise, in
conjunction with Huawei Technologies, worked with more than
100 oil and gas leaders to gauge their opinions.
This article will examine the findings from the survey, discuss
how wireless digital technologies can solve industry problems and
consider how to overcome barriers to adoption.
The oil and gas industry today
The oil and gas industry in 2014 remains confident.1 However,
despite this positive outlook, there are areas of caution with the
industry increasingly seeing rising costs as a barrier to growth.2
While the immediate outlook for the industry might be cause
for optimism, the longer term is more uncertain.
Resource scarcity is a one-way trend and new reservoirs
are increasingly inaccessible. Over time, a higher proportion
of reservoirs will require sophisticated enhanced recovery
techniques. These techniques will themselves require more
accurate information on workflows, effective knowledge
management, the elimination of inefficiencies and real time
decision-making.
These challenges require technological and cultural
innovation. The potential for the digital oilfield to provide them
is clear.
Industry perceptions of the digital oilfield
The digital oilfield is not a new concept. In fact, it is an idea that
has been around for some time, with various tags such as the
‘smart field’ or the ‘field of the future’.
The longevity of the concept is borne out by the fact that 66%
of industry leaders surveyed had carried out some kind of trial or
pilot scheme involving digital oilfield technologies.
None of the organisations surveyed had any negative
feedback on the adoption of digital oilfield technologies, but
33% remained uncertain over potential benefits. However, these
were people without first-hand experience of the technology.
In terms of the benefits, industry leaders cite security of
digital and physical assets, along with employee safety and data
70 | Oilfield Technology June 2014
collection and sharing as the most important areas for the digital
oilfield to add value.
This understanding of the potential is driving investment
– 25% of individual leaders will be committing substantial
investment of more than US$ 30 million into digital oilfields in
the next 12 months. Taking into account all the predicted spend
from the research the estimated investment will be in the region
of US$ 360 million.
Wireless as the way forward
The survey leaves very little doubt that wireless technology will
be the prime mover in powering the M2M technology vital for
digital oilfield adoption.
Industry leaders accept that new technology will require
investment, but with 75% of respondents already having wireless
technology, much of the needed infrastructure is in place.
Wireless technology has the potential to solve many of the
key issues facing the oil and gas industry today.
Taking the example of the offshore industry, wireless
connectivity gives capacity for remote monitoring, control and
decision-making through a better-connected workforce.
Oil and gas extraction is a 24/7 industry and can require
split‑second decisions. On remote platforms, the experts needed
to make those decisions are unlikely to be onsite. Wireless
connectivity means that vital operational information such as
wellhead data and geological survey data can be instantly shared
with teams of engineers worldwide, providing the operational
agility needed to make crucial decisions.
The industry is also facing a crisis in manpower. A recent
report by IHS suggested that oil and gas extraction will need
three million workers by 2020, an increase of 1.7 million on
today’s figures.3
Given that, even today, the industry is struggling to recruit
and retain skilled workers, this is a challenge that needs to be
addressed.4
Put simply, wirelessly connected offshore platforms need
fewer personnel on them. M2M devices can remotely monitor key
functions and transmit data to onshore control centres meaning
that fewer workers are needed on the offshore platforms. At a
stroke, wireless connectivity can start to solve one of the most
pressing issues the industry faces.
Wireless connectivity also means better safety. It allows
automated monitoring of data and processes and the potential
for predictive maintenance leading to safer platforms. Equally,
workers can be equipped with M2M devices that automatically
call for help in case of an accident or emergency. And, of course,
fewer workers on offshore platforms means fewer helicopter
trips, further improving safety.
Solving the barriers to adoption
There is no question that the technology is in place to enable the
digital oilfield. Equally, to those who have piloted schemes, the
benefits are clear.
But two key barriers to adoption exist: culture and security
concerns.
Security concerns are, arguably, the easier to address. While
many respondents see the potential for the digital oilfield to
improve security, others have reservations.
Half of the respondents to the survey cited inadequate data
security as a concern, and these concerns are understandable.
One of the promises of the wireless digital oilfield is an
open framework sharing model for data. This will allow faster,
Providing global coverage of the exploration, drilling and production sectors.
real time decision-making but it does increase security risk. And
this is something that digital and wireless technology suppliers
must be aware of.
Solving this issue is going to need close collaboration
between the technology providers and the oil and gas
companies. There is never going to be a one-size-fits-all answer
to security concerns. Each company will have its own security
risk concerns and its own approach to dealing with them. So, the
technology providers will have to work alongside them to deliver
a bespoke technology to meet security requirements.
Cultural barriers could be more challenging but they
can still be overcome. Three quarters of survey respondents
acknowledged that cultural concerns were hugely important
issues.
Many of the leaders surveyed are aware of the potential
for the digital oilfield to revolutionise the industry. But,
they also know that this will mean a fundamental change in
working practices throughout their companies. No matter how
forward‑looking a company is, there will always be internal
resistance to change.
There are ways to address this. Just under two-thirds of
those the survey spoke to agreed that a lack of knowledge or
awareness of the digital oilfield is hindering cross-industry
adoption.
The challenge, then, will lie with the digital and wireless
technology providers to make the case.
This means communicating with the industry as a whole.
During the survey process, several of those questioned raised
concerns that the benefits of the digital oilfield were not being
heard at the most senior levels. It was felt that this was leading
to a lack of commitment and leadership.
Cultural change, though, cannot always be top-down. From
the derrickhand to the data analyst, the digital oilfield has the
potential to change everyone’s job and change it for the better.
Vodafone’s research shows that the IT departments are
signed up to the benefits. The role for the technology providers is
to make sure everyone else in the industry is too.
Making the potential a reality
This research demonstrates that, by and large, the industry is aware
of the potential of the digital oilfield and, for those who have had
trials, the results have been positive.
However, the adoption of digital oilfield technology is
happening at a slow pace. Just over 33% of companies surveyed felt
that adoption would be a broad, strategic move, involving all parts
of the organisation. Others saw it more as a step-by-step, pragmatic
approach.
A staggered approach could be what the industry needs to
address the adoption barriers discussed above. As organisations
slowly move towards the wireless digital oilfield, they can learn
from experiences and gradually change the corporate culture to
reflect new ways of working.
As the oil and gas industry faces challenges from all sides there
has never been a greater imperative to change outmoded practises.
The modern world needs efficient, safe, clean and innovative
suppliers of oil and gas. The digital oilfield has the potential to
make this a reality.
References
1. ‘Changing Climates – An outlook for the oil and gas industry in 2014’, DNV GL,
(2014).
2. Ibid.
3. Houston Chronicle, (26 March, 2014).
4. Ibid.

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