Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 48, 2012

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 48, 2012
INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH – 2012
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

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nian Scientific Society, the Association of Lithuanian Serials, European Society for the History of
Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)
Editor-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Dr. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, Commission for the Publication of the National Edition of Federigo Enriques’s
Works, Italy
Dr. Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Harun Yilmaz, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, International University of Economics and Humanities named after
Academician Stepan Demianchuk, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles École Normale Supérieure, France
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
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PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 48, 2012
Contents 3
Editorial
HISTORY AND DIDACTICS OF MATHEMATICS: A PROBLEMATIC RELATION.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON FEDERIGO ENRIQUES’S IDEAS
Paolo Bussotti .......................................................................................................... 5
Articles
PISA DEBATES AND BLAME MANAGEMENT AMONG THE NORWEGIAN EDUCATIONAL

AUTHORITIES: PRESS COVERAGE AND DEBATE INTENSITY IN THE NEWSPAPERS
Eyvind Elstad ........................................................................................................... 10
INCLUSIVE MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC

Jaroslava Gajdošíková Zeleiová ...................................................................................... 23
THE DIFFICULTIES OF BUILDING UP A NEW PARADIGM OF WORKING

ORGANIZATION IN SCHOOLS
Monica Gather Thurler, Olivier Maulini ............................................................................ 34
SCHOOL-AGE CARE, AN IDEOLOGICAL CONTRADICTION

Peter Karlsudd .......................................................................................................... 45
SELECTED FACTORS AFFECTING GIRLS’ PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL

EDUCATION IN KENYA
Benjamin C. Kipkulei, Micah C. Chepchieng, Mary J. Chepchieng, Lydia M. Boitt ......................... 52
CONSTRUCTING NATIONAL RANKING METHODOLOGY: DILEMMAS, CHOICES,

AND DECISIONS
Marina Larionova, Olga Perfilieva, Irina Lazutina, Anastasia Lopatina, Vitaly Nagornov,
Lubov Zavarykina ...................................................................................................... 62
SELF-ASSESSMENT CRITERIA OF TEACHER’S WELL-BEING

Diana Liepa, Aija Dudkina, Maruta Sile ............................................................................ 81
REPERTORY GRID ANALYSIS AND CONCEPT MAPPING: PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

Thomas J.J. McCloughlin, Philip S. C. Matthews ................................................................. 91
WHO STRIVES AND WHO GIVES UP? THE ROLE OF SOCIAL COMPARISON
DISTANCE AND ACHIEVEMENT GOALS ON STUDENTS’ LEARNING INVESTMENT
Aneta Mechi, Margarita Sanchez-Mazas ............................................................................107
FAILING IN BASIC SCHOOL: DISCOURSES OF EXPLANATION

Mare Müürsepp, Anne Uusen ........................................................................................ 117
ALBANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ ETHNIC DISTANCE AND STEREOTYPES

COMPARED WITH OTHER BALKAN NATIONS
Edmond Rapti, Theodhori Karaj .....................................................................................127
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4 THE FACTORS AFFECTING CAREER GUIDANCE AND CURRENT STATUS OF CAREER

GUIDANCE SERVICES IN TURKEY
Emel Ültanır ............................................................................................................135
COMPARATIVE TEACHING EXAMPLE RELATED TO COURSE ACTIVITIES

DEVELOPING TRANSFER SKILL IN PROBLEM SOLVING IN ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL PROGRAMS IN SOUTHEAST ANATOLIA REGION
Y. Gürcan Ültanır ......................................................................................................148
КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ ЗНАНИЯ И ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРАКТИКИ МОЛОДЕЖИ, ВЗРОСЛЫХ

И ПОЖИЛЫХ ЛЮДЕЙ В АМАЗОНИИ: ВКЛАД В ЮЖНУЮ ЭПИСТЕМОЛОГИЮ
Иванилде Аполусено де Оливейра, Жоао Коларес да Мота Нетто ........................................ 157
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 165
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION ........................................................... 167
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HISTORY AND DIDACTICS OF 5
MATHEMATICS: A PROBLEMATIC
RELATION. SOME CONSIDERATIONS
BASED ON FEDERIGO ENRIQUES’S IDEAS
Paolo Bussotti
Commission for the Publication of the National Edition of Federigo
Enriques’s Works, Italy
E-mail: paolo.bussotti@alice.it
This history of mathematics is a specific and, at the same time, wide field of research with
proper methods, journals, congresses and results. However, some questions about its status are
without any doubt legitimate. In particular: is the public to whom the work and the publications
of the historians of mathematics are addressed, limited to the specialists in this field or is it
broader? It often happens that the mathematicians engaged in the active research consider
history of mathematics as a sort of curiosity, but nothing really useful for their researches.
They are not interested in an inquire on the historical bases of their researches because they
are concentrated in discovering new theorems and solving new problems. It difficult to valuate
whether and inside which limits this way of thinking is correct. The problem is complex and
cannot be dealt with in this context. The other field to which history of mathematics is connected
is didactics of mathematics. The link is, in this case, more narrow than the one existing between
history of mathematics and advanced mathematical research. The role of history of mathematics
inside didactics has been discussed for many decades, at least from the last forty years of the
19th century. The debate born in Europe at that time was wide and profound: one of the main
problems was to find the best way to propose the Euclidean geometry to the students of high
school because the masterpiece of Euclid, the Elements, are a difficult text from a didactical
point of view: they can appear formal to a young student with their apparatus of axioms,
notions and definitions, furthermore the dispositions of the different subjects is not always
the most appropriate from a didactical point of view and, last but not the least, the theory
of proportions, the very core of Euclidean geometry applied in the theory of similarities, is
abstract, its application is difficult and not mechanic. Therefore a great French mathematician,
Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752-1833), wrote a famous handbook, the Élements de géométrie
(first edition 1794, and numerous successive editions). Legendre tried to present Euclidean
geometry without resorting to the theory of proportions (one could say: Euclidean geometry
without Euclid!). This was possible thanks to a conspicuous recourse to algebra. The problem
was the lack of rigour that in many cases characterized Legendre’s approach. The worst thing
was that after Lagendre’s handbook the “Legendrisme” was born. This means: an enormous
amount of manuals of geometry were written following his ideas, but these handbooks were far
less rigorous than Legendre’s one, without the geniality that anyway was present in Legendre’s
book and full of serious mistakes. This brought to a great discussion on the best way how to teach
Euclidean geometry. The positions were variegated: in the 1860s the English mathematician
Wilson claimed that Euclid’s Elements were an obsolete and not well logically founded text
and hence they had to be abandoned in the teaching1; on the opposite side after the unification
1 Wilson, J.M., “Euclid as a Textbook of Elementary Geometry”, in Educational Times, 1868, pp. 125-
128.
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6 (1861), in Italy, a radical return to Euclid was decided because the Ministry of Public Education
promoted the publication of the Elements by Francesco Brioschi and Enrico Betti (1867)2. As
a matter of fact the book of Euclid was proposed with some little added explanations and with
the exercises. However, the picture of the didactics of mathematics, and first of all of geometry,
became more and more complex: in that period the projective geometry, basically thanks to
the work of French and German mathematicians3, reached a great extension and this branch of
mathematics looked to provide a foundation for whole geometry. Partially in connection with
this fact, a didactical movement was born: the fusionism, according to which plane geometry
and spatial geometry had to be taught together. Fusionist manuals were written, one of the most
important mathematicians who followed the fusionism, was Riccardo De Paolis. At the end of
the century (1899) one of the most influent books ever written in mathematics was published:
Grundlagen der Geometrie by the German mathematician David Hilbert. He presented the
abstract axiomatic, that was important not only in the field of foundations of mathematics, but
potentially even in didactics, because it was a completely new and more general approach to
geometry and to mathematics in general. Furthermore in those years the abstract algebra - in
particular group theory, basically thanks to the work of the French mathematicians Camille
Jordan (1838-1922), who rediscovered Galois’s works, and Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), and
to the Norwegian mathematician Sophus Lie (1842-1899) - was developed and it supplied the
chance to see many particular mathematical structures framed inside more general algebraic
structures. This fact was exploited in didactics, too. Only as an example, Federigo Enriques in
his Lezioni di geometria proiettiva per l’università (1898) introduced some concepts of abstract
algebra.
Finally, the problems connected with didactics of geometry, the didactical role of the
new theories and their relations with the older ones, the analysis of which was the most correct
manner to introduce these new theories and if they had to be introduced in the high school or at
the university were questions on agenda. In brief: how to conciliate the old with the new? This
fundamental question brought the mathematicians community to discuss on the role of history
inside didactics of mathematics and, more in general, on the best way to present mathematics to
high schools and university students. The great mathematician who had the prominent role was
the German Felix Klein (1849-1925). His work was influential in whole Europe. The literature
on Klein is abundant. An important Italian mathematician who was partially influenced by
Klein, but who developed personal and original ideas was Federigo Enriques (1871-1946). His
didactical activity took place in Italy, but his conceptions have a universal validity, this is why
we analyse them in this context.
Enriques taught Geometry in the University of Bologna and afterwards in Roma. He
was active in institutions and associations connected to didactics of mathematics and sciences.
Only to give an example, he was president of the Mathesis (the Association that joins the
Italian school teachers of mathematics and physics) in the period 1919-1932. He directly wrote
important handbooks for the high schools, the most significant is the Elementi di geometria
he wrote with Ugo Amaldi. This book had its first edition in 1903, and numerous successive
editions and became the most spread manual in Italian high school (there were various versions,
for classical, scientific and professional high schools). He also edited, together with other
collaborators, a commented edition of Euclid’s Elements. Enriques wrote an article concerning
2 Betti, E. – Brioschi, F., Gli Elementi d’Euclide con note, aggiunte ed esercizi ad uso de’ ginnasi e de’ licei,
Firenze, Le Monnier, 1867.
3 In projective geometry the works of two French mathematicians: Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) and Jean
Victor Poncelet (1788-1867) was fundamental for the introduction and the development of the basic con-
cepts between the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century. The German mathematicians
Christian von Staudt (1798-1867), August Ferdinand Möbius and the Swiss Jakob Steiner (1796-1863)
made the filed of projective geometry wider and more perspicuous introducing new concepts and methods
and beginning a critical enquire on foundations.
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Paolo BUSSOTTI. History and Didactics of Mathematics: A Problematic Relation. Some Considerations Based on Federigo En-
riques’s Ideas
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 48, 2012
the theory of mathematical didactics, too: Insegnamento dinamico4, 1921, in which he dealt 7
with: 1) the correct relation between intuition and logic inside the teaching of mathematics;
2) the opportune level of generalization at which a theory can be presented in the high school;
3) the idea that the separation between the teaching of mathematics and physics is a didactical
mistake. All these contributions are important, but perhaps the most significant text to clearly
explain the relations Enriques saw between history and didactics of mathematics are the volumes
Questioni riguardanti le matematiche elementari5, of which Enriques was the editor and where
he wrote many contributions. This huge work derives from a deep collaboration between high
school teachers and professors. The basic idea is clear: every paper (many of them overcomes
100 pages) traces a historical and at the same time a didactical itinerary. Furthermore many
contributions are related to foundations of mathematics because Enriques was sure that the
debate on the foundations of mathematics developed at the end of the XIX century could have
a didactical role. The work is divided into three parts: 1) Critica dei Principi (Critics of the
principles), in two volumes, contains 12 contributions; 2) I problemi classici della geomettria
e le equazioni algebriche (The classical problems of geometry and algebraic equations), 1
volume, 11 contributions; 3) Numeri primi e analisi indeterminata. Massimi e minimi (Prime
numbers and undetermined analysis. Maxima and minima), 1 volume, 4 contributions. An
example can be useful to give the idea of the approach followed in the Questioni: Oscar Chisini
in his contribution Sulla teoria elementare degli isoperimetri (On the elementary theory of
isoperimetrical figures) traces exactly a historical and didactical itinerary. He begins with
explaining the classical theory born in the Hellenistic period. A fundamental reference is Pappo.
After that, he explains which were the limits and the problems unsolved by this theory and
clarifies how in the 18th and 19th century this theory was made broader and perspicuous. After
that, he introduces the novelties due to the great German mathematician Steiner. Finally, he
deals with problems connected with the existential demonstrations of maxima and minima and
explains the difference between the approach used until the half of the 19th century and the one
used afterwards. In this way the picture is clear: every historical step is related to new problems
and the student is brought to reason step by step, he sees what kind of questions, what kind of
reasoning were used to solve the problems. The mathematical reality is not something imposed
by concepts whose introduction can look arbitrary to the student, but only by concepts that
derive from the problems themselves. Mathematics looks alive. The student reasons as the great
mathematicians of the past, not like a machine that follows only mechanical procedures. In all
articles presented in the Questioni, the history of mathematics is functional to didactics, therefore
there is not a philological examinations of the sources or profound interpretative ideas; rather,
the ideas and the methods of the great mathematicians lived in the past are exposed in didactical
4 Enriques, F, “Insegnamento dinamico”, in Periodico di matematiche, series IV, vol. 1, 1921, pp. 6-16. Now
this paper can be consulted more easily in the volume: Enriques F, Insegnamento dinamico (with contribu-
tions by Franco Ghione and Mauro Moretti), La Spezia, Agorà, 2003, pp. 1-14.
5 The Questioni riguardanti le matematiche elementari have an interesting history: in 1900 Enriques was the
editor of Questioni riguardanti la geometria elementare, Bologna, Zanichelli. This was a collective work
concerning didactics of geometry. The connections between history and didactics of geometry were well
developed. In 1912 a second edition of the work was published. The second edition is wider and partially
different from the first one. The contributions do not concern only geometry, but also other fields of math-
ematics, because of this the new title was Questioni riguardanti le matematiche elementari. The third and
last edition was published in 1924-1927 and it is the broadest. In the text we refer to this edition.
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8 key. This was the approach of Enriques and his collaborators to didactics of mathematics6.
Many decades have passed from when Enriques wrote his didactical-historical works
and exposed his conceptions; didactics of mathematics is a field with many specialists and,
after the second world war, numerous significant conceptions have been exposed and applied,
but the role of history inside didactics of mathematics is still problematic. In many handbooks
for high schools, after the exposition of a certain theory T – exposition developed without any
reference to the history – there are little separated historical sections, in which some brief
notices on the mathematicians who invented the theory T are present. But this approach has no
didactical utility because the history results, in this manner, completely separated from the whole
mathematical teaching. History of mathematics seems to consist of few curiosities, nothing
organic. The problem is not easy: there are some parts of mathematics where the procedures
are clear and intuitive, so that the students in general understand the conceptual core of the
problems and methods and their utility: this is the case with elementary algebra (algebraic
equations, inequalities, polynomial decompositions, and so on) or with trigonometry. So that,
maybe history is not necessary. For other problems the situation is different: for example, the
concept of logarithm is not so easy to be fully understood, despite most part of students learn
how to operate with logarithms. In this case a historical introduction explaining the problems
that brought to the discovery of logarithms at the beginning of the 17th century is surely useful.
A great problem concerns geometry: today the geometry taught in the high schools is almost
exclusively analytical geometry. Synthetic Euclidean geometry has a little role. This looks a
serious lack because probably no discipline develops the logical faculties and, at the same time,
the fantasy of the young minds as synthetic geometry. Without any doubt, it is difficult because,
despite the existence of some general methods, every single problem demands an intuition
since there is no mechanical way to solve geometrical problems. It is necessary to work on the
figures, to try and to try with different reasoning. Because of this the preference, is accorded
to analytical geometry. The history could be important to provide a better comprehension of
synthetic geometry to the students: explanations of the problems the Greeks dealt with, use of
the figures in Euclid’s Elements, role of the axioms, ad absurdum proofs; all this is formative
for the students because it helps to reason and to connect mathematics with history, philosophy
and logic. Nevertheless, a short time is dedicated to this approach. Separated considerations
deserve abstract algebra and mathematical analysis. Abstract algebra has represented a very
consistent progress in mathematics because it has allowed to see many theories framed in
abstract structures and many important theorems connoting these abstract structures (groups,
6 The literature on the didactics of mathematics in Enriques is rather abundant. I provide here only some
indications of texts that are dedicated, partially or completely, to this problem. 1) Bolondi G., “Geometria
proiettiva, geometria descrittiva, geometria dello spazio nella scuola italiana”, in Franciosi M. (edited by),
Prospettiva e geometria dello spazio, Sarzana, Agorà, 2005; 2) Bussotti P., “Un mediocre lettore”. Le lettu-
re e le idee di Federigo Enriques, Lugano, Agorà, publishing, Lumières Internationales, 2006; 3) Bussotti
P., “Federigo Enriques e al didattica della matematica”, in Euclide. Giornale di matematica per i giovani,
first part n. 6, 24 Febbraio 2012, second part n. 7, 29 aprile 2012. ��
The electronic journal can be freely con-
sulted at http://www.euclide-scuola.org/; 4) Giacardi L., “From Euclid as Textbook to the Giovanni Gentile
Reform (1867-1923): Problems, Methods and Debates in Mathematics Teaching in Italy”, in Paedagogica
Historica, Vol. 42, n. 4-5, August 2006, pp. 587-613. The paper can be consulted at http://www.cimm.ucr.
ac.cr/ojs/index.php/.../537; 5) Giacardi L., “Federigo Enriques (1871-1946) and the training of mathemat-
ics teachers in Italy”, in S. Coen (edited by), Mathematicians in Bologna, 1861-1960, Basel, Springer; 6)
Menghini M., “Die euklidische Methode im italienischen Geometrieunterricht seit 1867”, in Der Wandel im
Lehren und Lernen von Mathematik und Naturwissenschaft, Band I: Mathematik, Schriftenreihe der Päda-
gogischen Hochschule Heidelberg, Deutscher Studien Verlag, Weinheim, 1994, pp. 138-151; 7) Moretti M.,
“Insegnamento dinamico. Appunti sull’opera scolastica di Federigo Enriques (1900-1923)”, in Enriques
F, Insegnamento dinamico, La Spezia, Agorà, 2003, pp. 15-91; 8) Tomasi T., “La questione educativa
nell’opera di Enriques”, in Pompeo Faracovi O. (edited by), Approssimazione e verità, Livorno, Belforte,
1982, pp. 223-250.
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Paolo BUSSOTTI. History and Didactics of Mathematics: A Problematic Relation. Some Considerations Based on Federigo En-
riques’s Ideas
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 48, 2012
fields, rings, an so on) permitted to discovery fundamental truths in various fields of mathematics 9
(theory of equations, projective geometry, algebraic geometry, topology, and so on). The history
that has brought to the development of abstract algebra in the 19th century is complex. In the
high schools some notions of abstract algebra are generally introduced without any historical
and problematical context, so that for the student it is almost impossible to understand their
utility and their profound conceptual meaning. Given the problems dealt with at the high school,
abstract algebra can give the idea to be a discipline that makes complicated some problems that
in themselves are clear, with a series of obscure, or at least non useful, concepts and methods.
From a historical point of view, the problems connected with theory of equations have been
one of the bases on which abstract algebra is born. Maybe the explanations of these problems
(without entering too difficult and specific details) can help the student to understand why some
notions were introduced. But more in general, are these notions of abstract algebra necessary
at the high school level? The case of mathematical analysis is completely different: the basic
concepts of analysis are intuitive and in general the students address this field of mathematics
in a positive manner. Unfortunately a formal approach is too often used in the didactical
presentations of mathematical analysis: rather than to give the formal definition of limit or
of derivative and integral, it would be maybe preferable to expose the problems that lead the
mathematicians of the 17th century to introduce analysis. These problems (connected with the
tangents to a curve and the maxima and minima in Fermat and, successively in Leibniz and
with physics in Newton) can be understood in the last year of high school and they represent an
intuitive approach to analysis. The student can perceive her/himself as a part of a vivid context.
Once carried out this kind of introduction, the formalization is necessary because the mere
intuition can bring to serious mistakes and, in this case, too, history can have an active role in
showing the mistakes deriving from an uncontrolled intuition.
The previous considerations on the opportune use of history of mathematics in a didactical
context have, of course, no claim of being systematic. They are only ideas for a discussion that,
anyway, looks urgent.
Received: November 14, 2012 Accepted: November 21, 2012
Paolo Bussotti PhD., Editor, Commission for the Publication of the National Edition of Federigo
Enriques’s Works, Via Paolo Lilla, 66, Livorno, 57122 Italy.
E-mail: paolo.bussotti@alice.it
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10
PISA DEBATES AND BLAME MANAGEMENT
AMONG THE NORWEGIAN EDUCATIONAL
AUTHORITIES: PRESS COVERAGE AND
DEBATE INTENSITY IN THE NEWSPAPERS
Eyvind Elstad
University of Oslo, Norway
E-mail: eyvind.elstad@ils.uio.no
Abstract
The Programme for International Student Achievement (PISA) has become the most influential
comparative assessment in our time, as PISA has induced media debate and triggered reform measures
in the education systems of several countries. The programme has caused shockwaves in the educational
landscape in Norway, and led to a reorganisation of educational policies. This research sought, first, to
explore press coverage and debate intensity in Norwegian newspapers in the wake of PISA releases, and
second, to discuss the use of media strategies among Norwegian officeholders to investigate how the
media portray cases in which they are involved. Blame management is an example of how officeholders
can attempt to avoid blame or displace it onto political opponents. Using their media responses as data,
the nature and value of blame management were analysed in relation to a game theoretical framework.
Patterns and themes emerging from the data were described quantitatively and qualitatively, and
illustrated by direct quotations from political and bureaucratic officeholders. It is important to gain a
better understanding of the dynamics in media coverage of educational matters, and how participants
in the game use strategic tools. This study contributes to the understanding of the media’s shaping of
education policies and debates. The significance of the media and the media strategies in use suggest that
educational research should expand its perspectives towards how the media influences public opinion on
educational quality.
Key words: blame management, government, PISA, public opinion.
Introduction
The media represent the most important arena for forming political opinion and the public
attribution of responsibility for success and failure (Bovens & Hart, 1996). At the same time,
the media exercise potential pressure on decision makers in the education sector in that negative
events attract large media coverage (Hood, 2010). Key figures risk being held responsible.
One example of this phenomenon is that results from the Programme for International Student
Achievement (PISA) have induced extensive media debate in several countries (Knodel,
Martens, Olano, & Popp, 2010). The international achievement surveys from the Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has been used to develop internationally
comparable indicators and results that are discussed in debates in several countries, and have
contributed to policy making (Steiner-Khamski, 2009).
PISA represents the largest international comparative evaluation of the skills of young
people (15 year olds). It was first performed in 2000, and has then been repeated every three
years. PISA covers reading literacy, mathematical skills and scientific literacy. It has established
a ‘comparative turn’ (Martens, 2007) in judgements of educational quality in several countries
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(Grek, 2009; Grek, 2012), and it has been assessed by several researchers, for instance 11
Hopmann, Brinek and Retzl (2007), Münch (2009) and Janke and Meyhöfer (2007). The OECD
has become the most influential international driver of comparative assessment with PISA
(Lawn & Grek, 2012; Martens & Jakobi, 2010). Within the high-achieving group of countries
(Finland, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, etc.), officeholders may find pupil attainment
in PISA as evidence of successful direction (European Network, 2004; Rinne, 2004). Within
the mediocre or low-achieving group of countries, far-reaching educational debates emerge
(Knodel, Martens, Olano, & Popp, 2010).
The media spotlight on international achievement surveys may reinforce public
accountability for educational issues in countries which perform poorly, for instance, Norway
(Elstad, 2010), Austria (Altrichter, 2009), Switzerland (Bieber, 2010) and Germany (Ertl, 2006;
Niemann, 2010; Pongratz, 2006). No other empirical study of the Norwegian school system has
been able to register as much public resonance as PISA. The first PISA round (2000) showed
that the performance of Norwegian students was in line with the international average (see
Figure 1); however, this finding resulted in shock in Norway: ‘Norway a school loser!’ was
the headline on the front page of one of the biggest dailies in Norway (Dagbladet, December
5th, 2001). The decreasing achievement by Norwegian students in PISA 2003 and 2006 in
the aftermath of PISA publication attracted attention to educational matters in the print and
electronic daily press and in other media channels (TV, radio, blogs) over a period of roughly six
months. Whereas in the past, the findings of the Third International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) 1995 attracted little public attention among politicians and newspapers, the
PISA investigations provoked much more discussion.
510
505
500
495
Reading
490
Math
485 Science
480
475
470
2000 2003 2006 2009
Figure 1: Norwegian PISA results. The official PISA reports of 2000–2009 con-
tain domain-specific scores and do not combine the different domains
into an overall score. The final scoring is adjusted, which means that
the OECD average in each domain is 500 and the standard deviation is
100 (OECD, 2010).
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12 In this study, press coverage and debate intensity in Norwegian newspapers in the wake
of PISA releases are analysed. This investigation is carried out through an exploration of the
frequency of PISA coverage in Norwegian newspapers before, during and after the publication
of the PISA reports. Research on PISA’s effects on the intensity of educational debate and its
political repercussions is scarce (Bieber & Martens, 2011; Grek, 2009; Knodel, Martens, Olano,
& Popp, 2010), and therefore this study will contribute to filling this gap in the literature. The
first research question is as follows: How many ‘hits’ can be identified in the press coverage in
Norwegian newspapers in the wake of PISA releases and how can the intensity of the unfolding
debate be characterised after PISA report releases? The second research question is as follows:
How do Norwegian (bureaucratic and ministerial) officeholders respond to PISA results (mostly
media depictions relating to PISA in Norway) and how what strategies do they employ to handle
how the media portrays cases in which they are involved?
Theoretical Framework: Understanding Governance in a Media-Influenced Pub-

lic Arena
When the press is more concerned with negative events than with positive ones, the
question of blame management will arise (Hood, 2002). The negativity bias is explained by
the prospect theory: The framing of an issue is seen to have considerable significance for how
the public will interpret and evaluate the essential phenomenon that it represents (Tversky
& Kahneman, 1986). Negative events depicted by media loom larger in our perception and
judgment than positive ones. It may therefore be rational for politicians and bureaucrats to
reallocate responsibility and avoid blame. Blame avoidance is a feature that underlies much
political and institutional behaviour (Hood, 2010). From this theoretical principle of blame
avoidance, the following hypothesis is deduced: Gradually sinking average results on PISA will
intensify the educational debate; the negativity bias induces more debate and more intensity in
the debate than positive events.
The way in which policies are perceived in the political arena, how mass opinion responds
to blame avoidance and how accountability and blame are attributed to officeholders are all
important questions in research on education policies. The image of the administration as loyal
servants of the people depicts significant aspects of real life. The model of governance via the
parliamentary chain (Christensen & Lægreid, 2011) is too simplistic for an understanding of
significant strategic factors in the educational sector.
The provisional theoretical framework of blame management gives an understanding of
governance in a media-influenced public arena: Interesting examples of strategic interaction
between different parties are revealed in media depictions (Hood, 2010). The political game
– to which increased media coverage contributes – creates a constant dynamic of change and
strategic noncooperative interplay between those involved, who will have partially similar and
partially divergent goals and interests. This can manifest itself as a blame game, a strategic
game in which the parties involved displace blame or choose other strategies (delegation,
nullifying, etc.) to avoid blame as an interesting analytical framework for understanding events
(Hood, 2002). Blame-game tactics depend on the structure of communication and the media.
The denial of responsibility and the reattribution of blame become the unfortunate result of
strategic consciousness on the part of the actors involved. The essence of the questions applied
to the educational sector here relates to two central problems: (1) individuals responsible for
decisions in the same educational sector can have differing goals and (2) access to information
is asymmetrical between the parties involved.
Game theory allows a division between cooperative and noncooperative games. In
cooperative games, the parties increase their range of options by means of agreements between
them. This type of analysis postulates, amongst other things, social institutions which contribute
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to the establishment of or maintenance of something like cooperative games, where cooperation 13

in its normal sense is practically impossible and where fully noncooperative games would yield
a result such that society would barely be sustainable (Johansen, 1979). The question of how the
institutional framework in the school sector should be designed, however, is a political question
for which decisive research is unavailable. Research can only provide information about the
possible consequences of different choices or analyses of what has actually occurred.
Strategic games can also serve as an analytical framework for understanding the
dynamics of change in the education sector through blame management. A media focus can
intensify questions of blame and attribution of responsibility when things go wrong; one way
of preparing for this type of question is to put in place blame-avoiding strategies or blame-
displacement manoeuvring. The officeholder can choose to initiate press coverage of good
news. Due to the decline in newspaper sales in Norway, newspapers expect journalists to deliver
more material that will attract attention and contribute to sales. When government departments
produce information packs for journalists, it is easier for them to produce the requisite material.
For example, when a ministry of education wants to launch some positive news, the press is
invited to tour a school. In this way, journalists have easy access to people to interview and
photo material with which to produce case studies.
At other times, it is the press that is the active party in unearthing newsworthy information.
The broadcasting of negative stories often results in new people coming forward with their own
versions, which means that new aspects of the case can be discussed on subsequent days. As
long as new information is newsworthy, the story will continue to roll until there is no longer
any interesting information left to find. When the press is the active party, office holders are
obliged to relate to the aspects of the story which are emphasized. In such cases, office holders
have to choose a particular strategy (for example, strategy 1, 2 or 3 shown in Figure 2). They
can then expect a consequent dynamic response pattern, the nature of which will depend on
the officeholder’s chosen strategy. Figure 2 presents a hypothetical model of different media
strategies.
Figure 2: Blame management strategies.
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14 The exploratory questions are as follows: What kind of media strategies are used among
Norwegian officeholders to handle how the media portray cases in which they are involved?
How do officeholders (ministers and bureaucrats) behave when a media ‘firestorm’ breaks out
after the PISA release?
Methodology of Research
First, the study focuses on the coverage in Norwegian newspapers in the wake of PISA
investigations. Magazines, recordings, radio, movies, television and the internet are also mass
media, but are not included in the data. The frequency of PISA hits (namely the words ‘PISA
investigation’) is explored in 70 Norwegian newspapers. Further, the question of how the
debate unfolds is discussed. A database entitled Retriever has been used for these analytical
purposes (https://web.retriever-info.com/services/archive.html). PISA results are published at
the beginning of December every third year (for instance, in 2010 the results of PISA 2009 were
made available on December 7th) except for PISA 2006, which was erroneously released on
November 23rd, 2007. The pattern of PISA hits for the years when PISA rankings were released
is investigated (Figure 3). The question of how gradually sinking average results on PISA (PISA
2000, 2003 and 2006) have intensified the educational debate in Norway is explored. If PISA
2009 gained fewer PISA hits than PISA 2006, the hypothesis is supported.
Second, using the media response as data, the nature and value of blame management
are analysed in relation to a game theoretical framework. A series of content analyses has made
it possible to compare the media strategies of Norwegian officeholders. Qualitative research
emphasises a model of investigation that provides an in-depth understanding of issues and
focuses on an understanding of the narratives obtained. The blame management strategies in
the observed cases are explored by analysing officeholder responses to approximately four
months of blame in newspapers. Officeholders’ responses over time are classified according to
basic strategy options for those facing media firestorms (Figure 2). After several read-throughs,
the codes have been developed into a name that describes the issue. These codes have been
reorganised after further comparisons with other texts. Patterns and themes emerging from
the data (texts from the Norwegian newspapers about the PISA results) are also described
qualitatively, illustrated by direct quotations from political and bureaucratic officeholders.
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Results of Research 15
Investigation of PISA Hits in Norwegian Newspapers
Figure 3: Hits in the Norwegian daily press for ‘PISA investigation’ (refined to
exclude hits for the Italian town Pisa) in the periods August 2001–July
2002 (labelled PISA 2000); August 2004–July 2005 (PISA 2003); Au-
gust 2007–July 2008 (PISA 2006); and August 2010–July 2010 (PISA
2009).
The baseline for educational debate is obtained during August to October in each year
of PISA’s release. Just before and after the release of the national rankings (the beginning of
December 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2010), the PISA hits increased. The accumulated number of
hits in December, January, February and March increases from PISA 2000 to PISA 2003 to PISA
2006 (PISA 2006 was released November 23rd 2007, so I have included the November hits in
the accumulated measure), and decreases from PISA 2006 until PISA 2009. The low Norwegian
results triggered heated debates about what is wrong with the Norwegian school system and
how it system should be changed. The PISA hits (and attribution of blame) in Norway was
especially vital in the aftermath of PISA 2006: 222 hits from December 2007 to March 2008,
in contrast to 171 hits from December 2010 to March 2011. The debate after PISA 2006 was
more long-lasting than the debate after PISA 2000, 2003 and 2009. The debate intensity was
higher after PISA 2006 than after PISA 2009. Therefore, the hypothesis of negativity bias is
supported.
Exploring the Use of Media Strategies among Norwegian Officeholders to Handle How the
Media Portray Cases in Which They Are Involved
Who is to blame for the low performance of Norwegian 15 year olds in the PISA
rankings? The climate for blame attribution became extremely intense during the months
following the release of PISA 2006, and politicians and officials in the educational sector geared
up their strategies for passing on blame. A content analysis shows that the intensity of blame in
public opinion has grown over time in relation to the decreasing attainment measured against
international standardised assessments in education. One example of media response is that of
Petter Skarheim, director of the Norwegian Directorate of Education and Training (NDET),
who stated the following at a press conference about the results of PISA 2006 (released in
December 2007):
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16 The results of the first PISA survey (2000) came as a bolt out of the blue for the
Norwegian authorities. They had reckoned on Norway being the best in OECD. The
Head of NDET also said that there was no documentation indicating a worsening in
knowledge before PISA 2000 (Gjerdåker, 2008).
This is a doubtful ‘truth’, because Norway had, for instance, the lowest score of all
European countries 11 years previously in TIMSS 1995 (8- to 9-year-old pupils) (Lie, Kjærnsli,
& Brekke, 1997). TIMSS 1995 did not attract media attention, however, while PISA 2000
was visibly present in the media. PISA 2000 hit the Norwegian officeholders like a rock.
Educational attainment was lower than the normal zone of public tolerance in Norway. The
level of attainment of Norwegian pupils displayed a steady decline during PISA 2003 and PISA
2006. PISA 2003 and 2006 triggered media firestorms which were manifested in peaks of PISA
hits in the dailies. The intensity of educational debate in Norwegian newspapers grew during
these media firestorms.
The PISA investigations induced debates with unique dynamics. However, in each
media firestorm three phases are identifiable via content analysis of commentaries in the
newspapers. A common pattern in these media firestorms emerged in relation to declining
PISA results in Norway. First, politicians positioned themselves via blame shuffling or other
tactics. Second, bureaucratic officeholders chose media tactics. Third, other voices responded
(teachers, teacher unions, citizens). The first shock phase typically consisted of journalists and
opposition politicians assigning blame. This phase is often driven by the press spotlight and by
the manoeuvring of politicians on the public stage.
When something goes wrong and the attention of the mass media is focussed on a
failure, the question of who is to blame is inevitably just around the corner in terms of media
dramatisation. Generally, the media are not satisfied until someone takes responsibility. When
a media storm takes place, there is often a kind of game – a blame game –which is used to
establish who should be the scapegoat. Often, the storm does not die down until someone is
nominated (Girard, 1986).
For the Centre-Conservative government (2001–5), the PISA shock of December 2001
was ‘a heaven-sent gift’ (Bergesen, 2006): PISA 2000 and 2003 lent legitimacy to the education
policy of Education Minister Clemet, including the new ‘Knowledge Promotion’ programme with
its devolved responsibility and performance controlled by use of measurements (grades, national
tests, audit, value-added indicators and performance-related payments). These components
were the building blocks of local accountability systems within the municipalities. Moreover,
for the Labour Party and Socialist Left Party government and the bureaucratic officeholders,
PISA 2006 was a rock. In Norwegian education, the progressive movements had held sway in
education for centuries among bureaucratic officeholders, educational researchers and major
groups of teachers, especially in primary schools (Elstad et al., 2011). The Socialist Left Party
and the Labour Party were exponents of a progressive pedagogic ideology in education policies
during the 1990s (Koritzinsky, 2000); this involved scepticism towards tests and examinations,
scepticism towards teachers as purveyors of knowledge, preference for project work and
pupil-focussed working methods in schools. For instance, in July 2001, when the Ministry of
Education was led by the Labour Party, one of Norway’s leading newspapers printed an article
titled ‘Reform attempts in 700 schools’ (Kluge, 2001). In it, reform in teaching methods was
discussed. One of the top civil servants in the Ministry of Education and Research, Director
General Ole Briseid, condemned teacher-centred instruction and emphasised progressive,
student- and activity-oriented teaching methods:
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The Ministry has wanted to reform teaching methods in schools in Norway for a long time. Now 17
this is finally happening. He (Briseid) wants more project work, less traditional teaching using
the blackboard as a visual aid and more problem-based teaching. To a larger extent, pupils will
work independently and in groups with topics they develop themselves. The teachers will be
more like supervisors than lecturers, and computer technology forces the development of new
teaching methods (Kluge, 2001, p. 3).
A turnaround in educational policy and management was initiated by a Centre-

Conservative government. This turnaround involved a new assessment system of national
tests grades and value-added indicators. This assessment system moved towards increased
accountability based on performance measures (for instance performance-related payments).
The Centre-Conservatives were in power from 2001 to 2005. The disappointing Norwegian
results from PISA 2000 (released December 2001) gave legitimacy to this turnaround (OECD,
2010). The Socialist Left Party has been in power since 2005, and has continued the Knowledge
Promotion programme (a school reform initiated by the Centre-Conservative government).
However, the political officeholder finds pupil attainment in PISA as evidence of successful
direction: ‘The results from PISA 2009 ... shows progress in reading literacy, science and
mathematics since PISA 2006’ (Halvorsen, 2012). PISA investigations have established
a watershed in the discourse on education in Norway and have become a ‘sine qua non’ of
international benchmarking (Grek, 2012). The Socialist Left Party was previously an exponent
of a progressive pedagogic ideology, but today, this party’s minister of education approves
the use of performance measures (national tests) and target management in education: ‘PISA
planted the seeds of the beginning of a new era for the governing of education’ (Grek, 2012, p.
244). This turnaround did not happen instantaneously. The progressive pedagogy’s reputation
plummeted along the falling Norwegian PISA scores before the Socialist Left Party took the
chair of the Ministry of Education.
The blame intensity in terms of PISA 2006 was much higher than that related to PISA
2000 or 2003. Consistent measurements of general public opinion over the whole period are
not available, but a consistent measurement one month after the releases of PISA results shows
that an increasing number of people from a representative sample of the population believe that
Norwegian schools have become worse. Given the question, Do you have the impression that
the standard in Norwegian schools has improved, is unchanged, or has deteriorated during
the past decade?, 57% said that it had ‘deteriorated’ in January 2008 (after PISA 2006), as
opposed to 44% giving the same answer in January 2005 (after PISA 2003). The effects of
blame-avoidance strategies can be measured over a period in terms of opinion. One example is
the alleged lowering of quality in schools. Who is to blame for the gradually sinking average
results in the PISA rankings? Petter Skarheim offered the following opinion:
‘This is serious for Norwegian education and demonstrates that we have a job to do to stimulate
reading (and other domains) in schools. The quality of teaching must also improve. Good reading
understanding at this age is a building block for future learning’, said Petter Skarheim, Director
of the NDET. ‘It is not until the next survey, which will be published in 2013, that we will see
the effect of the Knowledge Promotion Programme’, says Skarheim. To compensate for the weak
result in 2001, there was interparty agreement to strengthen the teaching of reading, and the
national ‘Give Room for Reading’ programme was initiated in 2004 (Aftenposten, November
29th, 2007).
PISA has had a major impact on policymaking, resulting in strategy plans such as ‘Give
Room for Reading’, ‘A Joint Promotion of Mathematics, Science and Technology’ and ‘Equal
Education in Practice’. Earmarked funding for particular areas of attention (for instance,
the National Centre for Reading, Mathematics and Science) gives the public a feeling that
something is being done.
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18 The attribution of blame is an integral part of political life (Hood, 2010). Opposition
parties generate blame whenever they have an opportunity to do so. When the third PISA survey
demonstrated a free fall in average standards, the question arose as to who should be blamed.
Labour Minister Anniken Huitfeldt stated in 2006 that the Labour Party had not ‘prioritized
the value of knowledge’. Six years later, two members of the Conservative Party quoted
this comment; Huitfeldt replied that this was said in 2006, and ‘at that time the Red-Green
government had been in power only one year while the Conservative party had nominated the
Minister for Education during four years (2002–2005)’ (Aftenposten, September 27th, 2012).
This is an example of blame shuffling.
Former Conservative Education Minister Kristin Clemet (in power 2001–2005) stated
in January 2008 that ‘the bottle points towards the Labour Party’ (Morgenbladet, January 28th,
2008), whilst Huitfeldt (the Labour Party has been in power since 2005) stated that ‘for seven of
the last ten years the Conservative or Christian Democrat parties have nominated the Minister
for Education’. The Conservative Party has declined responsibility for what has happened in the
schools; the party leader has attributed responsibility for Norway’s poor showing in the PISA
survey to the Labour Party. Political parties readily resort to placing responsibility in the hands
of others when poor results are presented in the media.
The events leading up to the Norwegian PISA results in 2006, as well as the reactions
themselves, may serve as an example of how interaction between politicians, officeholders and
the general public is played out through blame management. The Ministry of Education and
the government were informed of the results in August 2007. In the course of the preceding
months, the then minister of education, Øystein Djupedal (2005–7), had been the subject of
increasing criticism as well as declining popularity in newspaper rankings. In the midst of
this situation, Prime Minister Stoltenberg appointed a new minister of education, Bård Vegar
Solhjell (2007–9). This was a striking instance of blame management. To accuse Solhjell of
bearing any responsibility or blame for the decreasing PISA results in the Norwegian school
system was entirely groundless, since prior to his appointment, Solhjell had no part in forming
the government’s education policies. Solhjell was an entirely unknown quantity in terms of
education politics before his nomination as Djupedal’s successor. Appointing Solhjell as the
new Minister of Education prior to the publication of the PISA results can thus be seen as
a mixture of agency strategy (a change of ministers designed to take away the potential for
criticism) and presentational strategy (spin and timing).
Discussion
A common phenomenon in institutional and political life is the bias towards negativity
displayed in the media (Hood, 2002). When the question of blame for bad news is raised, it is
in an individual’s interest to deny responsibility and prepare methods that will help avoid the
blame or push it onto others. Delegation of responsibility is a classic example. Blame-avoidance
strategies include delegation, political shaping of policy content and pure presentation strategies
(Hood, 2010). The last seems to be increasingly significant in, for instance, presenting news
from Norwegian ministries in which political spin may be employed. This is often seen in
the presentation of White Papers, which demonstrate initiative in coming up with solutions,
selectively present facts, make use of euphemisms, etc. Another example of delegation of
responsibility is the establishment of the National Directorate for Education and Training
(NDET) in 2003, after the first PISA-induced shock. The NDET’s mandate was essentially
devolved from that of the ministry, but NDET is controlled fully by the Ministry of Education
and Research. This means that the ministry can instruct the directorate in whatever way it
pleases. It is difficult to understand the rationale for this delegation without taking into account
the fact that the ministry will be more removed from public attribution of blame for potential
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operative problems by pushing responsibility downwards to another, clearly identifiable, 19

organisation. The delegation of quality assurance to school governing bodies can also be seen
as a blame-avoidance strategy. The response of officeholders to blame appears to be blame
management. However, political and bureaucratic officeholders have different roles.
For politicians, hard-nosed political initiatives and hard-hitting arguments promote the
image of a capable politician. For bureaucrats it is different. If a bureaucrat is forced to be
externally accountable for bad news, the most typical reaction is not counter attack, but rather
an attempt to disarm a journalist’s pursuit (strategy 3, Figure 2). For example, a highways
director had to resign as a result of falling masonry in a road tunnel. Once the director went, the
press focus on the case decreased (NTB, 2006). Media storms often do not stop until someone
has been identified as scapegoat (Girard, 1986). It is uncommon for public servants to go on
the counter offensive in public (strategy 1, Figure 2). However, in another case, a general with
responsibility for health services for Norwegian soldiers in Afghanistan was dismissed by the
Norwegian chief of defence, who claimed in the press that the general had not done his job
(NTB, 2007a). The general turned the tables, however, and claimed that the chief of defence
‘is quite unsuited to the task and should resign’ (NTB, 2007b). The case subsequently went to
a parliamentary hearing in which the general was supported by the opposition parties, while
the chief of defence was supported by the government (Hegvik, 2007). The case thus became
a strategic game between the parties. In this instance, the general was approaching retirement
age, and thus had no future career to damage. He was named, shamed and blamed in public and
chose to hit back. There are grounds to believe that the general adopted this strategy because
he sensed the support of the opposition parties in the parliamentary questioning of the general
and the chief of defence. This public servant was therefore guaranteed full press coverage in
the parliamentary question arena. This is a very rare occurrence, and it is not found among
educational authorities responsible for PISA results. Discretion and caution are virtues prized
in the civil service and so also related to PISA results.
There are very fine boundaries concerning what civil servants can do within the political
landscape. However, there are examples in which top civil servants have moved over to political
posts and returned to the civil service after a change in government. For example, the Family
Ministry published a debate book about homosexuality just before the 2009 general election
and was criticised because, amongst other things, a politician and a civil servant worked jointly
as editors of the book. Furthermore, a politician and a bureaucrat were criticised because
the bureaucrat accompanied the politician on 14 journeys in which meetings on government
business were combined with party-political events, creating ‘doubt [as to] whether the civil
service is assuming a role that involves a conflict with its own independence’ (Aftenposten,
November 10th, 2009, p. 2). The expectations of bureaucrats limit the media strategies which
they can choose without personal loss.
It is different for well-known personalities, who can choose their tactics more freely than
officeholders. In October 2009, when the press made allegations about the sex life of talk-show
host David Letterman, he chose an offensive media strategy rather than being driven from pillar
to post. The strategy worked: The issue died a natural death after Letterman laid out the issues
once and for all in full depth. Letterman stated that he was a victim of an extortion attempt over
charges of sexual affairs with staff members – an allegation that he said was true. In joking
about his own unappealing appearance, Letterman found that viewer figures for his TV show
increased significantly; at the same time, the case stopped being of interest in other media
(Goldman, 2009). Similarly, government ministers can choose a defensive strategy in the hope
of ending a case swiftly, for example, by giving a statement to the effect that ‘the government
regards this with the greatest gravity and will investigate the matter fully’ (strategy 2, Figure 2)
or ‘no comment’ (strategy 3, Figure 2). Both strategies have a stopping effect.
One example of the ‘no comment’ strategy relates to the problems of the national tests
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20 in Norway in 2004 and 2005, which were halted due to poor work by the NDET (Lie et al.,
2004; Lie et al. 2005). Former Secretary of State Ole Helge Bergesen (2006) wrote: ‘We were
given unequivocal recommendations from the professionals in the NDET and in the Ministry
that the time had now come to introduce the system across the board: tests in reading, writing,
English and mathematics on four grade levels’ (p. 17). In other words, Bergesen thought that
responsibility for the ‘nightmare that followed’ lay with the ‘professionals’. No one in the civil
service responded to this criticism (strategy 3, Figure 2).
The media form the most important arena for public perception of the competence of
political and bureaucratic officeholders and of the repercussions of policies. For this reason,
politicians and bureaucrats are conscious of perspectives in the media’s presentation of their
work. The media exist to create stories and to direct a spotlight onto phenomena which are new,
troublesome and exciting.
As with all similar studies, this research confronted certain limitations from a
methodological and conceptual perspective. These limitations are acknowledged, and contribute
to a foundation for future studies. To understand the processes better, better theoretical nets
for the empirical catch are needed. However, those used here are not suited to hauling in all
types of catch. Some analytical frameworks do not provide a universal theory for educational
research. In terms of research connected to the educational sector’s multifaceted phenomena,
more theoretical tools are needed. Game theory is a possible theoretical foundation. Despite
its shortcomings, however, this study contributes to the understanding of how and why the
frequency of PISA coverage in Norwegian newspapers during and after the PISA reports 2000,
2003 and 2006 increased following decreasing Norwegian achievement in the PISA rankings.
In a democracy in which debate and a free press are significant for public opinion and
therefore for political decisions (based on parliamentary elections), the media presentation
of news is important when it comes to strategic decisions about the use of the media. The
above examples illustrate that media coverage is interwoven through many manifestations
of educational politics. They also illustrate similarities between the various instances, even
when some other aspects being unique. There is a difference between actual events and the
media depiction of them, and media strategies are a matter of how the people caught in the
media spotlight present their case outwardly. Over a period of twenty years, there has been a
significant increase in the number of people involved in such presentational work in the various
fields of politics, public service and private media advisors. This indicates that strategic aspects
of information management have become increasingly important. This is occurring in almost
all areas of society, and education is not exempt from this. Since strategic media considerations
are significant for educational politics in a broad sense, it is important that this development be
better represented in educational research. This area of study is in the process of growing, and
may contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between media and education.
Conclusions
The objectives of this article were to (1) explore the frequency of PISA coverage
in Norwegian newspapers before, during and after PISA reports and (2) investigate how
officeholders (bureaucratic and ministerial) employ strategies to handle how the media portrays
cases in which they are involved. Several media strategies were identified and investigated.
• The hypothesis was supported that gradually sinking average results on PISA would
intensify the educational debate. There appears to be a clear tendency for the Norwegian
press to focus more often on negative PISA results than on positive ones.
• The press is an active party in unearthing newsworthy information about educational
quality documented by PISA investigations. In this way, the media influence education
policies and debates. In cases where the press is the agent, officeholders are obliged to
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relate to the aspects of the story which are emphasised. Officeholders have to choose 21
a particular strategy when confronted with media firestorms. However, the results of
the investigation of media strategies have shown that officeholders use very different
media strategies, and political and bureaucratic officeholders have different roles.
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22 Lie, S., Kjærnsli, M., & Brekke, G. (1997). 9-åringers kunnskaper og holdninger i realfag i et
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Advised by Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Siauliai, Lithuania
Received: August 07, 2012 Accepted: November 02, 2012
Eyvind Elstad PhD., Professor, ��

Department of Teacher Education and School Research,��
Univer-
sity of Oslo, 0317 Oslo, Norway.
E-mail: eyvind.elstad@ils.uio.no
Website: http://folk.uio.no/eyvindel/
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INCLUSIVE MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE 23
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
Jaroslava Gajdošíková Zeleiová

University of Trnava, Slovakia
E-mail: jaroslava.zeleiova@gmail.com
Abstract
The Slovak educational system went through several changes the last 20 years, and these changes affected
also the structure of music education. The aim of this paper is to point out the changes in educational
system, stated in different national school documents, in the context of innovations and changes in musical
education. The author analyses predominantly music education in the specialized primary school system,
namely in primary art schools. They are positively evaluating as favourable influence of music education
on meaningful exploitation of free-time, in connection with prevention of socially unwanted phenomena,
its influence on full-value exploitation of children´s free-time, observation and extension of components of
regional culture in teaching and active share on cultural life of cities or villages, presentation in cultural
undertakings, activity of various chamber ensembles in which pupils exploit and improve acquired
abilities when practically playing in collective.
Key words: educational system in Slovakia, music education, music therapy, primary art schools.
Introduction
Socio-political, socio-cultural, and economical changes, which took place in the Slovak
republic, necessitated radical legal changes and changes in educational organization, ideology
and values in the field of education and its direction (National Programme for Education in
the Slovak Republic for next 15-20 years, 2001). Complex socio-political and educational
transformational scope of educational system is nowadays fulfilling itself gradually, by
modificating of existing school laws or by passing new legal education-organizational and
educational norms. Despite of economical and socio-political problems, modern approach of
conception of content and organization of work in school transformation and in development of
educational system was succeeded. These conceptions are gradually approximating to European
standards-based education and the international standard classification of education.
General and Art Education System
Democratisation and restructuralization of the educational system, system of its

direction, board of management, financing and implementation of new intentions of school
policy, is drafted in the education law (Act No. 245/2008 on Upbringing and Education and on
the change and supplement to some acts as amended by subsequent provisions). On the basis of
current legislative scope, the actual educational system consists of:
• pre-school education and elementary schools,
• secondary schools and schools for students who didn´t finish whole elementary school
before finishing their compulsory school attendance,
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24 • special schools – elementary, secondary, practical, and special training centres,

• schools for spare-time education – primary art schools,
• school institutions,
• universities – public, state, private, with three possible levels of university,
• institutions of continuous education for CPD (forms of further vocational, additional,
extending, requalificational, civic, socio-cultural education), that are performed by
different educational institutions and universities (Strategy of Lifelong Learning and
Lifelong Guidance, 2007).
In the figure 1 are depicted currently existing individual types of schools (general
and specialized), and levels of educational system in the Slovak republic according to the
organization of the education system in Slovakia (Report of European Commission, 2010).
Within a general education in elementary schools, musical education lessons are taught; in
specialized musical education in primary art schools teaching of singing and playing musical
instrument takes place. In the figure 1 are, for the sake of lucidity, mentioned only those schools
and institutions from already mentioned educational system, that are more closely specified in
the following lines and concern to the music.
Figure 1: The Education System in the Slovak Republic.
Today´s school system institutionaly cowers formal education, while informal systemic
education is provided by primary art schools, and systemless is performed predominantly
in educational institutions (school children clubs, centres of spare-time activities, centres of
leisure time), and centres of further education. Centres of spare-time activities, functioning
besides elementary schools and centres of leisure time, prepare rich scale of circles, seminars
or projects also in the field of music. Thereby they support expansion of out-of-teaching and
after school education, that was directly, within elementary schools, significantly weakened.
The new conception of education in the Slovak Republic is synchronized with global European
trends, requiring unification of degrees of education according to international classification
ISCED (pre-primary, primary, lower and higher secondary, tertiary education). The new
strategy of education through projecting of educational programs, is two-leveled: in the line
of the National program of education for next 15-20 years are forming the State educational
program (first level), and school educational programs (second level). On an individual levels
of deciding about educational standards and contentual structure of education, participation
of state and individual schools should be clearly defined. School educational programs
should specify educational projects for individual schools, and in accordance with the State
educational programme, school possibilities, and profilation of pupils, or with needs of local
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school surroundings, elaborate educational aims, and determine specific contentual structure 25
of education: supporting by language-informational, social, mathematicaly-naturalscientific-
technical, and artistic literacy (Liebau, Zirfas, 2008). Evaluation of school educational program
should be insured by the school itself and the State educational program monitored by National
school inspection (Act No. 137/2005 on school inspection).
Changes in Art Schools Policy
After Slovakia entered the European Union in 2004, deepening of international

intercourse and reciprocal cooperation of schools and school institutions remains our antecedent
effort. It is, though, enacted in the space of socio-economical emulation, consisting of principle
of allocating financial resources for school institutions and facilities according to number of
pupils. On the background of institutional education occurs a fight for pupil/student, in which,
for financial reasons, the quantity of educants is constrainedly preffered at the expense of
quality of education. Economical aspect significantly decreased the quality of education during
the last five years.
New legislative scope diversified tense system of unified educational system and school
policy enabled establishing besides state schools also church and private schools, let us say
alternative models of schools. Also academical institutions may have, according to founder,
character of public, private or church university. The adjustment of school legislative partly
enabled democratisation and decentralization of the system of management and administration
of artistic school system (Figure 2), the principle of self-government and subsidiarity was
attached, schools got the opportunity to gain legal subjectivity. This legislative change
entailed considerable economical troubles that obstruct the creation of optimal conditions for
following the curricula. The effort of headmasters and pedagogical staff to take hold in new
economical conditions brings searching for more effective ways of solving financial problems
– for example establishment of private schools, or transformation of state primary art schools
and their merger into private sector, or establishment of already mentioned church combined
elementary schools with art schools. In private primary art schools and in church primary art
schools can be education provided only for payment, the level of which is not legislatively
concluded. In purviews of European Union of musical schools it is necessary to ensure that
state and autonomous authorities guaranteed enough financial resources for the operating of
primary art schools.
Figure 2: Diversification of primary art schools, their decomposition in the Slo-

vak republic (source Institute of Information and Prognoses for Edu-
cation, 2012).
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26 Ongoing curricular transformation efforts succeed in modernization of content of

education, publishing of new curricula with different variants, in creating, or innovating
schedules for elementary and secondary schools, in accreditation of new educational programs
at universities. Equally positive was the change of coiled content of teaching and educational
standards at schools of art (The State educational programme for Primary Art School, 2008).
More radical transformation is for Slovak educational system after ratification of education
law. It should contribute to creating a plural market with textbooks and teaching scripts and
support variability of methodical procedures. Educating of music teachers for comprehensive
school went through numerous organizational and contentual changes, that were stimulated
by National Institute for Education (2012) and its scientific-experimental, expert-methodical,
and educational activity and Accreditation commission (2012). New qualifying conditions on
expert-pedagogical competence of pedagogical staff were adjusted and their further lifelong
education was ensured with the intention to reach compatibility with the European qualifications
framework. Teachers have nowadays opportunity to educate themselves continuously, to take
in specializational qualifying study, specializational inovative study and preparation for leaders
of pedagogical staff (Act No. 445/2009 on continuous education, credits and attestations of
pedagogical employees and professional employees).
In the field of gradual and post-gradual education of teachers, it is still important to ensure
that educational programs, preparing future teachers of pre-primary, primary, and secondary
education, will obtain higher temporal remuneration for artistic-educational subjects, and that
teaching music education lessons will be specified. Demands on the qualification of musical-
pedagogical staff should gradually meet international occupative standards (The Effects of the
Bologna Declaration on Professional Music Training in Europe, 2012)
The school reform and curricular transformation entails important changes for existance
of music lessons in elementary schools and musical education in primary art schools (Králová,
2009). Despite numerous positives and efforts to synchronize the Slovak tradition with European
requirements, in the musical - pedagogical area raised questions about further movement and
cultural education of the nation. Access to attainments and to culture is in European Union
regarded as a significant factor of inventive progress and at the same time it is an indicator of
the level of scholarship and of spiritual forwardness of the specific nation (Duncker, 2006).
Advancing of musical-pedagogical community in Slovak is confronted with the
fundamental requirements of Charter about music education, valid for Central and Eastern
Europe accepted by European Association for Music in Schools. Its main goals in the general
education System in the Slovak Republic are (Medňanská, 2003):
• to ensure two hours of musical education in all levels of comprehensive schools, to
create more space for collective play and musical hobby-groups,
• to establish musical education in secondary grammar schools and in other secondary
schools, to enable school-leaving examination in music (at least as an optional subject),
• to ensure a special classroom, sufficiently equipped with quality musical instruments and
with audio-visual technology in each school,
• to ensure the activity of collectives, cantorial and instrumental, in each school, and to
integrate musical life of the school into the public life of near surroundings,
• to institute schools with enlarged musical education, as one of the ways to ensure
professional youth,
• to ensure competent teachers for all types of schools in adequate number,
• to expand the education to music even for children in pre-school age.
Even though some of the requirements from Charter were enforced in our country even
in the past, we didn´t manage to implement all of them, or some of them only partly (Krušinská,
2010). The implementation of several of them is up to contemporary musical pedagogy.
Integrative changes remarks also the informational-medial, cultural and musical-pedagogical
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formation of Slovakia. Without preservation, support and development of unique national 27

cultures, it is impossible to create a plural European culture (Bamford, 2006). In Slovakia,
however, the cultural identity – formed by musical-artistic educational system – remains on
the brink of political interests in globalization trends, what is demonstrated even by delay of
school and cultural reforms within long-term ongoing other social reforms. Changes in a new
conception of school policy, that influence the area of music education, are predominantly as
follows:
• establishment of zero class-year at elementary schools, what should help children coming
from socialy and educationaly deficiently-stimulative background, or help and included
children that have postponed compulsory school attendance, because of different
reasons,
• by State educational programme incorporated right for children with special educational
needs to integrate into classes for intact children (Convention on the rights of persons
with disabilities, 2008).
Changes in Primary Art Schools
The concept of development of talented children and youth in the Slovak republic (2007)
supports development of artistic talent in children and youth within the upbringing-educational
process:
• the stage of interest: elective subjects in basic education, out-of-school education,
• the stage of performance: educational programs with extended music education,
primary art school,
• the top stage: classes or schools for the gifted in art.
According to Law No. 245/2008 Coll. § 103 on Upbringing and Education institutional
development of artistic talent in children or students is supported by primary art schools, school
centers of spare-time activities, spare-time centers, conservatories, schools with extended
educational program specialized in some artistic area (Figure 1). According to legislative,”primary
art school provides special artistic education in particular artistic department and prepares
students for teacher’s and educational fields of study in secondary schools with artistic bearing
and in conservatories; it prepares also for the universities with artistic or artistic-pedagogical
bearing” (Act No. 245/2008 on Upbringing and Education and on the change and supplement
to some acts as amended by subsequent provisions).
Primary art schools exist besides comprehensive schools as so-called schools for spare-
time education, that don’t ensure compulsory school attendance. Schools that enable specialized
education afternoons are concerned. Primary art school establishes study fields as music, art,
dance and literary-dramatic study field. In primary art schools, it is possible to establish musical,
creative, dancing, and literary-dramatic departments, other than listed artistic departments can
be established in a school with the approval of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and
Sport of the Slovak Republic (Act No. 245/2008 Coll. § 49). Pupils attend primary art school
either for the reason that enables them to become artistic amateurs, or to prepare themselves
for artistic career, later to qualify on other level of artistic educational system and to profile
themselves to be productive artists. Primary art school guarantees art education and education
according to the educational program of the given field of education especially for the students
of elementary school:
• provides basic art education,
• prepares for the study of artistic subjects at secondary schools and conservatories,
• prepares for the study at universities specialized in pedagogy or arts.
The conservatory provides complex artistic and artistic-pedagogical education. It
prepares students for artistic professions and teaching of artistic subjects (Act No. 245/2008
Coll. § 44).
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28 Primary art schools provide different age groups with the opportunity to expand
their natural talent and emotional inteligence through music, dance, creative art or literary-
dramatical art. Socio-psychological-cultural potention of primary art schools in the field of
educating young generation is not insignificant. As the existance of primary art schools consists
of voluntary intake of artistic offers by children, the ability of meaningful and cultural existance
forms naturally in themselves – even without further proffesional growth in higher type of
artistic education – sensibilization of personality and positive enlargement of experiental world
of young people that is very important for the development of their identity, is ensured.
The study in primary art school is organized for various age groups as:
• preliminary study ( max. 2 study years),
• the first stage of basic study (max. 9 study years): the first part (max. 4 study years)
with primary artistic education and the second part (max. 5 study years) with lower
secondary artistic education,
• the second stage of basic study (max. 4 study years),
• extended study (with extended number of study lessons for the extraordinary gifted
students),
• shortened study (preliminary study for education at secondary schools, conservatories,
universities specialized in pedagogy or art),
• study for adults (max. 4 study years). The stages of basic art education do not substitute
for the pre-primary or basic education (Act No. 245/2008 Coll. § 17, §51).
Preparatory study in primary art school is generally assigned for children in pre-school
age to diagnose artistic abilities of a child and its consecutive insertion into particular artistic
department. Elementary study is assigned for pupils that have proved required level of their
artistic abilities and habits enabling their further successful development in particular artistic
department. In enlarged form of study, assigned for exceedingly gifted children, pupils can
proceed according to individually adapted curriculum. In this type of study, the opportunity
to prepare for further professional study is included, but only for playing musical instruments
(absence of vocal education, intonation, auditive analysis, and musical-theoretical set-out).
In preparation for teacher’s study in pedagogical faculties, there is the opportunity to take
in an enlarged study or study for adults. This form, though, is expanded only sporadically.
Different factors – economical (so-called normative on pupil), socio-demographic (population
regress, unattractivity of teacher’s employment), legislative (insecurity of the existence and
establishment of primary art schools) cause the regress of the interest in studying pedagogy in
educational programs pedagogy of pre-primary and primary education, where, on some faculties,
music-talented entrance examination are not required, but regression is also in the interest in
pedagogy of secondary education with specialization on pedagogy of musical education. The
followers of pedagogical study alone account weaker musical abilities, knowledge and practical
instrumental handiness. This phenomenon reflects on the quality and standard of musical
education in elementary school, where the graduates start their practice. There is a decrease of
musical competence of future graduates – musical education teachers in schools. The study for
adults is an offer for people who want to fill up their artistic education.
Several art schools have established the realization of new understanding of educating
pupils with disabilities and disaffections. Primary art schools offer educational activities even
for pupils with special educational needs too. The scientific community in Slovak cultural
space accepts the implicit relationship between music education and music therapy within the
systematic division of music-scientific and music-educational disciplines and their research
circles (Gajdošíková Zeleiová, 2012). But explicit interconnection of music education and music
therapy in curriculum has been absent in Slovakia so far, however, similarly aimed projects
coordinating educational intentions with the therapeutic ones have existed in Euro-American
space under the guarantee of organizations like the European Association for Music in Schools
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(EAS), European Music Therapy Confederation (EMTC), American Music Therapy Association 29
(AMTA), International Society for Polyaesthetic Education (IGPE), Orff-Schulwerk Forum
etc. for several years. Considering the increasing socio-pathological and psycho-pathological
manifestations of children/pupils, the interdisciplinary connection of education, psychology and
music therapy seems to be an urgent challenge. Current European Commission proclamations
in support and improvement of mental health (Green Papers) and proclamations concerning
education towards the knowledge society (White Papers) have already been realized in projects
such as Inclusion Europe, Autism Europe, Mental Health Europe or Open Society Mental
Health Initiative, which point to inclusion of disordered, disabled and endangered citizens
into all spheres of cultural life. The Slovak association of music therapy (2011) attempts to
correspond with the above-mentioned socio-cultural challenges (Policy Guidelines on Inclusion
in Education, 2009).
Changes in Music Education
Individual artistic fields – musical, creative, dancing and literary-dramatic – can be

further subdivided. Pedagogical documents assignees in particular departments bearings in
which a pupil compulsory attend main subject that is combined with musical theory, eventually
with other subjects, and alternatively takes in, besides compulsory subjects, even voluntary
(optional) subjects as well. Real reduction of temporal dotation of lessons in particular musical
bearings results in restriction of chamber-music and four-handed playing, of corepeticion and
optional subjects, such as improvisation. Curricula are, because of the influence of economical
trends, not always strictly followed. The study of main subject in musical field is organized
predominantly through individual teaching (The State educational programme for Primary Art
School, 2008):
• preparation for instrument playing in preliminary study,
• playing musical instrument (piano, keyboard, violin, viola, violoncello, contrabass, harp,
recorder, flute, piccolo, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, B and Es trumpet, cornet, French
horn, trombone, baritone, helicon, tuba, bassoon, percussions, folk instruments, guitar,
cymbalon, accordion, organ),
• singing,
• basis of musical composition.
Through collective teaching the following musical subjects are performed:
• musical theory,
• chamber-music playing,
• playing in orchestra, choir,
• choir singing, liturgical singing,
• four-handed playing,
• instrumental accompaniment,
• the basis of conducting,
• music and computer,
• combo, a. o.
Positive steps of new, already established, but slowly realized contentual reform in
school system concerning primary art schools from the point of view of musical department,
are (Krušinská, Zeleiová, 2006):
• creation of private and church primary art schools, let us say their combination with
comprehensive schools,
• assumption of modern or extra-european methods and models into artistic pedagogy
(e.g. Suzuki’s method, Yamaha music school),
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30 • enabling of preparatory and enlarged form of study (in musical schools Yamaha since
forth month of life up to seniors), offering the activities for pupils with special educational
needs,
• establishment of primary art schools with enlarged teaching of aesthetical education,
• new concept of musical theory as an independent and equal subject with subjects such
as playing musical instrument, with the imperative placed on musical perception and
reception,
• teaching of musical theory through workshops and musical-educational projects for
purpose of innovation and efectivization, building up technical ability on the basis of
natural activities of playing ability, sublimation of musical-ear, harmonic feeling, emotive
experience from interpreted composition supporting the expansion of creativity,
• activization of pupils through strategies expanding creative thinking while working with
musical material, compared to mechanical reproduction and interpretation of composition
without creative approach,
• implementation of multicultural and regional dimension into the content of musical
theory for primary art schools,
• working with a musical work of art by using computer and multimedial technologies
(Act No. 431/2007 on Concept of primary art education for provisiom of continuity of
the system of art education with gradual introduction of ICT and multimedia education
in the educational process of these schools),
• motivating pupils through competitions in artistic interpretating and team knowledge
quiz from the field of musical theory and the history of music,
• establishment of new musical bearings, such as keyboard playing, music and computer,
musical composition, combo, opportunity to play on electroacoustic instruments, a.o.,
• creation new textbooks of musical theory for primary art schools and methodical
handbooks, a. o.
Consistent exercitation of the positives of curricular reform in primary art schools is
however often blocked by economical and (thence it´s followed by) professional defections.
Average materially-technical equipment of schools (rusty musical instruments, didactic and
computing techniques and other teaching aids) is well below the European standards and
precludes consequent realization of actual reforming conveniences. However, in spite of the
lack of financial capital, Slovak graduates of primary art schools produce excellent results in
national and foreign artistic competitions with European prestige. In transformation of music
education in primary art schools, there is still need to reissue or to publish new textbooks of
musical theory for higher year-classes and to ensure musical audio CDs corresponding with
particular lessons in textbooks, let us say offer variability of teaching materials. In conceptual
intention of artistic schools it is possible to observe the tendency to adapt to parents´ requirements
demanding the establishment of new bearings in musical field (e.g. guitar playing, keyboard
playing, improvization, electronical processing of sound record), but without competent personal
assurance. Trend of compromise has negative effect on the quality of teaching and on absence
of musical-pedagogical research and grant activities of primary art schools (Bresler, 2007).
Partly downtrend to decreasing professionality in teaching is surely the result of elimination
of individual approach thanks to new economical, sociological and legislative situation – in
primary art schools as well as in universities in the programs preparing future teachers of pre-
primary, primary, secondary, and for still existing artistic education.
The results of scale factors in the effectivity of pedagogue’s activity, teaching condition
created by a pedagogue, effectivity of teaching, effectivity of pupils´ activity, pupils´ knowledge
and abilities, pupils´ educational results and verbal evaluation, monitored in main departments
in primary art schools by the National School Inspection, don’t bear evidence seemingly for
the quality of education in musical department. The problem of different final effects can be
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interpreted also in consideration of the style of individual and grouped, let us say collective 31
teaching. In comparison to musical department, in all other departments of primary art school
the teaching is performed in grouped/collective form, where the imperative is placed on
group dynamics, cooperation, and reciprocal instigation of inspirations, initiatives, and ideas.
Individual approach to pupils is most significant right in musical department. Such a different
number of pupils may influence quantitative and qualitative interpretation of indicators, let us
say differentiate normotypologicaly used methodics of monitoring the teaching (Report on the
status and level of education, 2011). If the criterion of the effectivity of music education on
primary art schools will be their financial profitability, it will be difficult to reach it besides
quality, and at the same time mainly individual teaching in musical department. The question,
that remains unanswered for a long time, is the choice of either quantity or quality.
In spite of decreasing of the quality of teaching in primary art schools, National school
inspection (2011) in overall monitoring positively evaluates:
• favourable influence of artistic education on meaningful exploitation of free-time, in
connection with prevention of socially unwanted phenomena, its influence on full-
value exploitation of children´s free-time,
• observation and extension of components of regional culture in teaching and active
share on cultural life of cities or villages,
• presentation in cultural undertakings in Slovakia and abroad,
• activity of various chamber ensembles in which pupils exploit and improve acquired
abilities when practically playing in collective.
Other positive impacts of primary art school on formation of national culturality:
• socio-emotional growth of pupils´ personalities,
• positive influence on children’s moral and social values orientation,
• operating of choirs and chamber ensembles in local and wider cultural space, and
formation of natural cultural life in cities and villages,
• primary art schools, representing schools with aesthetical character, are a significant
culturally-educational agent of social environment, and in education of pupils apart
from classes.
Experience shows that individual form of teaching can naturally, explicitly and
effectively support unique personal and efficient characteristics of pupils. Individual aspect in
teaching – economically least advantageous and financially rather ineffective – has a significant
measureless implication on child’s development. It supports spontaneous and healthy formation
of young human’s identity, indirectly it gives him/her lessons of open communication, personal
and committed approach to phenomena all around, it instigates creation of his/her attitudes and
opinions that are formed directly under the influence of emotional and personal relations to
experienced facts. In regard to actual, involuntary prefered quantity of teaching in primary art
schools in Slovakia, individual approach remains a positive challenge in teaching. In whole-
socially known crisis of young people’s identity, psychological and sociological indicators of
education are plumbless.
Conclusions
In comparison to teaching musical education and existence of musical schools in original

western countries of European Union that have secured wide musical hinterland by sufficient
temporal dotation and contentual variability in comprehensive schools, through what they partly
compensate the absence of network of primary art schools, in Slovakia we are not yet able to
ensure a general artistic, and especially musical literacy in teaching in comprehensive schools.
Artistic institutional system, created in Slovakia, in the European context can contribute for
national-cultural awareness and artistic literacy of following generations.
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32 The possibility to take children in artistic education at the age of 5, and the chance
to continually grow and expand one’s talent and personality right up to the adulthood, is,
from the point of view of healthy formation, an natural systematized space, in which a child
can unwillingly learn how to make use of free-time actively and meaningfully, and how to
differentiate not only aesthetic values, but also the social and moral ones. Properly organized
and institutionalized education that actual network of primary art school enables, form the
young generation artistically as well as personally. Orientation and exploitation of space for
personal creative self-realization – that child discoveres in art – is later analogically transferred
into social and working space. Primary art schools participate significantly on the prevention of
socio-pathological phenomena, so they are not just schools that educate and professionally prepare
pupils for their career in the field of art. They represent schools that contribute predominantly to
the formation of human resources on high quality level.
At present music education faces challenges that are brought by the changes in social
status of music and the accelerated psychosocial personality development under the influence
of the development of information and communication technologies and media. Reality, which
a young person grows up in and acquires a spontaneous or institutionally mediated experience
in the process of education, influences their overall formation and possibilities of capturing
the information necessary for a meaningful and effective functioning in a society. In the
background of the socially perceived relativization, of the one-sided – and thus reduced – value
preference and dynamizing lifestyle, respectively, there are questions that emerge within the
scope of music education. These questions concern efficiency of the intermediation ways of
music-aesthetic experience and music-aesthetic competences acquisition with the support of
the global recognition of reality and integral development of a person.
Acknowledgment
The study was prepared with the financial aid of the Cultural and Educational Grant
Agency 009TTU-4/2011 of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the
Slovak Republic in the project Inclusive Education as a multidimensional problem.
References
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Krušinská, M. (2009). Výchova k hudbe v škole Márie Montessoriovej. Podnety pre teóriu a prax hudobnej 33
výchovy v alternatívnych a inovatívnych modeloch škôl na Slovensku. Ružomberok: KU.
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Advised by Judita Stankutė, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Received: October 03, 2012 Accepted: November 13, 2012
Jaroslava Gajdošíková PhD., Associate Professor, Dipl. Psych., University of Trnava in Trnava,
Zeleiová Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Studies, No. 4 Priemyselná
Street, 918 43 Trnava, Slovak Republic.
E-mail: jaroslava.zeleiova@gmail.com,
Website: http://pdf.truni.sk/katedry/kps/pracovnici?gajdosikovazeleiova
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34
THE DIFFICULTIES OF BUILDING UP A
NEW PARADIGM OF WORKING
ORGANIZATION IN SCHOOLS
Monica Gather Thurler, Olivier Maulini
University of Geneva, Switzerland
E-mail: Monica.Gather-Thurler@unige.ch, Olivier.Maulini@unige.ch
Abstract
With the stated aim of reducing inequities in the access to knowledge, most school systems have been
reviewing and standardizing their curricula, emphasizing inclusion, strengthening school autonomy and
parental involvement, introducing tertiary training of teachers and principals, and increasing institutional
initiatives aiming to enhance teaching effectiveness. This contribution argues on behalf of empirical
evidence, obtained by the observation of teachers’ and school practices which has been conducted during
by the Geneva Research Laboratory, that these sorts of change strategies will not produce the desired
impact unless they are combined with specific innovative actions aiming at a) thorough reorganization of
work in schools, and (b) making actors and citizens change their attitudes concerning the possible ways
of encouraging pupils to learn. The conclusion insists on the need to give professionals the opportunity
to thoroughly reconsider the means by which they will be able to move on from bureaucratically founded,
rigid and locked in towards a flexible working organization. This change strategy includes reflection on
the principles of organization that guide teaching activities and/or on the new learning settings, which
make possible new ways of learning.
Key words: change strategies, conditions for learning, imagination, implementation, innovation,
knowledge development, learning issues, limited rationality, work organization.
Introduction
School reforms rarely claim that they maintain or increase inequality. It is more politically
correct to declare that the aim is “excellence for all,” the reduction of differences and a general
increase in the level of education. Research in education and, more recently, international surveys
have to a large extent shown that few countries have succeeded in ensuring that almost all their
youth attain the knowledge and skills needed to deal with the realities of today’s world.
For the last decade, and on the basis of this assessment, most states and government
bodies have instituted numerous more or less coordinated measures to fight school failure and
to monitor the effectiveness and fairness of their teaching systems, in particular at the first
level of basic instruction: revision and standardization of curricula, emphasizing inclusion,
reinforcement of school autonomy and the participation of parents, professionalization and
tertiary education of teachers and staff, multiplication of institutional evaluations, etc.
There is considerable research evidence (amongst which: Coburn, 2006; Hargreaves
& Shirley, 2009; Maroy, 2007; Weick, 1976, a.s.o.) attesting that these initiatives are largely
influenced by variables situated outside the local school: national and local traditions,
geographical and economic constraints, organization and power relationships with politics, the
diploma and labour markets, and collective attitudes toward knowledge, social and cultural
hierarchies. Complementary research (amongst which  Draelants & Dumay, 2005; Dumay,
2009; Gather Thurler, 2000; Maulini & Perrenoud, 2005; Maulini & Wandfluh, 2007, a.s.o.) also
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attests to the fact that the interior organization of each educational system, if it is responsible 35
to something outside of itself, has also a) a more or less significant portion of autonomy, a
pledge to renew and not just reproduce the existing social organization, and b) an impact on this
environment that is in the end more or less significant—and more or less valued.
In the loop connecting social and mental structures (Argyris & Schön, 1978; Bourdieu
& Passeron, 1970; Bernstein, 1971), the school is thus neither a neutral element in a closed
system, nor an all-powerful lever of social regeneration by the triumph of reason. On the
contrary, it seems all the more justified in innovating in order to try to improve because it is
already providing satisfaction, and therefore creates confidence, which leads to support, which
fosters innovation, and so forth (Bronckart & Gather Thurler, 2003; Chapelle & Meuret, 2006;
Ravitch, 2010).
The Geneva LIFE (Innovation-Formation-Education) research laboratory has conducted
during the years 2001-2006 several series of intensive observations and analyses of teachers’
work in schools (Gather & Maulini, 2007). The obtained research evidence seems to indicate that
school innovation policies cannot produce the hoped-for effects unless they are accompanied
by a double action that is pedagogically determined and politically supported in order to assure
the sustainability of on-going practice change: 1) innovative action dealing with the objectively
improved organization of school work (and with the work producing this organization),
generally an hidden issue of educational reforms; and 2) action to implement change that
takes into account the expectations and subjective representations of ordinary actors about the
fundamental objectives of teaching and the best and fairest ways to get all students to learn.
Problem of Research and Research Focus
LIFE’s research is founded on the thesis that school innovation policies cannot produce
the hoped-for effects unless they are accompanied by a double action that is pedagogically
determined and politically supported for its duration: 1) innovative action dealing with the
objective organization of school work (and on the work producing this organization), generally
an hidden issue of educational reforms; and 2) action to implement change that takes into
account the expectations and subjective representations of ordinary actors about the fundamental
objectives of teaching and the best and fairest ways to get all students to learn. Let us approach
each issue in turn before we conclude by combining all of them.
School work has been and still is subject to many rules. The school institution is a
paradoxical one, semi-bureaucratic and semi-anarchic, which divides and regulates the work in
a fairly rigid manner, but at the same time allows the classroom teacher a great deal of freedom.
All over the world with more or less effect and for a varying length of time, this “bureau-
anarchic” logic has raised scientific and/or ideological criticisms. This problem is omnipresent
in contemporary debates on educational governance. It has been one of the main reasons for
the restructuring of curriculums and the introduction of teaching cycles, the validation of new
procedures of regulation and selection as well as the thriving for alternative differentiation
practices inside and outside each class, and last but not least the revision of the traditional
curriculum planning, which has been strongly rooted in the Taylorist vision of the 19th century
and can be considered as being largely obsolete nowadays.
The research results we mentioned above seem to argue in favour of an organization
that is neither too rigid nor too lax, setting deadlines to mark progress for students who in fact
have the greatest need to be supported and stimulated. But these studies have not proved to
be the determining factor change of practices in schools: when they are brought up, which is
not the rule everywhere (Darling-Hammond, 2010), they are instead raised in a distorted or
opportunistic way, to act as the instrument rather than the driving force of a policy. This may
disappoint both the progressives and the scientific rationalists, but also lead them to question
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36 themselves: it may be easier to denounce the limits of the existing organization than to clarify or
go beyond them. If they only act as the basis for a militant discourse, focused on conceiving and
establishing new organizational forms, they can give rise—this time more or less negatively for
teachers ̶ to an increase in uncertainty and/or obligation in which the practitioners struggle to
see both meaning and feasibility.
Cellular structuring in classes, tracks and grades; annual programs and more or less strict
conditions for promotion between levels; division of space and time into schedules, lessons,
homework, teaching blocks, textbook chapters, lesson plans, exam sessions: everything is
potentially transformable, making people cry out for (or fear) a systemic change breaking
with traditions. The most optimistic innovators dream of a custom-made school (Claparède,
1920), inventing continuous mechanisms adapted to the needs of each pupil. They emphasize
the importance of taking advantage of flexible groupings to take care of the known problems
of permanent (re) composition of levels and students’ needs, time on task, the poor use and
excessive fragmentation of human and material resources, etc., in order to replace it with a new
conception that is more adaptable and differentiated from teaching times and spaces (Perrenoud,
2002; Maulini & Perrenoud, 2005).
Can the school organization modify the social organization or is it rather its reflection,
and therefore much more difficult to change than technocratic reasoning would lead one to
believe (Hargreaves & Shirley, 2009; Dubet, Duru-Bellat & Vérétout, 2010)? In the context
of consistent and historically persistent school failure, organizing school work differently is
certainly necessary.
General Background of Research
To understand this complex subject, LIFE has undertaken numerous research and
action-research projects in collaboration with individual teachers, headteachers, schoolteams
and teacher trainers. These projects were conducted in order to support the establishment of
multi-year learning cycles (Perrenoud, 2002), hierarchical programs oriented towards concepts
and key competences (Muller, 2006; Maulini & Wandfluh, 2007), modular systems for
structuring curricula (Wandfluh & Perrenoud, 1999; Progin & De Rham, 2009), combinations
between integrated support and a differentiated undertaking of targeted needs, interactively
planned strategic teaching practices, boards, school principals and decentralized instruments of
management and evaluation (Périsset Bagnoud, Gather Thurler & Barthassat, 2006; Capitanescu,
2010).
The tight cooperation which has been built up between researchers and practitioners
offered the possibility to obtain systematic observation of significant effects produced by these
changes on school learning, in particular that of students from disadvantaged environments, in
places where innovation was at the same time politically validated, wished for by the teachers and
accepted, even supported, by their environment (Wandfluh & Maulini, 2011). At the same time,
the obtained data permitted to build up a better understanding of the existing reality (Hutmacher,
1993) that made it so difficult to transform the work organization in certain schools. Not only
because the actions undertaken were opposed, but also and sometimes especially because those
involved could not imagine that they were coming up against a paradigm that they had taken for
granted, a kind of matrix buried in the depths of the institution.
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Organized Work, Organizing Work 37
These experiences have forced us to conceptualize the problem to identify the variables
at work. From the practitioners’ point of view, we can sum up the tension between the work
organization that exists and the one that is possible by consequently distinguishing between
three levels: 1) real work (that of the workers), 2) desired work (by the workers), and 3) imposed
work (on the workers). We presume that organization of work is not a new problem adding to
the others. It is the key variable that quite rightly organizes the others, that predetermines them
all the more permanently since it most often eludes our awareness. Scientifically it is a heuristic
way of representing the dual nature, both static and dynamic, of the “school machine” and its
evolution (Meirieu & Le Bars, 2001).
Let us see what this concept of work organization will allow us to reformulate:
1. School work is organized. Well organized, badly organized, disorganized–work is
always at the junction of order and disorder. How is it organized? How is it structured,
divided, planned, monitored, regulated? This kind of product/process research informs
us about the effect of the teacher in a closed context, but does not tell us whether a
quantity of good teachers in isolation makes a good school, or whether we must rather
collectivize the work, its evaluation and its regulation via reflexive dialogue to move
to a higher level of professionalization. (Perrenoud, 2001)
2. Organized work is the product of an organizing work. The actors who work do so in
conditions that are the result of organization, but this organization itself is the result of
the work. If observers want to take a look at school work in its entirety, they have to
observe not only the work done (organized) but also the work determining (organizing)
this work. Depending on where the educational transfer is studied, the same people
may organize their activity (as in the case of teachers who plan their courses). But the
two phases may also separate, the organizer becoming the one giving the order (and/or
the room to maneuver) to the one designated to carry it out (for example, when the
principal orders teachers don’t make a decision on whether a student should repeat
a year without talking to the parents). Who is organizing whom is the question par
excellence of power, autonomy and professional responsibility. It is also, we will see,
the unstable locus of all ambivalences.
3. The organization of work (1) and the work of organization (2) relates back to practices,
but also to ideas. Organizations and workers do not just work and become organized.
They embody, they claim responsibility for, they justify and they disseminate ideas
about work and its organization. From Taylorism to New Public Management, peer
teaching to cooperative learning, models emerge, spread, are transformed, become
distorted, and implemented. They are transferred, translated, and integrated into new
contexts that are at the heart or on the margins of actual practices.
4. Work as conceived and work as practiced have effects, if not issues, that are at least
objectifiable. All work has an output in the broad sense of the term. At school, work
produces not only learning, but it also produces, possibly, meaning (or non-meaning),
self-esteem (or a feeling of worthlessness), suffering (or pleasure), resignation (or
passion), experience of self-efficacy (Bandura, 2011), etc.
Studying these four dimensions and their connections is a theoretical work that has
hardly begun. We think that researchers and practitioners are entitled to do this work together,
where their different concerns intersect. If it is to be productive–if it is to yield returns–this
conceptualisation requires patience. Because it is not entirely disinterested, because it is
tied to collectively shared concerns about education, innovation, professionalization and the
democratization of access to knowledge, this work is important. And because it is important, it
must be done methodically and patiently.
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38 Results of Research
On behalf of the obtained research evidence, it can be argued that school work is not the
starting point for learning; to be accomplished, it must itself be organized, by itself or in some
other way. It is organized because the teacher organizes the students’ work (like the foreman in a
workshop), and because the school system organizes the work of the teachers (like management
or the planning department in a company). This induces conceptual framework that does not
set a priori criteria for good or bad school management, but one that allows to ask a question
creating an obstacle that must be addressed and could open onto other sub-questions: what is
produced by different forms, different logics, or different cultures of school work organization,
and what prevents them from producing something else?
To ask this question is to suggest some hypotheses that are not new and that were in fact
raised earlier in this paper: school work is organized, this organization is the product of work,
it is related to ideas about work and it has effects and results, in short, an impact on all kinds of
variables, beginning with knowledge and skills up to and including the students’ relationship
with the world. Teaching is indeed a human profession. The existing work intelligence is not
produced the way tomatoes or trucks are. In fact, teachers don’t produce much by teaching, at
least not directly: at the very most, the conditions for learning will only occur if the students
agree to it (Meirieu, 1996; Blais, Gauchet & Ottavi, 2008), and have the feeling that it makes
sense. But nothing about all that forces to consider teaching and learning settings as being
without effect, ineffective, and fruitless, assigning the so delicate education of human beings to
the vagaries of luck and the principle of every man for himself.
It is thus possible to make a provisional sketch of this framework and this question by
designing a basic loop linking work that is instituted (the organization of work) and instituting
work (the work of organization), and suggest that the different strata of the institution (with
its main actors: principal, inspectors, teachers, students) are at the same time organizing and
organized by the other strata. This loop can be considered as the system that supports the various
occupations and helps them evolve: the teacher, the student, the inspector, and the principal.
(Tardif & Levasseur, 2010). It is determined from the top down, more or less consciously,
explicitly and coherently by more or less consensual conceptions of what school work and
the organization of schoolwork are and should be. And lower down, it results in more or less
measurable effects (learning, meaning, identity, etc.) that can be called achievements.
This suggests the design of a second loop that goes from achievements to conceptions. This
makes the occupational system more complex by introducing the logic of professionalization, a
logic that can be summarized schematically as follows: the more workers control their work, i.e.,
the more they check the work achieved, the more they become professional. Thus we obtain two
loops: the occupation loop (work that is instituted/ instituting work) and the professionalization
loop (work conceived / work achieved) that can of course interact.
Instituting work
Conception(s)   Achievement(s)

of work   of work
Work that is instituted
Figure 1: The double loop of schoolwork organization.
For a school system to become more effective, it is not enough to have action from a few
militant teachers, or one or two avant-garde schools, even a task group specifically designed
by the whole system. Nor is it enough that those at the top conceive of the change, develop
strategies to ensure the quality or institute sophisticated control and evaluation systems.
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Suppose it is necessary for all actors concerned to be motivated and interested in 39

committing to the process of change, to have the will to make it succeed, and to get involved
in order to “make a difference.” This willingness will only come into existence provided that
they feel their power is increased and they want to exercise it. According to Rosenholtz (1989),
teacher optimism, hope, and commitment are associated with workplace characteristics that
make them feel like they are “professionally invested with power,” meaning that their ability
to make decisions is socially recognized. At the same time, many studies (Louis & Kruse,
1995; Hodkinson, 2009; Huberman, 1988) have warned against using empowerment as an
independent variable. Along with other variables (collective responsibility and systematic
cooperation in the management of teaching arrangements; consistency and authenticity between
structures, regulations and teaching practices; the opportunity to cooperate within the networks
of practitioners), it will be the basis of a collective, systematic and concerted effort to make
the conception of school work evolve with the aim of improving the management of student
progress.
Discussion
From Invention to Implementation: New Attitudes about Learning Issues
Schools that are involved in the fight against school failure invent new ways of working,
and pose at least two kinds of questions: how do they go about it? And, following this lead, is it
possible to disseminate this kind of innovation, and under what circumstances?
Many research studies demonstrate that the work of ordinary teachers is more and more
difficult to carry out, and perhaps more and more distressing to experience (Osborn, McNess
& Broadfoot, 2000; Ball, 2006). These studies make us aware of an essential dimension of
educative work, indeed of all work: the relationship of workers to their own work, between
actual work and stipulated work, but also between work that is hoped for and work that is
ultimately prevented. They remind us how ambivalent teachers are about collective action, and
they document the following paradox: a cooperative school organization is often experienced
as constraining, even confining, but it is also claimed by the most committed professionals to
be a way of resisting the injunctions of the authorities and/or experts.
A collective organization is not necessarily efficient, but an efficient organization is
always more so if it is collective. It can provide solidarity, courage, freedom and responsibility
for teachers, who suffer from a cruel lack of recognition. Teachers, and more and more often
principals as well, are increasingly sceptical when faced with “whole system” innovations
that downgrade workers by doing the thinking for them, and always “for their own good”
(Gather Thurler, 2000; Progin & Gather Thurler, 2011; Rayou & VanZanten, 2004). We cannot,
therefore, skip over their ideas about work well done, or work to be done, or work that is possible
or impossible to do in their situation. We cannot ignore their expectations, the needs they talk
about, but also those that they don’t, or even the ones they don’t even realize they have. Selfish
(or at least personal) interest is admittedly an essential influence from the sociological point of
view, but it gets bad press in teaching. So we should think about the relationship between the
work organization as it is, and the reasons that the school and the teachers will have to change
it, not just on the margins of the system, but from an “inside-out perspective.”
Interest in Being Alienated?
The problem as outlined refers back to several levels of discussion, including at least
two that we must differentiate if we want to articulate them. On the one hand, we have the
organization of work “as it is.” In nineteenth-century state primary schools, in Célestin Freinet’s
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40 classroom, in charter schools or experimental secondary schools, teachers and students work;
their work is organized, and this organization functions. It functions more or less well, more or
less easily, to the more or less obvious satisfaction of its workers and users, but it functions. So
one interesting question would be: how does it function, how does it endure, to what end and at
what cost? That is the first level.
We could also wonder why a school does not function in a different way, or why it
would not function differently. But that would move us to another level, a level that rejects the
observable functioning as “a different question.” The teacher’s freedom and interest give us
an interesting example in that regard. If an organization less cell-like, more coordinated and
modular is debatable, it is perhaps because it restricts the teacher’s freedom and spontaneity.
Cooperative work may restrict the teacher’s autonomy, but it may also extend it. We can be
alone in our classroom and jealously preserve this area of freedom, but we can also become
organized with several others and give up some of our “personal distance” in order to obtain
new rights and new room to maneuver.
In reality, we know that teachers do not greatly care to be boxed in with procedures,
which are often experienced as threatening, constraining, and inhibiting. They prefer to fiddle
endlessly with temporary arrangements that they control (Lortie, 1975). But we also know that
they are not without ambivalence towards “state anarchism,” which they both condemn and
proclaim in turn: to be free in one’s classrooms and school, of course, but not to the point of
relinquishing the hierarchical shield when parents or students contest our educational choices.
What differentiates different modes of organization, political or educational, is perhaps less
the proportion of freedom and constraint than the forms of distribution. What do we know
about this distribution in the various schools? Where are the freedoms and the constraints in
each? Policy calculations show that cooperative organization has a cost for those who are part
of it but also for those who are not. The question is less one of knowing what is being lost by
collectively organizing than one of comparing the outcomes of two different policies: the policy
of withdrawal and that of coordination.
Limited Rationality and the Need for Dignity
To this strictly economic argument we can add two other mediating influences:
psychology and ethics. We cannot reduce human beings to the sum of their interests, because
we are not transparent to ourselves, our calculations are not always correct and our rationality is
incomplete and biased, determined, limited (the psychological argument). And we also cannot
be that reductive because solidarity is required of us above and beyond our own interest, as is
the case with selflessness or sacrifice (the second, ethical argument).
These two intermediary variables take us away from school work in the narrowest
sense, but they move us closer to a basic question: what are the motivations for our action
(Giddens, 1984; Rorty, 2000)? What makes workers work, become involved in their work
and the transformation of their work? The reference to personal interest can lead us to several
interpretations. Either the actors are completely independent individuals, totally lucid and
selfish, and will organize their conduct on the basis of a “calculation of interests” that will
justify various decisions. Or they are related to other human beings who offer “recognition”
that they need to live and exist, and they will make commitments from altruism, compassion or
solidarity (Honneth, 1996).
What we are missing is perhaps a theory of risk taking and categories of interests. In
(ultra) liberal philosophies, the homo economicus acts strategically according to his self-interest.
In other philosophies, he fits into an interpersonal space that determines not only his choices but
also his horizon of possible choices. For a work organization to continue, workers must have
the feeling that they are making progress, developing, working better—in short, see themselves
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as growing. And since we never grow except in the eyes of others, we must in our own self- 41
interest sometimes lose in comfort and tranquillity what we gain in dignity. In this regard, the
motivations of the organization are those of legitimate action.
Transfer or Problematization?
Our research shows that awareness that the organization matters and that it must be
accountable varies among teachers. Which raises the two-fold question of their relationship to
knowledge (“what the researchers say”) and their relationship to power (“what the regulations
dictate”). Their vision, their conception, in short the way they see their profession, is a
combination of two dimensions–objective (what is) and prescriptive (what should be).
Since a collective enterprise does not operate by decree, we are sometimes tempted by
a slightly simple alternative: either to convince or to compel the sceptics. But the conviction
is based on works that teachers rarely read, and that they buy into with difficulty; and the
obligation is seen as a failure by the institution, which prefers reason to force in establishing
the truth. So we must invent other more complex and more interactive ways of implementation.
How do we know whether a new teaching practice is of interest when it has not been tested? And
how can we try it if no one will take a chance on it because interest has not been demonstrated?
Of course we could ask for volunteers, pilot schools, or pathfinders, and establish quantifiable
comparisons. Let us suppose these demonstrations were even possible: we will always be able
to say that the pathfinders certainly have merit, but that they are not representative of the rest of
their colleagues. To transfer the invention mechanically from one school or training service to
other schools with the expectation that it will really be installed is logically impossible. What
innovators invent, they alone are committed and organized enough to keep going. You don’t
buy a whole new work organization as you would a new lighter.
If teachers have a romantic and rather exclusive relationship with their work, this is not
necessarily irrational or irresponsible. So we must allow that some resistance on the part of
teachers is reasonable, which does not mean it cannot be debated. Since convictions (not to say
beliefs) are strongly entrenched and since in the end there are all kinds of good reasons not to
change the state of the art to which we are attached, it is as well as to appear pragmatic and
use every available means: carry out experiments, study their effects, produce knowledge and
new skills, establish standards, promote existing practices, say goodbye to others, negotiate
arrangements, give guarantees, etc.
There is an immense gap between the logic of prescription and that of permissiveness.
The responsibility of the institution is precisely to create this space, by negotiating a framework
that can both support and limit creativity. One school will begin to rethink its work because it
has become aware of a problem (the inefficiency of repeating a year), another because it has
discovered a new tool (the school council or the portfolio), a third because it has to respond to a
request from an authority (evaluating without grades or changing a history textbook). The best
way to encourage and support these initiatives is not to construct in vitro or in vivo an immediately
transferable model for the organization. It is this detour by way of problematization and analysis
that justifies research and conceptualization, from the point of view of professionalization.
Conclusions
The preceding analyses suggest the importance of breaking down two doors that are less
open than they appear to be.
The first one is the relationship between workers and their work. What are the styles,
modes and forms of subjective relationship that teachers maintain with their work and its
organization? What are the elements of rationality, feeling, attachment and detachment,
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42 conservation and creativity, submission and dissent? Attitudes can vary from one teacher to
another, and they can evolve over time and under the influence of new ideas and practices.
Interests can be conscious or unconscious, explicit or implicit, proclaimed or secret. To think of
the work organization - the observable organization and the desirable organization - is to think
also of the teachers’ relationship to a particular organization, and their relationship to organized
work itself.
The second door is the sum of the transactions between workers and/or work partners.
Representations, standards, judgements, values, visions of the world: all the dimensions of
work and the organization of work are subject to negotiation, discussion, even conflict. External
as well as internal suggestions for change will constrain schools to take a collective position,
make the implicit explicit, shake up the current modus vivendi and get the work organization
out of the obvious and the impenetrable. It is because these transactions are inevitable and
necessary that it is worth observing how they operate and in what way they end up in various
socio-historical contexts.
The interest of a team of researchers and practitioners is that it can connect two stances
and two logics: transforming the work organization and reflecting on its transformations,
understanding the work in order to transform it and transforming it in order to understand it.
The issue for basic research is not to change work but to understand it. Even if - as a secondary
benefit - it means we also change it. Actors or researchers, we all gain from creating a clearer
idea of more or less desirable forms of work organization. At times we produce requirements,
incentives or at least suggestions, and we might better propose good ones than bad. But that
is exactly the function of the research pathway: to analyse our forms of organization to better
understand them, and to understand them in order to make them evolve.
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44 Rorty, R. (2000). Philosophy and Social Hope. New York: Penguin.

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Advised by Michael Schratz, University of Innsbruck, Austria
Received: September 07, 2012 Accepted: November 24, 2012
Monica Gather Thurler PhD, Senior Professor, University of Geneva, LIFE Research Laboratory, Bd. Du
Pont d’Arve 40, CH-2005 Genève, Switzerland.
E-mail: Monica.Gather-Thurler@unige.ch
Website: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/SSE/teachers/gather-thurler/
Olivier Maulini PhD, Professor, University of Geneva, LIFE Research Laboratory, Bd. Du Pont
d’Arve 40, CH-2005 Genève, Switzerland.
E-mail: Olivier.Maulini@unige.ch
Website: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/SSE/teachers/maulini/
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SCHOOL-AGE CARE, AN IDEOLOGICAL 45
CONTRADICTION
Peter Karlsudd
Linnaeus University, Sweden
E-mail: peter.karlsudd@lnu.se
Abstract
In the doctoral dissertation “Children with intellectual disability in the integrated school-age care system”
the extent and goal fulfilment of after-school recreation centre activities in 19 Swedish municipalities
were studied. The study gave high marks to these centres for integrating intellectually disabled children
into their activities. The empirics of the dissertation revealed, however, a number of warning signals,
which indicated an increase in offering “special solutions” to these children.
This article will contain a comparison between the study from 1999 and the one carried out in the spring
of 2011. The two studies have followed the same question construction in order to achieve a comparison
over time. The aim of study, focusing on children received into schools for the intellectually disabled was
to evaluate to what extent integrated activities occurred and to look for factors with a positive impact on
the quality of those after-school activities which gathered children from these and compulsory schools in
the same groups.
On the basis of the comparison made between the 12 years that have passed from the earlier to the later
study, it must be regretfully concluded that segregated activities have gained a firm hold on the activities
of after-school recreation care centres.
Key words: after-school activities, inclusion, integrated, intellectual disability, school-age care system.
Introduction
The child care system in Sweden has been subject to considerable change during the
1990s. The municipalities’ possibilities to create their “own operations” in combination with a
declining economy have been a strong reason for organisational and operational changes. Many
municipalities have been forced to implement savings measures, which have had a negative
impact on operations. Cutbacks in general operations can lead to a general decline in quality
and an increased need of special solutions for the group, which is particularly vulnerable, the
children in need of special support.
After-school teaching is a relatively young profession that has undergone major changes
over the years. The required education has been reformed, the governing documents replaced,
the number of children in after-school activities has increased and the after-school teachers
have expanded duties. 20 years ago after-school care activity focused mainly on care and
nursing. Now the professional role and approach seems more appropriate for the school culture
(Calander, 1999; Gustavson, 2003; Haglund, 2004).
The emphasis during the last four decades has been that Swedish after-school care should
be open to all children. Those children who require special support in their development should
be given priority placement in an integrated organization. The idea behind giving intellectually
disabled children a place in school-age care is to stimulate them through the positive environment
offered by the after-school centre. For a great many children the generally good quality of after-
school activities makes the chief contribution (Karlsudd, 2003; Karlsudd, 2007).
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46 In international agreements, the compulsory school ordinance and curricula it is stated

that segregation in school and school-age childcare should be avoided. Notwithstanding this,
pupils are being regularly placed in special types of school, where the teaching is mostly done
in special groups in special localities and with special teachers. After-school centres, however,
have rarely made a distinction between normal and special activities. The clear objective of
pedagogical and activity goals has been that every child should be included in joint activities.
In the beginning of 2000 clear come signals from the National Board of Health and Welfare
suggesting that a number of municipalities gave clear evidence of gearing towards segregated
after-school activities, i.e. activities in which solely children with intellectual disability are
registered.
According to the Swedish National Agency for Education, the number of pupils in the
compulsory school for the intellectually disabled increased by over 50 percent between 1995
and 2006. This increase has not been proportional to variations in the number of pupils in the
compulsory school; nor can it be related to any established increase in the number of children
with intellectual disabilities in the population at large. The Swedish Schools Inspectorate has
therefore found it necessary to make a close scrutiny of how the registration for the school
for the intellectually disabled is done. A large number of the reports, which are supposed to
form the basis for receiving children into these schools, have turned out to contain serious
deficiencies. The result of this scrutiny is alarming in that it reveals a lack of competence in
all parts of the reports (Skolinspektionen, 2011). There is strong evidence of wrong diagnoses
and unmotivated registration for segregated activities and it is an obvious risk of ambitions for
normalisation and integration being lost. For all these reasons mentioned it is interesting to
use an earlier study (Karlsudd, 1999) and its questions as starting points for following up the
development of activities in the last 12 years.
What has happened to Swedish after-school recreation centres during a period with such
a dramatic registration increase in schools for the intellectually disabled? Has this care type
managed to resist segregating forces and keep its inclusive activities? The following section
will contain a comparison between the study from 1999 and the one carried out in the spring of
2011 (Karlsudd, 2011).
The two studies have followed the same question construction in order to achieve a
comparison over time. The first study came to focus on a group of children in need of special
support, that is children from the special schools’ junior and middle schools attending integrated
day-centre establishments. The study was carried out in 19 municipalities and included 96
handicapped children at 73 institutions. Follow-up interviews took place at 14 institutions in six
municipalities. The aim of the 1999 study, was to evaluate to what extent integrated activities
occurred and to look for factors with a positive impact on the quality of those after-school
activities which gathered children from these and compulsory schools in the same groups. The
information was taken from questionnaires answered by those responsible for the organization,
after-school care personnel and parents. The steering documents “Pedagogical program for day-
centres” (1988:7) and “Child care is for all children” (1991:1) formed a basis for the design of
the questionnaires. The questions were divided into twelve areas, in all of which there was an
obvious connection between the questions and the goals set for activities. To supplement the
questionnaire study a number of follow-up interviews were made with the staff. The distribution
of the study group with regard to sex, age, school type and school child care corresponded well
with the overall distribution then applying in the country.
At the time of the implementation of the study (Karlsudd, 1999) 87 % of children in
schools for the intellectually disabled were placed in integrated after-school care in Sweden.
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As for preschools, over 90 percent of all intellectually disabled children were placed in groups 47
together with the non-intellectually disabled, while only 16 percent of the former were integrated
into compulsory school classes during school hours. Against this background school-child care
appeared as a last resort or sanctuary of inclusiveness, where intellectually disabled children
formed part of groups with the non-intellectually disabled.
To create a picture of the current situation a new study was conducted in 2011 after exact
the same units comprised by the 1999 study.
Research Results
When the study was conducted in 1998 there were three segregated after-school
recreation centres in the 19 municipalities. The total number of intellectually disabled children
in segregated activities was 12. At the corresponding study in the spring of 2011 there were
eleven segregated after-school centres with 57 children from the school for the intellectually
disabled (Table 1). This means an increase of 266 percent of the number of segregated centres
and a 375 percent increase of the number of intellectually disabled children in segregated
activities. The total number of after-school care children did not increase notably during the
period in question.
At the 1998 study 96 children from schools for the intellectually disabled were registered
at 73 integrated after-school centres. In the study made in 2011 90 children from such schools
were registered at 40 integrated centres (Table 1).
Table 1. The relation between integrated and segregated after-school care ac-
tivities in 19 municipalities in 1998 and 2011.
A study conducted in 19 municipalities 1998 2011

Number of segregated after-school centres 3 11
Number of children from schools for the intellectually disabled in

12 57
segregated after-school centres
Number of integrated after-school centres 73 40
Number of children from schools for the intellectually disabled in

96 90
integrated after-school centres
On the basis of the question construction used in the earlier study interviews were made
with 12 recreational pedagogues who were working or had previously been working with
intellectually disabled children integrated in after-school care centres. The questions investigated
the leisure pedagogues opinion of the goal fulfillment for the integrated children. The strategy
behind the sampling of recreational pedagogues was to achieve a broad representation. The
follow-up study may offer important clues to how the development has proceeded during the 13
years that have passed since the first study was completed (Karlsudd, 2009; Karlsudd, 2011).
The method used for the interview and transcripts can be likened to that Kvale (1997)
names “purport concentration”. Long statements are condensed into shorter statements, in
which the essential meaning of what was said rephrased in a few words. “This process reduces
major interview texts to brief and concise formulations. The result could be clearly divided into
four sections namely, organization and resources; fulfilling; responsibility and planning and
competence.
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48 1) Organization and resources
The children from schools for the intellectually disabled who were now placed in
integrated activities form part of considerably larger groups. The drastic increase in the number
of segregated after-school care children is quite apparent. In the earlier study of 1998 the staff of
the after-school centres suggested a number of possible improvements in information, support
and supervision in connection with placing the children from the schools for the intellectually
disabled. A fairly great number of the staff considered the efforts insufficient. Nevertheless,
the acclimatization worked well as a rule, largely because of the staff’s positive attitude to the
placement.
In the 2011 follow-up study the staff reported that children from the school for the
intellectually disabled more seldom took part in the after-school activities. This corresponds
well with the information presented in Table 1. The acclimatization is described as problem free,
since the intellectually disabled children used to go along with their classmates in preschool
activities. For a few after-school centres it is natural to include the intellectually disabled in
their activities. These centres are infused with distinctly expressed fundamental values and with
an attitude that may be defined as an inclusive culture. This staff believes that the parents of
the intellectually disabled appreciate that their children attend ordinary after-school care. The
management, too, looks upon inclusiveness as an important principle for the activities.
At other after-school care centres the idea of inclusiveness is far from prevalent. In the
interviews the staff of these centres give the impression of having a fairly normative view of
children from the school for the intellectually disabled. Words like “very special, fuzzy cases,
typical intellectually disabled children, feather-brained” are some of the expressions that may
be heard in their descriptions of the children.
The staff contact with children and parents was on the whole very satisfactory in the earlier
study. Contacts with the schools for the intellectually disabled were less so as compared with
the contacts with the compulsory school. Today the contacts seem better in comparison with
the earlier study. They are now considered satisfactory in relation to both types of school One
explanation may be that the activities now lie closer to one another in the physical sense.
2) Chances of fulfilling after-school centre goals for children with intellectual disabilities
In the earlier study the staff assessed the chances of fulfilling the goals and tasks of after-
school recreation centres with regard to the intellectually disabled as somewhat less than for
other children. The explanation given was that such children required special efforts and made
a much higher demand on the competencies of the staff. Nonetheless, the situation of these
children in integrated activities was fairly good. The parent group appreciated these activities
very highly. Still, there were quite a few children involved in the activities for which the goals
were not satisfactorily met.
According to the follow-up study the recreation pedagogues found it difficult to reach the
goals for every child, since too many children are registered. Some interviewees considered it
more difficult to integrate other groups of children, like those with neuropsychiatric impairment,
since such children often need greater efforts, while the special resources required seldom
accompany the placement. Resources for intellectually disabled children are generally linked to
school activities but are non-existent in the after-school centres. Hence it is hard for the staff to
find enough time and create the necessary peace and quiet.
The earlier study showed that the internal environment was important for goal fulfillment.
In several municipalities after-school recreation activities had been moved to school premises,
which were mostly described as being less adapted for the purpose. The lack of small rooms was
mentioned. No reduction of the number of children in the groups was made to counterbalance
the presence of children from the school for the intellectually disabled.
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Today after-school centre units have substantially more children in their groups than 49
previously. There are examples of groups with more than 60 children. The centres are as a rule
located in school premises, which are described as crowded and with sound levels that are
hard to adjust. Some recreational pedagogues find it hard to adapt activities to a child in need
of special support when they have so many children to consider. If a child, for example, finds
in difficult to watch pictures on the walls, everyone has to stay in a stripped-down internal
environment. Only a few centres have succeeded in adapting toys and environment to suit all
children.
3) Division of responsibility, planning and competence development
In the earlier study the importance of having an extra person employed for the placement
was emphasized. In the organizations that lacked such resources there were many who felt in
need of staff reinforcement. Changes in the economic terms stamped the activities in the years
preceding the millennium shift and several centres lost the extra staff originally recruited for
the individual child.
There are clear indications in the follow-up study of a dwindling number of assistants. The
division of responsibility for work with the intellectually disabled children looks different.
Some after-school centres have extra staff tied to the child as well as clear rules of procedure.
The staff is concerned that an assistant who directs all the energy towards one special child
may affect this child’s sense of belonging with other children negatively. There are many who
underline the important function of other children in supporting the integrating processes.
Shared responsibility is thus the rule of the thumb.
It was established in the earlier study that planned and structured observation seldom
occurred. The same goes for planning that focused on the intellectually disabled child. The
explanation given was lack of time. These children took part in all activities without any special
measures taken. Still, some of those interviewed thought that adaptations of activities on behalf
of the intellectually disabled children often benefited other children as well. In assessing the
situation of the former the staff relied largely on spontaneous observations. Planning and
implementation of measures were often based on unsystematized or unstructured experiences.
Although the placement of the child was said to affect the planning of activities it did not push
the other children in the group into the background.
In this respect the later study corresponds well to earlier results. There are also examples
of more focused planning and documentation, perhaps thanks to special needs teachers in the
compulsory school. Activities in schools for the intellectually disabled have approached those
of after-school recreation centres, since school and centre are located in the same premises,
which increases the accessibility to supervision and special competencies.
According to the earlier study, a large part of the staff was dissatisfied with the knowledge
they had acquired in their basic education. Since very little time was set aside for continuing
professional development it happened frequently that the staff tried to increase their knowledge
in their spare time. A few work teams developed their competencies in giving guidance, seeing
the great need for guidance and support. Some of the interviewees in the later study claim that
the education received, if any, focuses on school activities. As far as guidance is concerned it
may have improved through approaching the activities of schools.
4) Attitude to integration/inclusiveness
The earlier study confirmed that the parents of intellectually disabled children experienced
the child’s placement in integrated activities as very positive. This was of special importance
since this has been often the longest time the child joined a group of its own age from the
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50 compulsory school. Very few of the other parents and children experienced the integration
negatively. One explanation may be that most of the children and adults had previously met
intellectually disabled children in integrated preschool activities. Integration was thus seen as
something natural.
Even in the follow-up study the staff claimed that most of the other parents experienced
the integrated activities positively. The staff has a good contact throughout with the parents of
the intellectually disabled children. The other children who have been together with these in
preschool are described by the staff as being more tolerant. This may be evidence that a more
accepting attitude to handicapped people de facto grows out of such meetings. Naturally, there
are also some who find it problematic to work in integrated activities.
In the earlier study integration as a principle was well anchored among the staff. Among
the circumstances that the staff considered most important for a successful integration were
sufficient personnel resources or a care assistant.
In the follow-up study there were many among the staff who stated clearly that integration/
inclusiveness was a good principle for after-school care activities, but there were also those that
were not as convinced. Some thought that it depended on the individual child whether it would
qualify for taking part in inclusive activities. As the terms obviously change from one year
to another the staff then wish to reconsider the principle. Several interviewees express their
support for the traditional school for intellectually disabled children. Many, however, find the
economic terms unsatisfactory. There is a willingness to integrate but the resources available
put a stop to this type of activity. All in all, quite a few positive comments on the advantages of
integration are manifested in the interviews with the staff.
Discussion
It seems as though after-school recreation centres have lost a great deal of their
responsibility for including all children in joint activities. The increasing segregation within
school is exactly replicated in the activity of the after-school centres. Obviously, the same
division obtains between children in the centres as in the school organization. Some centres
may be described as focusing on relations, with a staff viewing children’s dissimilarities as a
resource, whereas in others the dissimilarities are looked upon as a deficiency, which should be
better compensated for in separated activities. Quite clearly, the economy and the restructuring
of activities have played a decisive role in this context. The size of the child group and changes
in the attitude to the teaching mission are some of the reasons for this. On the basis of the
comparison made between the 12 years that have passed from the earlier to the later study, it
must be regretfully concluded that segregated activities have gained a firm hold on the activities
of after-school recreation care centres.
Conclusions and Implications
That the establishments’ quality is to a large extent dependent on the conditions surrounding
the personnel’s situation is a kind of decision-making where the pedagogical implications have
their base. The atmosphere among personnel has proved to have considerable importance in the
fulfillment of the objectives and it is important that extra resources are reserved for this and that
the personnel continuously check that these are used in the right way.
School-age child care system maintain an integration tradition which must be developed.
The establishments have many valuable educational aspects. It is therefore necessary that these
experiences come to the fore in the cooperation now taking place with schools and that the
carriers of tradition are accorded real influence in future work. There has obviously been a low
level of activity during the last ten years regarding research into the integration of children and
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young people with mental handicaps. The child care system includes many of these children and 51
its work deserves greater attention. Allocating resources for research into this area is, therefore,
logical. As the last integration sanctuary no longer functions there is a need for comprehensive
measures to restore the original ideas and ideals.
References
Calander, F. (1999). Från fritidens pedagog till hjälplärare. Fritidspedagogers och lärares yrkesrelation
i integrerade arbetslag. Uppsala universitet.
Gustavsson, J. (2003). Integration som text, diskursiv och social praktik. (Göteborg Studies Educational
Sciences 199) Göteborg: Acta universitatis Gothoburgensis.
Haglund, B. (2009). Fritid som diskurs och innehåll. En problematisering av verksamhet vid”afterschool-
programs” och fritidshem. Pedagogisk forskning i Sverige, (1), (22-44).
Karlsudd, P. (1999). Särskolebarn i integrerad skolbarnsomsorg. Malmö: Institutionen för pedagogik,
Lärarhögskolan i Malmö.
Karlsudd, P. (2003). Children with intellectual disability in the integrated school-age care system.
Interaction, 16 (2).
Karlsudd, P. (2007). The “Narrow” and the “Wide” activity: The circumstances of integration. The
International Journal of Disability, Community & Rehabilitation, 6 (1).
Karlsudd, P. (2011). ”Integreringsreservatet”– finns det kvar? Klerfelt, A. & Haglund, B. (Ed.).
Fritidspedagogik - Fritidshemmets teorier och praktiker. Stockholm: Liber.
Kvale, S. (1997). Den kvalitativa forskningsintewjun. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Socialstyrelsen. (1991). Barnomsorgen är för alla barn (Allmänna råd från socialstyrelsen). Stockholm.
Socialstyrelsen (1998). Pedagogiskt program för fritidshem. Stockholm: Allmänna förlaget.
Skolinspektionen (2011). Särskolan. Granskning av handläggning och utredning inför beslut om
mottagande. Stockholm: Skolinspektionen.
Peter Karlsudd Professor, Linnaeus University, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden.

E-mail: peter.karlsudd@lnu.se
Website: http://lnu.se/employee/peter.karlsudd?l=en
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52
SELECTED FACTORS AFFECTING GIRLS’
PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL
EDUCATION IN KENYA
Benjamin C. Kipkulei,Micah C. Chepchieng
Egerton University, Egerton, Kenya
E-mail: kipkuleibenjamin@yahoo.com, mchemobo@yahoo.com
Mary J. Chepchieng
Kabarak University, Kabarak, Kenya
E-mail: mary.chemobo@yahoo.com
Lydia M. Boitt
Egerton University, Kenya
E-mail: lydiamonny@yahoo.com
Abstract
The girl child participation in primary school level of education has become a real concern in all nations
of the World particularly in the developing countries of the Sub-Saharan Africa, Kenya included. Girl child
education worldwide provides benefits to the family and the society at large thus factors affecting it should
be addressed for the sake of human and societal development. The objective of the study was to establish
the factors affecting girls’ participation in primary schools in Kenya. Specifically, the study investigated
the effect socio-economic, socio-cultural and school -based factors have on a girl-child’s participation in
primary school education in Kenya. In some parts of Kenya, there is low girls’ participation in primary
school education thus the interest in establishing the factors that may be contributing to this problem.
This was considered crucial as Kenya strives to achieve basic Education for All by 2015. The study
employed a survey design. 210 girls drawn from primary classes 6, 7 and 8 participated in the study. The
simple random technique was used in the selection of the sample. A questionnaire was used to collect
data that were analyzed by use of descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages). The findings of the
study revealed that socio-economic, socio-cultural and school related factors affect girls’ participation
in primary schools in Kenya. In effect, unless these factors are expeditiously addressed, primary school
girls will continue to be disadvantaged in the Kenya’s school system. This will frustrate the world’s
efforts in attaining basic education for all by 2015. The study therefore recommended that the Ministry
of Education in Kenya should create awareness to all education stakeholders on the importance of girl
child education in the country. It was also recommended that a large scale study involving sub-Saharan
Africa developing nations experiencing low girls’ participation in education be carried out to falsify or
corroborate the findings.
Key words: education, factors, girls’ participation, socio-economic, socio-cultural, school-based.
Introduction
Since the World Declaration of Education for All (EFA) in 1990, many developing
countries, Kenya included have been making strides to realize the universalization of primary
education as well as to minimize illiteracy rates among their populations. Particularly, greater
efforts have been made by governments worldwide to improve the education of women. This
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is due to the research studies that show that two-thirds of those who cannot read and write are 53
women and that 60% of children not in school are girls (World Bank, 1995 cited in Adetunde
& Akampae, 2008). If this trend is not checked, imbalances in enrollment of girls in primary
schools will affect their enrollment in secondary schools and other levels of education. As a
result, widening gaps in earnings between men and women will continue to be witnessed in the
society. Besides, educational status of women in any nation has been known to correlate with its
level of development. According to Adebola, Anyachebelu and Madu (2012), the higher the level
of girls’ education status, the more developed a nation is. However, even with this knowledge
about women education, inequality in female participation in education is still glaring despite
commitments by various governments to the attainment of the Millennium Development goal
of 8th of September, 2000 that by the year 2015 all children worldwide of both genders would
have equal access to all levels of education. This witnessed inequality is attributed to a myriad
of factors. The authors of the paper therefore focused on how some selected factors affect girl
child participation in primary schools in Kenya. Specifically, socio-economic, socio-cultural
and school-based factors were investigated. In the society where the study was situated, the
education of boys is seen as more important than that of girls. But as to how such a socio-
cultural factor and other related factors affect girls participation in education is of paramount
importance in order to come up with effective interventions that will facilitate achievement of
gender parity in education.
Problem of the Research
Despite the critical role female education plays in the society, Kenya still witnesses
gender disparity in all levels of education, 49 years after independence. The affected level is
the primary where the enrollment of girls is still below 50%. The Kenyan government has put
in efforts to address this situation that includes introduction of Free Primary Education from
class one to eight. But, even with this, gender disparities are still observed in performance,
access, retention, transition in primary education (Ministry of Education, 2007). Consequently,
there is need to investigate the factors that militate against girl participation in primary school
education in Kenya.
Research Focus
In Africa where the current study was done, girls’ primary school enrolment accounts for
only 57% of the school-age population as compared with 75% to boys, (Adetunde & Akampae,
2008). This gender disparity in education seems to cut across continents. Research studies for
instance, UNICEF (2005) as cited in Arai and Tabata (2006) show that South Asia was not to
reach gender parity by the end of 2005, and unlikely to achieve Universal Primary Education by
2015. In Britain, research by Skelton, Francis and Valkanova (2007) found out that education
continues to be experienced along gendered lines despite long term efforts to equalize boys and
girls education.
Several studies have shown that female education worldwide provides benefits to the
family and the society at large (Adebola, Anyachebelu & Madu, 2012; Adetunde & Akampae,
2008; Mwangi, Mungai, & Chiuri, 2001). Hence, there is a continuous need to study the factors
that negatively affect girls’ participation in education so as to make education accessible to
them to enable them contribute meaningfully to communities and nations’ development.
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54 Methodology of Research
General Background of the Research
The design adopted for the study was a survey. The study was carried out in the Barwessa
Division of Baringo District, Kenya. The division is situated in an Arid and Semi-Arid (ASAL)
area and it is one of the most affected areas in Kenya in relation to girls’ participation in primary
school education.
Sample of the Research
The study targeted a population of 882 school girls enrolled in classes 6, 7 and 8
drawn from 10 primary schools. These classes were chosen because pupils at these levels of
primary education in the Kenyan education system are able to read, understand and respond
to questionnaire items with little difficulty as compared to those at lower grades. In Kenya,
the primary level of education ends at class 8. Normally, the class 8 pupils are not involved
particularly if a study is a carried out when they are busy preparing for their national examination.
However, this study was carried out at a time when their participation was not detrimental
to their examination preparation. Out of the targeted population, a sample size of 210 girls
participated in the study. The simple random technique was used to select 21 girls from each
school (7 girls per class).
Instrument and Procedures
A questionnaire was used in the collection of data from the respondents. The questionnaire
had three sections, A, B and C which addressed the socioeconomic, socio-cultural and school
based factors affecting girls’ participation respectively. The questionnaire was structured on
a five point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Uncertain (U), Disagree (D) and
Strongly Disagree (SD). The questionnaire was validated by two research experts in educational
psychology. Through the validation, experts were asked to check on the clarity of instructions
to respondents, wordings of items, and appropriateness and adequacy of the items in addressing
the variables of interest. The experts’ recommendations on the instrument made the researchers
to modify some items of the instrument. Further, a pilot study was done in three primary schools
to get the perspectives of the respondents on the items and also to establish the reliability of the
instrument. The reliability was determined using the Cronbach’s Alpha method. The coefficient
alpha of the instrument was 0.89. This value was 0.19 points above the recommended threshold
of 0.7 (Kathuri & Pals, 1993; Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000). As such, the instrument was considered
highly reliable for use. From the group of the respondents, at least 96.5% of them responded to
the items.
Data Analysis
The selected factors that affect girls’ participation in primary school education were
grouped into various categories: socioeconomic, socio-cultural and school based factors. To
establish the extent to which the factors affect girl child participation in education, descriptive
statistics were applied. Consequently, frequency and percentage tables were generated.
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Results of Research 55
Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Girls’ Participation in Primary School Education
Socioeconomic factors considered in the study were: Parental income, education and
occupation. The respondents were asked to give a response about the factor(s) they perceived to
have affected their participation in primary education by indicating their levels of agreement as
per the Likert scale’s levels of intensities: Strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree and strongly
disagree. The level indicated in this study showed the extent to which the factor responded to
has affected the pupils’ participation in primary school education.
Results show that 74% of the girls strongly agreed that income of parents affect their
participation in primary school education whereas 21.5% agreed. Thus, cumulatively 95.5% of
the girls are in agreement that indeed parental income is a factor that has affected them. High
parental income enables parents to meet the basic needs, regularly buy school uniforms, food,
learning materials and sanitary towels for their daughters. However, in a society such as the
one the study was carried out where the education of boys is seen as more important than that
of girls, the needs of the girls may not be considered by their parents hence make them to miss
or completely drop out of school. In Kenya, the Free Primary Education that was introduced
in 2002 only caters for tuition and basic learning materials and not uniforms, food and sanitary
towels among other needs for girls. This may be the reason why despite the introduction of Free
Primary Education, gender disparities are still observed in performance, access, retention and
transition particularly in Arid and Semi-Arid areas of the country.
On Parental education, results reveal that 35% and 56.5 % strongly agreed and agreed
respectively that parental education affects girls’ participation in education, while only 2.5% and
5% were undecided and disagreed respectively that parental education affects girls’ participation
in education. Therefore, on the overall, majority (91.5%) of the girls agreed that parental level
of education has militated against their participation in education. The results of this research
has proved that there is a close coherence between the meaning of education to parents and their
children’s participation in education, that is if education is regarded as a value in the family,
there are high chances that children will participate in education. Consequently, parents and
other family members are role models for their children or siblings in education matters.
Observation on the association between parental occupation and girls’ education
clearly shows that 82.5% of the girls positively agreed that a parent’s occupation affects girls’
participation in education. Only 13% and 11% of the respondents were undecided and disagreed
respectively with this view. Generally, parents with higher education tend to secure gainful
occupations and hence enhanced incomes which lead to acquisition of better resources, self-
esteem and more increased girls’ motivation to pursue education. It can therefore be concluded
that parental income, education and occupation as indicators of socioeconomic status greatly
affect girls’ participation in education. However, out of these three factors, parental income and
education are the leading factors.
Table 1. Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Girls’ Participation in Primary Educa-

tion.
Girls’ Responses
Factors SA A U D SD
f % f % f % f % f %
Parental income 148 74 43 21.5 3 1.5 11 5.5 0 0
Parental level of education 70 35 113 56.5 5 2.5 10 5 2 1
Parental occupation 73 36.5 92 46 13 6.5 22 11 0 0
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56 Socio-cultural Factors Affecting Girls’ Participation in Primary School Education
The socio-cultural factors examined were Female Genital Mutilation, Early Marriage and
Parental attitudes towards the girl-child education. The respondents were required to respond
to each item by indicating strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree or strongly disagree as
earlier explained in Table 1.
The results show that socio-cultural affects of girl-child participation in primary school
education in Kenya. 92% of the girls positively agreed that Female Genital Mutilation (FGM),
as a socio-cultural factor has affected their participation in primary school education. FGM has
been known to have a wide range of psychological and psychosomatic disorders. According to
Kiptiony (2008), girls may experience disturbances in sleep patterns, mood and cognition. Abor
(2006) in a study done in Ghana revealed that FGM affects both the physical and psychological
well-being of a girl-child due the female genital deformation and mental torture resulting
from the pain undergone. With such effects, a girl-child may lack the requisite attention and
concentration for good academic performance. Consequently, such a child may fail in school
work, experience low self-esteem and eventually drop out of school. Greater effect is observed
in parental attitude towards girls where 98% of the girls positively agreed that it is critical
factor. In a study carried out in Pakistan, gender disparity in education is attributed to a large
extent to the parent’s attitude against girls (Arai & Tabata, 2006). In this country, parents do not
give permission to the girls to go to school. It seems then that this socio-cultural factor may be
cutting across many regions of the world.
Early marriage is another socio-cultural factor that 91% of the girls identified as affecting
their participation in primary school education. Early marriage denies a girl-child the opportunity
to attend school. In some rural Arid and Semi-arid areas of Kenya, parents still arrange some
marriages for their children. When this is done, it is usual for the girl-child as young as 12 years
to quit school thus the level of education and marrying age parents expect of their daughters
is coherent. On the teenage pregnancies, 93.5 % of the girls positively agreed that it is a factor
militating against their education. In Kenya, girls who become pregnant usually face a lot of
ridicule from their fellow pupils to the extent that it would be difficult for them to return to
school after giving birth. Though the government and Non-Governmental organizations have
been very supportive to such girls and even give them a leeway to join schools of their choice
to recover from the pregnancy stigma, this has born little fruit, an indication that it is a serious
stigma that require psychological interventions.
It is evident from the study that out of the four socio-cultural factors examined; parental
attitude against girls is the most recognized factor. This could explain the scenario where in
spite of the commitment on the side of the government to decrease financial burden of parents
through the provision of Free Primary Education, acceptable levels of school enrolment and
gender parity in primary education does not seem to be forthcoming.
Table 2. Socio-cultural Factors Affecting Girls’ Participation in Primary Educa-

tion.
Girls’ Responses
SA A U D SD
Factors f % f % f % f % f %
Female Genital Mutilation 128 64 56 28 7 3.5 7 3.5 0 0
Parental attitude towards Girls 136 68 60 30 4 2 1 0.5 0 0
Early Marriage 110 55 72 36 11 5.5 5 2.5 2 1
Teenage Pregnancies 37 18.5 150 75 8 4 3 1.5 0 0
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School-based Factors Affecting Girls’ Participation in Education 57
The school-based factors the pupils responded to were Learning materials (books and
stationery), Teacher-pupil interaction and Adequacy of sitting furniture. The respondents were
required to respond to each item by indicating strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree or
strongly disagree as earlier explained in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 3. School-based Factors Affecting Girls’ Participation in Primary Educa-

tion.
Girls’ Responses
SA A U D SD
Factors
f % f % f % f % f %
Learning materials 128 64 56 28 7 3.5 7 3.5 - -
Teacher-pupil interaction 136 68 60 30 4 2 1 0.5 - -
Adequacy of sitting furniture for girls 110 55 72 36 11 5.5 5 2.5 2 1
It is evident from the results shown in Table 3 that cumulatively, 92% of the respondents
positively agreed to the learning materials to be a school-based factor contributing to their
participation in education. In Kenya, the Free Primary Education provides basic text books,
teaching aids and stationery, meaning that the girls still depend highly on their parents or
guardians to provide class texts and stationery.
On teacher-pupil interaction, it is observed that 98% of the girls identified this as a
factor. This implies that each individual teacher creates a learning climate either through formal
or informal interactions with pupils. Pupils are human first and learners second. Thus, the
school is not only an educational institution for teachers to enhance pupils’ learning but also an
interactive community of human beings.
Finally, the adequacy of sitting furniture was explored. Results indicate that 91% of
the pupils both strongly agreed and agreed that this school factor is a contributor to their
participation in education. In rural parts of Kenya, particularly in Arid and Semi-arid areas,
school infrastructure is not good including pupil seats. Many pupils both boys and girls share
a seat/bench and some, particularly girls may be uncomfortable squeezing on one seat. In
effect, some especially the mature ones may opt out of school. The study result clearly shows
that availability of resources enhances or promotes girls’ participation in education, while
inadequacy of these resources adversely affects their participation.
Discussion
Previous research indicates that socioeconomic factors play a critical role in children’s
education. For instance, Brock and Camish (1997) show that the economic factor, especially
in terms of grinding poverty and hunger adversely affect female participation in education,
especially in rural areas. Literature further indicate that girls from better off homes, who live
in urban areas are more likely to enroll and remain in school for longer period than those from
poorer home and rural areas (World Bank, 1995). Moreover, in many countries where parents
are required to pay school fees, buy school furniture, textbooks and uniforms; an economic
commitment that poorer or average parents cannot meet, such parents may choose not to send
girls to school (Kabira & Masinjila, 1997; World Bank, 1995). According to World Bank (1995)
in a study carried out in Zimbabwe, at the onset of menstruation, girls who have no underwear
or sanitary protection remain at home while menstruating and this undermines their confidence
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58 on their return to school and ultimately contributes to early drop out. Several other studies
(Guthrie, 1978; Lietz, 1996; OECD, 2001, 2002; Purves, 1973; Taube, 1988) all cited in Geske
and Ozola (2008) show parents’ level of education and socioeconomic position of the family
play an important role in the learning achievements of their children. Learning achievements
of children is critical in determining whether they will remain in school or not. In this study,
results reveal that out of the three socioeconomic factors i.e parental income, parental level
of education and parental occupation; parental income and level of education emerged as the
critical factors influencing girl-child participation in education in Kenya.
The results of the research also show that socio-cultural factors affect girls’ participation
in education. The results corroborate other researches that found early marriage can deny a
girl the opportunity of going to school (Adebola, Anyachebelu & Madu, 2012; Arai & Tabata,
2006). Usually, girls who drop out of school to get married are difficult to return to school after
marriage. This could be attributed to what Udoh (2001) as cited in Adebola, Anyachebelu and
Madu, (2012) noted that early responsibility of motherhood thrust on a girl would sentence her
to life of hopelessness. Studies on Female Genital Mutilation, show that its effects are both
physical and psychological (Delano, 1999 cited in Adebola, Anyachebelu & Madu, 2012; Abor,
2006; Kiptiony, 2008). For example heavy bleeding and frequency in passing of urine which
are some of the aftermaths of FGM results in pain, infections and low self-esteem which are
potential in affecting girls’ classroom attention and concentration consequently affecting their
learning achievements.
Studies have revealed that parental attitude towards a son and a daughter is a fundamental
cultural factor. Particularly, the attitude of fathers has been established to be a key factor in
encouraging or restricting the schooling of their daughters (Arai & Tabata, 2006; Brock &
Camish, 1997). These findings are in agreement with the present study result where 98% of the
girls identified parental attitude against them to be a paramount factor in their participation in
schooling.
In many countries, some pupils are responsible for covering some of their educational costs
particularly in rural poor families. For young girls in upper primary school, the responsibility
for covering their educational costs often leads to sexual relationships with older men who are
willing to exchange sexual favours with financial support. Such relationships carry the risk of
teenage pregnancy which deters their schooling (Chepchieng & Kiboss, 2004; World Bank,
1995).
The interactions which teachers have with pupils are of great importance to pupils’
schooling. Studies have proved that interactions with peers and teachers in school or college are
important social factors that could impact the psychological well-being of a child particularly
those approaching or already in adolescence (Feldman & Newcomb, 1969 as cited in Perez,
2012). The psychological well-being as Perez (2012) noted could lead to adaptive human
functioning and positive life experiences. In effect, a child with good psychological well-being
will persistently pursue education despite challenging life experiences. In this study, the girls
identified teacher-pupil interactions as the major school-based factor affecting their participation
in education.
Conclusions
The study established parental income as a leading socioeconomic factor affecting girls’
education. This is closely followed by parental education; meaning there is a close coherence
between the meaning of education to parents and their children’s participation in education.
Thus, if education is regarded as a value in the family, there are high chances that children will
participate in education.
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Also, the study has revealed that girls are affected by some socio-cultural factors. 59
Specifically,
Parental attitude towards the girls has been shown to adversely affect their participation
in education. On the school-based factors, interactions of teachers with pupils, either inside the
classroom or outside the classroom, exert a great deal of impact on pupils’ education.
Since the education of female is paramount to the development of a nation, a girl faced
with socioeconomic, socio-cultural and school challenges will not progress in schooling hence
cannot do much in the development of a nation at the community, regional and national levels.
Recommendations
Considering the findings of the study, governments and Non-governmental organizations

need to step up their efforts to eliminate the socio-cultural practices that disadvantage the girl-
child in order to achieve gender parity in education. The Kenyan government in particular,
should continue offering the Free Primary Education and even enhance it more to decrease the
financial burdens of poor parents. In addition, the Ministry of Education in Kenya should create
awareness to all education stakeholders on the importance of girl child education in the country.
Finally, a large scale study involving sub-Saharan Africa developing nations experiencing low
girls’ participation in education to be carried out to falsify or corroborate the findings.
References
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The case of Kayoro traditional area in Ghana. Journal of Gender and Behaviour, 4 (1), 659-684
Adebola, H., Anyachebelu, F. E., & Madu, C. O. (2012). Towards empowerment of the Nigerian
girl-child, the socio-cultural diagnosis. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 2 (3), 29-
34.doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n3p29
Adetunde, I. A., & Akampae, P. A. (2008). Factors affecting the standard of female education: A case
study of senior secondary schools in the Kassena-Nankana District. Journal of Social Sciences, 4
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Arai, K., & Tabata, Y. (2006). Socio-cultural factors affecting girls’ limited access to school education
in North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. November APERA Conference, Hong Kong (28-
30). Retrieved on October 16, 2012 from, http://edisdat.ied.edu.hk/pubarch/b15907314/full_
paper/1394178079.pdf
Brock, C., & Camish, N. (1997). Factors affecting female participation in education in seven developing
countries. Education Research Paper No.9, 1993 (2nd Ed.). Oxford: Department for International
Development.
Chepchieng, M. C., & Kiboss, J. K. (2004). Influence of family socio-economic status and gender on
students’ academic performance. Journal of Education and Human Resource, 2 (2), 50-62.
Delano, G. E. (1999). Mother and child health. A handbook for traditional birth attendants and other
health workers. Association for Reproductive and & Family Health, Ibadan Ikolaba.
Adebola, H., Anyachebelu, F. E., & Madu, C. O. (2012). Towards empowerment of the Nigerian girl-
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Francisco: McGraw Hill.
Geske, A., & Ozola, A. (2008). Factors influencing reading and literacy at the primary school Level.
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60 Guthrie, J. T. (1978). Research views: comics. In: Geske, A., & Ozola, A. (2008). Factors Influencing
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Kiptiony, G. J. (2008). A Knifeless Rite: Influence of Selceted Characteristics on the Marakwet of Kenya’s
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Mwangi, G., Mungai, V. W., & Chiuri, L. W. (2001). Using pre-schools to reduce gender imbalance
among science professionals in Sub-Saharan Africa critical issues. Journal of Education and
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Ministry of Education (2007). Gender Policy in Education in Kenya. Nairobi. Government Printers.
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and literacy at the primary school Level. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 6, 71-77.
Perez, J. A. (2012). Gender difference in psychological well-being among Filipino college student
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Skelton, C., Francis, B., & Valkanova, Y. (2007). Breaking down the stereotypes: Gender and achievement
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Taube, K. (1988). Reading acquisition and self-concept (dissertation). In: Geske, A., & Ozola, A. (2008).
Factors Influencing Reading and Literacy at the Primary School Level. Journal of Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 6, 71-77.
Udoh, C. O. (2001). The tragedy of the girl-child. In: Adebola, H., Anyachebelu, F. E., & Madu, C. O.
(2012). Towards empowerment of the Nigerian girl-child, the socio-cultural diagnosis. Journal of
Educational and Social Research, 2 (3), 29-34. doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n3p29.
UNICEF (2005). 2005 and Beyond: Accelerating Girls’ Education in South Asia. In: Arai, K., & Tabata,
Y. (2006). Socio-cultural factors affecting girls’ limited access to school education in North West
Frontier Province of Pakistan. November APERA Conference, Hong Kong (28-30). Retrieved on
October, 16 from http://edisdat.ied.edu.hk/pubarch/b15907314/full_paper/1394178079.pdf
World Bank (1995). Socioeconomic and Sociocultural factors influencing female participation in
Education. Gale, Cengage Learning, September 1 Report.
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61
Advised by Agnaldo Arroio, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Benjamin C. Kipkulei M.Ed, Programme Manager, Baringo District Center for Early Childhood
Education, P. O. Box 6, Kabarnet, Kenya.
E-mail: kipkuleibenjamin@yahoo.com
Micah C. Chepchieng PhD, Senior Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Counselling and Educa-
tional Foundations, Egerton University, P. O Box 536, Egerton, Kenya.
E-mail: mchemobo@yahoo.com
Mary J. Chepchieng M.A., Assistant Lecturer, School of Education and Theology, Kabarak Uni-
versity, Private Bag, Kabarak, Kenya.
E-mail: mary.chemobo@yahoo.com
Lydia M. Boitt M.Ed., Assistant Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Counselling and Edu-
cational Foundations, Egerton University, P. O Box 536, Egerton, Kenya.
E-mail: lydiamonny@yahoo.com
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62
CONSTRUCTING NATIONAL RANKING
METHODOLOGY: DILEMMAS, CHOICES,
AND DECISIONS
Marina Larionova, Olga Perfilieva, Irina Lazutina,

Anastasia Lopatina, Vitaly Nagornov, Lubov Zavarykina
National Research University Higher School of Economics,
International Organisations Research Institute, Moscow, Russian Federation
E-mail: mlarionova@hse.ru, Perfilieva@hse.ru,
ilazutina@hse.ru, umi9umi@gmail.ru,
vnagornov@hse.ru, lzavarykina@hse.ru
Abstract
The Russian universities as well as universities from other countries increasingly compete not only
at the national level, but globally. This trend is reflected in growing interest to universities rankings.
Despite criticism, rankings outcomes are in demand and influence universities’ positioning in the global
higher education area. In Russia several rankings have been recently established, striving to satisfy
needs of various stakeholders. However, all these approaches are single dimensional rankings that use a
composite indicator and weight coefficients. The article presents a rationale and draft methodology of a
multidimensional ranking system in Russia. The authors advocate relevancy of the chosen approach as
it allows them to reflect complexity and diversity of the Russian Higher Education system. Drawing on
the project outcomes, the authors focus on the national multidimensional ranking methodology concept,
choice of indicators, the approbation outcomes, dilemmas and decisions.
Key words: rankings, university ranking, higher education institutions, tertiary education institutions.
Introduction
Driven by globalization and growing demands of various stakeholders modern

universities become more transparent and intensify their engagement with stakeholders.
Enhancing competitiveness and transparency (van Vught & Westerheijden, 2010; Rauhvargers,
2011) strengthening image and reputation at national and international levels (Hazelkorn, 2011)
become key goals for universities’ development. The growing mobility of international students
and researchers worldwide challenge higher education institutions for better quality provision
(OECD, 2010).
Universities are striving for better reputation to attract more talented students and
researchers and such tools as accreditation, quality assurance and academic rankings play an
important role in strengthening their reputation and image.
Despite criticism, rankings are perceived as one of the tools that influence universities’
positioning in the global higher education area. However, some experts consider that international
academic community and governments are obsessed with rankings (Hazelkorn, 2011).
Nevertheless, rankings serve as a useful tool to define universities’ status and competitiveness.
A growing number of various rankings and their popularity in Europe and the USA are explained
by massification, marketisation and globalization of higher education (Shin, & Toutkoushian,
2011). These trends are also relevant for Russia.
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ing National Ranking Methodology: Dilemmas, Choices, and Decisions
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To facilitate modernization, enhance higher education quality, strengthen universities 63

capacities, the Russian government established federal universities (Ministry of Education
and Science RF, 2012, retrieved 5 November, 2012, from URL: http://www.mon.gov.ru) and
national research universities (National Research Universities, 2012, retrieved 5 November,
2012, from URL: http://eng.mon.gov.ru/pro/ved/niu/). This transformation of the Russian
Higher Education System led to increased competition and differentiation among universities
(Drantusova & Knyazev, 2011).
Simultaneously with the above-mentioned trends the Russian universities are making
concerted efforts to get top positions in global rankings. The Russian government set a goal for
the national universities to reach top-positions among global universities by 2020. However, at
the moment the results are modest: there are only two Russian universities in the Times Higher
Education World University Rankings (THE) (The Times Higher Education, 2012, retrieved
5 November from URL: http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/)
and 14 universities in Quacquarelli Symonds World University Rankings (QS Ranking)
(QS Rankings, 2012, retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL: http://www.topuniversities.
com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings).Therefore, special systematic efforts are
required to strengthen the national universities competitiveness in the global higher education
area.
Alongside with the increasing popularity of global academic rankings, the number of
national ranking systems, monitorings and quality assessments are growing. National policy in
higher education is significantly affected by outcomes of the monitorings implemented at the
initiative of the Ministry of Education and Science RF (National Training Foundation, 2012,
retrieved 5 November, 2012, from URL: http://ranking.ntf.ru/).
Problem of Research
Rankings can be developed by media, professional associations, and universities. The

quality of a ranking system is responsibility of its developer. There is no single organization that
assesses rankings quality. The International Observatory on Academic Ranking and Excellence
(IREG) is an independent expert organization that conducts an independent rankings’ audit
and provides recommendations (IREG, 2012, retrieved 5 November, 2012, from URL: http://
www.ireg-observatory.org/). In Russia there have been developed more than 30 tools of higher
education institutions’ external evaluation. They draw close attention of prospective students,
universities and academic community. They are also criticized by various stakeholders
(Rauhvargers, 2011). None of these ranking systems undertook the IREG audit procedure. This
could be explained by the fact that these ranking systems have recently become the focus of
attention.
A comparative analysis of 19 international and 30 Russian ranking systems was
carried out within the framework of the project “Developing and Approbation of a Template
Methodology for National Ranking of Higher Education Institutions” (2011-2013) implemented
by National Training Foundation. The ranking systems were assessed against IREG audit criteria
(Zavarykina, Lopatina, & Perfilieva, 2012). The analysis revealed the number of limitations of
the national ranking systems including:
Inconsistency: some new rankings appear to meet immediate demands and are not repeated
by developers due to lack of institutional, managerial, financial and human resources.
Diversity of target audiences and ranking developers: some rankings are developed to
meet demands of the national education system and are initiated and implemented by the Ministry
of Education and Science RF; other rankings are initiated by media, business community and
are aimed at meeting demands of general public;
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64 Institutional focus: existing ranking systems usually assess higher education institutions
(HEI) but not education programmes;
Limited assessment: only separate functions of higher education institutions are
assessed (usually teaching and research).
A comparative analysis demonstrated that the Russian ranking tools do not fully comply
with the audit criteria of the International Observatory on Academic Ranking and Excellence
(IREG). Crucial limitations of the Russian ranking systems are:
• Lack of transparency;
• Lack of feedback on rankings outcomes from main stakeholders;
• Quality of the received data.
The limitations drawn from the analysis determine the need to elaborate a new approach
to the academic rankings in Russia. The new approach should provide the transparent and
reliable information about the national higher education system functioning. The methodology
of the new academic ranking must consider the diversity and development trends in national
system of higher education as well as to comply with international quality criteria and standards
for ranking development. The multidimensional approach is suggested as the most relevant to
address all the requirements.
Consider limitations of the existing ranking tools in Russia the correct assessment and
comparison of the national higher education institutions are currently challenged, though there
is a great demand for the objective and integrated assessments for the evidence-based policy
making in Russia. Thus, the research project was designed to identify the key elements of the
methodology for the multidimensional academic ranking and to approbate it for the national
higher education system.
Research Focus
The Russian higher education system is highly diversified and presented by a number of
following groups and types of HEIs, including:
• leading universities (Moscow State University, Saint Petersburg University, federal
universities, national research universities);
• other universities (e.g., Tver State University; Ryazan State University);
• engineering and technical higher education institutions (e.g. Irkutsk Technical
University);
• humanitarian and pedagogical higher education institutions (e.g. Russian Humanitarian
University);
• higher education institutions with economics and law programmes (e.g. Rostov State
Economics University);
• agricultural higher education institutions (e.g. Orlov State Agricultural University);
• medical higher education institutions (e.g. St. Petersburg Medical Academy).
The existing Russian ranking practices solve narrow objectives and do not take into
account differentiation and complexity of the Russian Higher Education System as well as do
not facilitate integration of the Russian higher education institutions into the global education
area. The Russian rankings also do not fully comply with the international criteria of rankings’
quality.
An integrated assessment of higher education institutions is required to meet new
challenges of international and national higher education systems development. The presented
article describes a new approach to assessment of national higher education institutions on
the basis of multidimensional ranking that enables to meet objectives of the national higher
education system development.
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Methodology of Research 65
The aforementioned project goal is to develop and approbate a template ranking

methodology of the Russian higher education institutions on the basis of:
• the methodology of comparative analysis of global, national and specialized rankings,

national approaches to evaluation of higher education institutions performance;
• public and expert discussions;
• approbation and evaluation of the outcomes;
• consultations with experts from the International Observatory on Academic Ranking
and Excellence.
The methodology is based on a multidimensional ranking.
The selection of a multidimensional approach to ranking higher education institutions
responds to the diversity of the national higher education system and necessity to take into
account various dimensions of higher education institutions activities. The developed
methodology also takes into account the best international practice that was identified through
a comparative analysis of foreign and international ranking methodologies and their assessment
against IREG audit criteria. (Table. 1)
15 parameters (type of ranking, focus of a ranking, target groups, subject areas, status,
frequency, geographical scope, requirements to the participants, education levels, methodology,
outcomes, criticism, reputation, position of the Russian universities) have been used for
comparative analysis of rankings systems. These parameters enable a common framework for
the comparison (Zavarykina, Lopatina, & Perfilieva, 2012).
Table 1. Characteristics of compared foreign and international ranking method-

ologies.
Type
of methodology Characteristics Methodologies
Academic Rankings of World Universities. (2012).

Retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL: http://www.
shanghairanking.com/
Displays vertical diversity in terms
The Times Higher Education World Universities Rank-
of performance by using indicators.
ings. 2012. Retrieved 5 November from URL: http://www.
Most existing higher education
timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/
rankings take the form of a league
Single-dimen- QS World University Rankings. 2012. Retrieved 1
table.
sional ranking November, 2012, from URL: http://www.topuniversities.
(rankings, com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings
League table – a single-dimensional
league tables) US News Worlds Best Universities Ranking. (2012).
list going from “best” to “worst”,
Retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL:
assigning ordinal numbers to the
http://www.usnews.com/education/worlds-best-universi-
entities which relate only to rank
ties-rankings
and scales of difference.
Guardian Ranking. (2012). Retrieved 1 November, 2012,
from URL:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/universityguide
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66 Does not try to combine education

U-multirank. van Vught, F.A.& Ziegele, F. (2011)
and research rankings, for example,
Centre for Higher Education (CHE) University Rankings.
into single, composite measure
Multidimension- (2012). Retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL: http://
and is often user-driven because
al ranking www.che-ranking.de/cms/?getObject=613&getLang=en
it enables an interactive display of
data.
A system that allocates objects

European Classification of Higher Education. U-map.
to groups on the basis of their
(2012). Retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL: http://
characteristics. It shows horizontal
www.u-map.eu/
diversity, where differences do not
Classification imply ordinary scales of “more”,
The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Edu-
“bigger” or “better”. It is aimed at
cation. (2012). Retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL:
showing diversity of higher educa-
http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org/
tion institutions.
The comparative analysis includes 3 levels:

1 level: Comparative analysis of methodologies on key selected parameters
2 level: Assessing ranking methodologies against the IREG audit criteria
3 level: Identifying key quantitative indicators and assessing these indicators against
criteria of relevance to the Russian education system development objectives, validity and
feasibility of data collection.
The assessment of the analysed methodologies against the IREG audit criteria
demonstrated that multidimensional rankings such as Multirank, CHE University Ranking have
greater compliance with the criteria. However these approaches have their limitations:
• Resource intensity;
• Lack of comparable data on HEIs performance;
• Challenges of ensuring data validity received from surveys;
• Challenges of ensuring data collection procedures validity and quality in case of
large volume of data collecting;
• Difficulties associated with processing of large volume of data;
• Challenge of covering all subject areas.
Despite these limitations the multidimensional ranking enables to design a new approach
to assessment and ranking of higher education institutions. It considers various functions and
types of national higher education institutions and enables to conduct accurate assessment
and comparison of higher education institutions. Following the outcomes of the conducted
analytical research a multidimensional approach became a basis for assessment and ranking of
the national higher education institutions.
Key principles of the template methodology for ranking Russian higher education
institutions build on the features which should a new approach to HEIs assessment should
conform to:
1. The methodology should provide reliable data on performance of higher education
institutions and their position in system of higher education;
2. The methodology should take into account diversity of the Russian higher education
institutions, their missions and functions;
3. The methodology should be a useful tool for users of educational services providing
friendly and easy-to-use-and-interpret information on diversity of higher education
institutions and education programmes;
4. The methodology should take into account diversity of education services users;
5. The methodology should facilitate quality improvement and competitiveness of higher
education institutions;
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6. The methodology should facilitate integration of the Russian higher education 67

institutions into global education and research environment as their position in rankings
is perceived as a “signal” of universities competitiveness;
7. The methodology should be a source of valid data for global and regional rankings.
Five functions of higher education institutions have been identified and included in the
ranking methodology: research, teaching and learning, internationalization, knowledge transfer,
engagement with regional stakeholders. The methodology for ranking Russian higher education
institutions takes into account information needs of the following several target users groups:
1. Prospective students and their parents;
2. Government (central and local);
3. Employers and labour market;
4. Academic community (researchers, lecturers);
5. Business organisations.
A multidimensional approach, used in the methodology, is aimed at achieving maximum
relevance in HEIs assessment and correctness in their comparison. Under a multidimensional
approach an aggregated score is not used to assess and/or compare HEIs.
Multidimensionality of the methodology is based on confluencing several evaluation
areas (figure 1):
• Five identified HEIs functions: teaching, research, knowledge transfer, engagement
with regional stakeholders, internationalization.
• HEIs’ groups identified according to their missions: leading universities (Moscow State
University, Saint Petersburg University, federal and national research universities),
other classical universities, engineering and technical HEIs, humanitarian and
pedagogical HEIs, HEIs with economics and law programmes, agricultural and medical
universities.
• Groups of users identified according to their information needs: prospective students,
academic community, government, business organisations.
Figure 1: Multidimensionality of a new academic ranking methodology.
As outlined in the key methodology principles the mission of the template methodology
is to provide reliable and objective information on HEIs performance to satisfy information
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68 needs of various groups of education services users with account of the Russian higher education
system diversity.
The main goals of the template methodology are, as follows:
• Assessment of higher education institutions against 5 identified functions.
• Developing a database of the Russian higher education system (current state and
development trends) taking into account its diversity, with possibility of creating HEIs
rankings and ratings on specifies indicators.
• Developing a transparent tool for external assessment of the Russian higher education
institutions.
• Contributing to the Russian higher education system development through creating an
information and analytical basis for benchmarking (best practices identification) and
facilitating demand for higher education services in the country.
The multidimensional approach complies with the methodological standards for rankings
development:
• standards for empirical research;
• rankings quality criteria developed by the international expert group on Academic
Ranking and Excellence (IREG) and Berlin principles on ranking higher education
institutions;
• practices on developing global, national and specialist rankings.
The developing approach does not use qualitative data received from surveys of students,
academic staff and employers. This is explained by the lack of specialized national sociological
research. However, inclusion of qualitative data into the multidimensional ranking methodology
is perceived as one of the directions of the Russian higher education system development.
All elements of the multidimensional ranking methodology (in the first instance,
quantitative indicators) have been discussed and evaluated by experts.
Experts’ inputs have been used for:
• indicators identification for each of 5 functional areas of assessment with account of
international and Russian practice;
• assessing indicators against the criteria of relevance to the Russian higher education
system development objectives; their validity; availability; relevance to the
methodology;
• testing the template ranking methodology;
• weighting indicators within each functional area.
On the basis of the experts’ assessment 65 indicators on 5 HEIs’ functions (research,
teaching and learning, internationalization, knowledge transfer, engagement with regional
stakeholders) have been identified.
Sample of Research
There is more than a thousand of higher education institutions in the Russian Federation
(Statistics in Education, 2012, retrieved 1 November, 2012, from URL: http://stat.edu.ru/scr/
db.cgi?act=listDB&t=2_6_1a&ttype=2&Field=All). To construct the sample structure for the
approbation of the developed multidimensional approach to academic ranking 10 per cent of
higher education institutions were selected out of the general totality of HEIs in national system
of higher education. The sample structure takes into account the existing typology of national
HEIs and reflects the geographical distribution of HEIs across the country (Yadov 2007, 95
- 105).
Thus, 148 higher education institutions have been invited to participate in approbation
of the methodology.
The sample structure for the approbation includes:
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• Leading Russian universities (Moscow State University, Saint Petersburg State 69

University);
• Federal universities (9 universities);
• National research universities (29 universities);
• Higher education institutions which received government support of their strategic
development programmes (54 HEIs);
• Higher education institutions which education programmes have been listed as the
best educational programmes (catalogue 2011 – 2012 “Best education programmes:
innovation Russia) (42 HEIs);
• Higher education institutions recommended by experts (10 private HEIs);
• Higher education institutions which expresses interest in taking part in approbation
(3 HEIs).
Selected HEIs demonstrate different missions. Leading national universities such as
Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University are the acknowledged world
leaders of higher education preserve traditions of academic universities with balanced functions
of teaching and research.
As well as the Federal universities (FU) which are also aimed to provide high quality
education and research but with a special focus to the needs of social and economic development
of their regions. Each of federal universities functions in one of nine federal districts.
National Research Universities (NRU) are not affiliated to a special region. There are 29
research universities each of which is aimed at developing applied sciences to meet the needs
of a particular industrial sector (aviation, space navigation, chemicals etc.).
Among other higher education institutions chosen for the approbation different types of
higher education institutions presented. They also have a special vision.
HEIs which received government support of their strategic development programmes
(ME) are committed to a holistic approach to university development and focused on education
quality, international cooperation and networking with regional stakeholders. Most of these
HEIs are regional universities, specialized in engineering, technical, pedagogic or social
sciences programmes. The Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia could be named here as
an example.
Another type of higher education institutions presented in the sample are HEIs with the
best innovative educational programmes recognized by the National Centre for Professional
Accreditation (The Best Educational Programs of Innovate Russia, 2011).
10 privately funded institutions were recommended by experts to be included into the
sample structure. These universities are also members of the National Association of private
HEIs.
The main feature of those HEIs which expressed interest in taking part in approbation
is that they offer special educational programmes in Technology and Engineering and usually
are not covered by national academic rankings. These institutions, however, are interested
in comparing themselves with other universities. The approbation is, therefore provide these
universities an opportunity to attract additional attention to their special programmes.
Thus, this approach enables to include various types of education institutions into the
approbation of the methodology.
The data received within the approbation is used as the base for a pilot ranking of Russian
higher education institutions on 5 functions: research, teaching/learning, internationalization,
knowledge transfer, engagement with regional stakeholders.
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70 Table 2. Sampling structure of the approbation by types of HEIs and their geo-
graphical distribution.
HEI with
Classical Techni- Economics/ Medi- Ag-
Federal Pedag. TO-
universi- cal Law cal ricul.
District HEI TAL
ties HEI pro- HEI HEI
grammes
1 North-Western 7 8 3 3 1 22
2 Central 9 17 8 5 2 1 42
3 Volga 9 12 3 2 1 2 29
4 Southern 3 4 2 1 10
North-Cauca-
5 5 1 1 7
sian
6 Ural 3 3 1 7
7 Siberian 5 7 4 3 2 1 22
8 Far-Eastern 6 2 1 9
TOTAL 47 54 19 17 7 4 148
All 148 universities presented in the sample were invited to the approbation of the
methodology. 103 institutions (A leading university; 8 federal universities; 28 national
research universities; 28 higher education institutions which received government support of
their strategic development programmes and 38 other universities) agreed to take part in the
approbation of the methodology. The sampling structure was saved, but agricultural universities
refused to participate in the project. As the participation in approbation was voluntary the
agricultural universities claimed that they do not have capacities to fill in the questionnaire and
provide the data.
The approbation took place from April to July 2012.
A special toolkit was developed to carry out the approbation. The toolkit included the set
of indicators and the questionnaire as mentioned below.
The set of indicators consists of 65 indicators divided into six groups. These groups
include:
Group А «Higher Education Institution Profile»
Group B «Research»
Group C «Teaching and Learning»
Group D «Internationalization»
Group E «Knowledge Transfer»
Group F «Engagement with Regional Stakeholders»
Each group has its internal structure and content (National Training Foundation, 2012,
retrieved 5 November, 2012, from URL: http://ranking.ntf.ru/)
Group A – Higher Education Institution Profile (A1 – A19)
This group consists of indicators providing general information on HEI. This information
includes indicators such as HEI type (A2), category, group (А3, A4), affiliation (A5),
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organisational and legal form (A6), HEI geographical location (A7) and territorial belonging 71
(A8). Number of students (A9), number of academic staff (A10), number of researchers
(A13), number of non-academic staff (A11) are also included in HEI profile. This group of
indicators enables to define HEI’s capacities for education services provision. Information on
undergraduate education programmes (A12), and on opportunities for postgraduate education
(PhD and doctorate programmes) (A14, A15) is added to provide more detailed information
on HEI profile. Other information useful for users of education services can be added to HEI
profile and the indicators’ list could be expanded.
Specific characteristic of group A indicators is their functionality. On the one hand each
indicator has its own meaning and can be used individually and not for assessment purposes,
on the other hand some of these indicators are included in the structure of indicators from the
groups (B, C, D, E, F) and can be used for calculations of indicators from these groups.
Data for group A indicators can be received from documents available in open access.
The Federal law on “Education” specifies types and categories of higher education institutions.
The RF Constitution defines the structure of the federal executive structures. A HEI’s affiliation
is specified by HEI’s foundation documents. Organisational and legal forms of higher education
institutions are described in the classification system developed by the Ministry of Education
and Science of the RF. The territory belonging of HEIs can be identified by the Presidential
Decree N 849 from 13 May 2000 “President’s Representative in the Federal District” and the
RF Constitution.
More detailed information on HEI profile can be obtained from the system that
collects statistical information on Higher education institutions (HPE-1), and data provided
by universities for accreditation purposes. Information on Federal universities and National
Research universities can be received from the universities’ development programmes. However,
existing databases have limitations. Indicators definitions differ as various information and
monitoring systems have different goals. Therefore, it is not possible to substitute indicators used
for ranking purposes by indicators from these external systems. Though, the data from external
databases are used to supplement and enhance reliability of the data used in the rankings.
Data sources for group A indicators are, as follows:
• Data provided by HEIs for accreditation purposes;
• HEIs’ internal data.
Group B – Research (B1 – B15)
Indicators from the group B describe HEIs research performance. Both input and output
indicators are included in the group.
The indicators of academic staff quality (B2), publication activity (В 12), HEI’s
participation in grant programmes/projects (В13 – В14) are traditionally used for assessment
of HEI’s research activity. International practice demonstrates that one of reliable methods to
assess HEI’s research potential is assessment of HEI’s publication activity, its expenditure on
research and research income.
Data sources for the group B indicators are:
• HEIs’ internal data;
• Bibliometric databases.
Group C – Teaching and Learning (C1 – C18)
Group C indicators assess HEI’s performance in learning and teaching.

This dimension can be characterized by quality of applicants / entrants (С3, С14),
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72 quality of students (С4), quality of academic staff (С9, С10, С12, С16), quality of education
programmes (С1, С2), graduates employability (С5), HEI expenditure on education services
(С11, С18), opportunities for postgraduate education (С7, С13), and students mobility (С8).
Russian and international practice demonstrate that assessment of applicants quality, quality of
academic staff, expenditure on education services and graduates employability are one of the
most frequently used indicators to assess HEI’s teaching and learning.
Data sources for the group C indicators are:
Group D – Internationalization (D1 – D12)
Group D indicators characterize HEI’s internationalization. The quality of

internationalization is assessed by indicators describing HEI’s activity in attracting international
students and lecturers (D1, D5, D12), students’ and lecturers’ mobility (D6, D7, D8), income
from international sources (D2, D3, D4), and implementation of education programmes in
collaboration with international partners (D10, D11). Both input and output indicators are
included in this group. Thus, they enable to assess HEI’s internationalization from different
points of view.
Data sources for the group D indicators are:
Data for federal and national research universities can be collected from universities’
development programmes.
Group E – Knowledge Transfer (E1 – E5)
Group E indicators characterize HEIs activity in transfer of their knowledge to main

stakeholders. HEI’s performance in this area can be assessed by its economic activity (E1 – E3)
and HEI’s collaboration with external partners (E4, E5). It should be noted that the indicators
used to assess this dimension of HEI’s activity are insufficiently developed both in Russian
and international practice. Data collecting on these indicators can be problematic. However,
such indicators as income from non budgetary sources and income from intellectual property
products are widely used both in Russian and international practice.
Data for the group E indicators can be obtained from:
Group F – Engagement with Regional Stakeholders (F1 – F4)
The indicators from group F describe HEI’s engagement with regional stakeholders.
The indicators on HEI’s economic activity in the region (F1, F2) and the indicators on training
specialists for the region (F3, F4) enable to assess HEI’s performance in this dimension.
Data for group F indicators can be collected from:
• HEIs’ internal own data.
The questionnaire for approbation includes 6 semantic blocks representing various
aspects of HEIs’ activities, including:
• Higher education institution profile (general information);
• Undergraduate and postgraduate students;
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• Academic, non-academic staff and researchers; 73

• Education programmes;
• Bibliometry;
• Budget.
6 blocks of indicators have been developed as the result of decomposition of 65 initial
indicators identified by experts’ assessment (expert panel consists of 17 experts represented
HEIs, employers and representatives from the Ministry of Education and Science, RF). Most
of these primary indicators present relative values (ratio, %) assessing respective functions of
higher education institutions.
The questionnaire was constructed to collect separate absolute subindicators. Absolute
sub-indicators data were used to calculate the 65 indicators.
Data Analysis
Standard mathematical and statistical procedures (normalization, aggregation) were

employed for rankings construction (Antonov, 2004, OECD, 2008). Also, the received raw data
from the universities were verified, processed and analysed.
The raw data verification revealed that some institutions were unable to
provide data on some sub-indicators (primary indicators). Some universities do not
collect data on specific indicators (nominal data absence) but some universities do
not have outcomes on a certain activity which is reflected by a sub-indicator (actual
data absense).
The absense data were restored by the following steps:
1 step: the missing data were restored from open sources (namely bibliometric
databases).
2 step: some data are not available in open sources and can be received only from HEIs.
Participated universities received a special form with missing data on some indicators and they
have an opportunity to double check the data and complete the missing data. As mentioned
above some universities were able to present additional information on missing data, but some
universities were unable to do so.
To receive groups of higher education institutions that demonstrated high, middle and
low performance the statistical method of data grouping was used. The next formula was applied
to calculate intervals:
i – interval length, xmax and xmin – maximum and minimum of a grouping characteristic, n –
number of groups. For research purposes the sample was divided into 3 groups (universities
- leaders, universities – competitors, catching up universities).
Results of Research
The ranking of 103 HEIs enables to identify the following trends.
• Overall ranking of 103 HEIs indicates that 7 National Research Universities (NRU) are
leaders among all universities (see table 3);
• The group of leaders is homogeneous and consists of National Research Universities;
• The group of “competitors” is heterogeneous and consists of HEIs from various
categories (National Research Universities (NRU); Federal universities (FE); HEIs,
which received government support of their strategic development programmes (ME);
and other universities (other);
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74 • The “catching up” group mostly includes HEIs, which received government support of
their strategic development programmes, and HEIs from the category “other”. However,
8 National Research Universities and 8 Federal universities are also presented in this
group.
Table 3. Groups of higher education institutions according to the rankings out-

puts.
Ranking of federal universities

Ranking of national research
Ranking of national research
Ranking of other universities

Ranking of 103 HEIs (103)
Ranking of universities sup-
Ranking of universities sup-

Ranking of federal universi-
Ranking of 103 HEIs on 13
Ranking of other HEIs (38)
ported by ME on 13 (28)
universities on13 (28+1)
global indicators (103)
universities (28+1)
ported by ME (28)
on 13 (38)
on 13 (8)
ties (8)
Leaders
7 4 4 9 5 3 1 4 3 4
(Group 1)
Competitors
23 16 4 11 12 15 3 12 14 9
(Group 2)
Catching up
73 83 9 11 20 4 13 11 25
(Group 3)
Competition for leading positions among National Research Universities, Federal

universities and universities, which received government support of their strategic development
programmes, is strong.
Ranking of 103 HEIs on 5 functions of universities enables to conduct a thorough analysis
of universities activities and identify their weak and strong areas. The obtained results allow
researchers to compare groups of HEIs against maximum normalized score (see Table 4).
Table 4. Distribution of HEIs from 4 categories in 3 groups according to the

ranking outcomes.
Groups/ Engagement with

Knowledge
function Research Teaching Internationalization regional stakehold-
Transfer
areas ers
3 NRU 5 NRU 2 NRU 3 NRU 4 NRU
0 FU 1 FU 1 FU 1 FU 1 FU
Leader
0 ME 0 ME 0 ME 1 ME 0 ME
0 Other 0 Other 0 Other 0 Other 1 Other
Total 3 6 3 5 6
Competitors
0 ME 8 ME 0 ME 10 ME 22 ME
Total 10 32 7 45 63
Catching up
28 ME 20 ME 28 ME 17 ME 6 ME
Total 90 65 93 53 34
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Leaders 75
The first group of leaders is characterized by high performance in such function areas as
“Research” and “Teaching and learning”.
7 leaders also demonstrate high performance in “Internationalisation”. However their
results in “Knowledge Transfer” are modest and do not achieve maximum.
The results of the leaders in “Engagement with regional stakeholders” are also not so
high. Universities from other categories demonstrate high results in this dimension area.
The universities demonstrated leading positions in rankings have a long tradition in
teaching excellence. They also established strong links with research centres and industry
that allows them to conduct cutting edge research. Thus, their high results in “Research” and
“Teaching and Learning” are not surprising. However, the ranking revealed that such functional
areas as “Knowledge Transfer” and “Engagement with Regional Stakeholders” are neglected
in these universities.
Competitors
The second group is represented by 14 National Research Universities, 4 Federal, 4

universities, which received government support of their strategic development programmes
and 1 university from the category “other”.
This group demonstrates high results in “Teaching and learning” and modest results in
“Research”. Modest results in “Research” could be explained by the fact that most Russian
universities were mostly focused on teaching in previous years, thus they do not have enough
capacities to conduct research to meet new requirements of the modernized higher education
system. It is expected that they will enhance this capacity in this area in the nearest future.
The results of these institutions in “Internationalisation”, “Knowledge Transfer” and
“Engagement with regional stakeholders” are not so high. This is also could be explained by
current transformations within the system of higher education and its ongoing modernization.
Thus the progress is expected
Traditionally, Russian universities have been excluded from the international education
area. They do not have enough practice in engagement with international partners. However,
there are a lot of positive trends in this area at the moment.
Catching up universities
The third group of universities consists of 73 universities. The most universities in this
group are presented by “other” universities (34 universities). However, there are 8 National
Research Universities and 4 Federal universities in this group.
This group of universities is characterized by high performance in “Knowledge Transfer”.
The weakest area of these universities is “Internationalisation”.
It is seen that targeted efforts on internationalisation of education and research in
these universities will enable to enhance teaching and research and competitiveness of these
universities.
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76 Conclusions
The developed methodology enables accurate assessment of universities with accounts

of various HEIs functions.
The indicators used in the methodology meet the requirements of the Russian Higher
Education system development objectives and facilitate promotion of the national universities
into the global higher education area.
National research universities are leaders among 103 HEIs participated in the
approbation.
There is strong competition among national research universities, federal universities and
higher education institutions which received government support of their strategic development
programmes for leading positions.
Most universities should enhance their research capacities (especially publication
activity) and strengthen their efforts on internationalisation.
The template methodology developed within the project “Developing and Approbating
a Template Methodology for National Ranking of Higher Education Institutions” lays the
groundwork for a national approach to performance evaluation of national higher education
institutions with account of the Russian Higher Education system diversity.
The approbation demonstrates that the developed multidimensional ranking methodology
enables to reveal qualitative characteristics of the Russian higher education institutions;
identify their strengths and weaknesses on 5 function areas, compare HEIs performance within
categories. Thus, multidimensional assessment allows researchers to conduct a qualitative
analysis of a university development and to draw up sound recommendations based on the
outcomes of this analysis. This enhances capacities of the Russian higher education institutions
both at national and global higher education area.
Implications for Practice
On the basis of the current study, the following practical steps were suggested:
• Amendment of the methodology by reducing the number of indicators (namely input
indicators), clarification of definitions for some indicators, developing and clarification
the system of weights for indicators and areas of assessment.
• Use the ranking outputs for universities strategic development by creating special
profiles for every university participated in the approbation. The profile will include
analysis of HEI strengths and weaknesses and HEIs position on key indicators and
function areas.
• The amended methodology should undertake the IREG audit procedure.
• The multidimensional ranking should be done every year with the support of the
Ministry of Education and Science.
• It is suggested to add qualitative assessment of universities on the basis of academic
staff, students and employers surveys.
• Discuss an opportunity to develop a regional system of HEIs assessment with the
inclusion of universities from the Eurasian Economic Community and Moldova,
Ukraine, Armenia.
• In partnership with the IREG experts identify “core indicators” that are relevant both
for foreign and Russian universities and various stakeholders.
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Dilemmas of a Template Methodology 77
While designing a multidimensional ranking methodology the researchers face the

following dilemmas:
1. National higher education system is highly differentiated which complicates comparison
of different HEIs.
2. Identifying relevant indicators for various types of national HEIs is a challenging task.
Not all indicators are completely relevant for various types and groups of Russian
higher education institutions.
3. Various methods are applicable for procedures of aggregating and weighting of
indicators. The large number of basic indicators, HEIs differentiation lead to dispersion
of assessment scores and complicate the procedure of indicators weighting.
Possible approaches to address these dilemmas were suggested.
Dilemma 1. National higher education system differentiation
Choices:
• to include all groups and types of higher education institutions into the methodology;
• to limit coverage of higher education institutions: do not include specialist institutions
(with art, physical education and sport programmes), private and municipal HEIs into
the methodology.
Further amendment of the methodology will enable:
• to compare HEIs within separate groups
• by separate functions
• by tailored indicators
• by aggregate indicators;
Dilemma 2. Indicators relevance
Choices:
• to use the full set of indicators for all types and groups of higher education
institutions;
• to identify “core” indicators that are relevant for all types and groups of HEIs and
specific indicators that are relevant for separate HEIs groups;
• to compare all HEIs by the full set of indicators;
• to compare all HEIs by a separate set of indicators (core and specific indicators);
• to compare separate HEIs groups by the full set of indicators;
• to compare separate HEIs groups by tailored set of indicators.
Dilemma 3. Aggregation and indicators weighting
Choices:
• to increase the number of experts involved in indicators weighting before obtaining the
statistically significant results of experts assessments;
• to make the weighting procedure more complex to develop a separate system of weights
for separate HEIs groups and separate HEIs functions;
• to aggregate only homogeneous or close indicators within single area of evaluation.
• to compare single area of evaluation by aggregated indicators;
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78 • to compare separate HEIs groups by aggregated indicators.

The next step of the methodology development will be its ammendment with account of
the approbation outputs and experts consultations.
Acknowledgements
The research group thanks all universities participated in the approbation of the
methodology. Our special thanks to experts whose professional help is invaluable. We are
grateful for the Ministry of Education and Science, RF for initiating and funding this research
project.
References
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80
Marina Larionova Professor, Director of the International Organisations Research Institute, National
Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
Phone +7 495 624 26 48
E-mail: mlarionova@hse.ru
Website: http://www.hse.ru/org/persons/26306
Olga Perfilieva Director of the Centre for International Comparative Studies of the International
Organisations Research Institute, National Research University Higher School of
Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
Phone +7 495 625 17 88
E-mail: perfilieva@hse.ru
Website: http://www.hse.ru/org/persons/203530
Irina Lazutina Researcher, International Organisations Research Institute, National Research

University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
Phone +7 495 625 17 88
E-mail: ilazutina@hse.ru
Anastasya Lopatina Researcher, International Organisations Research Institute, National Research

Phone +7 495 625 17 88
E-mail: umi9umi@gmail.ru
Vitaly Nagornov Researcher, International Organisations Research Institute, National Research

Phone +7 495 625 17 88
E-mail: vnagornov@hse.ru
Lubov Zavarykina Researcher, International Organisations Research Institute, National Research

Phone +7 495 625 17 88
E-mail: lzavarykina@hse.ru
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SELF-ASSESSMENT CRITERIA OF 81
TEACHER’S WELL-BEING
Diana Liepa, Aija Dudkina, Maruta Sile

Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Riga, Latvia
E-mail: diana.liepa@rpiva.lv, aija.dudkina@rpiva.lv, maruta.sile@rpiva.lv
Abstract
Our dynamic life brings changes not only into our daily life, but in thinking and the way to work and
to learn as well. We have to be faster and more flexible in order to develop our professional, social and
civic competencies. Education helps to develop the attitudes, skills and knowledge necessary to make
informed decisions for the benefit of themselves and others, now and in the future, and to act upon these
decisions. That is why teachers have to find the best ways in acquiring professional competencies and in
developing their individual qualities. The teacher’s role in the educational process has always been vital.
Especial significance is being attached to the teacher’s personality and professional growth, the teacher’s
satisfaction with the life in general and their abilities’ conformity to the demands of the profession. The
teacher’s satisfaction serves as a motivation factor in order to advance the educator’s professional
competence (high mastery). The teacher’s as a professional’s advancement is closely connected with
his personality development. The human’s personality in general influences positively the professional
adaptation, promotes professional creativity, safeguards from professional obsoleteness. The teacher’s
personality maintains the professional expertise, promotes professional competences’ advancement. There
are relationships between aspects of teacher’s well-being and student’s learning, job performance or
other aspects of teaching effectiveness. The teacher’s well-being influences the effectiveness of student’s
learning.
Key words: compensation, dissatisfaction, professional development, satisfaction with work.
Introduction
In contemporary ever-changing social environment a crucial role is attached to the

human and the individual’s existential life (crucial in shaping individual destiny) in the
community. The human ability to integrate himself into the community is determined by his
holistic personality traits in total, and global education shaping of them plays an important part.
Through analysis of globalisation tendencies all over the world and by learning of the main
requirements to the future civilisation, the global education can be defined as an education
direction with a peculiar learning style and way of thinking oriented to life-long learning, which
maintains inter-connections between the local - regional and global dimension, opens up an
opportunity to acquire and advance competences, which are needed by the human in order to
adapt himself to the changing demands by the society. In conformity with the current global
developmental tendencies the notion of competence is complemented by a novel behavioural
aspect which suggests the necessity of creative activity. Apart from skills and qualifications
as major constituent parts of the concept of competence, the notion of a competent person is
being viewed from a new perspective. Competence can be detected and evaluated only when
being engaged in some kind of activity, in reaching creative solutions in diverse situations
which, in their turn, are based on innovatively developed self-experience, self-reflection and
self-assessment. Competence has to be viewed from a perspective of the interplay between the
personal, professional, social and even the impartial aspect. A new approach to understanding
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82 integration has emerged. Theory of integrative processes proposes four different dimensions:
individual processes, interactional processes, institutional processes, social processes. It is
crucial to link the individual and the social aspects.
Problem of Research

It is essential to continue the research with the analysis of scientists’ concepts in
pedagogy as well as the psychology that fundamentally clarify the developmental necessity of
teacher’s well-being. It is clear that the nature of and its impacts on health, economic, social and
educational matters are still not well understood by the society.
The teacher’s well-being influences the effectiveness of student’s learning. Teachers’
work comprises different factors:
• Teaching;
• Pedagogical growth;
• Keeping abreast of technological innovations;
• Dealing with students, parents and society.
These factors influence teacher’s well-being and competence. The school’s system is influenced
by number of interpersonal relationships. The changing demands influence teacher’s well-
being and learning process. Teachers are experiencing increasing levels of stress and burnout.
Teacher’s well-being and competence are connected with job satisfaction. The negative factors
could be:
• Negative work climate;
• Lack of support;
• Collaboration and respect.
There is a variety of research reports, evaluation studies and more polemic articles, on teachers’
well-being and how it can be supported. Published studies are on more general aspects of
workplace health, particularly mental health.
Research Focus
The aim of the study is: to establish and analyze the teachers’ satisfaction with their
job correlation with psychological well-being aspects in an X school and it’s interaction
with teacher’s professional development. The question is: “Is there a correlation between the
psychological aspects and the job satisfaction aspects in the selected teachers’ group?”
Competence approach to education foresees that the educator’s professional advancement

involves the following components: professional competence, self-realisation and self-
actualisation (Burke, 1990). The teacher motivation is directly influenced most essentially by
the opportunities of gaining satisfaction, receiving gratitude and excitement caused by work
itself and whether the work itself promotes professional development (Babris, 2007). The
educator’s professional development, based on the competence approach, is being accomplished,
by considering principles, which are in compliance with the paradigm of the human-oriented
education (3eep, 2004):
• Compensation principle – substitution of the missing skills or competencies. Personal
experience cognition, based on reflection, skill to advance self-realisation, to shape the
pedagogical activity in accordance with the requirements of the society;
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• Creative activity principle; 83

• Professional analogy and heredity principle, i.e., research of colleagues’ experiences.
Collaboration, reconciliation, coordination, innovation implementation into pedagogical
activity;
• Synergy principle - professional shaping by impact of several factors, which are
determined by individual’s peculiarities;
• Pedagogical growth motivation principle – leads to zero development, if there is no
conformity with the person’s interests, aims, demands;
• Reflection principle - society demands define only orientation role of the educator.
Professional advancement is based on “I” conception, individual’s awareness, desire
to realize his potential, by using analysis, pedagogical activity self-analysis, by setting
steps to further personality development;
• Activity principle – development of significant traits, attitudes for profession in
pedagogical activity;
• Continuous professional development principle – autonomous resolving of pedagogical
tasks in professional performance
Each resolution brings in changes, stimulates the teacher’s personality self-development.
Enabling teacher’s well-being demands creative activity, cognitive development, social
interaction. Communication and positive attitude are essential for enabling teacher’s well-being
and work-life balance.
Sample of Research
Contemporary positive psychology, in researches on well-being shows two main

directions, by which psychological well-being is being explained and researches. The first is
hedonism (Kahneman, 1999) based on belief that well-being consists of happiness, optimism
and other positive subjective emotions and attitudes. This hedonistic approach is connected
to the subjective well-being. The second direction – eudemonia (Waterman, 1993) reflects
opinions that well-being consists of not only of feeling of happiness, but involves several more
components such as personality growth, aim of life, achievements. Well-being is created by the
actualisation process of human potentials
Thus, psychological well-being is a generalised and complicated aim of human life.
Carola Ryff, in her researches focuses on assessment of psychological well-being (Ryff &
Hidrich, 1997, Ryff & Essex, 1996). She explains the factors, which create various variations for
the human’s psychological well-being. Ryff gives characteristics to psychological well-being as
a different subjective well-being and presents a multidimensional approach to measuring tool
of psychological well-being (PWB) consisting of six crucial aspects of actualisation: positive
relationship with the surrounding people, the sense of life, self-acceptation, skill to belong to
environment and community, autonomy and personal growth.
The educator’s professionalism consists of his skills, knowledge and experience in
conformity with the respective educator’s traits of the profession. Moreover, the educator’s
innovative activity brings in development of significant, progressive innovations and their
implementation in the educator’s professional activities, which confirm his personal growth
advancement and provides psychological well-being (Caldwell, Herold & Fedor, 2004).
The teacher – being professional, changes and advances his personality and individuality
by professional means, tries and knows how to cause the community interest in the results of his
professional activities, takes into consideration the novel professional demands, thus, ensuring
his psychological well-being.
Research methods: 1) the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) created by Paul E. Spector
(1988), which includes 36 statements arranged into nine scales has been used to find out the
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84 teachers’ satisfaction with work level. The author of the survey defines satisfaction with work
as emotional attitude to work. The work has to be tended to bring in satisfaction with various
aspects of job. 2) Scales of Psychological Well-Being, (PWB, Ryff, 1989).
Table 1. Self assessment Criteria of Subjective Well-being and Job Satisfac-

tion.
Subjective Well-Being Job Satisfaction
Autonomy Payment
Skill to belong to a community Promotion
Personal growth Job management
Positive relationship with the surroundings Additional bonuses and perks
Sense of life Set payment
Self-acceptance Job conditions
Colleagues, communication
Job specifics
Basis for the Research: X school. Participants of the research – teachers of X school. A
total of 20 questionnaires were distributed to a random sample of the teachers selected in the X
school. 3 usable questionnaires were returned. Participants were assured of the confidentiality
of information provided.
The survey consists of six sub-scales, which determine the relationship with the
surrounding people, sense of life, autonomy, self-acceptation, personal growth and skill to
belong to a community. Each scale consists of 9 formulated statements. Respondents were
asked to self-assess to what extent they agree to the statement made from 1 (totally disagree) to
6 (totally agree). Negative statements were reversed.
1. Autonomy
Positively formulated statements: 1.; 7.; 19.; 31.; 49. Negatively formulated statements:
13.; 25.; 37.; 43.
• High assessment: You are autonomous and self-dependent, can stand up against
ways of thinking and acting forced upon you by the community. You assess
yourself according to standards set up by yourself and make decisions for action
yourself.
• Low assessment: you lack a certain strict opinion; you feel worried how other
people think of you and what they expect from you. You submit to community
pressures.
2. Skills to belong to the community and environment
Positively formulated statements: 2.; 20.; 32.; 38.; 50.
Negatively formulated statements: 8.; 14.; 26.; 44.
• High assessment: You are competent and sure, efficiently use opportunities, can
change the environment and situations according to your own standards and
needs.
• Low assessment: You don’t feel real life space, feel unable to change or improve
your life environment, can hardly cope with everyday duties, do not realize and
do not use the opportunities offered by life.
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3. Personal growth 85
Positively formulated statements: 12.; 15.; 27.; 39.
Negatively formulated statements: 3.; 21.; 33.; 45.; 51.
• High assessment: You are continuously improving; foresee development of
yourself and your behavior, fulfillment of your potentials, you are always open
to innovations.
• Low assessment: You feel personal stagnation; you feel lack of development,
often feel the confusion of life.
4. Positive relationship with the surrounding people
• High assessment: warm and close relationship with neighbours, based on
loyalty. You are empathetic, you are concerned about well-being of other people,
are capable of affection and intimacy. In relations can figure out how to make
concessions and come to compromise.
• Low assessment: Trust-based relationship is practically impossible, difficult
to be sincere, open and to care for others. In relationships often feel lonely,
reluctant to negotiation in order to safeguard friendly relationship.
5. Sense of life
• High assessment: Precisely set aims for life, clearly know what direction to take
in life. You are sure of reaching the set aims and tasks.
• Low assessment: lack of self-set aims and tasks, lack of comprehension of sense
of life. No confidence and trust giving sense to life.
6. Self-acceptation
Positively formulated statements: 6.; 12.; 24.; 30.; 48.; 54.
Negatively formulated statements: 18.; 36.; 42.
• High assessment: you have a positive attitude to yourself and others, you can
accept good and bad traits of your personality. You are satisfied with your
background.
• Low assessment: Past events have led you to be disappointed; you are not
satisfied with yourself. You are not satisfied with your personality traits, you
wish to change yourself, you want to be different from present self.
Data Analysis
In order to answer the issues forwarded by the research, the survey statistical criteria
were set for establishing the teacher group’s satisfaction with work and psychological well-
being. Table No 1 displays Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) and Job Satisfaction
Survey (JSS) descriptive statistical criteria.
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86 Table 2. Self - assessment criteria of Teachers’ Job Satisfaction and Psychologi-

cal Well-Being Survey (N=17).
Scales of Psychological
Criteria Job Satisfaction
Well-Being
The arithmetic mean (X) 234 124
Median (Me) 237 123
Mode (Mo) Total of 17 assessments Total of 17 assessments
Standard deviation (s) 9.91 10.28
Excess kurtosis (E) 0.03 -1.37
Skewness/Asymmetry coefficient (A) 0.17 0.04
Minimum (min) 216 108
Maximum (max) 255 142
Number of observations (n) 17 17
Total ∑ 1642 868
K4 3.03 1.53
Compliance with the normal distribu-
Yes Yes
tion
The results of psychological well-being show that K calc. = 3.03, and it fits into limits of K
crit low =
1.53 to K crit top = 4.23. Distribution according to K 4 moment is in compliance with normal
distribution. Distribution according to Skewness/Asymmetry coefficient also is in compliance
with normal distribution, as A calc = 0.17 ‹ A crit = 1.008. Taking into consideration that both K 4
and
Asymmetry coefficient is in compliance with normal distribution, the group is in compliance
with normal distribution. Job Satisfaction results show that K calc = 1.53, and it fits into limits
from K crit low = 1.42 till K crit top = 4.23. According to K 4 moment indicators, the distribution is in
compliance with normal distribution. Asymmetry coefficient also is in compliance with normal
distribution, as A calc= 0.04 ‹ A crit = 1.008.
Therefore, a conclusion can be drawn that also the data obtained for job satisfaction are in
compliance with a normal distribution, as both K 4 and Asymmetry coefficient is in conformity
with the normal distribution, the group is in compliance with the normal distribution.
Results of Research
Due to the research the correlation between psychological well-being aspects and job
satisfaction aspects was calculated and established. As all the changeable variables (survey
aspects for psychological well-being and job satisfaction) are measured by interval scale,
then, in order to establish correlation closeness and statistical significance, Pearson correlation
coefficient calculations were used (see Table No 3).
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Table 3. Correlation between Job Satisfaction and Psychological Well-being. 87
Job satisfaction
nuses and perks
Communication
Additional bo-
Job conditions
Subjective
Job specifics
Job manage-
Set payment
Colleagues
Promotion
Payment
well-being
survey ment
Autonomy -0.15 -0.53 -0.33 0.31 0.48 -0.13 0.37 -0.45 -0.17
Skill to belong
to community -0.16 -0.20 0.8 -0.10 -0.23 -0.07 -0.05 0.81 -0.008
Personal
-0.46 -0.15 0.05 0.10 0.36 -0.13 0.30 -0.37 0.73
growth
Positive rela-
tionship with
-0.34 -0.23 -0.12 -0.26 -0.55 0.43 0.34 0.06 -0.08
the surround-
ings
Sense of life -0.53 -0.45 0.50 -0.20 -0.16 -0.09 0.40 0.25 0.59
Self-accept-
-0,54 -0.70 0.40 -0.78 -0.32 -0.68 0.48 0.21 0.65
ance
p>0.05, * - close correlation
When analysing the psychological wellbeing correlation and the aspects of job satisfaction,
it should be considered that the selection is small and the obtained results cannot be related to
the whole population of teachers, but only to this definite selection group. There is a positive
correlation between the job management and the skill to belong to community (r=0.8 if p<0.05,
where r crit=0.754), job specifics and the skill to belong to community (r=0.81 if p<0.05, where
r crit=0.754) and communication and personal growth, the correlation of these aspects is direct.
There is close opposite correlation between additional payment and self-acceptance (r =
-0.78 if p<0,05, where r crit=0.754) and between career promotion and self-acceptance (r = -0.70
if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754). So as r = „-”, then these correlations are opposite.
The correlation has to be assessed as medium close, but statistically insignificant
between the payment and personal growth (r = -0.46 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between
payment and sense of life (r = -0.53 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754 ), between payment and self-
acceptance (r = -0.54 if p<0.05 where r crit=0.754), between promotion and autonomy (r = -0.53
if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between promotion and sense of life (r = -0.45 if p<0.05, where
r crit=0.754), between the set payment and positive relationship with the surrounding people (r
= -0.55 if p<0.05 where r crit=0.754), between job specifics and self-acceptance (r = -0.68 if
p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), as well as between job specifics and autonomy (r = -0.45 if p<0.05,
where r crit=0.754). The correlation of these traits are opposite, alongside with the increase of
one trait, comes the decrease of the other and vice versa.
As medium close, but statistically insignificant have to be assessed correlations
between job management and sense of life (r = 0.50 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between
job management and self-acceptance (r= 0.40 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between the set
payment and autonomy (r = 0.48 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between conditions and positive
relationship with the surrounding people (r = 0.43 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between the
colleagues and sense of life (r = 0.40 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between the colleagues and
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88 self-acceptance (r = 0.48 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), between the communication and sense
of life (r = 0.59 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754), as well as between the communication and self-
acceptance (r = 0.65 if p<0.05, where r crit=0.754). So as r = „+”, then correlations are direct,
respectively, if one trait increases, then also increases the other and vice versa.
Discussion
Further we interpret our results in the light of other published results by adding additional
information from the sources we have cited in the introduction section as well as by introducing
new sources.
The aim of our research is to establish and analyze the teacher satisfaction with job
correlation with psychological well-being aspects in X school. The results of this research
confirmed a close relation, if the teacher is satisfied with the job, then he is satisfied with his
life and vice versa.
For the research completion the psychological well-being concept by Carol Ryff (Ryff &
Hidrich, 1997, Ryff & Essex, 1996), which assesses six main aspects: positive correlation with
the surrounding, sense of life, self acception, skill to be in compliance with environment and
society, autonomy and personal growth.
As revealed by the previous research (e.g., McKenna, 2000, Первин & Джон, 2000)
and this research results, satisfaction with a job is closely correlated with the personal traits,
following, professional development is closely connected with the professional’s personal
development. Both our research results and other researches show (e.g., McKenna, 2000,
Первин & Джон, 2000) that the aspects of the teacher’s psychological well-being have a
positive impact on professional proficiency, in turn promoting development of professional
competences. We got convinced that the educator’s innovative activity and implementation of
innovations in his professional activities in X school confirm his personal growth amd provides
psychological well-being, which are in compliance with the results gained by other researches
(e.g., Caldwell, Herold & Fedor, 2004, etc.).
The research revealed that the communication aspect is significant for teachers’ personal
growth, a sense of life comprehension and self acceptance. It was proved by statistically
significant positive correlation between the aspect of communication and several studied
aspects. First, by personal growth aspect, which means the teacher’s ability to development
by increase of mutual communication in school environment. Second, by sense of life aspect,
because by increase of mutual communications provisions, psychological well-being increases.
Therefore, mutual communication is ensured, which develops the teacher’s positive attitude to
work and gives sense to the activity. Third, by self acceptance aspect, as ensuring of mutual
communication brings along increase of teachers’ positive attitude to self and others.
By further studies, it is recommendable to verify the correlation of psychological
well-being not only with job satisfaction but also with other aspects. In future researching
the psychological well-being correlation and satisfaction with work aspects, it is necessary to
increase selection by inclusion into studies other schools not only in Latvia but also schools
from other countries, thus, carrying out transculture research, which obviously would extend
the aspects onto the factors influencing and their connection with other significant professional
development aspects. Finally, the human ability to integrate into contemporary changing social
environment is determined by the entirety of his personal traits, which are greatly influenced
by global education, therefore, researches should forward new hipothesis in order to specify
mechanisms for educator professional development based on competence approach, considering
the principles that are in accordance with the human-oriented education paradigm (acc. to 3eep,
2004).
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Conclusions 89
The obtained research results prove that the members of the teachers’ group possess
statistically significant positive correlation between the communication aspect and the personal
growth aspect. High communication indices reveal that the teachers in their attitudes are open
to innovative ideas, in perspective predict their professional growth. In its turn, the teachers’
ability to advancement improves inter-communication in the school environment.
The obtained results reveal that there exists a positive correlation between the
communication aspect and the sense of life aspect. Due to increase of inter-communication
maintenance, psychological well-being is increased. Thus, inter-communication is maintained,
which facilitates teachers’ positive attitude to their work and fulfils the activity with common
sense.
The teachers’ group possesses positive correlations between the communication aspect
and the aspect of self-acceptance. By ensuring inter-communication, increases the teachers’
positive attitude towards themselves and others.
There exists a correlation between psychological well-being aspects and the job
satisfaction aspects. The greater job satisfaction the teacher feels, the more content he is with
life; and vice versa, the greater is the teacher’s satisfaction with life, the more content he is with
his job.
References
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and full-service schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67 (3), 408-421.
Burke, J. W. (1990). Competency Based Education and training. Falmer press.
Butler, R. (2007). Teachers’ achievement goal orientations and associations with teachers’ help seeking:
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Gold, A. (2007). Quality and School-Based Continuous Professional Development: School Leaders’
Responsibilities. Institute of Education, University of London, England. Springer International
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http://psycnet.apa.org
Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2004). Do Teacher Induction and Mentoring Matter? Vanderbilt
University & University of Pennsylvania, Retrieved from rmi@gse.upenn.edu.
Kenna, Mc. J. (2000). Raymond Cattell. Personality trait theory. Retrieved from http://www.le.ac.uk/
education/
Lambert, Nadine M. (Ed), McCombs, Barbara L. (Ed). (1998). How students learn: Reforming schools
through learner-centered education, 353-377. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org
Middleton, J. A., Goepfert, P. (1996). Inventive strategies for teaching mathematics: Implementing
standards for reform. Psychology in the classroom: A series on applied educational psychology,
55-72. Retrieved from http://www.usg.edu.au/library/helpreferencing/apa psycnet.apa.org
Wang, J, Odell, S. J., & Schwille, S. A. (2008). Effects of Teacher Induction on Beginning Teachers’
Teaching: A Critical Review of the Literature. Journal of Teacher Education, 59 (2), 132 - 152.
Waterman, A. S. (2000). Ego Identity Status, Identity Style, and Personal Expressiveness. Journal of
Adolescent Research, 15 (4), 504-521.
Зеер, Э. Ф. (2003). Психология профессий: Учебное пособие для студентов вузов. 2-е изд., перераб.,
доп. М.: Академический Проект; Екатеринбург: Деловая книга, 336 с.
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90 Advised by Ausma Špona, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy,
Latvia
Diāna Liepa Dr.paed., Assistant Professor, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Manage-
ment Academy, Imantas 7. līnija, Riga, LV- 1083, Latvia.
E-mail: diana.liepa@rpiva.lv
Aija Dudkina Dr. psych., Assistant Professor, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Man-
agement Academy, Imantas 7. līnija, Riga, LV- 1083, Latvia.
E-mail: aija.dudkina@rpiva.lv
Maruta Sīle Dr. paed. Professor, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Imantas 7. līnija, Riga, LV- 1083, Latvia.
E-mail: maruta.sile@rpiva.lv
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REPERTORY GRID ANALYSIS AND 91
CONCEPT MAPPING: PROBLEMS AND

ISSUES
Thomas J.J. McCloughlin

St. Patrick’s College, Dublin City University, Ireland
E-mail: thomas.mccloughlin@spd.dcu.ie
Philip S. C. Matthews
Trinity College, University of Dublin, Ireland
E-mail: pmtthews@tcd.ie
Abstract
‘Repertory grid analysis’ was used as a way of constructing representations of learners conceptions of
living things; and finding a common structure or understanding; this was described in previous work.
‘Concept mapping’ has been stated as an appropriate assessment procedure in science curricula in a
number of countries. Previous relevant published work describing the benefits of ‘concept mapping’ as
a learning, teaching, and assessing tool is large. However, the existence of a large literature is not
justification in itself, and in this work we provide a critique of the current literature. Problems with
‘concept mapping’ are simply ignored. However, it is thought that ‘repertory grid analysis’ does overcome
some of the recognized problems of ‘concept mapping’ such as: i) comparison of concept maps between
students or between students and educators: in repertory grid this becomes not only possible but a reliable
method - this has proven to be one of the more problematic areas in traditional ‘concept mapping’; ii)
quantification of concept mapping - integer scoring of whole concept maps in ‘repertory grid analysis’
is eliminated since the arranged structure of the graph produced holds significance for the conceptual
structure. More research needs to be done in repertory grid analysis and its implications and applications
in curricular research have yet to be fully explored.
Key words: concept mapping, conceptual frameworks, repertory grid analysis.
Introduction
Knowledge of how concepts are classified and categorized, terms which are differentiated
by Estes (1996) as they become assimilated, leads to the assumption that if the learning
environment, i.e., ‘schooling’, is adapted to maximize the acquisition and ordering of concepts,
such an adaptation should consider the ordering processes. In a similar thread, scientists order
concepts of living things in diagrams which are akin to concept maps, therefore one way to
learn, and assess the learning of, the ‘correct’ system of ordering living things would be through
such diagrams. Such a diagram would allow the educator to find out easily if the categories
formed are formal-biological or folk-biological or somewhere in-between, in the case of living
things. McCloughlin and Matthews (2009, 2010) did outline three studies into school-based
classifications:
(i) How one group classified five terms of equines: horse, donkey, mule, zebra
and pony; and the term ‘goat’ as an ‘out-group’.
(ii) How computer generated drawings of equines were classified generally,
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92 using living vs. extinct, unfamiliar vs. familiar exemplars over the post-primary
school age-range
(iii) How formal drawings of dicotyledonous plants were classified with two
professional biologists as an out-group.
The technique employed by McCloughlin and Matthews (2009, 2010) was an adaptation
of repertory grid analysis; however, it is thought that diagrams which represent the ordering
of concepts may relate to each other, and this is the subject of this present paper. The aim
of this work is to examine the repertory grid technique itself and concept mapping in more
detail in relation to constructing a learner’s conceptual framework of concrete representations
of abstractions (i.e., concretistic concepts), with concepts of living things being used as an
example. It is part of an on-going project into the applications of Repertory Grid Analysis
(RGA) in science education research.
What Is Concept Mapping?
Concept mapping is a way to represent concepts in a diagrammatic manner showing

the links between concepts and their components. The term ‘mapping’ is applied because it is
thought that the spatial arrangement of concepts denotes a significance, a measureable ‘mental
distance’ (Wandersee, 1990), except that in concept mapping the distance are not ‘measured’.
Concept maps are typically representations of simple propositions of the ‘subject-link-predicate’
type as shown in Figure 1. Concept mapping was defined by Pankratius and Keith (1987) as
“a two-dimensional hierarchical representation of concepts which indicates the relationship
between selected concepts”. Fisher (2000) places concept mapping as one of many types of
knowledge mapping. She states that it was invented, and extensively researched, by Joseph
D. Novak (Wandersee, 1990) and his research team. Concept mapping has been employed
in a large number of areas within the area of education. Some of these are: as a learning tool
(Horton et al., 1993; Roth & Roychoudhury, 1993); measuring achievement (Pankratius, 1990);
reduction of learners’ anxiety (Okebukola & Jegede, 1989); integration within curricular design
(Nicoll, Franscisco, & Nakleth, 2001); assessment (Atkinson & Bannister, 1998; Buldu &
Buldu, 2010; Laffey & Singer, 1997; Liu, 1994; McClure & Bell, 1990; Oliver & Raubenheimer,
2006; Robinson, 1999; Ruiz-Primo & Shavelson, 1996); and self assessment (Stow, 1997);
autobiographical reflections (Lim, 2011); collaborative learning (G. Wilson, Nash, & Earl,
2010); conceptual growth (Miller et al., 2009) – categories which are not mutually exclusive.
Figure 1: A simple single proposition as the most basic form of a concept map.
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What is Repertory Grid Analysis? 93
George Kelly (Kelly, 1992) formulated the seminal work on repertory grid analysis
(RGA) which was initially grounded in clinical psychology – and indeed, it is this domain
which has made the most extensive use of this technique. RGA was devised to identify, and
investigate the relationships between, a person’s mental constructions. Subjects rate, score or
rank the relevance, importance or similarity of a characteristic to a list of entities, i.e. concepts
– this list comprises the so-called repertory or repertoire. This produces a grid or matrix of n
× m form of n columns and m rows (Figure 2.). In classical repertory grid analysis, the subject
chooses those characteristics which are pertinent to the test item derived by, or supplied to, the
subject. The process of ranking elements against concepts, called ‘constructs’, is a constructive
process, in that a representation of the subjects mental ordering has been made explicit in a
stepwise fashion.
Figure 2: DISPLAY: A simple matrix of ratings of four elements (people) against

three constructs (descriptions).
Physically, a mathematical entity has been produced but importantly, it has been
constructed by the subject indirectly and it represents that part of the ‘mindscape’, what
Kelly called ‘psychological space’, concerned with these concepts. The basis of RGA is the
elicitation of a grid or matrix of integers where each number is a score of relevance of a feature
to a range of constructs. Once a numerical matrix is formed, it can be subjected to many kinds
of statistical analysis (Fransella, Bell, & Bannister, 2004) such as cluster analysis (Figure 3.),
principal components analysis (Slater, 1964, 1977) (Figure 4.). In such a graph, ‘Phaedrus’ is
a ‘corruptor of youth’ while ‘Socrates’ is characterised as ‘philosopher’ and to a lesser degree a
‘questioner of ideas’. ‘Lysias’ is an ambiguous person being near the origin, and ‘Euthyphro’
is a ‘Greek’ ‘man’. However, all four people had all three traits, but to varying degrees of
perception. Note also that the constructs, in blue, are bipolar, but that the characteristics at
either end of the pole are not simple ‘opposites’ but rather alternatives from the repertoire of
roles this set of people may be perceived to have.
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Figure 3: FOCUS: The same matrix now ‘focussed’ and with cluster analysis,
dendrograms on the right.
The result of this analysis is the production of a set of co-ordinates derived from principal
component loadings, typically, the first and second loadings are utilised to plot the position of
the constructs on a Cartesian plane. The analyses produce graphs that are representations of
a person’s set of constructs with the co-ordinates of the constructs plotted as points in two or
more dimensions. The selection of only the first and second principal component loadings is
again the subject of further work (McCloughlin and Matthews, in preparation).
Figure 4: PRINGRID: The resultant principal components plot of the matrix in

Figure 1. and Figure 2.
The mathematical techniques used in RGA can be used to analyse the structures of
learners’ concepts in science, and other curriculum subject areas, even though such concepts
do not show all the characteristics required of the constructs traditionally employed in RGA.
However, there are few studies that apply RGA to the study of concepts commonly found in the
sciences (Bezzi, 1996; Fetherstonhaugh, 1994; Winer & Vazquez-Abad, 1995). However, its
main use in educational research to date has been in studying the perceptions held by educators
of their work, the children in their care or themselves ‘in role’; and/of their students of them,
their environment and the material they must learn (Artiles & Trent, 1990; Cuniliffe, 1994;
Derry & Potts, 1998; Fang, 1996; Kubrusly, 1984; Menmuir & Christie, 1999; Munby, 1984;
Nespor, 1985; Owens, 1988; Shaw, 1992; Solas, 1992; Tisher, 1983; Walker & Kleine, 1985;
Watson, 1994; Williams, Pack, & Khisty, 1997)
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What Then Is Conceptual Framework Mapping? 95
“Conceptual framework” is a generic term to include techniques for representing

concepts and the relationships between them pictorially. In this paper, we consider the use of
repertory grid analysis and concept mapping as techniques of conceptual framework mapping
and review its relationship with ‘classical’ concept mapping and briefly with modern biological
techniques.
Problem of Research
Kinchin (2001) asked the still highly pertinent question that if concept mapping is so
helpful to learning science then “why aren’t we all doing it?” Kinchin (2000) believed that
there has been a reluctance in the science education researcher community to address problems
with concept mapping in the face of purported wide ranging advantages and benefits ascribed
to concept mapping. The simple truth is that in spite of the positive literature, teachers of
primary, secondary and tertiary science do not use concept mapping as much as they could. The
purpose of this paper is to deal with the sort of problems that have been outlined by a number
of researchers.
Kinchin (2001) describes the main problem a teacher faces when having administered
a concept mapping task to a class group: what do you do with them now? How does one
compare 20-30 (or more) concept maps with each other and with the teachers’ ‘authoritative’
conception? Taking one step back further, an even simpler question is how to compare only
two concepts that one person constructs, and thus examine the progress of the learner. A key
problem of attempting to employ concept maps in education has been to devise protocols to
apply a score or ‘mark’ in order to introduce an element of summative assessment. Indeed,
early attempts in applying a score to concept maps involved a summative approach (Novak &
Gowin, 1984). The constructivist agenda is contrary to impressionistic scoring of test items and
issue of validity and reliability are relevant also.
Can Concept Maps Be Assessed?
In this section, a number of methods of scoring concept maps are reviewed before RGA
is examined in more detail. The following methods all attempt to decompose concept maps
into their components and score the components based on some kind of weighting. The scores
are then analysed according to an algorithm, usually a summation. Novakian concept mapping
(Markham, Mintzes, & Jones, 1994) has undergone a number of adaptations by different workers
(Martin, Mintzes, & Clavijo, 2000), some of whom developed a system for scoring structural
complexity and examining propositional validity.
æ ö
Scm = n c + n r + n h + n b + n l + çn l ÷
n
è c ø (i)
Where:
nc, is the number of points for concepts, one for each non-redundant concept,
nr, is the number of points for relationships, one point for each valid, scientifically-acceptable
proposition,
nh, is the number of points for hierarchy, five points for each level of hierarchy,
nb, is the number of points for branching, one point for the first branching and three points for
each additional branching,
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96 nl, is the number of points for cross-links, ten points for each valid, scientifically-acceptable
cross-link.
In a simpler approach the score is the sum of individual scores allotted to:
(i) the number of links per se: score of 1 per link
(ii) the number of levels or nestings in a hierarchy: score of 5 per level
(iii) the number of cross links: score of 2 or 10 per cross link depending on which
version of the protocol one is using, and
(iv) the numbers of examples: score of 1 per example.
This is summarised in the following equality:
Scm = n l + n n + n c + n e (ii)
Where:
cm is the concept map score
nl is the number of links, each carrying a weighting of 1
nn is the number of nestings, each carrying a weighting of 5
nc is the number of cross links, each carrying a weighting of 2 or 10
ne is the number of examples, each carrying a weighting of 1.
Whereas these summative approaches have the benefit of simplicity, there are two main causes
of concern in its application. Firstly, although the concept map may provide an impression of
structure and a complex structure may appear to indicate a rich understanding of the content
relating to the concept map, the score merely reflects a measure of the complexity rather than
the quality or richness. Unfortunately it does not provide any comment on the structure of the
ideas expressed. Secondly, as mentioned before, students who have been trained to construct
concept maps would acquire the scoring rules and aim to maximise their scores through cross-
links. The rebuff to the second point might be to say that only the relevant cross-links would
be scored. However, the issue of relevance is fraught with difficulties of interpretation and
the decision to state that one link is more relevant than another becomes subjective although a
scoring system should be objective.
Another scoring scheme was developed which takes account of (i) the hierarchical structure
of the concept map, (ii) identified propositions, and (iii) the actual validity versus implied
validity of concept map components (Schreiber & Abegg, 1991). This is summarised in the
following equality:
X = [ x - n ( b + c )] + b c
(iii)
Where:
X is the overall concept map score;
x is the initial tally of points awarded for recognition of hierarchical, propositional and valid
constructs on a concept map;
n is the number of strands in a concept map;
b is the summed ratios of number of vocabulary terms to number of hierarchical levels per
strand;
c is the summed ratios of number of valid connecting lines to total number of connecting lines
drawn.
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Although Schreiber & Abegg (1991) attempt to address the issue of taking into account 97
the structure of the concept map, they also assume that the practitioner can determine which
links are ‘valid’ and which are not.
Equation (i) is very closely related to Equation (ii) in that they are both summations.
Aside from a difference in terminology the idea of interconnectedness has been added (Martin
et al., 2000). In Equation (i), interconnectedness is represented as the ratio of the score of
cross-links to the score of concepts. This is believed to take account of the ‘cohesiveness’ of the
concept-map, whereas the score for cross-links perhaps only indicate a measure of ‘integration’
(Martin et al., 2000). However, whatever the nomenclature, the same problem arises of a
student who, trained to construct concept maps, may not necessarily understand the concepts
contained therein or have ‘ability’ in the topic. Another scoring procedure for scoring structural
change (Pearsall, Skipper, & Mintzes, 1997) which bears some similarity to the basic idea
behind Kinchin’s method of characterising the structure of concept maps (Kinchin, Hay, &
Adams, 2000) is the second system described by (Martin et al., 2000)). In Martin et al.’s (2000)
method, three structural changes in the knowledge frameworks are documented:
restructuring, when a concept label is added or deleted from the first hierarchical level
of a concept map
accretion, when ten or more concept labels are added to a pre-existing concept
tuning, when any change to a pre-existing concept results in a modification of its meaning
by the addition of constraining or constant variables.
In order to develop a scoring system, each map is compared to its successor (map 1
v. map 2; map 2 v. map 3; map 3 v. map 4; and so on if appropriate) and a score of 1 or 0 is
recorded for each instance or non-instance of a structural change event. At length, each student
receives a set of scores. Although important in their own right, these features of a concept
mapping assessment system do not answer the problem of how one practitioner may decide
certain links and/or cross-links are valid and others not so.
In response to problems such as validity and reliability, item response theory (IRT)
models were employed for scoring concept maps (Liu, 1994). IRT models have been used for
scoring and comparing students’ achievements even if they do not sit the same test (Hambleton,
H., & Rogers, 1991). Traditional IRT models have been extended to graded IRT (Samejima,
1969), thus students’ responses to an item no longer have to be scored dichotomously as right
or wrong: they can be graded as categories. When IRT is used for scoring concept maps, the
four aspects of a concept map, i.e., links, hierarchies, cross-links, and examples (á la Novak &
Gowin, 1984), are considered ‘test-items’, and the numbers of links, hierarchies, and examples
are considered as students’ categorical responses to the ‘test-items’. By applying graded IRT
models to students’ responses, it is possible to obtain students’ ability estimates (Liu, 1994). IRT
scoring emphasises the overall structure of students’ concept maps instead of the ‘correctness’
of a specific concept map aspect.
Wilson (1993) analysed the structural characteristics of students’ concept maps using
a 24 x 24 matrix representing the inter-relationships between the 24 concepts was produced
and non-parametric multidimensional scaling was applied generating co-ordinates on three
dimensions. Importantly, the canonical correlation between the co-ordinates and students’
conventional achievement test scores was found to be significant. Liu (1994) claimed that IRT
scoring of concept maps is generally valid and reliable and that the correlation between IRT
ability estimates and the total concept mapping scores based on Novakian scoring scheme is
significant, and thus the Novakian method can be taken to be a reliable indicator of ‘ability’.
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98 Findings
The ‘problem of research’ stated earlier was that concept mapping had a number of
inherent problems that reserchers tended to overlook such as the validity and reliability of
conclusions drawn from the the structure / arrangement of the concept maps produced. It is
proposed that RGA may move beyond such problems.
What Is the Relationship between RGA and Concept Mapping?
The main aim of this research is to better understand how RGA can be used to study
students’ conceptual structures, especially those related to the sciences, and as an example of
a concept, PERISSODACTYLA - (odd-toed mammals) was chosen. The technique provides
diagrammatic representations of a learner’s conceptual framework in a consistent and rigorous
manner. These diagrams can be interpreted as concept maps of a special kind (Lawson,
1997), and the technique allows the concept maps of two or more students to be compared
systematically. This is one of the drawbacks of conventional concept mapping where concepts
and sub-concepts can be arranged in a hierarchy linearly without labelled linkages (Figure
5) or radially with labelled arrows (Figure 6.) according to preference of the user; however,
it is unclear if the user placed any significance on the arrangement, and they were merely
being ‘tidy’. If the maps are free drawn, the problem of comparing one child’s concept map
with another becomes near insurmountable. Proper comparisons can only be made if the same
components are found in all the maps to be compared.
Figure 5: Hierarchical concept map of concept: Perissodactyla drawn using Con-

ceptDrawPro™.
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99
Figure 6: Radial concept map of concept: Perissodactyla drawn using Cmap-

Tools™.
Only 4 out of eighteen possible characters were employed to reduce complexity.

The fully drawn concept map is extensive, complicated and difficult to interpret. The lines
connecting animals denotes a relationship connecting them, that being the feature within the
oval interrupting the link between the animals. The classic concept map generally shows a
mere presence/absence relationship, thus a binary state, and usually in the ‘direction’ of what
positively contributes to defining that animal. This particular map is in a hierarchical manner
with the Order Perissodactyla at the top, Genera in the middle and Species at the bottom. This is
an artificial arrangement and the physical distance between the boxes is irrelevant, for example
E. quagga is no more relevant or part of Equus spp. than E. burchelli. Also, the features,
in ovals, do not have simple one-to-one connection between Equus spp. and the species at
the bottom of the diagram. According to (Novak & Gowin, 1984) the links can be scored
to introduce a quantitative element, however this is a sum of the number of links and thus a
measure of ‘complexity’, rather than understanding. Repertory grid analysis ‘scores’ all the
features against all the constructs and by producing a grid or matrix, mathematical procedures
are carried out such as principal component analysis. Atran (1999) applied such a procedure,
namely, multidimensional scaling, to an indigenous tribal group’s conception of snakes living
near their location: again, the structure is psychological rather than phylogenetic. We are
concerned with how such techniques can be used to construct psychological representations
of a learner’s conceptual framework but in formal academic biology, principal components
analysis is employed to construct representations of the hereditary relationships between living
things.
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100 What is the Relationship between a Dendrogram Produced during RGA and Formal
Scientifically Derived Taxonomic Trees?
Using the FOCUS program in RepGrid™ (Figure 7.) a dendrogram is produced that has
the initial appearance of a taxonomic tree, but is it really what it is? It is a diagram rating the
similarity between the animals listed. The distance along the scale to the right hand side is a
similarity rating e.g., E. onager, hemionus and kiang are clustered very closely since they are
all species of wild ass; and E. burchelli, zebra and grevyi since they are all species of zebra.
E. caballus, i.e., horse, is rated very close to Equus spp. - the generic ‘horse’ – even though all
the animals beginning with the abbreviation E. for Equus are equids, i.e., horse-like animals.
Rhinoceros and Tapirus are the next closely related cluster but they are relatively distantly
related to each other; and have a greater perceptual, if not psychological, distance from horses,
zebra and the like. Odd ones out are the extinct quagga, an animal which belongs close to zebra,
and E. asinus, i.e., donkey, though this last species is perceptually closest to the wild asses.
Using the same data, principal components analysis can be done to extract loadings
which can be plotted on a Cartesian plane (Figure 8.). In RGA, the analysis is done twice so
that the elements are plotted as points and the constructs as vectors. The distance of the element
from the construct vector, which is polar, is related to the relevance that the participant thinks
about this context, as was inferred earlier in the introduction to RGA
Figure 7: FOCUSsed grid with cluster analysis for data concerning Perissodac-
tyla.
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Figure 8: Principal components PRINCOM plot of the data from Figure 6.
Kitching et al. (1998) believe that any comparative data, and cite linguistics as an
example, can be organised using cladistics, the end result of which is a cladogram (Figure
9.). They define cladistics as a method of classification that groups taxa hierarchically into
discrete set and subsets. There is an obvious relationship between arranging the concepts of
living things using a repertory grid as the raw data and devising an arrangement of concepts of
living things using biochemical or morphological information as the raw data. In the former,
the data is personal or mental. In the latter case the data is physical. It is interesting to note
however that the same system can be used to elicit organisational frameworks of biological
concepts. It is both important and interesting that both repertory grid analysis - employing
personally constructed mental data to produce graphs resembling concept maps; and cladistics -
employing derived physical data to produce branching diagrams called cladograms; both share
a similar underlying principle. The relationship between concepts is relative. This does alter
the trend in dealing with scientific concepts whether physically or psychologically described, in
that they have tended in the past to be seen as absolutes, even though the relationship between
specific concepts remained vague.
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Figure 8: Cladogram for the animals using the original matrix to produce Figure
6.
The comparison of RGA matrices have been dealt with elsewhere (McCloughlin &
Matthews, 2005, 2010), and here, suffice to say that since matrices may be treated as single
entities in mathematics, the simplest way to compare two matrices is to subtract them and
observe the results of subtractions. Two matrices could involve an expert and a novice to locate
areas of improvement, and repeated to note development. There are also a number of ways
to compare large numbers of matrices of 30, 40 or more individuals; one, is to average the
matrices and analyze the resultant ’averaged’ matrix; averaging may be simple averaging of the
matrices but more often a centering technique is used.
Conclusions
The principal components plot of RGA is a special sort of concept map, but more
so since the distance between concepts has a mathematical significance. The principal
components analysis plot locates constructs and their elements, thus rather than a simple
propositional logic evident in simple concept maps, a multirelational logic inbuilt in the
mathematics of principal components analysis becomes evident in principal components
analysis plots. RGA provides for meaningful assessment rather than scoring whole concept
maps ‘in the round’, a so-called ‘holistic’ score, or taking the four main components and
scoring for ‘relevence’, by which is meant the ‘nearest to the educators idea’ as opposed to
the relevence the student places on the concept.
Hierarchies and complexities may be drawn into concept maps that were not
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intended or failure to grasp the ‘rules’ of the concept map rubric would result in biased 103
scoring. RGA bypasses these issues, and a proper ‘holistic’ score is achieved by RGA, not
in the form of a single integer but rather as a matrix. Thus the problem of quantification
of concept mapping is addressed. The meaningful comparison of concept maps between
students, or between students and educators is possible (whereas this has proven to be
one of the more problematic areas in ‘classical’ concept mapping). Although, a number
of positive things can be said about RGA, the one major drawback is that the principle
components plots need to be interpreted by a person who has spent some time getting to
know the nuances of the plots. However, it can be done relatively easy, although it is not
’intuitive’ unlike may things to do with computers.
The revised Irish curriculum for primary schooling may state that concept mapping is
an appropriate form of assessment in science but it does not give guidance on how concept
mapping is to be done, or indeed what sort should be employed. Certainly, much more research
needs to be done in repertory grid analysis and its implications and applications in curricular
research have yet to be fully explored.
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106 Advised by Hugh Gash, St. Patrick’s College, Dublin, Ireland
Thomas J.J. McCloughlin B.Sc., H.Dip.Ed., M.A. (Ed), Ph.D., Chartered Biologist & Lecturer in Sci-
ence Education, Education Department, St. Patrick’s College (a college of
Dublin City University), Drumcondra, Dublin 9, Ireland.
E-mail: thomas.mccloughlin@spd.dcu.ie
Philip S.C. Matthews B.Sc., Ph.D., Emeritus Senior Lecturer in Science Education, School of
Education, Trinity College (University of Dublin), College Green, Dublin 2,
Ireland.
E-mail: pmtthews@tcd.ie
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WHO STRIVES AND WHO GIVES UP? THE 107
ROLE OF SOCIAL COMPARISON DISTANCE

AND ACHIEVEMENT GOALS ON
STUDENTS’ LEARNING INVESTMENT
Aneta Mechi, Margarita Sanchez-Mazas

University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
E-mail: Aneta.Mechi@unige.ch, Margarita.Sanchez-Mazas@unige.ch
Abstract
The current survey tests the effects of social comparison distance on investment in learning. The social
comparison is known to have two directions: upward and downward. It is hypothesized that, apart from
these two directions, there are two distances: moderate and extreme. These distances are supposed to
have an impact on the learning investment (when students will strive) or the disinvestment (when they
will not make a great effort). Globally, students seem to put more effort in the case of moderate-distance
conditions than in the case of extreme-distance conditions. However, the effect of distance is different
according to the achievement goals reported by participants (interaction between comparison distance
and achievement goals): the participants with performance goals strive more in the moderate-distance
condition, whereas those with mastery goals seem to put a quite stable effort regardless of the distance.
Implications in educational settings are discussed.
Key words: achievement goals, learning investment, social comparison distance.
Introduction
In the classic experiment by Whittemore (1925), participants seated around a table

received tasks to work on. There was a large opportunity to observe other participants.
Introspective reports by the participants demonstrated that they spontaneously chose someone
with a close level of performance to compare themselves to. Social comparison is a general
mechanism that may be beneficial or detrimental. A person can perform differently depending
with whom he/she compares him/herself. Choosing someone slightly better or worse, or much
better or worse, does not have the same consequences on learning investment. Somebody
who is much better may be considered a genius and dishearten the observer, and somebody
extremely inferior may encourage a person to rest on their laurels. Somebody slightly different
may stimulate the person to progress or to not regress. Each of these targets can be chosen by
an individual for different aims, either to feel better (self-enhancement) or to perform better
(self-improvement). These aspects of possible choice and goals of comparison are important
for teachers’ practice. Understanding these mechanisms can help teachers influence pupils’ or
students’ comparisons. If they see that a student considers another person who performs very
well a genius, and considers his/her competence level as unattainable, teachers may elaborate
their feedback to influence pupils’ perception of this distance and thus change their perception
of difficulty.
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108 Social Comparison and Learning Investment
Festinger (1954) assumed that an individual has a drive to assess his/her opinion and
abilities, and in the absence of objective assessment he/she will choose another person to
compare him/herself with. The researchers agree on the existence of two directions in social
comparison: Upward and downward. The former is often defined as the one which causes
a feeling of inferiority, dubbed the big-fish-little-pond-effect (BFLPE) by Marsh and Hau
(2003), or worse-than-average (WTA) by Moor (2006) and Kruger (1999); while the second
is defined as the one that increases a feeling of superiority, dubbed better-than-average (BTA)
by Goethals, Messick, and Allison (1991). Thus, the first is regarded as having a negative
impact (Alicke, Loschiavo, Zerbst, & Zhang, 1997) and the second as having a positive impact
(Taylor, Wayment, & Collins, 1993). However, many researchers studying social comparison
have placed the participant slightly or extremely up, or slightly or extremely down. In many
studies, the authors spoke implicitly, or explicitly, of moderate or extreme differences between
the subject and the target of comparison.
Yet, in the aim to study the effects of upward comparison, other researchers considered
different kinds of targets: The superstars (Lockwood and Kunda, 1997), the targets with a huge
success versus a huge failure (Buunk, Ybema, Gibbons, & Ipenburg, 2001), the students with
extreme success versus moderate achievement (Blanton, Gibbons, Buunk, & Kuyper, 1999), or
the students having slightly better versus slightly lower self-esteem (Seta, 1982). The results
of these studies show that each of these distances triggers different dynamics depending on the
focalized aspect. Mussweiller (2003) had already seen the comparison distances in these terms
when he developed his selective accessibility model. He claimed that most often, individuals
assimilate the targets belonging to the same category (Mussweiller & Bodenhausen, 2002), or
having a moderate position in relationship to oneself on the relevant dimension (Mussweiller,
Rüter, & Epstude, 2004a). Given that, the present paper explores the effects of this moderate
distance on the relevant dimension (important learning domain), compared with extreme
distance. It is hypothesized that the dynamics underlying each distance differ in learning
investment.
What about the effects of these distances? A number of studies demonstrate that the
results regarding negative or positive feelings related to comparison direction are inconsistent.
Buunk, Taylor, Collins, van Yperen, and Dakof (1990) found that downward comparison—
except for its positive impact on self-esteem—may have a negative result, Burleson, Leach,
and Harrington (2005) demonstrated that upward comparison can provide a sense of inferiority,
but at the same time inspire. In short, these results are pushing researchers to characterize
social comparison as a “double-edged sword” (Major, Testa, & Bylsma, 1991). On the basis of
these results, it is difficult to say whether different kinds of comparison (upward vs. downward
combined with slight vs. extreme distance) are positive or negative for learning investment.
Whereas a threat could paralyze, a slight threat, under some conditions, can stimulate. Recently,
Bagès and Martinot (2011) studied the success of role models’ explanation in relationship to
comparison distance. Hence, the role models (extreme distance) do not have the same impact
on learning when they are explained by gift or hard work (the hard-working model seems to
be more inspirational than the gifted one). Along this line, it may be assumed that the role of
comparison distances in learning investment may depend on the type of motivation the learner
develops when faced with accomplishment situations. More precisely, the impact of comparison
processes may depend on the type of motivation in learning, since a motivation focused on the
self may be more dependent on social comparison than a motivation focused on the task.
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ment Goals on Students’ Learning Investment
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The Role of Achievement Goals 109
According to abundant literature on motivation in accomplishment situations, two major

types of goals can be distinguished: Performance goals (success and/or positive judgment-
focused goals) and mastery goals (task-focused goals) (Nicholls, 1984). Most likely, the type
of goal may lead an individual to compare him/herself with others. Indeed, a student motivated
to excel in the eyes of others may compare him/herself to others more accurately than a student
primarily motivated to master the task. Thus, an approach to the achievement situation according
to performance goals should be more dependent on comparison processes than an approach
according to mastery goals, which should be more stable throughout comparison situations.
Given that helping students to develop autonomy and stability in learning processes is an
interesting perspective in pedagogy, the study of social comparison processes in the domain
of learning should take into account the psychological dimensions of learning goals in order to
study the conditions favoring students’ learning independence and control.
Assuming that those goals influence students’ decision on whether or not to allocate
their time and energy to the task, the aim of the present paper is to explore the potential role of
achievement goals in the learning investment according to the social comparison situation. It has
been shown that the individuals with mastery goals are used to learn with more profoundness
(Weinstein & Mayer, 1986), keep positive relations (Kaplan & Maehr, 1999), and are more
self-confident and thus less afraid of questions and demand for help (Ryan, Pintrich & Midgley,
2001). Moreover, a number of studies demonstrate that individuals with mastery goals often
choose challenging tasks rather than simple ones (Dweck & Legget, 1988) and that they use
social comparison (Régner, Escribe & Dupeyrat, 2007) to acquire information about how to
enhance their competence (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997).
By contrast, the individuals with performance goals have been shown to study in a rather
superficial way (Nolen, 1988), to cheat (Anderman & Danner, 2008), to not cooperate with others
(Kaplan & Maehr, 1999), to put forth less effort (Ames & Archer, 1988), to interpret their failure
as lack of ability (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), and to choose easy tasks rather than challenging
ones (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Therefore, students with mastery goals can be expected to
be less dependent on social comparison processes than students with performance goals, and
should be more stable through comparison situations and distances. Conversely, taking into
account the learning characteristics associated with performance goals, we could suppose that
participants with performance goals will strive more in the case of moderate distance than in the
case of extreme distance. Indeed, while a moderate-comparison distance could be stimulating
for the participants with performance goals, the extreme distance is supposed to generate a
possible threat due to the psychological salience of a potential audience and the supposed
willingness of publicly demonstrating one’s competence. In extremely distant comparison
situations, the individual may face the fear of not attaining a high level of performance or the
fear of chronic failure. Thus, it can be predicted that a moderate-comparison distance will favor
learning investment more so than an extreme-comparison distance, especially for individuals
with performance goals compared with individuals with mastery goals.
Research Focus
The present paper focuses on the study of comparison conditions favoring learning
investment and, specifically, of the possible impact of comparison distances. Drawing upon
the distinction between performance goals and mastery goals as general orientations toward
achievement, it predicts that the effect of comparison distances on learning investment should
be obtained for individuals particularly sensitive to self-enhancement, i.e. those driven by
performance goals, more so than for individuals concerned with mastering the task, i.e. those
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110 driven by mastery goals. Furthermore, an important distinction is made in this paper between
the possible effects of comparison distances, i.e. moderate vs. extreme comparison distances,
regardless of comparison directions.
Generally, the upward comparison is considered threatening, but a number of studies
have demonstrated that individuals like to compare themselves to people who are slightly better
than them (Collins, 2000; Crahay, 2000). They perceive this level of competence as attainable
(Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). Taylor, Kemyny, Reed, Bower, and Gruenwals (2000) argued
that individuals perceive a possibility of positive output, and that is why they are likely to
put in an effort. The authors hypothesized that a slight threat should motivate individuals to
persevere more than a strong one. Analogically, the downward comparison may be stimulating
when the difference with the person with whom the individual compares is slight (Mussweiller,
Rüter, Epstude, 2004b). Indeed, in this situation, the individuals perceive that their positions are
close and thus could change or be inversed ̶ in short, they are both modifiable. This perceived
probability of change of one’s position has appeared in literature under the term of “mutability,”–
the belief that a modification is possible (Roese & Olson, 2008). It is likely that this mechanism
occurs when the individual decides whether it is worthwhile to make an effort, or it is better to
give up. The possibility of change may therefore be motivating not only for performing but also
for not regressing, and it is likely to be the outcome of moderately distant-upward as well as
distant-downward social comparisons.
Conversely, concerning extremely distant social comparisons, there is a range of studies
examining situations in which the individual is invited to compare him/herself with a person
who is extremely better than him/her. The studies show that the position of the person to whom
the individual compares him/herself is perceived as unattainable (Strahan, Wilson, Cressman,
& Buota, 2006). This person may often be identified as a genius because of his/her extremely
distant position (genius effect) (Alicke, Loschiavo, Zerbst & Zhang, 1997; Mussweiller,
Gabriel & Bodenhausen, 2000) or a superstar (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). In learning settings,
the individual who compares himself/herself to the person with extremely better achievement
often gives up before trying. Why? Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) pointed out the importance of
anticipated output: When the individual anticipates a negative output, he/she will be less able to
act. In addition, comparison with the person who is perceived as extremely far on the assessed
dimension can lead, upwards, to the conclusion of extreme complexity of the task (Darnon,
2009), and, downwards, to the feeling of extreme superiority concerning one’s competence in
the task.
On the other hand, the same result (low learning investment) can be obtained in the case
of extreme downward comparison. Although Menon, Kyung, and Agrawal (2009) found that
increasing the distance in the downward comparison promotes comparative optimism, perceived
control, and intention to work, Lockwood (2000) considers it risky in learning settings. She
argues that this state of “savoring of superiority” is more likely to promote stagnation (resting
on the laurels) than to motivate one to learn. Besides, the role of perceived mutability of
one’s position could be applied in the case of extreme distances, both upward and downward,
for deriving the prediction that the greater the perceived distance, the lower the perceived
mutability, and therefore the lower the learning investment as well. Hence, it is hypothesized
that the learning investment should be higher in the case of moderate distance (high likelihood
of modification) than in the case of extreme distance (low likelihood of modification),
especially for those individuals who are highly dependent on social comparisons for learning
investment (performance goals oriented) compared with the individuals who supposedly are
more independent from social comparisons with others (mastery goals oriented).
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Methodology of Research 111
Undergraduate students were asked to describe their feelings and reactions about specific
comparisons in their school career (recall of persons who were slightly better or worse or
extremely better or worse). Since in the field of learning, individuals often compare themselves
spontaneously and constantly (Gilbert, Morris, & Giesler, 1995), but often unconsciously and
not always with a person who is located on the average, we considered most relevant for the
effect of comparison distance to induce comparisons with a “specific” target. In doing so, we
gave everyone the opportunity to choose the person who represented the comparison distance
identified in the questionnaire.
Sample of Research
Forty undergraduate students in a social psychology introductory course (thirty three

women, three men, four students didn’t indicate their sex; mean age = 23.7 years) participated
in the research, which was presented as a way to improve the training course. The survey was
conducted for the first time; hence, its reliability cannot be confirmed. However, developments
on this point will be dealt with in a subsequent report.
Design and Procedure
A two (moderate vs. extreme comparison distance) by two (performance vs. mastery
goals) experimental design was realized in order to test the impact of moderate- and extreme-
comparison distances on learning investment among students with performance or with mastery
achievement goals.
Participants completed an anonymous questionnaire individually at the beginning of
a course. They were randomly assigned, through four versions of the questionnaire, to four
experimental conditions: 1) extreme upward comparison, 2) moderate upward comparison, 3)
extreme downward comparison, and 4) moderate downward comparison. The questionnaire
included social demographic questions, questions about their important domain of performance
in their school career, and about the reason why the domain was important (prestige, passion,
high salary in the future, trendy domain, pleasure of learning, need to master this domain,
competition, succeeding, reputation, and competence). After that, they were invited to think
about one person who, depending on the condition, was 1) extremely better, 2) slightly better, 3)
extremely worse, or 4) slightly worse than themselves (“had more/less abilities”). The following
questions were related to the amount of their investment in this domain. Their answers were
rated on a seven-degree scale (0=strongly disagree, 6=strongly agree or 0=minimal effort done,
6=maximal effort done).
Independent Measures
The social comparison distance was extracted by the recoding from four conditions that
were the combination of distance and direction. Thus, the moderate-upward and moderate-
downward conditions were recoded as moderate-comparison distance, and the extreme-upward
and downward conditions were recoded as extreme-comparison distance.
The achievement goals variable has two modalities (performance vs. mastery). It was
computed on the basis of participants’ answers on the reasons given to assess the importance
of a given learning domain. These responses were categorized into two modalities of the
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112 variable achievement goals: 1) performance (prestige, high salary in the future, trendy domain,
competition, succeeding, and reputation), 2) mastery (passion, pleasure of learning, need to
master this domain, and competence).
Dependent Measure
The learning investment variable was measured by questions related to the amount of
effort students have put in to improve their competence/ not regress. The learning investment
variable was computed as a mean of responses on a seven-point scale (0 = no effort done, and 6
= maximum effort done) on three questions related to the effective work accomplished, and the
amount of effort done (Cronbach’s α =0.80).
General Hypothesis
The participants’ learning investment is higher in the case of moderate social comparison
distance than in the case of extreme social comparison distance, albeit this effect should be
obtained especially for participants with performance rather than mastery achievement goals.
Results of Research
Comparison Distance and Learning Investment
On the basis of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 2 (upward vs. downward direction) X

2 (extreme vs. moderate distance) showing a main effect for distance (moderate M = 3.48 vs.
extreme M = 2.39, F (1, 36) = 4.87, p < 0.03, η² = 0.12), the variable comparison distance was
used in subsequent analyses regardless comparison direction.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviation, and numbers for students’ learning invest-
ment according to comparison distance and achievement goals (per-
formance vs. mastery).
Moderate distance Extreme distance
N M SD N M SD
Performance goals 7 3.95 1.81 7 1.81 1.30
Mastery goals 15 3.00 1.42 11 2.97 1.44
The results related to comparison distance in relationship to learning investment show

a significant interaction between distance and achievement goals (F (1, 36) = 4.60, p<0.04,
η²=0.11; see Figure 1).
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113
4.5
4
3.5
3 mastery goals
2.5
2 performance
1.5 goals
1
0.5
0
moderate distance extreme distance
Figure 1: Students’ learning investment according to comparison distance and

achievement goals (performance vs. mastery).
As expected, social comparison appears to favor learning investment in the case of

moderate-comparison distance but not in the case of extreme-comparison distance. Moreover,
as also predicted, the learning investment of participants with performance goals varies
according to the comparison distance (moderate M = 3.95 vs. extreme M = 1.81) whereas the
learning investment of the participants with mastery goals remains quite stable throughout the
comparison distance (moderate M = 3.00 vs. extreme M = 2.97 in extreme distance).
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to explore whether the social comparison distance
could play a role in the students’ learning investment. More precisely, it was hypothesized
that generally, a moderate distance should be more stimulating than an extreme one, but this
effect was supposed to appear among the students with performance goals rather than those
with mastery goals. The results show a significant main effect of the distance on learning
investment. Globally, the students put more effort when the recalled person was in the moderate
distance compared to the extreme distance. Interestingly, we found that the comparison distance
(moderate vs. extreme) has an impact on learning investment both when the recalled person is
clearly defined as superior and when he/she is presented as inferior in terms of abilities. This
effect suggests that the study of social comparison in the learning domain should take into
account the comparison distance, together with the comparison direction.
However, the contribution of the present study is the finding that the type of motivation
plays a significant role in relation to social comparison dynamics in the learning domain.
Indeed, as predicted, students with performance achievement goals appear to be more sensitive
to the distance variations. This suggests that, conversely, the students with mastery goals must
be more stable in terms of learning investment or, perhaps, less dependent on social comparison
processes. Further studies could be designed in order to explore the role of attributions in this
(in) stability, specifically what Weiner (1972) has called internal stable attributions such as
abilities, and internal unstable attributions, such as effort.
Given the limitation of the present study, namely the small sample size, a replication,
using a scale measure of goals (Darnon & Butera, 2005; Elliot & McGregor, 2001 for the French
validation), should provide stronger support for the hypothesis that people with mastery goals
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114 would be more autonomous than people with performance goals toward social comparisons
in school settings. Besides, future studies are needed to test the effect of comparison distance
together with other kinds of distance explanations, such as talent versus work (Bagès &
Martinot, 2011) and other relevant variables such as “level of aspiration” (Gould, 1939) or
diverse emotions (inspiration, admiration, envy, anxiety, and worry), which have been largely
studied in relation to social comparison processes (Smith, 2000).
Moreover, a better understanding of social comparison dynamics in learning should
draw upon relevant distinctions between types of social comparison proposed in the literature.
Indeed, as found by Régner, Escribe and Dupeyrat (2007), there seems to exist, on the one hand,
a social comparison that is conducive to distraction about others, and thus rather detrimental
to learning, and, on the other hand, a comparison focused on task parameters, which would be
beneficial for learning.
More generally, the study of social comparison processes in learning, and specifically the
relative (in)dependence of students toward social comparisons, should provide new insights in
the realm of important school phenomena such as stereotype threats (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
or contextual variables (visibility versus anonymity, Monteil, 1997), which most probably
involve a high degree of dependence on other people’s opinions and often concern the most
vulnerable portion of the school population (Sanchez-Mazas, in press).
Conclusions
Social comparison processes are ubiquitous and very relevant in educational settings
because of their close relationship with motivation to learn (make an effort, devote time and
energy, allocate the attention, and mobilize the resources). For teachers, they are of concern, and
their study should be included in the professional training in order to optimize their competence
in increasing students’ motivation and learning investment. Regarding the equivocal nature
of achievement goals (Darnon, Dompnier, Delmas, Pulfrey & Butera, 2009), mastery goals
are explicitly promoted in academic settings, while performance goals are conveyed implicitly
through the institutional structure based on selection. With this understanding, it is important
to develop an ability to identify what achievement goals are at stake in the school setting and
what the students’ orientations are in this regard. This is necessary to question the possible
discrepancies, to set up appropriate learning conditions, and to build accurate feedbacks.
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Aneta Mechi PhD Student, Teaching Assistant, University of Geneva, 40, Boulevard du Pont
d’Arve, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland.
E-mail: Aneta.Mechi@unige.ch
Website: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/recherche/groupes/SSED/culture-organi-
sation/interculturel.html
http://cms.unige.ch/grife-ge/
Margarita Sanchez-Mazas PhD, Professor, University of Geneva, 40, Boulevard du Pont d’Arve, 1211
Geneva 4, Switzerland.
E-mail: Margarita.Sanchez-Mazas@unige.ch
Website: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/recherche/groupes/SSED/culture-organi-
sation/interculturel.html
http://cms.unige.ch/grife-ge/
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FAILING IN BASIC SCHOOL: DISCOURSES 117
OF EXPLANATION
Mare Müürsepp, Anne Uusen
Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia
E-mail: mare.muursepp@tlu.ee, anne.uusen@tlu.ee
Abstract
Discourse study was aimed to analyse the methodolody of educational research concerning problems of
failing in basic school. There the gender discourse appeared as a substantial issue, while remarkable
differences between boys and girls are revealed by official statistics and educational studies.
The sustainability of a society with such a gender imbalance in education is at risk, since the educational
choices will influence choices in the labor market and in lifestyle in broader terms. It is therefore important
to look for explanations for gender differences in education (coping strategies, achievement, etc.). In line
with the theories of multiple masculinities can be argued that looking at the so-called failing boys as a
homogenous group will not take us very far in understanding the underlying reasons for the causes of
failing. If the coping at school is related to the gender, then the solution of the problem has to be derived
from the gender differences too, but this kind of thinking would connote to the gender stereotypes.
Thus, a historical overview of educational research carried out in Estonia in the last century is provided,
focusing on the discourse of gender in the educational science. There are different periods pointed out
in relation to the focus in studies of academic success: there have been years, when the boys’ results in
academic skills were higher than girls’ results; problems of health and social relations have been treated
in different way during different periods. Content analysis of the studies concerning gender issues will be
the basis for the discussion, and special attention will be given to the research of pupils’ lifestyle.
Key words: coping, essentialist vs. sociocultural approach, gender, lifestyle, multiple masculinity.
Introduction: Gender and Lifestyle in Educational Research
According to the data of longitudinal sociological study “Work, home and leisure time
1985–2008” there are evidences about men’s lower life quality, like a remarkable amount of
men in different age groups, who are less satisfied with their life and less engaged in cultural
activities than women of the same age groups (Müürsepp, 2009). Named fact is in compliance
with the results of studies of pupils’ coping at school, where the boys like school less than girls
and boys’ academic achievement is lower than girls’ results (Leino, Veisson, Ruus, Sarv, Ots
& Veisson, 2008). The experts of PISA 2009 claim even that girls are almost one year ahead
than boys in reading performance for example (EU, 2012). Statistics about young people in
categories ‘not in education, employment and training’ (NEET) and ‘in jobs without training’
(JWT) confirm that there are the boys predominantly (Spielhofer 2009). Might the cultural and
educational backwardness be a gender issue?
Current study analyzed the articles published during the 20th century in Estonian
educational scientific journals to look for the explanations of the school success: with what
is success or failure connected besides gender? How the gender differences are disserted in
theoretical context of modern gender research?
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118 Theoretical Background
Concept of discourse is used in tradition by Michel Foucault interpreting discourse as

a system of representations (Hall, 1997). Way of representation of the gender was a starting
point for the analysis of the articles reflecting empirical research in basic school during the 20th
century.
Coping at school has been defined as an individual’s adaption to the environment: meaning
as individual’s effort to maintain control over events in the process of study (School, 2008).
Aspects of coping include academic success, participation in learning activities, psychosocial
well-being at school, pupils’ interests and school climate (School, 2008). The youth groups
NEET and JWT could be treated as opposite phenomena to school coping. The studies explain
that such young people do not constitute a homogenous group (Spielhofer, 2009).
Proceeding from theoretical origin (Hall, 1997; Laherand, 2008) the discourse might
include different and even opposite meanings systems, as well as gender discourse would
comprise different treatments of gender.
Studies carried out in last decades have shown that gender in education is a much more
complex issue than any statistics can reveal. There is the need to go beyond official numbers by
employing qualitative research methods to investigate boys’ coping strategies. In Scandinavian
countries and the UK there is a strong tradition of ethnographic studies (Lahelma, 2005) that
allows the researcher to study the coping strategies of individual students, both boys and girls. The
questions to ask include the following: why do some boys fail more probably than others? What
are the underlying causes for the failure? In understanding the multiple nature of masculinity,
it has become clearer that some aspects of failure are explained by additional factors such as
ethnic background, social status, life style, etc. (Kimmel, 2010). Gender intersects with other
social factors and it is only question about taking into account the variety of these factors that
any meaningful explanations for the success or failure of boys in education can be provided.
Boys perform their masculinity in numerous ways. These ways are hierarchically
structured and expressed in discourses of power. Hegemonic masculinity stands on top of the
power hierarchy and refers to “a position, which is achieved as a result of collective cultural
and institutional practices, and asserts its authority through these practices particularly through
the media and the state” (Skelton, 2001, referring to Kenway, 1997). Hegemonic masculinity
is constructed vis-à-vis women and other, subordinated forms of masculinity and reinforces the
dominance of white, middle class, heterosexual men in the society (Kimmel, 2011).
The analysis of the approaches to boys in the past educational studies is influenced by
the theories of multiple masculinities (Connell, 2005; Haywood & Mac an Ghaill, 2003). In
discussions about gender two main general approaches are applied: essentialist and socio-
constructive. According to the essentialist understanding of gender, men and women are different
by birth, there is the belief that gender differences would be a natural thing. Oppositely, the
socio-constructivists claim that gender differences are the outcome of different socialization
processes (DeLamater & Hyde, 1998; Kirss, 2011; Kuurme, 2011).
The notion of lifestyle is proposed as a possible way to treat the coping strategies, while
there are different characteristics of the personality integrated in the lifestyle (Hartman, 1999;
Liimets, 2009). In educational sciences in Estonia the concept of lifestyle become central
already in the 1970s. Academician Heino Liimets, in explaining the development and behavior
of human beings, applied the activity theory characteristic of both Russian psychology (e.g.
Lev Vygotsky, Aleksei Leontjev) and reform pedagogy. In Liimets’ view, the underlying
problem was the lack of adequate integration between school-work and other activities forming
a person’s system of life activities. This low integration is often the reason, why school and
studying become unpleasant. Such an educational sociological approach to learning has been
considered quite original in an international comparison (Liimets, A., 1998). Liimets defined
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lifestyle as a psychic condition that ensures a relative adaptation of a personality to all his/ 119
her life conditions, finding support in the resources gathered in the earlier development such
as knowledge, skills and experiences, already existing capabilities, needs and interest, social
attitudes, individual peculiarities of development, the developmental level of self-consciousness
and the ability of self-regulation. The existing personality-related resources enable, with larger
or smaller efficiency, to get involved in activities and communication, in self-realization. On
the one hand, the involvement depends on the opportunities and abilities of a person, on the
other hand also on the mutual relationships of a person and a group, on the availability of help
and support, on how teachers and other educators understand the development situation of each
individual student (Liimets, H., 1998).
Problem of Research
Educational science has to support the practicians in their everyday work. By Foucault
the discourse constructs the topic, defining and producing the objects of knowledge (Hall,
1997). The knowledge acquires authority of “the truth”. The results of educational statistics
amplified by the media had formed the school reality. The aim of the current research was
to map the phenomena of coping at school according to the studies carried out during the
20th century in Estonian school, and to analyze these in the context of contemporary gender
theory. To avoid the embedding of gender stereotypes the other directions of thought would be
important to point out.
Research Focus
The research focused on empirical studies about coping and failing in basic school,
analyzing the explanations of failing. The factors related to failing were pointed out. How
the methodology of studies reflects discourse of gender? In line with the theories of multiple
masculinities (Connell, 2005) is argued that looking at the so-called failing boys as a homogenous
group (as expressed in official statistics and also some educational studies) will not take us very
far in understanding the underlying reasons for the causes of failing. The second argument of
the study is that the problems of boys in education (as well as gender in more general terms)
should be viewed in a historical context, since the context has played a major role in the general
gender discourse.
Although the study concentrates on educational history of a concrete country, the

treatment is international by the substance, as the educational reality in Estonia has formed
under the influence of various cultures. Imported knowledge and ideas from social sciences of
German, Russian, French, Anglo-American and Scandinavian tradition have been integrated
into the tradition of national education. In the second half of the 20th century our education
was dominated by the Soviet educational ideology. At the same time, the Soviet educational
system and educational science have been viewed by influential Western experts as including
ideas not very relevant in the Western educational system (Bronfenbrenner, 1973). Specially
the ideas of supporting the development of a child as a whole has been pointed out (Alexander
2001, 2004).
The principle of gender equality was recognized in the Soviet society: there were
famous women tractor-drivers, crane-drivers and cosmonauts. However, ignoring any gender
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120 differences in education led in the 1970s to the need to introduce family life education into the
curriculum that would guide students to fulfill the role of the man and the woman.
Independence in the late 1980s brought along the revival of the ideals of the pre-war
period of independence. While so far gender equality had been declared, in the education of the
newly re-born republic gender stereotypes in a national-romantic mood became to be stressed.
Methodology of the current study followed the binary opposition of essentialist and
socio-constructivist discourses inside of gender discourse to analyze school failing factors in
Estonian educational research carried out during the 20th century.
Sample of Research
The review uses the database including 276 articles about the problems of basic school,
compiled in 2005 for the doctoral study (Müürsepp, 2005). The articles reflecting educational
research published in the leading scientific educational journals 1919–1940 (Kasvatus/
Education), 1941–1991 (Nõukogude Kool/Soviet School) and 1991–2012 (Haridus/Education)
were analyzed from the viewpoints of gender issues and coping. There are 39 articles selected
to maintain the focus of the present treatment. The principles for selection of the articles were:
1) the article presents a research report, concentrating on an actual empirical study concerning
social and academic coping of basic school pupils; 2) the method and results of the study are
given in the article.
Document analysis as a qualitative research method has been used to analyze the articles
on issues of coping at school. Since the aim of the study was to map and categorize the studies
by the theoretical framework of gender discourse, the analysis stems from theoretical concepts
and directed content analysis has been used (Hsieh & Shannon 2005, Mayring 2000). Studies
were classified by the theoretical basis reflected in report and conclusions as ‘explaining the
school success by the gender issues or justifying by other characteristics’; the studies dealing
with the gender aspect have been categorized into essentialist and socio-constructivist. This
enables to conclude which studies explain the failure of boys in line with modern theoretical
concepts in gender studies (multiple masculinity, socio-constructive approach). The articles were
coded based on the method of research (qualitative-quantitative) and the line of argumentation
(essentialist, socio-constructive) and a table of analysis generalizing the studies were made.
Data Analysis
According to the aim of the study the research reports introduced in the articles were
analyzed by the aspects concerning on the coping at school. The aspects concerning the coping
at school were specified both by the theoretical reasoning reflected in the report and by the
results and the conclusions of the study reflected in the articles.
In searching the aspects of the academic and social coping in educational research, the studies
can be divided into several categories: qualitative and quantitative, studies based on essentialist
and socio-constructive explanations. Based on the interpretation of research results articles
could also be coded according to whether the results were presented by opposing boys and
girls, by looking at them only as groups distinguished by gender or by finding subgroups and
forming typologies where gender was not the primary category.
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Results of the Research 121
Factors of Coping
There are many different matters mentioned by the reports in different periods. School
success have been analyzed in connection with pupils’ geographic location, their parents’
profession and educational level, pupils’ somatic condition, health, age, gender differences
in physiological development, gender stereotypes and also generally determined economic-
cultural factors, pedagogical-medical problems and lifestyle issues mentioned. The variety
of emphasis depends on the variety of the researchers – there are the studies conducted by
medical workers, sociologists and other working together with educational researchers. The
most important groups of factors related to coping in school are presented on the figure 1, there
is the relative frequency of the factors given.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
gender IQ family interests health kindergarten lifestyle cultural tradition
Figure 1: Factors related to coping in school according to the empirical studies.
Historical context
Also the emphasis depends on the leading ideology of certain historical period. In
the 1920–1930s the focus in the educational sciences of the new national state was on the
implementation of the approaches developed in Western countries to develop the national
school. Measurement of intelligence through tests was considered relevant as well as studying
the interests of young people. According to the studies of the 1930s, boys showed better
intellectual capabilities and were more successful than girls in some types of schools (private
schools). In the Soviet period Estonian educational researchers became the members of Soviet
Union-wide research programs. Since the development of the scientific potential became the
central task due to the cold war, educational research focused on the effectiveness of teaching.
There are new aspects like issues of health (since 1963) and lifestyle (since 1969) remarkable
in the research.
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122 Gender Discourse
Proceeding the opposition inside of gender discourse the studies were analyzed from the
point of view expressed in the methodological arguments and interpretation of the results. More
than half of the articles were written in the essentialist paradigm claiming that boys and girls
are simply different, without explaining why students’ academic results should be compared in
terms of gender (Figure 2).
11 articles out of 39, including both those using qualitative research methodology and
quantitative methodology, attempted to explain academic achievement and social coping by
using the broader socio-constructivist approach, looking for different factors which could
influence children’s behaviors and evaluations, given to these behaviors. Based on research
results these studies usually referred to student groups or types in which the gender was only a
background factor.
There are 8 articles, where the gender is not a factor of analyze of school success. There are
different types of studies presented, like sociological observation of the whole school class
during a year, and there are typologies of children by teachers evaluation.
essentialist
socio-constructivist
gender neutral
Figure 2: Gender interpretation in the educational studies.
Lifestyle Discourse
In several studies student types are distinguished and their choices of lifestyle serve
as the basis for these distinctions. This line of research is closely related to today’s gender
discussions. Central among these studies is the project From Desk to Desk, which has been used
as the example by Silvia Kera in her studies of basic school students (Kera, 1977, 1983).
According to Liimets and Kera the student-like way of life exhibits several characteristics/
indicators: studying/learning as the core activity, the relationship between studying and free
time, age, social awareness – the relationship with other people (individualistic or collectivist
the dimension of activity-passivity in action, the share of cultural values and their acquisition
(Kera, 1977; Liimets, 2009). Educational scientists claimed that it is important to achieve that
the way of life in school would be acceptable to students. To achieve that the work with students
be differentiated, one should take into account the specific features of the way of life and the
needs of individual students for self-realization/actualization, recognition and independence. In
using the concept of lifestyle, Silvia Kera refers to the textbooks of psychology by Kazimiers
Obuchowski, Vadim Olshanski, Tamotsu Shibutani. The educational work done in schools
should meet the system of students’ actual life. Based on the research of rather large samples
of students by the researchers of Liimets’ group and the work of Silvia Kera, the following
typology emerges. Students can be described by or according to five different types of lifestyles
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in which also a certain amount of boys is included. Using the data of the study of Kera the 123
behavior of boys related with learning can be described according to the following five types:
(I) dutiful/conscientious learner, has in-door interests; (II) generally passive, studies worse,
relationship with the class is weak, has no specific interests; (III) active in school, studies little,
but well, selects subjects to study, popular in class; (IV) versatile, likes the school the most,
often active in nature, hard-working; (V) sports dominate, lower academic achievement, misses
classes the most, less popular in class.
Consequently there would be different relations to academic demands presented by
different lifestyle types; herewith there are different reasons to fail. When multiple masculinities
are discussed, such a study of lifestyles would provide an opportunity to discuss in how many
ways one could be a boy, how one or another lifestyle meets the expectations of the school
and whether it is possible to find in schools strategies for coping that take into consideration
different lifestyles.
Discussion
In searching for an explanation for the more frequent failure of boys, research done in
different periods of times indicates that general rules/correlations are difficult to find (e.g. the
relationship between pre-school preparation and the life as a student), that teachers experience
a certain vague dislike of boys; that the reasons of dropping out of school are various and
combined, that the problems related to coping with school become more and more individual
(Tulva, 1986, 1992; Tulva & Väljataga, 1999). There are the studies that have looked at pre-
school children and pinpointed the problem issues related with boys: falling ill more frequently
(Tulva & Tamm, 1971), lower quality nutrition of boys with learning problems (hinting at a
low level of control of a child’s daily schedule, Tulva, 1992), the negative communication tone
of pre-school teachers in relation to children that have become marginalized (Vinter, 2006). It
seems that little boys have been neglected more than little girls and the reason for it could be the
gender stereotype of masculinity – the men should be more independent and become tough.
The study of school environment highlighted beliefs that are also important to know
when analyzing lifestyle choices. Almost one third of teachers mentioned that in their school
punishment is preferred to support, especially in case of behavioral problems. Most teachers
consider the grade, i.e. the measured result of learning a subject, the main supporter of the
students’ development. Thus, the development of the personality of the students is seen as
secondary (Sarv, 2008, 231). This conclusion is further supported by the fact that a large number
of teachers do not consider conversations with students important and are neither aware nor
interested in the students’ problems. Therefore, it is rather expectable that a young person for
whom communication is a very important part of their lifestyle (Must, 1986) will look for such
a communication partner in their activities who is interested in them as a personality.
Concerning to the methodology of study of gender and lifestyle relations the classical note
by Emile Durkheim should be remembered: the nature of child lies in her/his constant changing.
A child is never ready (Durkheim, 2005). Therefore, in studying children longitudinal, repetitive
studies should be preferred. Today, researchers in childhood studies consider it important to
collect authentic material – the recording and analysis of children’s own activities and speech.
Studying gender in schools requires ethnographic methods of study as the childhood study
generally (Prout & James, 2005). Presenting statistical data as evidence for gender differences
rather feeds the stereotypical view than explains the nature of problems.
Since the development of lifestyle is connected with the building of identity, this issue
should be studied in close relationship with the child’s own viewpoint (like ‘story crafting’
method, Karlsson, 2004, 2012). How does a young person see their life and their choices? How
do the young people who have dropped out from the basic school, but later returned to studies
evaluate their life and activities?
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124 Conclusions
Historical material about coping in school was analyzed in frame of the contemporary
gender discourse to reduce the risk of simplification in further research of school problems.
Lively and interdisciplinary debate in gender studies enriches the discussion in educational
research. In studying the gender aspect, the answers could be limited and also biased by
questions that pose the opposition boys vs. girls, since one could on ground of such questions
that boys and girls should be different in every matter. Presenting such an opposition by a
researcher contradicts the concept of multiple masculinities and femininities.
Differences between and boys are often in research treated as a matter of course; the
methodological reasoning does not reflect the ideas, why the boys and girls in certain field
should be or might be different. As pointed out by Chalmers (1992), the results of the empirical
study depend on the theoretical disposition of the researcher.
The current study highlighted the importance of studying gender aspects in education in
connection with lifestyle studies of children. There are many different boys and many different
lifestyles these boys lead. It is important to go beyond the statistical ‘surface’ and employ
authentic methods of research to understand the underlying causes for certain lifestyle choices
(story crafting, ethnographic studies, etc.). Studies of students’ lifestyle can improve the
understanding of children’s choices when it comes to education, the reasons for their academic
success and failure. The lifestyles studies in the basic school in the 1970s and 80s are definitely
worth both: further development as well as doing it cross-culturally.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledgements the help by Gertrud Kasemaa.
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126 Tamm, S. (1979). Koolistressi ilmingud ja õppeedukus. [Phenomena of school stress and student
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Anne Uusen PhD, Associate Professor, Tallinn University, Institute of Educational Sciences,
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E-mail: anne.uusen@tlu.ee
Website: http://www.tlu.ee
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ALBANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ 127
ETHNIC DISTANCE AND STEREOTYPES

COMPARED WITH OTHER BALKAN
NATIONS
Edmond Rapti, Theodhori Karaj
University of Tirana, Albania
E-mail: edi_rapti@yahoo.com, dhorikaraj@yahoo.com
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to identify the Albanian university students’ ethnic distance and the negative
ethnic stereotypes compared with other ethnic groups in the Balkans. In addition, the study aims at
determining the relationship between the ethnic distance and negative ethnic stereotypes. The sample
of this study consists of 600 students selected at random in seven Albanian public universities. The
instruments used in this study are a seven item ethnic distance scale for measuring the ethnic distance
and a ten item scale for measuring ethnic stereotypes. The ethnic distance scale reliability coefficient is
0.76. The reliability coefficient for the ethnic stereotypes scale varies from 0.84 to 0.90. The descriptive
statistics (mean - comparison) is used to describe the level of ethnic distance and ethnic stereotypes...
Pearson Product-moment Correlations are used to identify the intensity and orientation of the relation
between the ethnic distance and stereotyped attitudes. The study findings indicate that Albanian university
students manifest high levels of ethnic stereotypes and ethnic distance compared with other Balkan ethnic
groups, especially Serbs and Greeks. In line with the other research, the findings of the present study
indicate that there is a positive relationship between the ethnic distance and negative ethnic stereotypes.
Key words: Balkan ethnic groups, ethnic distance, ethnic stereotypes.
Introduction
The Balkan countries have a long history of antagonistic fragmentation and diversity
(Todorova, 1997). Its political history, beginning with the efforts for emergence and
consolidation of their nations is full of conflicts and fights for national emancipation,
creation and strengthening of its own national states, observation of ethnic minorities’ rights,
surmounting of ethnic conflicts (Burdiak, 2010). More than a decade has already passed since
the ethnic armed conflicts of the 90s` between Serbians and Croatians, Bosnians and Albanians
of Kosovo, Macedonians and Albanians of Macedonia in 2001, but the situation still remains
tense, especially amongst Albanians of Kosovo and Serbs, Albanians of Macedonia and
Macedonians. Apart from structural, political and economic factors that stir up ethnic conflicts,
the cultural (perceptual) factor is considered the most crucial. (Brown, Cote, Lyn-Jones & Miller,
1997). Ethnic stereotypes seem to essentially affect the urge for ethnic conflicts, especially in
the initial latent phase. Stereotypes are generalized beliefs on certain social group members
(Lippmann, 1922). They are collective beliefs of one social group towards another (Tajfel, 1981).
Stereotypes are attributed to members of a social group only because of the fact that they belong
to that particular group (Weber & Crocker, 1983). Stereotypes are both positive and negative.
According to Allport (1958), stereotypes are the very first step towards prejudices. While most
of them are often interconnected with ethnic prejudices, stereotypes remain intact and much
deeper rooted. Prejudices are attitudes that people have towards members of certain groups.
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128 Stereotypes lead to propelling of racial prejudices, emotional reactions towards members of
other ethnic groups (Katz & Braly, 1935).
Ethnic stereotypes and prejudices lead to social distances: a situation where people
experience feeling reactions towards one another (Bogardus, 1947). Ethnic distance is a kind
of social distance amongst different ethnic groups. It derives from long-term acting ethnic
stereotypes and prejudices. Ethnic distance allows for the expression of negative attitudes
towards nations or ethnic groups. According to Allport (1958) the establishment of ethnic
distance is the second phase in mounting prejudices against other nations and ethnic groups.
Besides some cognitive functions much needed in simplifying the social reality and reducing
effortful thought processes (Devine, 1989; Gilbert and Hixon, 1989), stereotypes exert some
very important social functions. They simplify and justify actions taken by a group towards
another ethnic group (Tajfel, 1981b; Allport, 1958). They legitimize the active presence of
certain ideological systems (Jost and Banaji, 1994) by justifying and rationalizing on inequality
(Glick and Fiske, 2001; Sidanius and Pratto, 1999).
Ethnic stereotypes in the Balkans are rooted in its past and present history. Burdiak (2010)
notifies that ethnic stereotypes in the Balkans have sprung during the phase of the establishment
of nations and respective national countries, a process that started during the Ottoman invasion
and Austro–Hungarian war. After the empires’ collapse, post war countries were faced by state
building challenges. Territorial expansion that led them to wars with each other was a survival
strategy. Lack of contacts led to nations’ isolation in the Balkans. Ethnic minority groups were
easily identified with the enemies. Arising stereotypes were reflected in their collective mind
(Burdiak, 2010). This led to the birth of ethnic stereotypes.
Burdiak, (2010) research on reciprocity of negative stereotypes between Bulgarians and
Turks, Bulgarians and Serbs, Serbs and Albanians, Serbs and Croatians, Greeks and Turks,
Greeks and Bulgarians, Greeks and Albanians proves the mutual engagement of ethnicities in
developing stereotypes. Neofotistos, (2004) confirms the presence of mutual negative ethnic
stereotypes between Macedonians and Albanians of Macedonia.
Many empirical studies have proven the dynamic presence of ethnic distance between
Serbs and other ethnic nations in ex-Yugoslavia. It appeared quite insignificant during
1960-1980, but grew larger in the late 80s` and 90s` and peaked highest in 2000 (Opačić &
Vujadinović, 2005). The ethnic social distance between Serbs and other ethnicities became
more evident in the years to come, when the Yugoslav Republic collapsed and the era of the
creation of new independent states through armed conflicts began. More recent studies prove
the abundance of reciprocal negative stereotypes and social distance amongst Serbs, Croatians,
Bosnians and Albanians of Kosovo (Opačić & Vujadinović, 2005; Šiber, 1997). Research and
surveys prove the presence of greater negative stereotypes and social distance towards other
ethnic groups among Serbs, the greatest of all being that towards Albanians (Biro, Mihic, Milin
& Logar, 2002; Vujadinovic, Djukanovic & Petkvovic, 2003; Opačić & Vujadinović, 2005).
Neofotistos, (2004) shows the presence of negative ethnic stereotypes between Macedonians
and Albanians of Macedonia. Zheleznova (2003), Vidali (1999), Kokkali (2007), prove the
presence of a variety of negative ethnic stereotypes amongst Greeks towards Albanian minority
and immigrants living in Greece.
The presence of ethnic stereotypes and social distance is amply proved in recent research
on young age groups as well. Studies prove the existence of a great ethnic distance amongst
the young Serbs, Croatians, Bosnians and Albanians. Young Serbs keep greater ethnic distance
towards the young people of other nationalities, especially those of ex-Yugoslavian background,
the greatest of all being that against Albanian youth of Kosovo (Kandido-Jakšić, 1999; Biro,
Mihic, Milin & Logar, 2002). As it was shown in a research in 2007, the willingness of a young
Serb in high school to marry an Albanian girl was 5 times lower than the willingness to marry
Slovenian, Croatian and Macedonian girls (Kandido-Jakšić, 2008). Some other studies prove
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the existence of a greater ethnic distance between young Macedonian students and Albanian 129
ones as compared to other ethnicities (Maleska, 2010; Beska, Majcevska, Kenig, Ballazhi, and
Tomovska, 2009; Joveska).
To the best knowledge of the authors, in Albania, there is not any other empirical study
on the presence of ethnic stereotypes and social distances towards other ethnic groups in the
Balkans. The main purpose of this study is to identify ethnic stereotypes and social distance of
university students towards the others in the Balkans.
General Background
The present study is a non experimental quantitative one. It uses descriptive and
correlational statistics to describe the variables and the orientation and strength of the relationship
between them as well.
Sample of Research
The target population of this study are 50.000 bachelor students in Albanian public
universities. A sample of 600 students were selected at random from this population in 6
Albanian public universities to approximately ensure a ± 3 sampling error (Yamane, 1967).
The sample is comprised of 73% female students and 27% male students.
Instruments and Procedures
The instrument used in this study was a structured questionnaire composed of three parts.
The first part included questions related to demographic characteristics (gender, age, years of
study, place of living). The second part was the seven items Bogardus scale of ethnic distance
(1947) used to measure the ethnic distance. The questions aimed at gathering students’ opinions
on the relationship they would like to have with foreigners: (1) marriage (2) close friendship
(3) neighbour (4) colleague at work (5) of the same citizenship (6) visitors in my country (7)
not to allow them enter my country. The final version of the scale in the Albanian language
was obtained based on the back translation procedure and was piloted with 100 university
students who are not included in the study sample. The Cronbach’s Alfa coefficient was used to
estimate the instruments’ internal consistency (Cronbach, 1951). The reliability coefficient for
the ethnic distance scale was 0.76. The third part of the questionnaire is a bipolar scale based on
10 negative and positive qualities for measuring stereotyped attitudes towards different ethnic
groups. A fragment of this scale is as follows:
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130
According to your opinion, to what extent are the following characteristics typical of Greeks? Please think of
Greeks as a group)
Good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bad
Impolite
Polite 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unfriendly
Calm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Quick –tempered

Intelligent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unintelligent
Loyal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Disloyal
Fair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unfair
Brave 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Coward
Hardworking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lazy
Civilized 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Uncivilized
For each of the characteristics, the highest possible positive score was 1 and the lowest
negative score was 7. Students were asked to describe characteristics of eight ethnic groups
(selected nations). The data indicated the presence of stereotypes and ethnic distances of
Albanian students towards different ethnic groups. The reliability coefficient varied from 0.84
to 0.90.
Data Collection
The questionnaire was handed out to students in their workplace. Data gathering was
administered during the academic year 2011-2012. Students responded to the questionnaire in
their classes in the presence of the interviewers. 600 students completed the questionnaire and
the overall response rate was 92%.
Data Analysis
Data was analyzed in the statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS). The descriptive
statistics (mean - comparison) was used to describe the level of the ethnic distance and
stereotyped attitudes. Pearson Product-moment Correlations were used to identify the intensity
and the orientation of the relation between the ethnic distance and stereotyped attitudes.
Results of Research
Table 1 shows the means and the standard deviation of the ethnic distance of Albanian
students towards certain ethnic groups. The means are calculated based on the summing of
seven items result. The results are ranked from 1 (the level of the closest ethnic distance) to
7 (the greatest ethnic distance). The mean results closer to value 1, it reveals a smaller ethnic
distance. Closer to value 7 the mean, the greater the ethnic distance is. The data in table 1
indicates that Albanian students show a greater ethnic distance towards the Serbs (M= 6.19)
and Greeks (M= 5.71). Meanwhile, the ethnic distance towards some other ethnic groups is
more moderate.
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131
Table 1. Ethnic distance of Albanian students towards some nations (mean ac-
ceptance).
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Serbs 1.00 7.00 6.19 1.32
Greeks 1.00 7.00 5.71 1.62
Slovenians 1.00 7.00 4.95 1.45
Bosnians 1.00 7.00 4.84 1.56
Macedonians 1.00 7.00 4.63 1.62
Croatians 1.00 7.00 4.63 1.63
Montenegro 1.00 7.00 4.58 1.62
In table 2 are shown the data for each of the items in the ethnic distance scale composition.
The students reveal a low preference for having intimate relationships with members of Balkan
nations, mainly with Serbs. Only 1.3% would like to begin such a relationship with Serbs.
Coherently, with such an attitude the interviewed students do not prefer to allow Serbs to
approach their country. The same trend is also noted for the Greeks though a bit milder. (Over
one third of the students would not like Greeks to come to their country).
Table 2. Ethnic distance towards some ethnic groups (in %).
Sloveni-
Macedonians Montenegrin Serbs Croatians Bosnians
ans
Marriage Relations 2.0 3.2 1.3 3.5 1.6 2.9
Close Friendship 13.1 11.1 3.5 11.3 7.1 7.9
Neighbours close to
13.3 14.0 2.0 13.1 10.9 11.8
my house
Colleagues 11.3 15.9 3.5 13.4 13.6 14.9

Citizens (same citizen-
18.1 12.7 2.0 10.3 10.6 9.4
ship as me)
Visitors in my country 36.5 38.1 32.2 45.8 53.7 48.2
Should not be allowed

5.0 55.5 2.5 2.5 5.0
in my country 5.8
Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations of the ethnic stereotyped attitudes of
Albanian students towards different ethnic groups. The minimum score is 10 and the maximum
one is 70 (40 is neutral attitude). The closer to 10, the more positive the stereotyped attitude is
towards other religious groups. The closer to 70, the more negative the stereotyped attitude is
towards other religious groups. The data in table 3 shows that students have negative stereotyped
attitude toward the Serbs (M=54.65) and Greeks (M=50.91). Stereotyped attitude towards
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132 other ethnic groups: Montenegrins, Slovenians, Macedonians and Croatians tend to be positive
to neutral (means vary from10 to 40). The respondents have more positive stereotyped attitudes
toward Croatians.
Table 3. The means of Albanian students ethnic stereotyped attitudes toward

other Balkan nations.
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Serbs 10.00 70.00 54.65 12.83
Greeks 10.00 70.00 50.91 19.59
Macedonians 10.00 70.00 39.66 10.62
Slovenians 10.00 70.00 38.38 13.10
Montenegrins 10.00 70.00 38.16 10.24
Bosnian 10.00 70.00 38.06 9.11
Croatians 10.00 70.00 36.23 8.29
Table 4 shows the correlation between the social distance and the ethnic stereotypes.
Table 4. Pearson Product-moment Correlations between ethnic distance and

ethnic stereotypes.
Ethnic stereotypes
Ethnic distance towards Greeks 0.46**

Ethnic distance towards Macedonians 0.29**
Ethnic distance towards Montenegrins 0.28**
Ethnic distance towards Serbs 0.30**
Ethnic distance towards Croatians 0.28 **
Ethnic distance towards Slovenians 0.18**
**. Correlation is significant (0.01; 2-tailed)
It indicates that there is a positive linear correlation between the ethnic distance and the
ethnic stereotypes related to each ethnic group. From the statistical point of view, the correlation
coefficients vary from weak to moderate.
Discussions
There is a total lack of secondary data pool to compare the results obtained from the
analysis of the data gathered in this research. Previous research is totally missing in the country.
Comparison with the research conducted in other Balkan countries seems impossible because
of the lack of similarities in sample and methodology. It was made in condition of total lack
of any secondary data analysis. Similar to some surveys conducted in the countries of former
Yugoslavia (Mihic, Milin & Logar, 2002; Kandido-Jakšić, 2008; Maleska, 2010; Beska,
Majcevska, Kenig, Ballazhi & Tomovska, 2009; Joveska, 1998), this study reveals that Albanian
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students have negative ethnic stereotypes towards Balkan ethnic groups mainly towards Serbs 133
and Greeks and keep quite distant from them.
The fact why the Albanian students show greater ethnic distance to Serbs is comprehensible
provided the historical context of the relations between Serbia and Albania, and to the actual
context of relations between Serbia and Kosovo, population of which belongs in the greatest
majority to Albanian ethnicity of Kosovo, in comparison to other ethnic groups which have
previously been part of the former Yugoslavian Republic (Kandido-Jakšić, 2008).
Similarly, the fact that Albanian students reveal likewise a greater ethnic social distance to
Greeks can be explained with the ongoing conflicts in the history of these two countries, which
from time to time have aggravated in respect to territorial claims, the present day treatment
of the Albanian immigrants in Greece and due to the ethnic stereotypes revealed from Greeks
towards them. According to Zheleznova (2003) in a study conducted in 1993, the least favourite
ethnic group after the Turks is Albanians. The relations between the two countries have been
continuously tense because of negative consideration by media.
The ethnic stereotypes and the social distance with other Balkan ethnic groups are more
moderate due to the lack of conflict history with Albania. The findings are in line with the
thesis that negative stereotypes intensify when ethnic groups have present conflicts amongst
themselves (Bonacich, 1972).
Conclusions
Albanian students reveal great social distance and intense ethnic stereotypes towards
some Balkan ethnic groups. The fact that these findings happened to be amongst the most
educated part of the Albanian youth may lead to the assumption that there exist massive ethnic
stereotypes amongst the rest of the population, mainly in elderly, less educated population. This
calls for more holistic research. Exploration of ethnic stereotypes, prejudices, hostile attitudes
will definitely lead to exploring the causes and ways to avoid them. This would lead to better
relations and sustainable peace in the Balkans.
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Edmond Rapti Associate Professor, Vice Rector of University of Tirana, Place “Mother Tereza” No.
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Phone: +355 4 2222 547.
E-mail : edi_rapti@yahoo.com
Theodhori Karaj Professor, Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tirana, Milto Tutulani
Street 1, Tirana, Albania.
Phone: + 355 4 2230 369.
E-mail: dhorikaraj@yahoo.com
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THE FACTORS AFFECTING CAREER 135
GUIDANCE AND CURRENT STATUS OF

CAREER GUIDANCE SERVICES IN TURKEY
Emel Ültanır
Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey
E-mail: emultanir@yahoo.de
Abstract
The purpose of the present study is to investigate the factors affecting career guidance and their reflections
of the career guidance services given in the country. Based on a literature review, it is known that career
guidance services can be a part of economic and social development. In the present study, these factors
are analyzed under these headings as the structure of the region, economic conditions (labor force of
the country and employment), historical and socio-cultural factors (family structure, changing values)
and educational factors. Moreover, it is emphasized that the country is the only secular country and
only candidate for the European Union membership among the Muslim communities. After drawing a
framework with these factors, the state of the country in guidance services and its reflections abroad
were investigated. It is of great importance to draw the attention to such issues in Turkey and to develop
“career guidance programs” as in developed countries.
Key words: career guidance, influential factors, career guidance services and reflections abroad.
Introduction
In the United States of America, the history of career guidance started in 1909 with the
opening of Career Office by Frank Parson in Boston and he is regarded as the father of the
field of career guidance. Then, within the following 50 years, in the field of career guidance,
career selections were done based on the scores of the tests designed for recruitment purposes
(Herring, 1998). Super (1951) redefined career guidance and established developmental career
model in the occupational literature. Career models were started be called as developmental
career guidance within the framework of vocational guidance. In the late 1960s, the term career
guidance was widely adopted instead of the term vocational guidance (Herr and Cramer, 1996).
Career guidance as a classical stereotype is generally believed to be a kind of service belonging
to class counseling. Very often, in a class, quantitative and qualitative evaluative information
and processes are used.
Career guidance and career counseling are both old and new terms (Herr and Cramer,
1996). They also stated (1996) that it has a history of 75 years, that is, it has a history of 90
years up to now. The concept of career guidance is a more comprehensive term because it dates
back to early periods of vocational guidance and includes life span career development of an
individual. Though both terms are old, they gained their current meanings in 1970s.
In America and large part of the world, the importance of career guidance and counseling
is expressed as follows (Herr & Cramer, 1996): Maturation of theoretical perspectives, dramatic
changes brought about by national and global economies in occupational structures, increase in
the rates of unemployment among adolescents and adults, increase in the number of literate people
and development of calculation and flexibility skills among the labor force of industrialized
nations, improving living standards, improving efficiency among the work force and resulting
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136 changes in the composition of labor force, changes in processes and career development services
indicate the importance of career counseling. Traditionally, career guidance is given at schools
and by public employment agencies. Schools provides such guidance to students who are on
the point of selecting a profession or going on studying at higher levels; public employment
agencies; on the other hand, help the unemployed looking for a job (OECD, 2004).
According to Sultana (2009) career guidance is not merely seen as a viable policy
response to the usual set of challenges which, if successfully addressed, lead to a number of
public and private goods – such as a better balance between the supply and demand of skills and
social inclusion. Rather, career guidance is seen to vehicle a total world view which celebrates
individual volition and the centrality of work, which gives self-determination and self-fulfilment
pride of place, and which encourages the labour market to be organised according to a specific
rationality and logic (p.5).
In a meeting held in Lisbon in 2000, the strategic mission to be realized by European
Union was summarized to be “speeding the process of transition from industrial economy
to information-based economy and to information society, structural reform encouraging
competition and innovation, modernization of European social model, overcoming the
challenges faced by people in making investment and social integration, healthy economic
view and sustaining the hopes for positive growth and application of proper macroeconomic
policy”.
Lisbon agenda, identifies career guidance as one of four key actions to create open,
attractive and accessible learning environments. It calls for strengthening the role, quality and
coordination of career guidance services to support learning at all ages and in a range of settings,
empowering citizens to manage their learning and work (p.5).
Guidance promotes employability and adaptability by assisting people to make career
decisions both on entering the labour market and on moving within it. Guidance also helps
improve the effectiveness and efficiency of education and training provision and labour market
instruments, by promoting a closer match to individual and labour market needs and by reducing
non-completion rates (Sultana, 2004).
In 1950s, the term “Counseling” was introduced to Turkey by the experts brought from
the United States of America such as Rufi, Tomkins, Beals and Mills through the seminars they
gave to students concerning their abilities, interests and needs. With the start of planned growth
period in 60s, the idea that “for positions in the society to be given the individuals having
the necessary qualifications, occupational orientations should be organized at schools” was
incorporated into the First Five-year Growth Plan (Özgüven, 1990). Then, in 1962, supporting
decision was made stating “importance should be attached to carrying out educational activities
suitable for the characteristics of students” (Council of Ministry of National Education,
1962).
Guidance is also attractive to policy-makers because it can help address a whole range of
labour market issues, it can improve labour market outcomes and efficiency, and it can support
economic development goals. Policy-makers are therefore increasingly looking to guidance for
support in addressing labour market shortages, tackling mismatches between labour supply and
demand, reducing the effects of labour market destabilisation, dealing with unemployment, and
improving labour mobility (Sultana, 2009 p.8).
Savickas (2000) stated that as a result of rapid change in social order, the nature of the
business world has changed. The workers must face the complex demands of variety existing
in global economy, continuously changing technologies and vastly challenging and competitive
job markets. The obligation for individuals to manage their own careers, new structuring and
disappearance of work places having hierarchic functioning have great influences on the career
counseling adopting the mentality of “business as usual” (Guindon & Richmond, 2005). In
this respect, economic and technological advancements in society shape the career guidance
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services. According to Watts and Fretwell (2004), less developed countries, particularly the 137
ones having labor force more than needed (that is, there are some people unemployed) may
prefer to attach greater importance to the development of career guidance services than the
developed countries. Factors such as global competition, information technologies, structure of
telecommunication systems in countries and compatibility between education and job markets
may affect career guidance services.
Career guidance services can be a part of economic and social development. The present
study analyzed various articles, reports and reviews written about career counseling. Among
these, special attention was paid to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD, 2004), the European Commission Report (Sultana, 2004) the World Bank (Watts &
Fretwell, 2004), (Sultana & Watts, 2008) and (Akkök & Watts, 2003).
The purpose of the present study is to investigate the career guidance and counseling
services in Turkey with their international reflections and make possible projections for
the future based on the current state of some factors (structure of the region and economic,
historical, socio-cultural and educational) within the context of globalization and rapid changes
taking place in the World in the 21st century.
The Nature of the Region
Turkey is characterised a number of economic, historical, socio-cultural and educational

factors which seem likely to have constrained the development of career guidance services.
These factors have influenced the forms which existing services have taken. Many also represent
factors that need to be taken into account in any future development of these services, to ensure
that they are embedded in their context and not merely imported from elsewhere. (Sultana &
Watts, 2008, p. 22).
Turkey has a unique geographic location that bridges Europe and Asia, and controlling
the major waterway between the Black Sea and the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. It is
neighboured with in Europa (Greece and Bulgaria), in Asia (Armenia, Georgia) and in the
Middle East (Iran, Iraq and Syria). Being a developing country, Turkey is subject to the usual
problems of industrialization and urbanization, including a significant increase in the breakdown
of family networks, and the modification of traditional cultural patterns (McWhirter, 1983).
Until the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued its existence. The majority of
the population of Turkey is Muslim and it is a secular state with its own specificities. That is the
only Mediterranean country which is a candidate for membership in the European Union. This
means that it has been more subject to direct EU policy influence (Sultana & Watts, 2008; p.
21-22). Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the pioneer of secularism in Turkey. Many modernization
attempts such as adoption of Latin alphabet instead of Arabic Alphabet, adoption of Western
calendar, replacement of Islamic law by Swiss law by adapting it to secular legal system, giving
the right of electing and being elected to women and adoption of western way of dressing up
were made under the leadership of Atatürk (Yerin-Güneri, 2011).
Economic Factors. Labor Force and Employment in Turkey
As of 1980, globalization and social changes taking place in the world have resulted in
changing values and attitudes of individuals in Turkey. In countries where the number of young
people (15 years old) is high, it is of great importance to continue economic growth and to
create new job opportunities. Fast increase seen in the number of young people at working age
leads to increase in the number of “dependent people” who should be cared about by working
people in the whole population and the rate of working population remains relatively low. This
means ineffective use of resources in the country. According to Turkish Labor Force Report
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138 issued by the World Bank in 2006, the number of the people participating in the workforce was
20 million in 2000 (Gür, 2008).
Though the number of people employed in agricultural sector decreased, it is still quite
high when compared to European Union countries. There are significant differences between
western and eastern regions of the country as well as between urban and rural areas. While
there are more developed regions in the western part of the country, there are less developed
regions in the eastern part and among these regions; there are remarkable differences in terms
of education and job opportunities. The reasons for the discrimination against female children
in eastern regions are economic hardships, parents’ low level of education, cultural factors and
crowded families where priority is given to male children rather than female children when it
comes to education. Turkey has an unemployment insurance for eligible citizens who end up
without a job. Yet, newly created jobs in Turkey are characterized by their requiring unqualified
workforce for little money in small or medium scale organizations or in unregistered sector.
Women’s ratio of participation in labor force is low in urban areas; yet, very high in rural
unregistered family economies. Those working off the workers do not have social security.
Another factor adversely affecting the problem of employment is the demographic
dynamic of our country. As every year, almost 750.000 new workers need to be added to
workforce, the rate of economic growth may not be big enough to meet this need. When the
age composition of the employed is examined, it is seen that there is a decline in 15-19 and
50+ age groups; that is, the performance of economic growth has not been able to digest this
change. When compared to the same period of previous year, the total population of the county
increased by 1.218.000 and reached 73.482.000 and the population at the working age increased
by 1.160.000 and reached 54.599.000. The ratio of participation in the workforce was 50.5% in
May, 2012. Of the total workforce, 15.9% are those in the age group of 15-24 (TÜİK, 2012).
According to the household employment statistics issued by TUİK for the period of June,
2012, non-institutional population in Turkey increased by 1.218.000 when compared to the same
period of previous year. The number of young people aged 15-24 is 54.122.000 and when the
education and age distributions of the workforce are examined, it is seen that 16.4% of the total
workforce is made up of young people in the age group of 15-24. The workforce participation
ratio of the people having education level lower than high school education was estimated to
be 69.3% among the males and 26.8% among the females. The workforce participation ratio
for the university graduate males is 84.8% and 69.4% for the university graduate females.
When the results of the TÜİK Household Workforce Research, unemployment compensation
applications issued by İŞKUR and short-term employment expectations covering the period of
June, 2102 are analyzed, following findings can be reported:
• The increase in workforce participation ratio is still going on among women; yet, it is
decreasing among men and young people.
• Strong growth observed in 2011 had positive impacts on employment and led to increase
in employment of men and in service sectors.
• Service sectors constitute 84% of the new employment, small number of people has
been recruited in agriculture and construction sectors but there is a weakening increase
in the employment in industry.
• Half of the increase in employment came from job finding university graduates, the
share of the university graduates in the total increase in employment increased from
31% to 57%; however, the share of those having education lower than high school
dropped from 57% to 15%. The ratio of unemployment decreased to 10.2%.
One of the tendencies reflecting the change is the movement of workforce from rural
areas to urban areas. The net immigration ratio in Northeast Anatolia, Middle East Anatolia,
Southeast Anatolia and Central Anatolia where agriculture-centered employment is dominant
varies between 26% and 7.5%. While immigration from rural areas to urban areas makes it
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possible for the economy to be constructed on a more modern ground, it leads to decrease 139
in rural workforce. For instance, when women immigrate to urban areas, they remain out of
the workforce as they do not the qualifications required by urban economy. In terms of the
employment of men, it can be argued that while they are living in rural areas, they are in the
position of hidden unemployed, when they come to cities, they become apparent unemployed
or they become the part of the informal sector as a street vendor, lottery seller or simit seller
etc. (Karagöl & Akgeyik, 2010, p. 7-8). As a result of the observations made in one of the cities
located in Southern regions, Mersin, it was found that through the projects carried out with the
women immigrating from Eastern regions in 2005 and 2006, they learned reading and writing
and gained some skills such as tailoring and made some contributions to their family budget.
Historical Factors
The Turkish history has three main axes. These are traditions brought from Middle Asia
to Anatolia, Islamic period and Imperial era (Güngör, 1986, 107). While ancient Turks had
a religion based on Shamanism, after they embraced Islam, they transformed from nomadic
community level to settled community with classes. Following this, Arabic-Persian civilization
became more dominant than Chinese civilization on Turks. As a result of these influences,
kinship-based relations were replaced by land-based relations (Kıvılcımlı, 1996, p. 63-79). The
empire conception of the Ottoman State was transferred from Byzantium Empire and from
the moment of its foundation, Ottoman State has been always in contact with Europe. This
means that it was a European state. Expansion of the state to Anatolia and Asia was realized
after it became stronger in Europe. Yet, it did not have any connections with Antique Rome,
Christianity and Feudality; hence, it was always isolated from Europe (Kılıçbay, 2000, 56).
Socio-cultural Factors
Since Turkish society was introduced to concepts such as modernization, westernization

and development by means of The Imperial Edict of Gülhane, its traditions and consumption
patterns have undergone some changes and has adopted a new living style based on new norms
and values (Kongar, 1995, p. 228). With the same edict, the concept of secularism (having
same distance with all the religions) and every citizen’s being equal in front of the state became
popular. In 1937, with the addition of the article “Turkish Republic does not have an official
religion and it is a secular state” to the constitution, and Turkish Republic became the first
Muslim secular country on the world (İşçi, M. 2002). Among the 10 principles accepted by
Turkish constitution in 1982, one is the principle of secularity (Ültanır, 2012, p.174).
Between 1963 and 1967, according to first five-year growth plan, a 15-year perspective
was developed for the field of industry. Together with the phenomenon of immigration from
rural areas to urban areas in our country, the period of illegal construction of shabby houses
started. The type of family living in such houses tried to acquire new skills, and wanted their
children to be educated well as a result, the societal framework of such families changed
(Özkalp, 1993, p.115). Since the early 1980’s due to developments in telecommunications,
Turkey has become more receptive to western ways of life, and the transition from traditional
values to western ones has greatly accelerated (Mocan-Aydın, 2000).
In the foundation years of the Republic, some decisions were made to fortify the position
of the woman in society. With legal rights stated in civil law passed in 1926, the woman was
granted the right of electing and being elected, selecting a profession and applying for positions
in the state. Though the urban family type in Turkey is a nucleus family, it has some features
different from the modern family in industrialized countries. The individual typically possesses
the web of intimate personal relations including family members, relatives and close neighbors.
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140 Such personal relationships and strong family relationships are still common (E.O. Imamoğlu,
R.V. Kullar, M. Imamoğlu & Kuller, 1993). With the introduction of the woman into business
life following industrialization, the duties assumed by the family members underwent some
changes and some of them were carried out by institutions. The children of a working mother
started to be cared about by elderly members of the family or kindergartens and pre-school
institutions. Hence, in some areas, the relative groups were replaced by business or educational
institutions (İşçi, 2002).
As in each society, the family has an important role in the selection of occupation.
Families particularly the ones in urban areas make great investments on their children’s
education. Ültanır (2005) reports that families from middle and high socio economic classes
usually adopt child-centered attitudes towards bringing up their children. That is, whole family
life is focused on children’s education and wishes. The desire to seek for the opportunities to
find a prestigious job, which is one of the most important factors affecting career preferences,
has led families to direct their children to these prestigious professional fields. As a result of this
trend, Psychological Counseling and Guidance programs at education faculties of universities
have become one of the most desired programs.
According to Sultana & Watts (2008), Western notion of individual career guidance might
be seen as inappropriate and /or irrelevant by some groups, since traditional notions of respect
toward elders often induce young people to follow pathways decided for them by parents, older
siblings, close relatives and relatives in the clan (Sultana & Watts, 2008, p. 24). This situation
may be of great importance for tribal communities in South East and East Anatolia regions and
families living in rural areas.
In connection to this, the study carried out by Hofstede (2001) with national and regional
cultural groups revealed that there is a considerable resistance affecting both the behaviors of
individuals and those of institutions. Hofstede believes that there is a differentiation between
individually-oriented cultures and its opponent collectivist cultures. Individuals living in many
Mediterranean and Arabic communities usually adopt collectivist orientation; hence, the rarely
act independently of any group or institution.
According to Sümer (1998) Turkish culture is fundamentally collectivistic in the sense
that the family retains priority, but this collectivism coexists with highly individualistic trends
in the systems of education and economy, where market rules necessiate and justify competition
(p.126).
Educational Factors
As of 2102, compulsory education in Turkey has become 12 years. According to new

regulations passed, this 12-year period is constructed as four-year elementary education,
four-year secondary education and four-year high school education. In this way, vertical and
horizontal passages among different levels have become possible. The school starting age has
dropped to 5 years old (66 months). At secondary school, that is at secondary level, besides the
courses of Turkish Language, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and Foreign Language,
there are some elective courses offered and in this way background required for high school
education is provided for students. Enrollment in secondary schools does not require taking
any exam and it is automatically performed through e-school system based on the address
of the student. In order to select the high school to be attended, 8th graders should take Level
Determination Exam (SBS) and some special talent exams and according to the results of these
exams, they can attend either general high school, Anatolian high school or Science high school
etc. Psychological Counseling and Guidance Services are provided by means of leisure time
activities at elementary schools and counseling/social activities courses at secondary schools.
At high schools, students are exposed to counseling and guidance course program of secondary
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schools. The main purpose of counseling and guidance is to allow the use of proper resources 141
in career selection. For this purpose, there are some attempts to set up national occupational
information system and in this way, it is assumed that students will be able to get to know
themselves better and learn about job opportunities, accordingly, they can plan their education
better (MEB, Zorunlu Eğitim, 2012).
However, based on the researcher’s opinion which made at schools in Turkey, it can be
said that there is a shortage of psychological counselors (with the name of guidance teacher
in education system) and this leads to lack of counseling services offered. The number of the
students in formal education is 16.905.143 in 2011-2012 school year and this means that we
need about 19.000 counselors (M.E.B. Statistics, 2012). In some schools having 1000 or more
students, there is only one counselor; hence, it is clear that required educational-occupational
and social-interpersonal services cannot be provided. The most outstanding manifestation of
this lack of occupational counseling is students’ opting for professions they know or see around
and as a result of this; many people may regret selecting the job they have in later times.
Now, the female children of the families emigrating from rural areas to urban areas
want to study at university to have a good job and this shows that there is a change in generally
adopted view of genders in Turkey. Expectation of the families immigrating to urban residences
for their female children to study and have a job leads to this prejudicial conflict. The expatiation
of the parents that when they get older, they are looked after by their female children has been
eliminated. After reviewing the historical, socio-cultural and educational facts, general structure
of career counseling in Turkey will be discussed.
Career Counseling in Turkey: Current Status
In Turkey, the psychological counselors working in the field of psychological counseling

and guidance PCG work in many different fields such as education, industry, health, rehabilitation
etc. PCG teaching is carried out at the education faculties of universities in the form of “school-
based programs”. School counselors offer all personal-social, educational and vocational PCG
services. In our education institutions, what is expected most from psychological counselors
(guidance expert) is to provide vocational guidance and counseling. Yet, in undergraduate
PCG programs offered at universities, there are only two (theoretical and applied) vocational
guidance courses. At some universities, similar courses are offered within graduate programs
(Ankara, Hacattepe, ODTÜ Universities etc.).
There is no undergraduate career guidance program in Turkey, even not at graduate
programs as a sub-field of PCG. But, in recent years, the need to start “career counseling”
programs as graduate programs has been highly emphasized in various department of PCG
meetings. In our country, there are about 57 counselor education undergraduate programs and
14 graduate programs in 2012. A decision was made by The General Headquarter of Turkish
PCG Association to apply to the Higher Commission of Academic Evaluation and Quality
Development in Education (YÖDEK) to carry out accreditation works in the field of PCG
(Dept. of PCG, Concluding Declaration, 2012). Most of the graduates of PCG programs work
as school counselors at schools connected to the Ministry of National Education. In 2003, a
graduate program entitled “Human Resources and Career Counseling” was inaugurated within
the Faculty of Political Sciences at Ankara University. The target population of the program was
determined to be the personnel to be recruited in private employment agencies, human resources
departments of firms, and in the fields of personnel and managerial counseling. Moreover, at
Istanbul Bahçeşehir University, career counseling services are provided for students to help
them determine their vocational tendencies. Within the Bahçeşehir University Lifelong Learning
center, there is a Career Development Counseling (Global Career Development Facilitator-
GCDF-Turkey) certificate program (Bahçeşehir University, 2012).
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142 Moreover, within the framework of Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), a report was prepared to determine the strengths and weaknesses of
vocational counseling services offered in the country with the support of World Bank (2003)
and this report emphasizes the following points (Akkök and Watts, 2003): The associates who
are effective in the provision of career counseling services are Ministry of National Education
(MoNE), Ministry of Labor and Social Security, İŞKUR, Higher Education Council (HEC);
Turkish Statistical Institute and some labor unions. While such services are provided by İŞKUR
in the form of finding a job, it should take a new form within the framework of the relations with
European Union. “Life-long learning” policies adopted by some international organizations
such as World Bank, OECD, European Commission and UNESCO are another factor affecting
Vocational Guidance Services offered in our country.
American School Counselors Association (ASCA) states that 1 psychological counselor
should serve 250 students for effective services to be provided (ASCA, 2005). The number of
the students that should be served by 1 psychological counselor in Turkey varies between 905
and 2836 (Akkök & Watts, 2003). General counseling services given at schools generally focus
on Personal and Social Guidance and Educational Counseling and less importance is attached
to Career Education and Guidance. Counseling services offered at elementary and secondary
schools of the Ministry of National Education are carried out by “classroom guidance teachers”
and “school counselors”. With the introduction of new education system in 2012, “Counseling
and Career Guidance” course became required for 8th graders.
Within the framework of creating an effective information community and economy
efforts starting with Lisbon process in European countries, the Higher Education Field works
were started to be shaped with Bologna process. Works performed in this field were published
in the report “Quality Principles and Standards in Higher Education” in 2005. Quality assurance
system in Turkey was designed within the context of “National Competencies Framework”
in such a way as to include accreditation and evaluation elements in order to guarantee the
quality of learning outcomes determined on the basis of a program. In 2005, “Higher Education
Academic Evaluation and Quality Development Guideline” was set up by Higher Education
Council. Higher Education Academic Evaluation and Quality Development Council (YÖDEK)
was established (YÖK, 2012). At some universities, counselors working as specialists in
“Psychological Counseling and Guidance Centers” or “Vocational Planning and Placement”
units carry out guidance and counseling services for university students (Akkök, 2006).
For adult women who cannot be involved in education or labor market, Public Education
Centers offer some courses such as reading and writing or mastering some skills. In informal
education, counseling services are rare; yet, there is an urgent need for them. Ültanır & Ültanır
(2012) revealed that there is not clear job description for these people in these centers yet, and
apart from few, there is no such post in these centers. In the reports issued by the 13th National
Education Council (1990) concerning “Informal Education” stated that there is a need to support
counseling activities to improve informal education institutions, to appoint university graduate
counselors to Public Education Centers to provide comprehensive and effective education in
these centers, and counseling services should not be limited to courses given in these centers but
also they should provide guidance to local public to solve unemployment and other problems.
Accurate knowledge of adult students /nontraditional students’ issues can enable counselors
to effectively advocate for them, making professional services more relavant to their specific
needs in personal, vocational and educational area (p.97).
Unemployed adults are the main recipients of career guidance across Europe. Often,
the providers are Public Employment Services (PES). Unemployed adults may have access to
career information and guidance in other settings than those provided by the PES. Most often,
community based organizations provide services to specific groups, especially if they are the
target of national equity policies (Sultana, 2004 p. 55-58).
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As can be seen from the above-given information, counseling services provided at 143
universities are limited and career guidance services provided for adults are even more limited.
The roles that should be assumed by İŞKUR and Counseling and Research centers are not clear
and there is a general lack of strategic leadership and coordination in the field.
Future Projections
In this article, some factors affecting career guidance in Turkey will be presented. Then, the
general state of career guidance and counseling services will be discussed. Based on the present
state, some suggestions can be made. The field which was initially called as guidance within
counseling services was first aroused interest in our country in 1950s and developed under the
influence of research and applications in America. In recent years, however, more influence of
European Union has been felt due to European Union membership efforts and Bologna process.
With the project supports given by European Union, new formations were started in Career
Guidance and Counseling services in the country (Akkök and Zelloth, 2010, Yeşilyaprak, 2011).
Many European countries are not much ahead of us in terms of educating such counselors.
One of the strengths of Turkish career guidance system is that general counseling services
offered at schools by professional guidance counselors have a good structure. However, such
services are provided in Germany by workers having a strong background and having courses
in different fields such as psychology, education, social studies and economy in addition to their
own subject area. The number of workers having graduate education in the field of guidance is
increasing (Sultana, 2004).
With the 5209 article passed by YÖK on 19.10.2011, the number of PCG programs
giving graduate education dropped to 14. According to this article, there must be certain number
of academicians in order to initiate a graduate program in the field of PCG. There is still lack of
academicians holding PhD required by increasing number of PCG programs. Though there are
some efforts to start graduate programs for the sub-fields of PDR in the country, there are just
two in Ankara and İstanbul.
The need for career counseling is continuously increasing due to increasing number of
young people in the country. 15.9% of the total labor force is made up of young people aged
15-24. These young people should be provided with necessary vocational counseling services
to get to know themselves and develop their interest and abilities. Last year, the increase in total
gross national product was %8 but this year it has dropped to %4 due to economic recession
in Europe and internal turmoil seen in some Middle Eastern countries such as Iran, Iraq, and
Syria. Increasing total gross production and employment means informing those who want to
be recruited about possible vocational fields.
In our country, the students may select their programs to be attended at university by
chance. Therefore, it is commonly observed that some students want to change their programs
while at university or they do not like their jobs and want to change it after graduation. Such
factors negatively affect working efficiency and accordingly the organizations and economy of
the country. There are many instances where a graduate of a science program may go on his/her
career in social sciences and may feel happier.
The young people who are at the point of selecting a job for themselves need career
guidance to know themselves better and to obtain information about the newly emerging
professional areas. Some resources such as “Guidebook of Occupations” Kuzgun (1998) should
be updated so that they include newly emerging professions. For this purpose, there is a need for
career counselors to be employed at schools, İŞKUR and private employment agencies.
Vocational guidance tools and materials are developed by academicians working at
universities (Kuzgun, 2000). Information to be given to students at secondary school about
professions and business world is insufficient (Akkök, 2003). There is a need for organized
works to update such information and present it to young people.
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144 University entrance exam that should be taken by students who want to go to a university
is not to reveal students’ capabilities but to assess the achievement. If an individual does not
have the qualifications to do a job, he/she may not be a successful member of the profession.
Kuzgun (2000) states that while determining his choices, a high school student does not pay
much attention to his/her abilities (p.47). For young people to get to know themselves well, they
should be provided with career guidance services both at secondary level and high schools.
Moreover, there is a need for career guidance services to be given to adults planning
to have an employment through informal education. We have Public Education Centers in
almost every town and city providing training services for the adults being out of the formal
education system. Teaching programs offered here cover both vocational fields and hobby-
related activities. Especially in the last 20 years, there has been increasing immigration from
Eastern and South Eastern regions to the industrialized areas located in Southern and Western
regions. This has resulted in a greater need for such centers.
In Turkey the role of Public Education centers can be summarised as: “To provide; Pre
vocational training, career change, a variety of work experience, including further education
programs within industry and to apply the vocational technical education programs. Through
researching local markets the centres aim to identify key areas of employment and thus provide
courses related vocations directed at developing work forces that will be able to integrate into
the local climate (Ültanır & Ültanır, 2010, p.5).
Conclusion
When the points emphasized in the present article are considered, following evaluations
can be made: career guidance is shaped with the effects of historical, economic, socio-cultural
dynamics. In this respect, Yeşilyaprak (2011) points out that career guidance and counseling
policy objectives should be defined at national level (p. 17). The technology and economy
of a society determine the dynamics of its business world, societal welfare of workers,
and employment opportunities. Orientation of the workers according to their abilities and
qualifications can be made through career guidance services.
In European Union countries, the issues targeted to be achieved by career guidance
are “lifelong learning, social inclusion, development of labor market and economy”. These
objectives should be included within the targets of Turkey involved in the global competition.
In this regard, career guidance policies should be constructed parallel to economic, social and
technological developments.
Rapid increase seen in the working age population results in relative lowness of the
working population. Hence, economic growth cannot digest this change. On the other hand,
domestic immigration to urban areas leads to increasing unemployment, difficulties in adaptation,
isolation etc., therefore, career guidance services can be conducive to the development of
projects to integrate these immigrants to the society.
In relation to guidance education, career guidance and counseling courses given at the
undergraduate level should be reorganized. While designing career counseling master program,
economic development needs of the country should be considered and sufficient importance
should be attached to the issue. According to Fidan (2005) graduate degree for career counseling
would be so helpful and some Turkish counselor educators are aware that career counseling
master program has to be developed. As a conclusion, in order to be able to develop career
guidance services in Turkey, the economy of the country, its education and business world
should be in harmony in such a way as to support social developments.

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147
Advised by Laima Railienė, University of Siauliai, Lithuania
Emel Ultanir PhD., Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Educational Faculty, Hasan
Kalyoncu University in Gaziantep, Turkey.
Phone: 90 (0342) 2118080.
E-mail: emultanir@yahoo.de
Website: http://www.gazikent.edu.tr/
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148
COMPARATIVE TEACHING EXAMPLE
RELATED TO COURSE ACTIVITIES
DEVELOPING TRANSFER SKILL IN
PROBLEM SOLVING IN ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL PROGRAMS IN SOUTHEAST
ANATOLIA REGION
Y. Gürcan Ültanır
Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey
E-mail: gultanir@hotmail.com
Abstract
As of 2004-2005 school year, principles of constructivism have been adopted to a great extent in the
education system of Turkey. In the present study, the lessons were video recorded in order to observe the
activities to develop the transfer skills used in problem solving by the students attending 4th and 5th grades
of elementary schools in Tarsus province of Icel in Southeast Anatolian Region. Moreover, lessons were
also video recorded in order to observe the problem solving behaviors of the 6th grade Turkish students
attending Turkish language lessons given by a Turkish teacher in Linden province of Hannover in
Germany. The lessons given in Linden and Tarsus were compared in terms of “environment and process”
through tables. It was concluded that the environmental conditions existing in the elementary school in
Southeast Anatolian Region are not suitable for constructivist applications and here, it was observed
that direct instruction model was continuously in use. On the other hand, at the school in the Linden
region, while transfer skills necessary for real life are being developed, “asking question and discussion”
behaviors are also gained.
Key words: inert / flexible knowledge; direct instruction model; invention; self-explaining.
Introduction
Since the 2004-2005 school year, constructivist applications have been in effect at
schools in Turkey. Knowledge existing on an individual’s opinions is constructed on prior
information as a result of interaction with experiences (Arslan, 2007). What is important here
is creating learning-teaching settings which could activate former experiences and impart new
experiences. While working on these experiences, the learner continuously asks why and how
questions so that he/she can explain his/her own thoughts. Dufresne et al. (1996) interpretation
of the beneﬁts of class-wide discussion is consistent with, but more developed than, that of
Crouch and Mazur. They draw on the theoretical assumptions underlying ‘constructivism’ and
‘social constructivism’(Nicol and Boyle, 2003, p. 459). From constructivism comes the idea
that conceptual understanding is primarily developed through activity: the learner actively
constructs their own understanding of concepts and their interrelationships (Resnick, 1989;
Glaser, 1990). Social constructivism emphasizes the underlying social basis of knowledge
construction: most learning is socially mediated, with individuals actively constructing their
knowledge through dialogue with others (Doise and Mugny, 1984; Brown et al., 1989; Lave
and Wenger, 1991).
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Y. Gürcan ÜLTANIR. Comparative Teaching Example Related to Course Activities Developing Transfer Skill in Problem Solving in
Elementary School Programs in Southeast Anatolia Region
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Throughout a living period, each individual from any age group should continuously 149
solve various problems. As we solve some problems by means of our former experiences, we
either do not realize that they are problems or solve them at a higher speed and more successfully
when compared to the past. However, there are some phases in our life which have turned into
barriers that seem to be insurmountable because, we have encountered with them for the first
time and with our existing problem solving skills we cannot solve these problems. In such cases
we need different transfers. We gain these transfer skills starting from early ages both inside
and outside the school. We need to apply what we have gained at school in the outside world.
By acquiring new knowledge about problem solving, we can either gain new skills or improve
already existing skills. The research has revealed that the only justifiable answer to be given
to the question “What does the school want to do?” is: The school should teach children how
to use their intelligence in and outside the school (Kuhn, 2008). In this regard, there are two
main skills that can be developed by schools: Asking questions and discussing (Anderson et
al., 2000). These skills are necessary not only for school but also for real life. What should be
taught at schools is the knowledge and skills necessary for new generations to solve their daily
problems.
If a new problem is continuously confronted with, we usually develop a new solution
to solve this problem. That is, we proceed step by step towards a procedure for the solution of
the problem. In general, while performing our duties, we learn flexible and relative abstract
procedures which we hardly need. Flexible, abstract knowledge is also a key characteristic of
expertise (Chi, Feltovich, and Glaser, 1981). Many of the people from every age group have
knowledge which they do not need even in their professional fields (Bransford, Brown and
Cocking, 2001). Most of this knowledge does not have even direct relations with the knowledge
to be learned later. This knowledge which is not needed at the moment of learning is taught
to students by means of coercion at school. Instead, courses should aim to impart “flexible
knowledge” rather than “inert knowledge” to students so that their problem solving skills can be
developed. While solving problems, the student develops some procedures and these procedures
do not only include generalizable but also case-specific new procedures.
A resolution has been in the direction of undertaking to teach not simply knowledge itself
but the skills of knowledge acquisition—skills that will equip a new generation to learn what
they need to know to adapt ﬂexibly to continually changing and unpredictable circumstances
(Anderson et al., 2000; Bereiter, 2002; Botstein, 1997; Kuhn, 2008; Noddings, 2006; Olson,
2003).
Learning flexible knowledge instead of inert knowledge and supporting the learning of
flexible knowledge can be evaluated within two procedures. Instead of learning inert knowledge
why people should learn flexible knowledge and how such knowledge should be supported are
dealt within two processes: 1) The source of new knowledge and 2) possible mechanism based
on flexible knowledge. A potential mechanism underlying flexible learning –generating self-
explanations for why and how things work. Where do new procedures come from? Typically,
we invent a procedure through problem exploration or we learn a procedure from others
(e.g. via imitation or direct instruction) (cited in Rittle-Johnson, 2006). While dealing with a
problem, a student tries to answer why and how questions based on his/her prior information
or skills. Within the context of problem solving studies, incorrect explanations should also be
evaluated to help students overcome their mistakes. In addition to students’ promoted correct
solutions and judgments, incorrect explanations can help students get rid of their incorrect
prior knowledge (Rittle-Johnson, 2006). Promoted students can come up with both correct and
incorrect solutions and then reach to correct solution by making use of the procedural flexibility
(Siegler, 2002). Successful learners typically generated explanations while studying worked-
examples to problems. These explanations included identification of gaps in understanding and
linkages to previous examples or sections in the text (Chi et al., 1989).
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150 With the emergence of new procedures, either invention or direct instruction (DI) plays
an important role (Judd, 1908). DI model is a kind of a system in which the teacher sticks to
timetables, expects collective or similar responses from the students, directs classroom activities
and emphasizes guided applications (Wrobel, 1996). DI model can also be used in constructivist
learning theory. In fact, DI model is neither constructivist nor behaviorist. The direct instruction
model means guiding classroom activities (Ultanir and Akay, 2010). However, DI should be
employed while conveying new information and for a short period of time in class because
students should develop their transfer skills like a scientist who is dealing with the problem
on his/her own. Making explanations by giving answers to “why” and “how” questions is self-
explaining (Rittle-Johnson, 2006).
Another critical issue in the support of flexible generalizable knowledge is the source of
information. Direct instruction on a procedure can lead people to learn the procedure by rote,
to make nonsensical errors and to be unable to transfer the procedure to solve novel problems
(Brown and Burton, 1978; Hiebert and Wearne, 1986), whereas when people invent procedures,
they often use the procedures flexibly in new situations (Hiebert and Wearne, 1986).
Problem of the Research
The goal of this research is to compare Turkish and Mathematics courses taught at 4th
and 5th grade classes at primary schools in Tarsus, İçel in Turkey with Turkish courses taught
at 6th grades at Hannover Linden in Germany in terms of
• facilities the class atmosphere provide,
• relevance of the teacher-student behaviours to “flexible learning”, “DI model”,
“Invention” and “self-explaining”.
The focus of this research is to compare similarities and differences based on the
comparative education science.
This is a comparative educational field study carried out based on observations made
in a school in Linden district of Hannover and another school in Tarsus province of Southeast
Anatolia. The present study is limited to Turkish course given to 6th grade Turkish students by a
Turkish teacher in a school in Linden district and the Turkish and Mathematic courses given to
4th and 5th graders in a school in Tarsus.
Participants
The participants of the present study are the 6th grade students attending Turkish language
class in Linden district of Hannover in Germany and their teacher and 4th and 5th grade students
attending Turkish and Mathematic classes and their teachers in a school located in Tarsus
province of the city of İçel in Turkey. The participation was on a voluntary basis.
The number of the Turkish students in Linden was 13. In Tarsus, the number of students
in each class was 35 or more. The school in Linden and the school in Tarsus do not exhibit
cultural differences as inhibitory factor because all the students participating from Germany are
Turks and their teacher is also a Turk. (However, within the limitations of the study, the effects
of German culture dominant on the students cannot be ignored. These Turkish students were
born in Germany and have been in interaction with their German peers in classes. This group of
students has the same tendencies towards learning-teaching processes at German schools). In
addition, the course is taught in Turkish. The reason why the first year students from secondary
level of elementary education were included in the study is that in some federal states Turkish was
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recognized as a second language in February 2008. Since early 1980s, Turkish origin students 151
have been able to select their mother tongue as a second language in the first year of secondary
level elementary education (1st December 1989, with the ruling of the Ministry of Culture). In
the 1980-1981 school year, in Berlin-Kreuzberg, attempts was initiated in elementary schools to
allow Turkish students to select the Turkish language as their first language (Wikipedia).
Design
After granting the necessary permissions from the schools in Linden and Tarsus, an
hour-long film was shot without interfering with the teaching-learning process in the classes.
The video camera was located in different places to record within the class by changing its
place during the lesson. The only criterion to be followed in the selection of its location was
the visibility of the whole class. The person using the video camera rarely focused on specific
behaviors of the teachers and students. In Linden, in addition to video recording, some photos
were also taken. The present study was carried out based on the evaluation of the video-
recordings of the lessons, the teachers were previously asked to design their lesson plans in
such a way as to conduct the lessons in a democratic environment in line with the principles of
constructivist approach and they were told that video recordings would be analyzed in order to
elicit how student participation in the solution of the problems which were believed to improve
students transfer skills was guided.
The recordings were analyzed in relation to two criteria connected to each other as shown
in Table 1.
Table 1. The design used to compare the lessons taught at schools participating
in the project in Linden and Tarsus in terms of their improving transfer
skills in problem solving.
Linden Tarsus
Problem Type 1 Contributions/obstructions offered by the arrangement of the classroom and furniture for
Environmental conditions constructivism
Problem Type 2 The compliance of student and teacher behaviors during the lesson with some models of
Procedural conditions constructivism (flexible learning; DI model; Invention; Self-Explaining)
Results of Research
Data analysis is below:
Problem Type 1
In the comparison made in Linden, Hannover and Tarsus, İçel in terms of the environmental
conditions of the classes, these elements were investigated:
• Opportunities/obstructions provided by the classroom setting for student activities
• The arrangement of desks and activity tables/chairs in the class (distance to each other)
• The maximum number of students to be catered to in the class (population density in the
class)
• The size of the area given to each student in individual/pair/group works
• The extent to which the environment allows the teacher to approach to each student
• Availability of teaching resources (textbook, workbooks, supporting course materials
etc.)
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152 The results obtained from the comparison made between two schools in terms above
mentioned criteria are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Opportunities/obstacles created by the classroom settings in Linden

and Tarsus for the application of teaching principles to improve prob-
lem solving skills of the students.
Seating of the stu-

The classroom in Linden The classroom in Tarsus
dents in the class
“L” type classroom plan: bottom edge of
The classroom plan is in the shape of a rectan-
L leads to the door.
gular: there is a door next to teacher desk and
Along this bottom edge, there is a book-
the board and the students enter and exit the
shelf. The students’ lockers are outside
class through this door. On the back wall of the
the class. In the middle of the long edge
room, there are hangers mounted on the wall.
of “L”, there is teacher desk and black-
Classroom plan There is a chair and a big desk for the teacher.
board. This desk is similar to student
Near the wall opposite the class door there is
desks.
a desk under direct sunlight. Only the students
Only the part of the L-shaped classroom
sitting at the window can see outside when they
where the wardrobe is located does not
stand up.
get sunlight. Sun light comes from other
sides.
Classroom is big enough to provide an
environment suitable for 25 students to The classrooms are suitable for 20-25 students.
Population density
work. Yet, there are only 13 students in Yet, there are 35 or more students.
the class.
At the desks of 2 meters long and 50 cm wide,

there are benches where 2 or 3 students can sit
There are 8 desks with the size of 1.5 m2 together and all the desks are arranged in rows.
on average and there are 2 or 3 chairs The students sitting behind see the necks of the
around them. The students can sit fac- students in the front. The desks are located one
ing to any direction. When two desks after another in rows of three and all of them
are brought together, groups of three facing towards teacher desk and the board.
Seating plan of desks
can work around it and in this case, The three students sitting on a bench next to
and chairs
there is a distance of 1.5-2 m2 between each other can easily conduct group works. Yet,
two of them. The setting can be easily these three students must always work in the
arranged for individual, pair and group same group. Same is true for pair works. If two
work. students are sitting on the same bench, they al-
ways work together in pair works. The students’
places cannot be changed because they are de-
termined according to the tallness.
The teacher can have a contact with The teacher can only move on two paths be-
each student easily. The teacher can tween the three rows of student desks. In order
Teacher mobility
give instructions to each group or indi- to have a contact with the students on the cor-
vidual without disturbing others. ners, the teacher should disturb other students.
All the students use the same textbook and

There are adequate resource books and there is the same book in front of each student.
photocopies on the desk of the teacher. Notebooks of the students are on their desks.
Richness of teaching Each student can freely select the re- The questions are asked from this book and the
materials sources out of them. Groups make use responses; that is, problem solving procedures,
of different resources. are found by looking at the examples presented
in the book. The teacher writes the information
on the board as presented in the book.
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Table 2 comparing Problem Type 1 can provide us with the following interpretations: 153
• The teaching setting in the courses given in Linden, there are opportunities provided
for the formation of new procedures.
• While the classroom environment is suitable for group works in Linden, the setting
in Tarsus is suitable for lecturing.
• The lessons in Linden enable students to conduct research on different sources. In
lessons in Tarsus, only textbooks are drawn on.
Problem Type 2
The results of the observations of student and teacher behaviors made in the class to
elicit the suitability of the approaches to the procedures adopted in the schools in Linden and
Tarsus for the transfer of problem solving skills are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Compliance of the teaching procedures adopted in the lessons with

the models aiming to develop problem solving skills as a result of the
comparison made among the students’ behaviors and the teachers’
behaviors.
Models Lessons in Linden Lessons in Tarsus

From different resources, solutions can be
reached and group works are performed, Imposition of the objectives by the teacher
Flexible learning
different – creative – procedures can be and standard knowledge acquisition
observed
While explaining the problem at the begin-
Continuous use of DI model and rare incor-
DI model ning of the lesson, this model is used within
poration of question-answer method
the first five minutes.
Strategy of learning through discovery and
Invention Active teacher, passive student
small group techniques
Only one of the students solving the prob-
Problem solving groups, they can explain
lem individually explains the solution/result;
cause and effect relationships when asked
yet, not the procedure. The students who
Self-Explaining by the teacher and then spokesperson
could not solve the problem seem to be shy
of each group explains the results and
and indifferent. They do not discuss their
procedures
incorrect procedures.
Table 3 includes the comparisons in Problem Typ 2. Related interpretations are presented
below:
• Teaching procedures followed in Linden comply with flexible learning, DI model,
Invention and Self-Explaining.
• Teaching procedures in Tarsus only allows the use of DI model; yet, there are attempts
to direct students to meaningful learning.
• In Linden, the main role of the teacher is counselor and unless it is necessary the
teacher does not intervene. In Tarsus, the teacher is the sole authority in the class and
always explains something.
Discussion
As video-recording was performed during the lesson and the students and teachers were
informed about this video-recording in advance, the students and teachers must have been
affected by these variables. For instance, in Linden, it was observed that the students looked
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154 directly at the camera while speaking and they laughed at it and in Tarsus, the students were
somehow restless in their answers probably due to the presence of a camera in the class. Such
effects different from usual student and teacher behaviors seen in normal teaching process
should be taken into consideration by the discussions presented here.
In Linden, the students actively participate in lesson and each group works with the
material they need. Flexible use of knowledge is dominant in the class. At the basis of the
procedure followed lies the principle “students decide what they learn not the teacher”. The
teacher does not change students’ belief systems and ways of thinking unless they wish (Kuhn
2008). Hence, the teachers in Linden are aware of the fact that they need to know what the
students want to learn and their ways of thinking. In Tarsus, on the other hand, the teacher is the
sole authority in the class and the students have to understand him/her.
In Tarsus, the teachers employ only DI model in both mathematics and Turkish language
classes. In Tarsus, the teachers themselves explain every detail to their students. In Linden, on
the other hand, the teacher makes use of DI model when they detect the points not understood
by the students and only for a short period of time. Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) argue
the effectiveness of DI model for students from every age group. When students are wanted to
learn something, teachers should directly and explicitly convince their students to do so.
Self-explanation is a critical learning mechanism that leads to greater procedural
flexibility. The current findings –in Linden- converge with past findings that better learners
spontaneously produce self-explanations and that prompting learners to generate explanations
leads to greater learning (Aleven and Koedinger, 2002; Bielaczyc et al., 1995; Chi et
al., 1989; Chi et al., 1994).
In Tarsus, while the number of students finding solutions and expressing their personal
opinions is few, the students in Linden actively construct their own concept understandings
when they use group work techniques (see Resnick, 1989; Glaser 1990).
The active interaction of the teacher and students and students and students can be clearly
observed in lessons in Linden. Moreover, the teacher encourages student-student interactions.
In this way, students become accustomed to finding solutions to problems through group
works or interaction with their peers. Group achievement is emphasized more than individual
achievement. In Tarsus, on the other hand, students only explain their individual prior knowledge
or the solution they have found individually, but not the way leading to solution. As the incorrect
results are not discussed, they cannot support their incorrect findings.
Conclusions
In light of the findings of the present study, it can be argued that the applications
performed in Turkish language and mathematic courses do not almost have any contribution
to the development of transfer skills. This way of instruction is in good compliance with
traditional education. In Linden, the students can create original ideas and find answers to
“why and how” questions and they defend the procedures they have found by using group work
techniques. Hence, applications in Turkish language course in Linden are in good compliance
with constructivist approach and improve the ability to use transfer skills gained at school in
real life and flexible knowledge.
Acknowledgements
The present study was designed and conducted to present a sample application that can
be used in “Comparative Educational Science” or “Comparative Education with European
Countries” course given at universities as post-graduate courses. Moreover, it may provide a new
direction for constructivist applications at elementary schools. Due to her great contributions
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to the organization of video-recordings of the lessons in Tarsus, I want to thank Ass. Prof. Dr. 155
Fazilet Karakuş. I also thank Turkish teacher, Nazmi Dagtekin, who himself video-recorded the
lessons in Linden.
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Erişim tarihi: (22.08.2010).
Advised by Milan Kubiatko, Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Y. Gurcan Ultanir PhD., Professor, Department of Educational Sciens, Educational Faculty,

Hasan Kalyoncu Üniversty in Gaziantep, Turkey.
Phone: 90 (0342) 2118080.
E-mail: gultanir@hotmail.com
Website: http://www.gazikent.edu.tr/gu/
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КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ ЗНАНИЯ И 157
ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРАКТИКИ
МОЛОДЕЖИ, ВЗРОСЛЫХ И ПОЖИЛЫХ
ЛЮДЕЙ В АМАЗОНИИ: ВКЛАД В
ЮЖНУЮ ЭПИСТЕМОЛОГИЮ
Иванилде Аполусено де Оливейра, Жоао Коларес да Мота Нетто
Государственный Университет штата Пара, Белем, Пара, Бразилия
E-mail: nildeapoluceno@uol.com.br, joaocolares@hotmail.com
Абстракт
В статье мы отразили некоторые аспекты исследования о культурных знаниях и образовательных

практиках молодежи, взрослых и пожилых людей, ориентированных на ликбез в Центре
Народного Просвещения в Государственном Университете Амазонии. Исследование касается
непосредственно культурных знаний, построенных на этих образовательных практиках,
разрабатываемых не в учебных заведениях, а в прибрежных общинах, госпиталях, общественных
центрах и убежищах. Цель дебатов заключается в привнесении вклада практики народного
образования, проанализированного для южной эпистемологии, понятой португальским
социологом Боависта Соуза Сантос, как комплекс эпистемологических интервенций, которые
оспаривает отказ от знаний и/или колонизованных людей, придает значение знаниям, которые
с успехом устояли, и исследует условия диагонального диалога между знаниями. Данные этой
статьи были получены путем качественного подхода при участии 30 обучающих и обучаемых, что
позволило выстроить картографию знаний. Результаты этого исследования показывают, что
образовательные практики, которые были проанализированы, и базирующиеся на диалогическом
мышлении гуманиста и бразильского педагога Пауло Ферейро, способствуют приданию
наглядности множества знаний, отражающих различные социальные слои амазонского региона.
Ключевые слова: культурные знания, образовательные практики, образование молодежи и
взрослых, бразильская Амазония, южная эпистемология.
Введение
Эта статья ориентирована на ликбез в Центре Народного Просвещения в

Государственном Университете Амазонии, который вдохновляясь диалогическим и
гуманистическим мышлением Паула Фрейре способствовал тому, чтобы показать
разнообразие знаний, исторически отрицаемых педагогикой, в связи с узким
рациональным видением, которое пренебрегает и делегитимизирует знания, созданные
другими логиками и в других параметрах, чем в современной западной науке.
Цель дискуссии в этой статье, следовательно, это вклад популярных
образовательных практик, проанализированных для южной эпистемологии, понятых
португальским социологом Боавентура де Соуза Сантос (Boaventura de Sousa Santos)
(2010) как совокупность эпистемологических интервенций, которая оспаривает отказ
от знаний и/или колонизованных людей, придает значение знаниям, которые с успехом
устояли, и исследует условия диагонального диалога между знаниями.
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158 Наши исследования направлена на изучение аспектов: о культуре Амазонки, в

которых мы представляем знания, выраженные обучаемыми, относящиеся к легендам и
мифам, религии, фауне и флоре, кулинарии, музыке и словарном запасе и педагогические
действия и вклад в южную эпистемологию, доказывающие как культурные знания
обучаемых педагогически отработаны в плане представления, вкладывающие в свою
интеллектуальную, личную и политическую автономию.
Методология исследования
Рассматривается как описательное практическое исследование, как качественный

подход, где образовательная практика Центра Народного Просвещения является центром
отправной точки, в которую включена тематика культуры Амазонки и ее манифестации,
учитывая Андре и Людке (André e Lüdke) (1986), качественное исследование предполагает
прямой контакт со школьными буднями.
Это исследование считается так же изучением общин или социальной реальностью,
что по словам Брандао (Brandão) (2003, стр. 233) концентрируется на «местных
данных, объединяющих фактах, пережитом восприятии» с насыщенностью в аспектах
«интегрированного участия преподавателя и ученика какой-либо школы или курса
обучения грамотности» и «взаимодействие группы исследователей с общинами». Это
было реализовано специфическим образом. Картография знаний, имеющих место быть
в культуре Амазонки и выраженных в исследовательских практиках обучения грамоте и
состоящих из следующих определений культурных знаний Амазонки: a) словарный запас,
б) народная медицина, в) кулинария, г) легенды и мифы, д) народная религиозность,
е) музыка, ж) флора и фауна. Таким образом, картография как стратегия методологии
позволила отобразить культуру Амазонки в своих различных проявлениях, представляя
субъективные черты истории и социальной жизни амазонских общин.
Исследование было проведено в 07 группах по обучению грамоте с 30 людьми в
качестве исследуемых, из которых 08 преподавателей, 19 обучающихся и 03 руководителя
прибрежных общин, среди них 06 мужчин и 24 женщины в возрасте от 11 до 70 лет.
Что касается методологического процесса, то было сделано следующее: а)
библиографический обзор связанный с народным образованием и культурой Амазонки, б)
документальный обзор докладов о деятельности педагогов и успеваемости обучающихся,
в) педагогическая динамика, направленная на стимулирование обучающихся к
самопроявлению и понятие культуры Амазонки, г) неформальное интервью с педагогами,
включая педагогические и социально-культурные темы.
Систематизация и анализ данных были осуществлены в темах, построенных на
четырех основных вопросах: 1) что обучающиеся знают о культуре Амазонки? 2) Как
воспроизводят свои знания о культуре Амазонки в социальных и образовательных
практиках? 3) С какими знаниями у них связаны представления о культуре Амазонки? 4)
Каковы результаты этих знаний в социальной и образовательной среде?
Результаты и дискуссия
Результаты этого исследования показывают, что проанализированные практики по

обучению грамотности, основанные на диалогическом и гуманистическом мышлении
бразильского педагога Пауло Ферейре, способствуют тому, чтобы дать видимость
различным знаниям, которые отображают социальное разнообразие Амазонского
региона. Образовательная практика педагогов Центра Народного Просвещения имеет
в качестве основы для проблематизации социальной реальности генерирующие темы,
берущие свое начало из социокультурного контекста, к которому обучаемые принадлежат,
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молодежи, взрослых и пожилых людей в Амазонии: вклад в южную эпистемологию
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оценивая знания, жизненный опыт и внутренние социальные практики, осознавая, что 159
во взаимоотношении с природой, землей, рекой и лесом, жители Амазонки строят свои
знания, выраженные в социальной и школьной повседневности.
Бразильская Амазонка, которая превышает 5 млн. квадратных км., что эквивалентно
61% всей территории страны, это всемирно известный своим биологическим
разнообразием регион, о чем свидетельствует огромное количество видов животных и
растений, распространенных в лесной, земельной и водной экосистеме. Тем не менее,
стоит подчеркнуть, что Амазонка социально разнообразна, с населением в 20 миллионов
человек, которые разделяют древнюю культуру, знания, образы, мифологии и религиозные
и художественные проявления.
В штате Пара, втором по размеру штате Апартпмазонки развивается практика
по обучению грамотности в Центре Народного Образования Паула Ферейро ,
институционально связан с Государственным Университетам штата Пара, который с
1995 года изучает, исследует и толкует, изложенное бразильским преподавателем Пауло
Фрейре в теоретико-методологического докладе о народном образовании.
Народное образование понимается Фрейром (Freire) (2011) как усиление
мобилизации, организации и научной способности, техника и политика рабочего класса,
направленное на преобразование и интеграцию в социум. Концепция и образовательное
движение, которое считает что «нет такой педагогической практики, которая не начинается
с культурной и исторической конкретики группы с которой работаешь» (Фрейре, 2004,
стр. 57), так как преподавание требует признания и принятия культурной принадлежности
обучающихся (Фрейре, 1997).
Это педагогическая концепция, которая лежит в основе практик по обучению
грамотности, которые Центр Народного Образования проводит вне учебных помещений:
в госпиталях, общественных центрах, приютах и прибрежных общинах, иначе говоря, в
сельских поселениях, расположенных на берегах рек или же в тех поселениях, которые
существуют благодаря воде, работают и ведут социальный образ жизни.
В таких местах обучаемые в Центре Народного Образования знакомятся с
подростками, взрослыми и пожилыми людьми среднего класса, женщинами и мужчинами,
жителями городских районов или же поселков, страдающими болезнями или нет, которые
не только проявляют культурный плюрализм Амазонки, а также строят свои культурные
знания на этих культурных практиках.
Культурными знаниями мы обозначаем те, что были произведены в культурных и
социальных практиках и которые отображают образ жизни, мыслей и понимания мира,
ценностей, воображений и представлений. Они разнообразны и состоят из различных
смыслов, отношений, из содержания и культурных практик.
Знания о культуре Амазонки
Культура Амазонки выражается обучающимися через различные культурные

элементы, охватывающие работу, музыку, легенды, религию, речь, привычки и т. д. И
поддерживаемые в социальной повседневности через разговоры и художественные
проявления, учитывая свою историю жизни.
Знания, полученные в социальной повседневной жизни путем словесности,
Оливейра и Мото Нето (Oliveira e Mota Neto) (2004, стр. 61) именуют культурой разговора,
подразумевая, что «словесность являет собой типичный способ сельско-прибрежного
общества выражать свой опыт, передавать свои знания, ценности и привычки старших
поколений младшим поколениям, что позволяет укоренить культуру разговора».
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160 Легенды о Амазонке, такие как о Розовом Дельфине (Boto)1* или о Большой
Змее (Cobra Grande)�**, среди прочих, считаются правдивыми историями, потому что
рассказываются в виде собственного опыта одним из членов семьи или поселения. Они
также приобретают образовательный характер, потому что ориентируются на социальные
практики. Таким образом, забота об окружающей среде, сохранение лесов, бережное
отношение к природе связано с существованием живых существ и удивительных
защитников лесов и вод.
Помимо легенд и мифов, религиозность проявляется обучающимися, особенно в
почитание Богоматери из Назаре, покровителя штата Пара, пересекающихся мистических
индейских традиций и христианских религий.
Флора и фауна Амазонии выражены обучающимися путем знаний о народной
медицине и уходе. Таким образом были выделены как домашние лекарства с
использованием медицинских трав, так и копаиба (Копаифера) как продукты питания,
которые обеспечивают жизнедеятельностью и являются неотъемлемой элементом питания
всего населения, например асаи (Euterpe oleracea) и капуасу (Theobroma grandiflorum).
Кухня Амазонки, индейская и африканская по происхождению, имеет в реках и лесах
свои истоки. Составляющей амазонской кузни являются разнообразные фрукты, рыба,
а также маниоки (Manihot), корень, из которого добывают муку, и тукупи — желтоватая
жидкость, широко используемая в местной кухне.
Шоче, брега, каримбо и бой-бумба были упомянуты как танцы и музыка,
относящаяся к культуре Амазонки штата Пара.
Так обучающиеся выражают имеющиеся у них знания в своих повседневных
социальных практиках, связанных с работой с землей, лесом, водой, общиной и местной
культурой. Знания, которые представляют собой культуру.
Педагогические действия и вклад в Южную Эпистемологию
Это разнообразие культур в Амазонке педагогически разработано самими

педагогами Центра Народного Образования, учитывая религиозный и культурный выбор
обучающихся. Диалогические действия обучающих становится важным, потому что
позволяют справиться с конфликтами знаний и поколений.
Педагоги пытаются поспособствовать в своей образовательной практике
укреплению личности обучающихся, как утвердившихся существ в социально-культурной
жизни Амазонки. Это означает уважать обучающихся как личностей, способных выражать
свое мировоззрение.
Для Фрейре (Freire) (1997, стр. 121): «автономная педагогика должна быть
направлена на стимулированный опыт выбора и ответственности, т.е. почтительный
опыт свободы».
Одна из преподавателей подчеркивает, что в своей педагогической практике она
«видит что такое реальность», ссылаясь на литературу мира обучающихся. Фрейре (Freire)
считает (1982, стр. 22), что «изучению мира всегда предшествует изучение слова», где
знание является процессом экзистенциальных, социальных, политических и культурных
отношений человека с миром.
Взгляд на реальность обучающихся означает уважение к их знаниям и культурному
контексту. Для Фрейре (Freire) (1993, стр.86) «уважение к народным знаниям обязательно
предполагает уважение культурного контекста. Местоположение обучающихся — это
1 **
A Cobra Grande (большая змея) — также называемая Boiúna, анаконда в амазонском вообра-
жении, которая присутствует во многих рассказах индейского происхождения. Относится к огромным
змеям, которые обитают на глубинах рек или которые своими телами способны защитить города или
целые острова.
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отправная точка для представлений, которые они будут создавать о мире». Уважение друг 161
к другу и своей культуре происходит путем диалога.
Поскольку мы стремимся отобразить культурные знания молодежи, взрослых и
пожилых людей, путем картографии знаний, мы стараемся так же как и Сантос (Santos)
(2010) и Дуссел (Dussel) (2000) услышать другого, отдать голос человеку и визуализировать
свои знания, понимая как Мартиник (Martinic) (1992, стр. 72-76), что народные знания:
неотъемлемая часть процесса формирования коллективной идентичности и является

продуктом разработки о том, что человек имеет свой собственный взгляд на мир
[…] У этих представлений не столько логическая структура, например, реагировать
на глобальную систему восприятия, а скорее что известно о какой-либо вещи или о
каком-то феномене, относящийся к другим и интегрируя те или иные факты в более
широкую систему познаний.
По мнению Дуссела (Dussel) (2000), современность состоит из евроцентрического

явления, где Европа представлена в виде упоминания о мире, бытие; и прочие культуры,
жестокость, небытие. Современная рациональность, согласованная с инструментальными
основаниями, исключает другие логики о осознании мира.
И речь о том, что европейская культура себя считает лучшей по отношению к
другим культурам, является для Дусселе (Dussel) (1992) мифом современности, который
должен быть поставлен под сомнение с точки зрения этики и политики. Поэтому этика
освобождения состоит из антидискурса евроцентризму, который признает «речь» другого
и подтверждает свою несхожесть.
Этот дуализм между двух культурных миров власти сосредоточен вокруг знаний,
что так же оспаривается Сантосом (Santos) (2010, стр.33), который утверждает, что
голубинное современное мышление — это «в концессии современной науки монополии
различия между истинным и ложным» по отношению к другим знаниям. В этом смысле
научное знание предстает законным и очевидным, а знания руководствуются здравым
смыслом и в других логиках о размышлении о мире, в других культурах, маргинальных
и невидимых.
Таким образом дискуссия развернулась в эпистемологическом центре, нуждаясь в
диалоге между знаниями, которые Сантос (Santos) (2002) называет «экологией знаний»,
способным содействовать взаимодействию и взаимозависимости между научными и
ненаучными знаниями.
Подобное разнообразие знаний, которое встраивается в эпистемологическое
разнообразие мира, для Сантоса (Santos) (2010) представляется в «южной
эпистемологии», в пост-глубинном мышлении, которое представляет собой совокупность
эпистемологических интервенций, которые как осуждают подавление собственных
знаний колониального общества, так и поощряют эти знания и стараются установить
экологию знаний.
Между Южными эпистемологиями обозначим культурные знания молодежи,
взрослых и пожилых людей, которые живут в прибрежных районах бразильской
Амазонки. Население с культурными традициями, которые дифференцируют себя
от логики капиталистической современной культуры, и которые поэтому страдают от
незамеченности своих знаний и непризнания мудрости, построенной на своих социальных
практиках.
Мы понимаем, что знания, пришедшие от средних классов имеют свою структуру,
основанную на методических системах поиска и выражения формализованной реальности
социальной группы. Поэтому для Мартиника необходимо строительство новых
эпистемологических основ, позволяющих раскрывать структуру народного мышления.
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162 Тириба (Tiriba) (1992, стр. 132) подчеркивает:
Народное знание — это не только путь, методологический инструмент, который ведет

нас к разработанным знаниям. Это также и пункт назначения, в чьем измерении есть
своя структура, ни больше и не меньше значимая, чем структура научных знаний,
она просто другая. Есть так же собственные ценности такие как совокупность
концепций, как спонтанная философия.
Эта видимость распространяется как на признание знаний рабочих классов, так и

на то, чему мы у них научились. А это означает, что мы будем работать над образованием,
которое будет иметь в качестве отправной точки повседневную социальную практику
людей, живущих в общинах.
Вопреки образованию, которое состоит в том, чтобы научить людей логике

доминирования, научив его изучать мир своими глазами, своими словами, народное
образование хочет стать инструментом, который объединится с коллективной
работой, путем которой люди (коренное население, земледельцы, рабочие) учатся
на своей собственной практике, завоевывают власть и, в конце концов, имеют свою
собственную точку зрения. Брандао (BRANDÃO) (1984, стр. 151-152).
В этом состоит работа народного образования Центра Народного Образования,

где обучающийся научится на своей практике, выражая свои культурные знания и
свои взгляды на мир, критикуя социальную реальность и автономно примет решение о
процессе своего выбора и этических решений.
Выводы
Исследование, выполненное при участии обучающих и обучаемых образовательных

классов молодежи, взрослых и пожилых людей Центра Народного Образования им.
Пауло Фрейре показывают, что предположения Пауло Фрейре, которые руководствуются
своей педагогической практикой, приближены к эпистемологическим дебатам,
организованными Энрике Дуссел и Боавентура де Соуза Сантос, потому что имеют своей
отправной точкой культурный контекст, в котором обучающиеся являются его частью.
Знания, выраженные обучающимися, представляют собой культурные особенности
своей повседневной жизни и отображают приобретенные знания в своих социальных
практиках и познании мира.
Центр Народного Образования путем педагогической деятельности в группах по
обучению грамотности молодежи, взрослых и пожилых людей и путем картографических
исследований знаний, таким образом, внесли вклад в Южную Эпистемологию.
Литература
André, M., & Lüdke, M. (1986). A pesquisa em educação: abordagens qualitativas. São Paulo: EPU.
Brandão, C. R. (2003). A Pergunta a várias mãos: a experiência da pesquisa no trabalho do educador.
São Paulo: Cortez.
Brandão, C. R. (1984). Saber e Ensinar: três estudos de educação popular. Campinas, SP: Papirus.
Dussel, E. (2000). Ética da Libertação na idade da globalização e da exclusão. Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes.
Dussel, E. (1992). El encubrimiento del índio: 1492: hacia el origen del mito de la modernidad. México:
Cambio XXI.
Freire, P., & Nogueira, A. (2011). Que fazer: teoria e prática em educação popular. 11ed. Petrópolis, RJ:
Vozes.
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Freire, P. (2004). Pedagogia da Tolerância. Organização de Ana Maria Araújo Freire. São Paulo: 163
UNESP.
Freire, P. (1997).  Pedagogia da Autonomia: saberes necessários à prática educativa. São Paulo: Paz e
Terra.
Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogia da Esperança: um reencontro com a Pedagogia do Oprimido (2a ed). São
Paulo: Paz e Terra.
Freire, P. (1982). A importância do ato de ler: em três artigos que se completam. São Paulo: Editora
Autores Associados: Cortez.
Martinic, S. (1994). Saber popular e identidad. In: Gadotti, Moacir; Torres, Carlos Alberto (Ed.). Educação
Popular: utopia latino-americana (pp.69-88). São Paulo: Cortez: EDUSP.
Oliveira, I. A. de, & Mota Neto, J. C. da (2004). Saberes da terra, da mata e das águas, saberes culturais
e educação. In: Oliveira, I. A. de (Ed.) Cartografias Ribeirinhas: saberes e representações sobre
práticas sociais cotidianas de alfabetizandos amazônidas (pp. 53-66). Belém: CCSE-UEPA.
Santos, B. de S., & Meneses, M. P. (2010). Epistemologias do Sul. São Paulo: Cortez.
Santos, B. de S. (2002). A crítica da razão indolente: contra o desperdício da experiência. São Paulo:
Cortez.
Tiriba, L. (1992). Buscando caminhos para a pré-escola popular. São Paulo: Ática.
Summary
CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE AND LITERACY PRACTICES OF YOUNG PEOPLE, ADULTS

AND SENIORS IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON: CONTRIBUTIONS TO AN EPISTE-
MOLOGY OF THE SOUTH
Ivanilde Apoluceno de Oliveira, João Colares da Mota Neto

Pará State University, Belém, Pará, Brazil
In this article we discuss the cultural knowledge and educational practices of young people, adults and
seniors linked to literacy classes of a Popular Education center at a public university in the Brazilian
Amazon. The study deals specifically about cultural knowledge built in these literacy practices developed
in non-school spaces, as coastal communities, hospitals, community center and asylum. The focus of
debate is the contribution of the practices of popular education analyzed to epistemologies of the South,
understood in view of the Portuguese sociologist Boaventura de Sousa Santos, as a set of epistemological
interventions that challenge the denial of knowledge and / or colonized people, value the knowledge
that resisted successfully and investigate the conditions of a horizontal dialogue between knowledge.
The data in this article were obtained through research with qualitative approach, involving 30 teachers
and students, allowing the construction of knowledge cartographies. The results show that the literacy
practices analyzed, because they are based on dialogical and humanistic thought-liberating the Brazilian
educator Paulo Freire, help to give visibility to multiple competencies which express the social diversity
of the Amazon region.
Key words: cultural knowledge, literacy practices, young people and adults’ education, Brazilian
Amazon, epistemology of the South.
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164 Advised by Maria B. Barbosa Albukerke, Pará State University, Brazil
Received: August 19, 2012 Accepted: November 15, 2012
Ivanilde Apoluceno de PhD., Professor, Pará State University, Street Jerônimo Pimentel, 426, apt. 701,
Oliveira Edifício Village Classic, cep: 66.055-000, Umarizal, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
E-mail: nildeapoluceno@uol.com.br,
Website: http://www.uepa.br/nepuepa2.blogspot.com/http://lattes.cnpq.
br/6486192420682817
João Colares da Mota Assistant Professor, Pará State University, Avenue Marquês de Herval, No. 507,
Neto apt. 1301, Pedreira, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
E-mail: joaocolares@hotmail.com
Website: http://lattes.cnpq.br/6415743127554581
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
ISSN 1822-7864
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 48, 2012
166 Titles
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ISSN 1822-7864
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 48, 2012
167
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION
ISSN 1648-3898
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 48, 2012

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

HISTORY AND DIDACTICS OF MATHEMATICS: A PROBLEMATIC RELATION.

PISA DEBATES AND BLAME MANAGEMENT AMONG THE NORWEGIAN EDUCATIONAL

INCLUSIVE MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC

THE DIFFICULTIES OF BUILDING UP A NEW PARADIGM OF WORKING

SCHOOL-AGE CARE, AN IDEOLOGICAL CONTRADICTION

SELECTED FACTORS AFFECTING GIRLS’ PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL

CONSTRUCTING NATIONAL RANKING METHODOLOGY: DILEMMAS, CHOICES,

SELF-ASSESSMENT CRITERIA OF TEACHER’S WELL-BEING

REPERTORY GRID ANALYSIS AND CONCEPT MAPPING: PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

FAILING IN BASIC SCHOOL: DISCOURSES OF EXPLANATION

ALBANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ ETHNIC DISTANCE AND STEREOTYPES

4 THE FACTORS AFFECTING CAREER GUIDANCE AND CURRENT STATUS OF CAREER

COMPARATIVE TEACHING EXAMPLE RELATED TO COURSE ACTIVITIES

КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ ЗНАНИЯ И ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРАКТИКИ МОЛОДЕЖИ, ВЗРОСЛЫХ

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 165

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION ........................................................... 167

HISTORY AND DIDACTICS OF 5

Received: November 14, 2012 Accepted: November 21, 2012

Theoretical Framework: Understanding Governance in a Media-Influenced Pub-

to the establishment of or maintenance of something like cooperative games, where cooperation 13

Figure 2: Blame management strategies.

Investigation of PISA Hits in Norwegian Newspapers

A turnaround in educational policy and management was initiated by a Centre-

operative problems by pushing responsibility downwards to another, clearly identifiable, 19

Advised by Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Siauliai, Lithuania

Received: August 07, 2012 Accepted: November 02, 2012

Eyvind Elstad PhD., Professor, ������������������������������������������������������������

INCLUSIVE MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE 23

Jaroslava Gajdošíková Zeleiová

General and Art Education System

Democratisation and restructuralization of the educational system, system of its

24 • special schools – elementary, secondary, practical, and special training centres,

Figure 1: The Education System in the Slovak Republic.

Changes in Art Schools Policy

After Slovakia entered the European Union in 2004, deepening of international

Figure 2: Diversification of primary art schools, their decomposition in the Slo-

26 Ongoing curricular transformation efforts succeed in modernization of content of

formation of Slovakia. Without preservation, support and development of unique national 27

Changes in Primary Art Schools

Changes in Music Education

Individual artistic fields – musical, creative, dancing and literary-dramatic – can be

In comparison to teaching musical education and existence of musical schools in original

Advised by Judita Stankutė, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania

Received: October 03, 2012 Accepted: November 13, 2012

Problem of Research and Research Focus

General Background of Research

Organized Work, Organizing Work 37

Figure 1: The double loop of schoolwork organization.

Suppose it is necessary for all actors concerned to be motivated and interested in 39

From Invention to Implementation: New Attitudes about Learning Issues

Interest in Being Alienated?

Limited Rationality and the Need for Dignity

44 Rorty, R. (2000). Philosophy and Social Hope. New York: Penguin.

Advised by Michael Schratz, University of Innsbruck, Austria

Received: September 07, 2012 Accepted: November 24, 2012

Eyvind Elstad PhD., Professor, ��