TOPIC 1 : CELL BIOLOGY .

Subtopic i. I Introduction to cells .

•
cell theory -
organism? are composed of cells .

smallest unit
of life
/
① cells →

② All living organisms are made up

of cells

③All cells come from pre-existing cells .

Exceptions : skeletal muscle, a septate fungi and

giant algae .

•
cells have a limited size by the surface area to volume ratio .

d and
size increases → ratio decreases →
limiting capabilities
its size .

(multicellular
organisms)•
cells tend to
dThis
process
grow
is
and develop into
differentiation .
a specialited type Cex : neurons)

d cell lhzt differentiation is

d when indio cells
can
go through a
pluripotent .

the
grow together , group develops collective
properties emergent properties (each indiv cell cannot have?
→ .

stem cells
pluripotent cells
→
necessary in embryonic development ,
→
•

✓
'

growth and cell renew21 .

useful in disease therapy:

Debated . ①
stargzrdts disease → treated with stem cell implants
1)Adult tissue harvesting is acceptable to -

replace damaged retinal cells .

with consent ? ② Leukaemia → bone marrow stem cell implants to

2) Um billion cord harvestingis replenish new
healthy cells .

acceptable with consent ?

3)special embryo harvestingis taking

away potential life
?
•
Functions of life
① Nutrition ⑧ Excretion
② Growth ⑤ Metabolism
③ Response ⑥ Homestasis
to external
stimuli ⑦ Reproduction .

& These can be seen under a microscope

d-
Resolution : ability to object
distinguish 2

a) light microscope hes low resolution

eight
: uses to view objects -

b)Transmission electron uses electron beam to view very

microscopy :

CTEM) small 2nd thin slices

high resol
-

c) scanning EM :
only views the surface of an objects

•
magnification : size
of image nose piece g-
eye piece
size
of specimen .

diaphragm
objective
lens .
course
stage ,
focusing
knob
←
Fine focusing
condenser
lens J knob

blight
 Subtopic 1.2 → Ultrastructure of cells .

organisms can be
prokaryotic or
eukaryotic
d d
unicellular multicellular
d d
simple cell struct .
Complex ,compartmentalized
structure
Wlocompzrtmetalizttion .

key organelles .

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

membrane I nucleoid mitochondrion

plasma
µ
( ( pezsm2memÑ
qq.ge#to~-ce11w2ll
•

→ •

☒
#
smooth ER
•

Éewm §@@#rough
S
'

o
o
~
cytoplasm
←

)
pili s nucleus ER
s s > •

70s ribosomes
: .

-
, •
lysosome
cytoplzsm •

{
•
Nucleoid : naked DNA loop GOIGIAPPZRWS 80s ribosomes
•

cytoplasm: fluid Thet hosts

organelles and

cellular processes
• Nucleus: Enveloped DNA storage as chromatin

Plasma memb : controls transport cytoplasm fluid hosts

organelles cellular processes
• • : +
,

•
cell well : maintain cell shape •

plasma memb: controls transport

70s ribosome : Mitochondria perform cellular respiration
'

synthesize proteins •
• -

Flagellum used for movement Golgi Appzrzws : modifies stores +

packages proteins
• : • +

• Pili : join cells for DNA transfer •

Endoplzsmztic Reticulum : produces proteins
(Reproduction via binary fission) eithertdwlsmootn ribosomes or rough ribs .

•
lysosomes: stores enzymes
Binary fission of unicellular organisms →
copying of all the internal structures
equal
80s ribosomes : produces proteins
+
•
splittinginto 2 identical
daughter cells .

(Reproduction via mitosis / meiosis ) .

Ira
Anima cells Plznntt cells
•
•

83s
%f@µ÷ qq.yvaaeo.ie f@;
"" oh ↳
granule cell wall
• -
• •

⑧MF↳gBÑ
• •

☒
• •

☒
•
• •

•
•
"" * •

%%
•

•
• Vzceole •
•
- chloroplast
•

y.enm.ae

small Vzcvoles: store water

large Knole store water
•
• :

•
No cell was / Chloroptst : as
carbohydrates • cell wzll : composed of cellulose
are stored as chloroplast : perform photosynthesis
•

glycogen •
starch
granules
: stores czvbohydreles
as starch .
 Subtopic 1.3 → membrane structure

primarily composed of phospholipids

Plasma membrane with
integral
- →

and peripheral proteins → various functions .

✓phospholipids
t
→

↳
hydrophilic heads →
✗2
hydrophobic tails -
w
/ Phospho
lipids
-

these are thus d

amphiphilic .

This structure causes them to form a

00--0000000 bilayer with hydrophilic heads on the

Wtnh ] bilayer
" " " " " " " " "
← outside
tails
Cathracted to Hzo) +
on the inside fatheaded
to
hydrophobic
f eachother ) .

model :
Dawson Danielle model
original
-

d.proposed a
rigid membrane
of protein on

either side
of the bite
yer .
→ BASED ON :

① Chem analysis
showing composition of phospholipid 13
protein
②Thereenough phospholipid for twice the area of the
is

plasma membrane bilayer →

③ Membrane forming barrier

requires protein (possibly
a ☐
-

4 Electron showed bznd sandwiched

micrograph a
eight
dark
by 2 ones

model falsified by singer Nicolson model

1%98,00%9%91979999
-

① freeze fracture electron micrograph showing proteins

were
integra
ray crystallography showing phospholipid
080000000 2 X -
tails
←
were fluid like
fluid mosaic
-

.
-

③ NMR and
model .

fluorescent cell fusion of with red and showed that the

green membrane proteins proteins
mixed over time and so the membrane is fluid .

CHOLESTEROL → amphipztic restricts movement and

• →
phospholipid
reduces membrane
fluidity 31
permeability to
hydrophilic particles .

Functions + examples of membrane proteins

① Hormone receptor → Leptin receptor

② cell-to-cell adhesion → cadherin
③ Immobilized enzyme
→ oxidase
cytochrome
④ Electron transport →
cytochrome c
⑤ Active transport → sodium potassium pump
-
.

⑥ Neurotransmitter receptor →
Acetylcholine receptor
⑦ Facilitated diffusion channel →
potassium channel .
 subtopic 1.4 membrane transport
Plasma
•
membrane → controls movement
of substances in and out
of cell .

d Enter and exit via

different Mechanisms .

A) DIFUSSION → Passive movement from high concentration to low concentration

&

↳
NO ENERGY
REQUIRED .

peryneabq.me?brane-#
DIFFUSION across semi

YE
→ -

•
FACILITATED DIFFUSION →
via specific channel proteins .

|
Voltage-gated →
dependent on the •
°
:
:
• •
:
• •

÷
. .

::
•
→

; ; ;
charge
•
•
axon .

ttinsiede
•
•

(outside)
•
•
• •
•
: o o

•
•
• •
aignan
•
, ,

ÉÉi⑧ÉÉiÉ
•
- -
-

iowconc

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.

→
aim
6188 6b¥ ☒ 000
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- - • -
- -

+ ++ + + + + ++ + + +
@

dcinside) ⑥when
•

d③ channel
•

then
charge quickly closes
①channel inside G)
is channel and then returns to its
original
→

closed when
briefly opens to allow conformation .

axon f)
charge is facilitated diffusion
and outside isf)

B) ACTIVE TRANSPORT →
usually against concentration gradient .
+
requires ATP
energy .

•
• d • •
•
•
•

•
•
•
(OUTSIDE?

%%%→%¥%}•••§%¥%→%%H¥%
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ya ↳
✓
•••
µ ADP

① 3 Sodium molecules ② causes it to

change configuration ③ 2 potassium ④ pump changes
enter the pump

phosphorylates the
+

pump
ATP
/ +

pump
allows sodium to exit the molecules

and phosphzte entry config again

2nd allows
.

group detaches potassium to

(AntiPorter 2 molecules direction) teave
→
transported move in
opp .

pump .

c) VESICLE TRANSPORT →
takes
advantage of membrane fluidity to form / fuse vesicles
① Endocytosis : invagination of membrane around substance to form
vesicle that transports substances into the cell
-

② Exocytosis : release of substances into extra cellular -

matrix
through
fusion of vesicles with
plasma membrane .

ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS
• •
•
• •

h→
•

-
→ → Es -
-
D) OSMOSIS →
passive Mov of water
from a
region of
low solute conc .
to
a
region of high solute conc .

① Hypotonic → solute conc < water conc .

② Isotonic → sowte conc = wzter conc .

③ Hypertonic → solute conc > water conc .

• • •
•
•
• •

•→☒••←•
• •
-0 •
•
•

hypertonic
• • • •
• _• •

/
hypttonic
\
Isotonic .

I -5
Subtopic Origin of
→☒ cells .

first cell must have arisen from non-living material .

① Theory of spontaneous generation .

to
life suddenly generated from nothing
¥015
.

PASTEUR disproved this with his Swan neck

-

flask experiment .

d He boiled flashes
of broth to kill all living organisms
→ then exposed
one batch to air and sealed the other one .
the broth that was
sealed did but exposed did so
,
not
grow organisms the one .

He then broke both both

,
and
grew organisms
Ashowed that cannot
spontaneously grow in areas that they
cannot reach
organisms
.

② Endosymbiotic theory → explains how eukaryotic cells were made

a-

/
Endosymbiosis : absorbance of a smaller cell
by a
larger cell
with a vesicle + smiler cell now
performs function
for the bigger cell .

•
Happened ✗ 2 : in mitochondria and in chloroplasts .

1)An anaerobic cell took in an aerobic bacterium with mitochondria ,

which now supplies ATP for both

2) This heterotrophic cell takes in an autotrophic bacteria with

chloroplasts ,
now
turning the cell autotrophic .

EVIDENCE
31 grow
To chondria chloroplasts + divide
independently ( like cells)
• both have their own DNA
• Both synthesize their own ribosomes
•
both have a double membrane . (expected if they underwent endocytosis .
 Subtopic 1.6 → cell division

①mitosis → division of the nucleus into 2 identical

daughter
genetically
nuclei .

number of of
↳
mitotic index → ratio of mitosis visible
cells
undergoing : total nom

cells .

1) PROPHASE spindle
: microtubules form and
grow
+ DNA
supercoils into chromosomes
+ nuclear membrane breaks down .

2) METAPHASE : chromosomes align at cell

equator + Spindle microtubules
attach at centromere

3) ANAPHASE spindle : microtubules

pull the chromatids to the poles + the
chromatids become the new chromosomes
4)TELOPHASE :
spindle microtubules
degrade + nuclear membrane
reforms +

chromosomes uncoil into DNA .

following
mitosis → CYTOKINESIS → a contractile
ring of protein contracts to pull
↳ kinda part of the plasma membrane inward ,
splitting the cell
* "⇐ into 2
genetically identical daughter cells .

plant ⇐ us a cell plate at the equator forms a new ce"

→

wall in 2 .

AFTER MITOSIS phase where cell grows + lives + prepares for

1NTERP_HASE-
→ →

mitosis
replicating organelles DNA
+

da)G cell by
.

protein synthesis organelle production

|
growth
→ +
, ,

b) s DNA and organelle replication

→

FTS
G )g c) G, → prep for mitosis by : more cell growth protein
synthesis + DNA
,

damage

[
,
check .

cytokinesis (sometimes) d) Go →

temporary/ permanent state where cell does

mitosis NOT divide

i
.

-
-

d Entire
4
cycle controlled by cyclins
primary cyclins -
.

/
→ however ,
tumors are
cycle dysregulation
formed oncogenes
is how
are

+ak•
← the
genes regulation of the cell cycle I
involved in the

Mutagens , are substances capable of

causing a mutation (change in .

DNA
seq) -
→
If this occurs in
oncogenes
→ uncontrolled cell div .

→ tumor forms con .

Genesis!
has the contribution to
smoking greatest cancer
•
.

eczncer
causing mutagens =

carcinogens
-
TOPIC 2 : MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
2. 1 Molecules to metabolism

molecule → a
group of 2 or more atoms held
together by a single /
↳ double / triple
held
covalent bonds

together by intermolecular forces (forces btw molec.)

.

Molecular explains living processes in terms of chemical process involved

biology → .

form 4 covalent bonds 2nd stable molecules →

carbon czn
many living organism
•

(other bonded moles

may
include:
oxygen Nitrogen ,
and
Hydrogen) are carbon-based

Main molecule ① carbohydrates ② Lipids ③Proteins ④Nucleic Acids

types
•
:

•
Vitalism
theory → stated that
living organismsvital were composed of organic chemicals

produced by organismsthe force

✓ falsified
.

Friedrich Wohler
by :

1- low ? →
artificially produced urea with silver

isocyanate + ammonium chloride Orea is .

an

organic chemical
by organisms
produced
→
.

Wohler's that
ability synthesize it , meant
to
-

vital force not

a was
necessary .

Metabolism=
enzyme catalyzed pathway of organism
•
reactions within the that
either chained
✓Anzbdic
are
cyclic or .

reactions = bond
together small moleC Cmonomers) to form
bigger ones ( macromolecules)
catabolic reactions = breakdown macro to monomers .

2. 2 wzter
d. essential molecule
d composed : E
Hydrogen atoms bonded to an
oxygen atom .

d the covalent bonds between e- to

unequal Hydrogen
+
oxygen cause

densely populated oxygen creating a pole Hydrogen bond

→
more near .
-
.

is then a +
pole ,
and thus molecule has a
dipole and ispolzr
d 21 lows
oppositely charged dipoles between molecules to be

attracted to eachother .

)
( non polar molecules →hydrophobic → not attracted
-

(polar molecules → hydrophilic attracted) →

d water attracted to itself

hydrogen bonding strongest intermolecular
→ →

force
donley

I
.

occurs beetween :
hyde oxy /Nitro / fluorine
+
.

d bond : attraction between the

Hydrogen positive
-

pole of hydrogen and the

negative pole of oxygen .

 hydroger bonding $ pouring of water
bring
rise to its
many properties
:

① cohesive water molecules stick to eachother due to

hydrogen bonding
2 Adhesive → water molecules stick to polar / hydrophilic surfaces
3 ther met →
hydrogen bonds between water molecules take a lot
of
heat to break .

Univers21 dissolve
4 → water czn
hydrophilic sowtes .

Solvent

Effect of hydrogen bonding on water 's thermal properties :

•
Melting point 10¥ ice melts at a
higher temp as more
energy
is
required to
break
hydrogen bonds
•

Boiling points 1100¥ = water boils at

break
a
higher temperature
bonds
as more
energy is
required to
hydrogen .

Latent heat
of
•

vaporization :( 2.26 kj /
g) = More
energy
is
required to break
hydrogen bonds $
evaporate water
•
specific heat

capacity G. zkjlkgco) = More energy is required to break

hydrogen bonds
$ increase the speed
of water particles .

2.3
carbohydrates 31 lipids
① ② ③
d3 31
levels
of structure : monosaccharide disaccharide
-
, -
pzcchzn.de
①Monosaccharides : most basic unit of carbohydrates
( most common : fructose glucose ,
,
ribose)
a
← OH
CHZOH
ClytzOH •
H
/
☒
OH
H

%④ H
H
H

H
H OH
OH
✗ -
D -

glucose ④
Deoxy D- ribose
-

Disaccharides : 2 linked by a condensation

together
2 monosaccharides

reaction that produces water the disaccharide

+

(most common :

(1) m2 Hose: glucose + glucose

(2) sucrose: glucose + fructose
(3) lactose:
glucose gzlzctose +

d Anabolic reactions → condensation reactions form disaccharides +

water from monosaccharides

d hydrolysis reactions → reverse of condensation reactions → use .

water to split a disaccharide into 2 mono .

dczt above reaction -

.
 ③Polysaccharides many mono : .
linked
together by condensation
reactions .

( most common : cellulose starch ,

, glycogen)
(1) cellulose →
carbohydrate that is
structural

primary mzteri21 of cell WZHS .

structure 1,4 linked B D

:
glucose pocym
- -
•
.

+OH
opposite sides
groups on
-

31 flipped glucose molecules

form a
straight chzin, and
chains can stack in parallel w/
hydrogen bonding give high to

tensile
strength .

(2) starch →
primary storage form of carbohydrates in

plants .

structure: 1,4 linked x-D

glucose polymer
• -

OH the sz me side
+
groups on
-

give it a helical shape .

22
types amylase 31 amylopectin
→
•

(3)
glycogen primary storage form of carbohydrates in
→

animus .

+ its structure is more branched than anylop .

↳makesit ✓ insolvable + efficient for

large
" storage .

althoughcarbohydrates are good energy storage , lipids are better for long-term
energy storage be ① release ✗2- energy per gram and so require hits the mess
.

for same amount of E.

②T hydrophobic NOT stored with water,
making energy
↳
,
so

storage ✗ 6 more efficient than c-

types of lipids
C)Triglycerides :3 -

fatty acids and I

glycerol - (bonded together via
'
condensation reactions

mÉ→
they glycerol
can
(
C) sztorzted ;
Mdm
vary in the number of carbons & the
faky-aa.IS
have all carbon atoms
bonding .

are connected single bonds by .

(2) unsaturated ; have one or more double bonds

)É
cony one Unsaturated > I
pocyunszt )
-
-
.

(3) double bond's orientation matters

# same side cis unsaturated
if hydrogen*
-

opposite side → trans unsaturated -

.

A
banned bcuz of
their correlation
with CHD .
 (2) Steroids ;
four ring
-
structured lipids
mostly found in
cholesterol 31 other hormones (
,

testosterone ,

estrogen ,

progesterone)
•
Persons body mass cannot solely be used to assess how
healthy
it is due to the variation is sizes between adults .

Index CBM 1) -_ mess Ckg

Body )
→
mass
Inder
heighten ) weight BMI 18.5
: <

norm 21 : BMI : 18.5 -

24.9

overweight BMI 30
: : zs -

obese : BMI > 30 .

2. 4 Proteins
amino acids
building blocks of proteins
-
→

→ 20 different ones . (each contains :@ an anime

grp
•
carboxyl grp .

hydrogen atom
•

but each has a different :

R
group)
-

→ condensation reactions form peptide bonds btw

amino acids to form polypeptides (proteins) .

→
They can be linkedin many
sequences $ lengths
givingKhe possibility of many different
-

polypeptides
→ Genes code for amino acid seq ,
control the 3D conformation of a protein .
-
☐

collection of proteins is called

a cell
produces
its proteome, (unique for )
each individual
•
Protein structure influences its function
-
CT temp 31 extreme pH 's an denature proteins →

impairing its function)

C) Rubisco catalyses carbon fixation
.

=
during
(2) Insulin hormone thzt binds to insulin receptors
=
photosyn
in
.

cell membranes to cause cells to uptake gw

.

(3) Immuno antibodies that

globin =
protein that produces
in immune responses
bind to
antigens
(4)Rhodspin = pigment in retinal rod cells to make them
sensitive to photons low-light conditions
in

(5)
Collagen = structural fibrous protein found in skin to prevent
tearing ,
in bone to
prevent fractures 31 in ,

tendons and
ligaments for tensile strength
(6) spider silk =
structural fibrous protein with very high
tensile strength 31 resistance to break
ay
2- 5
Enzymes
(proteins)
d speed up 31 control the rate of reactions of metabolism .

bby lowering
: the activation
energy required for a reaction to

happen making
,
it
quicker .

Enzyme catalysis →
breaking down →involves substrates colliding
in the
with
enzymes right wayto enter its

active site
-
•

specifically mtohed to the substrate's shape

and chemical
properties
•
ONLY
liquids allow the continual motion 31
collision chance required for enzyme catalysis
•

using enzyme solutions are

insufficient → as enzymes are lost

after reaction .

lmmobiuzed enzymes → attached to another material such as

•

d
beads
,
so
they can be
industrially
to create recycled .

lactose -

free milk .

Enzyme rate
affected by :

C)Temperature = As tempt, particles + kinetic energy 31

+ the chance of successful collisions → .

\
T enzyme activity up to an optimum temp .

rate →
after optimum ,
the Vibrations break
bonds in the
enzyme +
schznge its
shape → denzwre .

temp

(2) pH = Extreme pH or HYOH -

ions react with the

poezr 2nd
charges R
groups of AA in the enzyme,
-

denzwre
rate
disrupting ternary the structure + .

PHS surrounding the optimum pit ions interact ,

to
reversibly change the shape of the active site
temp

(3)substrate conc = ✗ conc substrate , the likelihood

of
successful collisions in → enzyme

activity f. Once bound, the active site is

^" ✗ concentrate
temporary blocked and so

lower
results in an ✗ in
enzyme activity .
 2. 6 Structure of DNA 13 RNA
2 types of nucleic acids
4) acid CDNA)
Deoxyribose nucleic

building blocks:/ (2) ribose acidnucleic CRN A)

Nucleotides

① 4- possible
Nitrogenous bases
① (c) DNA DNA
cytosine
= +

②Guanine (G) DNA = + RNA

③ Adenine (A) =DNA + DNA

④Thymine ( T) = DNA
Uracil (v ) =
RNA

④ RNA contains a ribose

pentose sugar ring .

a an,, , aa.gg ,,,

pam ,
,g
,

③ Nucleotide = + basic units

of a nuclei acid
contains L
nitrogenous bzse connected

phosphate
to a sugar
ring +
a groups
backbone .

• RNA 31 DNA also differ forms 2 strands 2nd RNA

in structure ,
where DNA

only one . ( Each strand composed of nucleotides covalently bonded from

the phosphate to the next nucleotide
groups pentose sugar)
dln DNA →
strands are NT but )
antiparallel forming 2g>inst running partlet
linked bonds by their bases
by hydrogen
+ .

Only contemporary bases can

pzir Cc -
G) ( A -
T )(or A -
U in RNA)

BASIC STRUCTURES :
'
'
3 → 5

ywdeoh.de
→ phosphate
group
→ deoxi ribose

A C T G
A C U G
T G A C
-
ribose ring

'
' '
3
'
5
5 3
a

RNA
DNA
double helix of DNA discovered
by .EE#ihing+Watson3CrickW
-

|
Used x -

ray diffraction
to discover the helical form
d) used cardboard shapes to represent bases 31 metal rods to represent the sugar
-

phosph .

backbone
(2) figured out
complementary base
paring as they were equal in length 31 would fit
btw the backbones
(3) Realized from franklin 31 Wilkins thzt the backbones needed to be antiparallel
(4) made a model tht convinced others of the struct and later confirmed by
further testing .
?⃝
 2. 7 DNA Replication / transcription / translation
→ Watson 31 Crick's model suggested that DNA replicates in a semi conservative
-

way
d
• 2 Alternative theories : 2 strands break apart
a) conservative replication 31 each form temp Rte a

d stating both
parent strands remain for their complementary

(b)£-1
together 31 a new duplicate is produced
#
.
siren
,

dispersive replication
d
stating that every DNA strand produced Nucleotides attach in

has the
a mixture
of old and new sections . same sequence as the
old strand →
resulting in
identical to

/¥=
*=p
2 new strands

QEII 11=-1 parentswind

me .

, *•

• Mesetson 's 31 stzhtl

depraved semi -

conservative replication
by
If ¥
-

-
-

- ==

nitrogen IN ) 31 thenin
's
E. coli in heavier radioactive
culturing
transferring to
lighter N ! → DNA was the
centrifuged
cesium chloride which separates contents by mass .

,
's
(N DNA sinks mixed
,
DNA in the middle 2nd N'
+
DNA rises)

✓ in semi conservative
-

replication , Gs it was seen) , hid

't
one middle band consistent with 2 DNA strands hzlf N
2nd hzlf N's 2nd one top bznd consistent with new
' "
N DNA strands

•
DNA REPLICATION

step 1 : DNA helicase unwinds 31 separates the double helix .

Step 2 : DNA
polymerase links nucleotides to the pre-existing strands
via complementary base pairing to form new identical strands .

step 3 : strands separate 31 wind back into a double helix

HELICASE 1 1 11 1 1 11 I 1 1 11 1
1 11 11 1 11 I 1 1 11 I
'""
iiiiiiiiiiiiii →
↳
→

iiiiiiiiiiiiii
Ii
-

Free
nucleotide# 1- DNA POLYMERASE

•
DNA TRANSCRIPTION →
synthesis of messenger (mRNA) from a template DNA
strand .

step 1: RNA
polymerase unwinds the double helix $ separates the strands .

step 2 : RNA polymerase links nucleotides to one

of the pre-existing strands
via complementary pairingthe
base .

step 3 : the mRNA strand separates from DNA 31 the DNA pairs up

again 31 twists bkk into a double helix .

 free RNA RNA POLYMERASE

,¥,É→iÉ
nucleotides

_ii →

TIM
mRNA strand
1-

tin 3.
coding for proteins do so as a piet code bases
•
Genes → = codons → code

for a
single amino acid 2nd 20 in total ( AA
,
)
d 2 bzse codons
only code for 16,3 bzses coding for 64 were needed
,

creating many codons for the same AA .

DNA TRANSLATON →
synthesis of protein from an mRNA plate .

Step 1 : mRNA binds to small sub-unit of the ribosome → which reads

the codons
step 2: transfer RNA ( tRNA) molecules contain an anticodon →

complementary to a codon 31 an associated 2mi no .

step 3: tRNA binds if the anticodon is

complementary to the

presented codon + a second ERNA binds after .

step 4: ribosome forms a

peptide bond between AA .
+ the

first tRNA leaves .

→ ribosome moves on to the next

codon to allow the next tRNA to bind .

step 5 : Repeated onn polypeptide is made .

Polypeptide
•y••••\
÷Ñ•i.it?:i-FE=?:E:i.%FF*I-E
large subunit %
#
• mm . .

F)
→
free .

\•* ☒ ☒
•
•
tRNAs •
*
* • ☒
•

5m211 subunit

genetic code is universal

human insulin
(across all
living org ! allowing many applications for it .

d Ex
prod of
:
by bacteria .

dgene for insulin can be transferred from humans to E. coli →

produce insulin -
☐ diabele .

Genetrznsfer →
requires many copies of the gene .
→
Artificial copying is useful when
DNA

only small quantities are obtainable

(1) DNA mixed with primers is heated up to 95C + done via
polymerase chain
to split the strands Reaction CPCR) with
Taq DNA
&
polymerase .

(2) temp lowered 523C to allow

primers to bind
to
found in not spring
.

(3)
Temp increased to 73 Etoprima temp
for Taq DNA bacteria / heat
to DNA) resistant
polymerase elongate
(4) repeated for a couple of hours to obtain millions of copies .
 2.8 cell respiration
cell respiration is the process a cell produces its own ATP from organic
compounds
✓ Done as ATP is immediately osuable as an
energy source

anywhere in the cell .

Rates of respirations are measured respirometers

cell
using
•

cell respiration is aerobic losing oxygen) anaerobic ( no used)

or oxygen
•

d d
V5 C) uses
(1) uses oxygen glucose / lipids
+
only glucose
(2) Produces coz , ltzo end lots (2)Produces a litle ATP 2nd coz +

of ATP lzctztelhumznsd / ethanol Cyeast )

d &
glucose oxygen
+
coz + Hzo + lots of ATP glucose letzte + coz ATP
→ → +

glucose
→ Ethanol +
coz + ATP
a
5m21 1
amounts

Type used is dependent the situation

•
on

1in mm ).
.
Anaerobic does not provide lots
of ATP but it is rapid $
maximizes the power of muscle contractions →
vigorous sport
or
lifting .

( in
yeast ) • Anaerobic is used in production of Alcohol 13 bread .

4) bread :
yeast mixed in the
dough uses up all the oxygen
31 then produces ethanol , which evaporates,
2nd carbon dioxide , which makes it rise .

(2) ethanol :
yeast is fermented in sugary liquid
, producing
coz ,
which bubbles out,
and ethanol until

2 boot 15% When it kills the

yeast itself .

2. a
photosynthesis &
production of organic compounds 31
oxygen from light ,
coz 31 water .

Coz + He 0 glucose Oz
-0 +

summary
• :

(1) light energy by photosynthetic pigments to

is absorbed

split water molecules in a process called photolysis

d
produces electrons + oxygen as waste .

(2) These electrons are used to convert EQ into organic

compounds (glucose)
•
Evidence : banded iron formations in the ocean bed .

The 1st release caused the atmos levels

organism to
oxygen
to increase to 2%
, after which iron in the oceans precipitated
as iron dioxide 31 deposited in rocks
•
The photosynthetic pigment thet absorbs light is called
chlorophyll .

d2 forms : a 2nd b.

they have an absorption spectrum of red and blue

light $
reflect green light ,
which is what we see .
 Photosynthesis action spectrum shows that maximum rates occur with red and
•
→

blue light due to

chlorophyll absorption 31
minimum rates with
green light ,
but there is

still
activity due to accessory pigments .

other
factors that affect
-

4-empt DT light inten

{
→ rate ✗ to a - → rate t •
coz conc T → rate t up to a

maximum .
Conti / optimum up to a mix rate .
Max rate After :X conc does
.
,

temp) After opt → tempt After : light intensityT

→ NOT affect rate be another
→ rated until denzwred does not affect be another factor will become
limiting .

factor will become

limiting
Thin
•
tiger chromatography CTLC) →process that an separate pigments such as

xanthophyll ,
carotene and
chlorophyll .

Rr value = distance moved by spot

distance moved by
solvent .

distance
-
by spot
ooo

1- distance
• solvent
by
.

Questions
2.I
-

④☐ ② organic comp . contain a C atom ③B ④ D → It foundin both AA $ cello/

5 B ⑥ sucrose → disaccharide C ⑧ C ⑨ c ⑦ gzkctose = monosaccharide
① D ④ A BOB ④B

④
a-
glucose p glucose
-

CHZOH CHZOH
° O
H H H O H
H H

OH H OH H
OH OH
OH H

H OH H OH
?⃝
3.3 MEIOSIS
b
process by which one diploid nucleus divides to form 4 haploid nuclei .

This forms male and female

gametes 2nd allows a sexual life cycle
•
.

d nucleus divides twice without DNA replication to halve the

During diploid
:

chromosome number

4)Prophase I : chromosomes
pzirr up + cross over $ microtubules

form 2nd the breaks down

nuclear membrane
(2) metaphase I :
pairs up chromosomes randomly line up at the
equator +
spindle microtubules attach to the
H centromeres .

(3)Anaphase I : chromosomes are polled to the poles 't ,

chromosome numbers

gag eeopn.se ± :*, aiu.ae, in two ,oµm zmpioianuaei

Prophase Metcphzse Anzphzse Telophase CI)

⇐, (I) CI )

(5) After meiosis I , 2 haploid cells enter meiosis

(6) Propnzse II : both cells grow new microtubules + nuclear

¥
membrane breaks down
(7)Metzphase II : chromosomes line up at the equator 31
spindle microtubules zttzch to the centromere

§gÉ (8) Anzphzse II : microtubules

to the poles , which zre now chromosomes
gym,, , , ,,, man,, , µ, , my, , ma,,
separate the sister chromatids

membranes reform .
Cells now have half
the chromosomes as the
original parent cell .

④ After meiosis II , cytokinesis :

forming 4 haploid cells .

→
cytokinesis

propMse Metpmse Anzpnzse

Telophase
(E) CII)
(E) CPI)

•
meiosis is a source
of genetic variation
↳
prophase I → homologus pairs cross-over sister

|
non
-

↳ metaphase chromatids to
eÉgequeries
Israndom orientation
of pairs of
homologous chromosomes in metaphase
I.
could
Fertilization source
of genetic variation → as
many gametes reproduced
•
=

fuse together .
31 Down's genetic condition it involves dis junction meaning
syndrome is a
-
.

, ,

to 2h instead
a chromosome
abundance in
failed
chromosome's
separate
21 .
during anzpnsse created

32 Prophase I : chromosomes 31
crossing over takes place
'

par up
.
.

+ microtubules nuclear memb breaks down

grow c- .

metaphase I :p> irs up chromosomes

randomly
+
they line up zt
the equator + microtubules attach to centromeres

Anaphase I :
chromosomes move to opposite poles ,
chromosomes
numbers are mired .

Telophcse I : cell divides to

form 2 haploid nuclei .

4. ECOLOGY
communities 31
4. 1 Species , ecosystems

* Species group of organisms that potentially interbreed to produce

→ can

fertile offspring

/
.

( speciesreproductively isolated by different breeding

behaviors or can cover time) become 2
geography ,
-

, deff species
Autotrophic species : obtain their food by producing organic

/ from inorganic compounds

compounds
b(photosynthesis)
Heterotrophic species: obtain food by consuming other
organisms
di>consumers : other
by digesting
C) detritivores : from detritus via internal
organisms

digestion
(3) Szprohrophs: from dead
organisms via
external
digestion
* community →
population of different species living together 13 interacting
in
single area
a

* Food web → describes the complex feeding network within a community .

* a)Quadrant
sampling→ Used to view the relationship between organisms
by sampling random square areas 13 recording
the presence /absence of organisms .

b) Chi squared test is then used to calculate association between

-

*
(observed v21 - exp v2
.

hej species → this valve is the compared to critic21 values

XIE expected found in a
special table based on
,
L
V2we
degree of freedom .

degrees of = # of groups -
L
freedom tested
( not 2live)

* An
ecosystem → interaction of community w/ its abiotic environment .

the
supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by
•

nutrient
cycling and all nutrients remain within the ,

ecosystem unless manually taken out .

bombing them sustainable .

4. 2
Energy flow Autotrophs / Heterotrophs
°
Within communities , organisms need energy?
d follows the
food chain .

d Trophic level = the food chain

position in .

dcmzy be more than L in a

trophic lue)
I &

PLANT → BEETLE → SALMON →BEAR

d w b to
producer primary secondary tertiary

conswmeronsometpnmz-rycons.com#
consume

food chain .

(represented by arrows)
→
•
Energy flows from organism to
organism
f
d But not all of it is transferred to the next
•
open ecosystems 21low energy to enter (mostlyin the form of sunlight)
$ to exit in several forms :

(1) heat → every respiration 31 loses

organism undergoes cell
heat
energy as

G) death before being consumed

organisms may die

(3) lost tissues → some parts are not eaten (bones + hair)
(4) Ind feces
egestion undigested parts end up in
→ .

pgowopngynnoy@gegymogyagyneggyyneaygyn.ma ay , ayy ,

the atmosphere 31 cannot be reclaimed .

Only about 10%

of energy 31 biomass is transferred from one trophic level
to the next .
→ seen an energy pyramid

⑧ beach successive has to be 10% of the length of

the one before it .

in
-
4.3 carbon cycling
d Ecosystems nubients-D~c.cn
hive a LIMITED
supply of stinky recycled .

( key nutrients : carbon / phosphorus)

nitrogen 31

CARBON CYCLE :

(1) Atmospheric coz can be taken

up or

lost
by the ocean

(2) PRODUCERS take in coz via

photosynthesis
2nd release it via cell respiration or

combustion ( forest fires)

(3) In acidic / anaerobic conditions (
bogs -1
Swzmps) ,
S2 protrophs cannot
digest
dead material , so plants torn into peat
via partial decomposition
(4) Over time , peat is crushed 13 converted
into coal via fossilization which an be
combusted bzcle to coz
(5)Peat can also be broken down
by meth
genic archaeans to produce
methane , which is eventually oxidized into coz
(6) Producers transfer carbon to consumers by being eaten or to szprohophs
by dying .

(7) Consumers produce coz Via cell respiration or die to be consumed by

Szprohrophs .

(8) Marine mollusks fell to the seabed and become limestone in coral reefs via
fossilization ,
which can be acidified to become CO2 .

(9) other dead marine seabed partially decomposed to

organisms on the are
become silt
oil /
gzs whilst the
surrounding becomes shale , which

can be combusted to
form coz .

d.4 climate
change
Greenhouse effect the atmosphere
→
process by which
gases in
•

absorb 2nd re -
emit radiation to keep the Earth 's
surface warm

d) Solar rad ,
reaches the atmos as UV rad .

(2) 25% is absorbed 2nd 75% keep travelling to Earth's

surf
(3)surface → most is absorb 2nd re emitted as
-

infrared rad .

(4) Around 70-851 of infrared rad is trapped by atmos

gases
2nd re emitted
-
back to the
surface .

(5) REPEATS .

•
without this effect the Earth's surface would be -18C
d $ Methane +
greenhouse gases that contribute the most : coz + wzier vapour
nitrogen
oxide:
Homzn activity T greenhouse gases conc strong evidence of the rising trips
•
→

the last 200

years .

hover the lest 150years ,

co > ,
has risen
substantially due to the combustion
of fossil fuels 31 the Earth's temp have risen with it .
 ✗ Coc →
effect on coral
reefs
C) coz reacts with H2O to form carbonic acid
hrs coz + Hz 0 → Hz C 03
(2) carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions +
hydrogen carbonate
+ H+
↳ Hzcoz→ HCO -

,
(3) Hydrogen ions react w/ czkium carbonate to form hydrogen ez ✓ bond

↳ It HCOJ + Cat
+
+ Caco →
}
(4) calcium carbonate is essential for reef building cords
-

existence
threatening
d carbonic acid
their
2150 makes wzter more acidic
, causing cord

bleaching .

Questions
* For combination
of genes from 2 distinct species restriction enzymes
,
2nd
ligase
are required
* Endonuclease breaks down DNA
both thebzcleoid
a-
specific sequences 2nd is used
on 2nd human DNA
* Process of get electrophoresis →
process used to separate DNA
fragments
according to size .
→
placed
samples are
in
gel 13 immersed in code Chon
fluid
Electricity is pzsed through the
geld
smaller
fragments move further →
opp .

charges move in opp directions .

6. Hum 2h PHYSIOLOGY i.
6. 2 blood system
Galen came up with the idea that blood was produced
*
by the liver
tspmped out by the heart 13 consumed by the rest of the body .

credited of the correct

*William
Harvey is with the idea circulation
of
btood.TOble circulation
C) the circulation supplies oxygenNed
systematic
blood to the body 13 brings on oxygenNed
pulmonary blood back to the heart
systemic .

Ypg
circulation circulation G)the pulmonary circulation carries un oxygenated
lungs oxygenated

%f⑧
blood to be
through
31 sent bzck to the heart
the

]
.

Vein arteries •
He also showed tht blood flow is
unidirectional , vessels have valves to prevent
backflow ,
blood flow is too
high for
consumption by tissues , 31 that there were
arteries $ vessels
rest of body intermediary vessels
linking
(capillaries) which ,
were discovered after
his death .
VESSELS
C) Arteries : transport high pressure blood pumped from the ventricles of
the heart to the rest
of the
body .

•
A thick wall thick elastic
,
fiber layer + narrow lumen →
help to
maintain the
high pressure 31 help the arteries withstand them
(2) capillaries : carry blood
through tissue 31 have permeable walls that
2110W
particle exchange between the tissues 31 blood
through their fenestration s They are single layered to .

allow for diffusion 31 about 10µm in diameter to fit in

small spaces 31 supply blood to all cells .

(3) Veins : transport low pressure blood from the tissues to the atria
of the heart 31 contains values to prevent backflow
=
.

A thin well little elastic fibres and wide lumen 211

, help to
move low pressure blood .

The entire circulation the

driven
by the heartbeat contractions
of
→
•
is .

cardiac muscles
d supplied
.

by the coronary arteries to bring oxygen 31 nutrients, which

branch off the aorta right after the semilunar raves .

*¥}Ffha¥¥-d with blood until their pressure

exceeds 1Mt inside the ventricles, when the
FFF atrioventricular values open :
↳
µ¥
1. I →
right atrium : is filled with onoxygenated
blood from the superior

TO
vena-czv23.li#venac2Va
left >mum filled by the pulmonary
µ
1.2 → :

veins
bringing back

oxygented blood
from the
lungs .

(2) The atria contracts 31 push blood through the atrioventricular

valves into the ventricles The semilunar valves are closed to
.

keep
blood in the ventricles
(3) the ventricles contract 31 push blood through the semilunar valves The .

pressure also causes the atrioventricular values to close to prevent

backflow .

a) right ventricle pumps into the pulmonary arteries which ,

on oxygenNed blood to the lungs to be

bring coxyg .

b) the left ventricle pumps

-
into the aorta which ,

brings oxygenated blood to the entire

body .

(4) the stop contracting $ the pressure from the blood above them
ventricles
causes the semilunar valves to close to prevent backflow .

When pressure inside the ventricles is less than inside the atria , the
atrioventricular valves open 31 the next cycle
begins
.

.
6.4 GAS
exchange
oxygen is
necesamy for cell respiration + it is
supplied to the body
by the
circulatory system B oxygenled by the lungs .

During 92s exchange oxygen 31 coz are swapped in the

lungs alveoli
•
→ /

the of
lungs contain millions alveoli to

maximize the surface area for gzs exchange

31 each is small 2nd adapted
for gas exchange .

①Permeable to oxygen 31 coz

② large surface area of diffusion
③ Type I
pneumoagtes are thin 31 permeable
cells to provide a short diffusion
distance .

④ Type 2
pneumoagies secrete a

surfactant to reduces surface tension

31 make the alveolus moist so
oxygen
dissolve
can

⑤ covered in capillaries with low oxygen 31 high

coz concentration so oxygen
the blood 31 coz out
diffuses into
.

•
Dependent on concentration
gradients of oxygen 2nd coz between
the blood and the alveoli , so the air must be removed 31 replaced with

fresh air via ventilation

consistently
inohsatan-aeofg-mejs.FI?n-
→ involves

&
Opp muscles
z
antagonistic
muscles .

Ventilation rate of innzlzh on $ extortions minute

'

→ nvm
per
•
.

• Tidal volume → volume

of air inhaled / exhaled →measured by spirometer .
 7. Nucleic acids
7. 1 DNA structure 2nd replication
•
determination of the structure
of DNA was not
only done by Watson
31 crick .

d Chase used viruses to discover that DNA

Hershey and was

the
generic material instead of proteins
did ) Making viruses with radioactive phosphorus CDN A) 13

⑧ ¥¥%%%
,•¥÷÷
virus sulfur Cprotein coat]
DNA sulfur (2) Infecting bacteria with these viruses , allowing DNA to
y , enter the bacteria into a solid
pellet at the bottom

*
¥a+
.

↳ (3) centrifuging the bacteria to separate the protein

µJ•¥iÉ
~
active coats in the liquid supernatant and the

tpvjjfes.in ¥ bacteria into a solid pellet at the bottom .

s
s s g f Si
→

⑧
Kaa-
surfactant
pellet .

•
Wilkins 2nd Franklin → contributed
↳
they used ✗ -

rzy to produce high-resolution diffraction

images of DNA , which Watson 31 crick used to
determine DNA 's helical shzpe , the steepness of
the helix 31 the distance between helix turns .

they also found out that DNA in Eukaryotes is wrapped around an 8-histone
protein core to form nucleosomes (DNA + histones) →

d Each histone contains an N-terminal tail that sticks out to N term in 21 tails
-

tails
of adjacent nucleosomes .

Another histone protein HI links the DNA to the protein core , and a small
length of
•

DNA connects one nucleosome to the next .

J¥¥f¥¥¥F¥µ§¥
1. ✓ T ¥50me
•
This allows the nucleosomes to bunch up close
together 2nd Supercoil the DNA into
N-terminal HI linker DNA chromosomes .

tail 8-Histone
protein •

Acetylation = addition
of acetyl groups to
histone N-terminal tails .

to
prevents nucleosomes from packing
together + loosens the HI protein
to allow for DNA replicas on / transl .

•
Methylation -_
addition
of methyl groups
a opposite
effect from acetylation
 ' '

DNA replication occurs in a 5 to 3 direction

fork
'
one strand , the replication both
'
•
on replication 2nd run in the 5 to 3 direction
d
I leading strand .

replication fork
' '
•
on the other strand, the runs in the 3 to 5 direction (opposite to the
,

blagging strand .

polymerase)

E✗PMdedPr%fµA gyrase
: removes strains in the DNA
during uncoiling
(2) Helicase : uncoils the DNA 31 splits it into 2 template strands
,

which are held apart by single-stranded binding

proteins .

(3) DNA prima se : adds RNA primers on the

lzggingsrznd
(4) DNA polymerase 111 : adds nucleotides in a 5 to 3' direction .

(occurs continuously on the

leading shr )
.

( occurs
✗
discontinuously on
leggings )
the .

forms Okazaki
fragments)

(5) DNA polymerase 1 : replaces RNA primer nucleotides with

DNA nucleotides
(6) DNA
ligase : binds okazzki
fragments together .

Sanger sequencing is method

of base sequencing is method
of base
•
a a

sequencing that involves the use of dideoxyribonucleic acids Cdd Na 's)

base sequencing are either coding for proteins) or non-coding

•

d
C)
regulating
(2) introns
gene expression

(3D telomeres
(4) tRNA and mRNA .
 7. 2 transcription and
gene expression
dlhese coding sequences are important
non -
in initiation 31 stoppina

of transcription + gene expression .

d
the conversion of genes to
proteins to
express the
's coded characteristic
gene
•
Person's pattern of gene expression is called its epi genome (epigenetics)
d
commonly believed that characteristics
acquired during a person's lifetime
cannot be inherited .

•
Methylation → addition
of Methyl groups to DNA to prevent transcription
person's pattern of methylation is inheritable 31 is heavily
• A

influenced by environmental factors

patterns are determined during embryonic development
•

• identical twins contain identical

methylation pztterns at birth but
diverge as they age

non
coding sequences called promoters 31 repressors also used to control gene exp
• -

,
.

(in
prokaryotes) non coding promoter sequences recruit RNA polymerase to the
•
→
-

binding site 31 repressors bind to promoters to prevent this .

1in eukaryotes) →

C)
promoters : transcription factors which recruit RNA
attract ,

polymerase to the transcription binding site .

Repressor proteins →21so bind to prevent this .

(2) RNA polymerase : separates the strands to form a transcription

' '
bobble 31
performs transcription in a 3 to 5
direction .

(3) mRNA is
'

produced direction and the

'
in a 5 to 3 once

terminztor sequence is reached DNA , ,

mRNA 2nd RNA polymer 25
dissociate from one another .

following transcription mRNA molecule undergoes post transcription21 modification

• -

to remove non
coding sequences termed introns Coding sequences (exons)
-

, .

are spliced 2nd re -

attached to form the mature mRNA for translation .

 7. 3 Translation
•
In translation , introns form mRNA 2nd the ribosomes necessary for the process .

•
tRNA molecules are double stranded RNA molecules w/ three loops ,
one of
which contains the anticodon.bg the codon
complementary to the mRNA
codon (associated with an amino acid)
d anticodon 2180 used to bind to tRNA which binds
'
a
activating enzyme ,

an AA to the 3 CCA
binding sit on the tRNA
using ATP .

d Each tRNA is
specific to the AA .

Ribosomes composed
of proteins and
•

rRNA molecules
d
.

active ribosome is composed of a

large and small sub-unit with A Czrriv21)

PC polypeptide) 2nd ECexit) sites for tRNA
molecules .

Translation 3
stage
4) small sub-unit binds to the start codon CAU G) on mRNA

{
.

(2) a tRNA complementary anticodon

with the 31 associated (UAC)

AA (methionine) binds to the start codon .

INITIATION (3) the

large sub-unit binds to the small sub-unit 2nd forms the A ,
P and E sites ; the starting tRNA is in the P site .

(4) another tRNA comes into the A site 13 binds to mRNA .

(5) a peptide bond forms between the amino acids on the tRNAs

d) the ribosome
'

codon [three bzses)

'
moves a over in the 5 to 3 direct ,

moving the tRNA's into the E and P sites .

elongation the E site tRNA disassociates 31 another tRNA moves into the A
sites
(3) A peptide bond forms between the AA on the tRNA's
(4) CYCLE REPEATS

UAA , UGA
pAG ,

4) the ribosome reaches a STOP termination

codon , factors enter
A site to case disocciahon of the
the
polypeptide .

(2) then the tRNA ribosome sub-units 31 mRNA all Sep> rate ,
,

translation
ending
 then fold
Polypeptides into a
protein → structure % in 4 levels
•
.

a) Primary → number of
amino acids 13 their sequence in the polypeptide
chain ,/determines shzpe + function )
b) secondary → helices (spirals ) or B-pleated sheets (parallel
a
-

straight chains ) → held by A-bonds together .

c) Ternary → second level → overall

of
of folding conformation
the polypeptide due to
interactions between AA and R
groups
-
.

Ionicbonds, polar bonds

hydrogen bonds 31 non polar
• -

bonds
d) Quaternary → In proteins with + than one polypeptide (overall
conformation of an entire protein between polypeptides
31 prosthetic groups
( conjugated proteins
.

are an example I

8. Respiration 31 photosynthesis
8. 1 metabolism
✓ Is the sum of all chemical reactions in an
organism .

In each reaction reactants are converted to products

by breaking the
•

,
bonds in the reactants
requiring energy ( activation energy)
,

Enzymes lower the activation

energy
Substrate _ uncztzlysed
"" "→
g- £

④ ÷:÷
- - -

aoiueite reactants
→
→
g-
-
Enzyme
time
d ② & ③the

/ /
substrate binds to
Enzymes active products form 31
the active site
,
specific site weakens bonds dissociate, and the enzyme
to lower Ae
to the substrate . returns to its original shape

Enzyme activity can also be stopped by inhibitors

•

to
they can do it in 2ways .

(1) compete hire inhibition →inhibitor with a similar shape

to the
binding enzyme active
site 2nd Occupyingit .

( if there is a ✗
enough substrate
conc , itoutcompetes theinhibitor 31
reaction continues unimpeded) .

G)non-competehive inhibition →involves in inhibitor binding

to the enzyme at an alternate
site, the allosteric site 13
the active's site Shipe
changing ,

preventing substrate binding .

 •
3 scenarios are possible :
① norm21 enzyme -
assisted reaction

② competitive inhibition of the enzyme : A concentration the rate reaction

gÉ
,

T at a slower rate then

With + the ""☐"° + """"↳
& reaches the Max rate when the
substrate concentration is much

greater than that of the inhibitor

as it outnumbers the inhibitor) .

substrate ③ non competitive inhibition :X

-

concentration ,
the rate reaction
conc slower rate
.

in at a much .

a- it reaches a lower Max rate even

when substrate conc is much F)
•
within
bigger picture of metabolic
inhibits the first
chains /cycles , the last product often
non
competitively enzyme to control
productionto formation
-
.

end product
-

inhibition
• End product inhibition → example of negative feedback .

Mf there is too much product , it inhibits its own production until levels drop low
enough to stop inhibition .

If there is too little product →

pathways runs onhibited .

8. 2 cell respiration
d cell respiration is the production of ATP from organic compounds .

converted to to
In both aerobic + anaerobic →
glucose is pyruvate
•

ATP in
provide its a
process called
glycolysis
• d
in the
cytoplasm
↳ splitting of glucose
(1) phosphorylation
group) of glucose
add a
phosphate into hexose
biphosphate , which is + unstable , requiring 2 ATP .

G) this instability closes

lysis splitting) into 2 Hose phosphate
molecules
(3) Each mole undergoes oxidation via the reduction
of NAD into
NADH to
, produce a pyruvate .

(4) over 211 ; 2 ATP is produced .

① ② ③
ANAEROBIC → the converted to other such as
pyruvate are
byproducts
RESP ethanol +
coz / lactic acid -

AEROBIC → the
pyruvate is used for more ATP production
RESP
41st : the link reaction :

C) Each is absorbed from the cell cytopl

pyruvate
.

into the mitochondrial matrix , which each

requires one ATP .

(2) There oxidation

, of the
pyruvate /reduction of
NaD) occurs
(3) Each pyruvate undergoes desczrboxylation to

form coz + acetyl .

(4)Acetyl then binds to

coenzyme
A to form
A
acetyl coenzyme
42nd
.

: Krebs cycle
4) Acetyl CoA combines with a 4C molecule
to form a 6C mole .

(2) 6C molec decarboxylation 31

undergoes
oxidation to
form coz two Ht 13 a 5C
,
+
molecule .
NAD
picks up the two H 31 is
reduced to NADH .

(3) Sc molecule
Undergoes decarboxylation 13
form coz two
+
oxidation to 31 a 4C
H ,

molecule . NAD picks up the Ht 31 is

reduced to NADH .

ATD formed here .

(4) 4C mdec is oxidized to form 2 Ht , Which

FAD picks up 2nd is reduced to FADHZ
(5) 4C mole c is oxidized to form 2 H+ , which
NAD picks up 2nd is reduced to NADA
d3rd
.

: Electron transport chain

(1) NADH 31
•
FADH are oxidized B release e- to electron
carriers , which transport these electrons to a
proton pump
G)Proton pumps use the electrons
'
to
energy pomp
protons ( ions) from the matrix into
Hydrogen
the intermembrane space to build a conc
grad ,

called chemi osmosis)

(3) Electrons pass along a series of carriers ,via several

proton pumps .

(4) oxygen is the termini electron acceptors eventually

absorbs the low
energy electrons to form water .

(5) Protons travel down the conc

gradient into the matrix
MAP
.

via ATP synthase , which phosphorylates ADP into ATP

termed oxidative
'

phosphoryl 2h on .
 the mitochondria to
Adaptation of carry out cell respiration

C) outer mitochondrial membrane →

Separates mitochondria from
the rest of the cell
(2) Inner mitochondrial membrane → contains electron transport
chain 31 ATP
synthase ,
which
out chemi osmosis 31
carry
oxidative phosphorylation .

(3) cristae →
finger -
like
projections of the inner mitochondrial
membrane that increases the
surface area
for
Chemiosmosis 13 oxidative phosphorylation
(4) Intermembrane → the electron transport chain pumps protons
space into this small space to quickly build
Up a
a
high concentration $ gradient
(5) Matrix → mitochondrial cytoplasm containing enzymes for
the link reaction 2nd Krebs
cycle .

(6) 70s ribosome → in the matrix with naked DNA

present

÷sae
-
outer mitochondrial
membrane

Intermembrane
-
space

/ i
÷ .
-70s ribosomes

inner mitochond
membrane
.

/ matrix

8.3 Photosynthesis
d process in which light energy is converted to chemical in
energy
chloroplasts
d consists
of light
:
dependent + light independent -
-

reactions to produce from : glucose

light , coz 31 wzter .

•
light dependent
-
reactions can
only during the daytime when
occur

avzitble
sunlight is . →
light is absorbed by chlorophyll
within the reaction center
of photosystem
2nd used to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP .

4) Chlorophyll reaction centers of photosystems

energy from light

absorb 31 their electrons become
excited
through photoactivation
(2) Photo # is photoactivated 1st B donates 4
systems
e- to an electron carrier , becoming oxidized .
To

replace the cost e- , water is then

split into oxygen ,

protons 31 electrons in the thylakoid space via

photolysis UH>0 →
Oz +41-1++4 e- )
 (3) This electrons carrier then donates its
energized electrons to proton
pumps on the electron transport chain energy from the
→ which use

electrons to
pump protons from the stroma
into the
thylakoid
space and help build a proton concentration gradient fonemi osmosis)
⇐7
Chlorophyll
reaction center of
PhotosystemI
is then activated 31 donates one electron ,

which is accepted by NADP , which is

reduced to NADPH .

ER $5BProtons in the thylakoid

the concentration
space travel down
into the stroma
gradient
via ATP
synthase to provide the
energy for
the phosphorylation of ADP into ATP
,

Phosphorylation .

CALVIN CYCLE

C) Ribulose biphosphate CRUBP ) → combines with coz carboxylavion) to

form two
glycerite -3 phosphate
-

molecules , catalyzed
by rubisco
d CARBON FIXATION
(2) Glycerate -3 -

phosphate →is reduced to form those phosphate

via the oxidation of NADPH into NADP .

the energy for this reaction is provided

by the dephosphorylation of ATP .

(3)those phosphate → used to form glucose phosphate once

every
ribulose biphosphate
six
5161h
cycles or
the
regenerate
of time the , energy for which is

supplied by the dephosphorylation of ATP .

(4) glucose phosphate → can beformed into starch in the stroma

by linking glucose phosphates together

via condensation reactions .

Adaptations of chloroplast
cry out to
Cavin
cycle + phosphorylation
(1)Chloroplasts envelope : composed
of the inner 31 outer
chloropl .

membranes, it seals the

stroma from the rest of
cell to concentrate ph .

memb '

in one area

ooterch.)r.org 't
"
starch
.

memb-
(2) stroma: contains the naked DNA 70s ribosomes ,

gr^aÑÉ →°ma
" ,

rubisco 31 enzymes for Calvin cycle .

(3) thylakoid memb : provides surface area for

large
2
the photosystems $ ETC
70s ribosomes (d) thylakoid space : small area to allow a
high
thylakoid proton concentration
space
(5) Gramm: 2 of thylakoids to Max
stack
light
absorption in photosynthesis
(6) starch granule : stores
carbohydrate products
 9. PLANT BIOLOGY
9. I Transport in the xylem of plants
d to
31
undergo photosynthesis
obtain
→
plant leaves must expel
oxygen
in coz gzs exchange .

d
consequence : loss of water -
☐ transpiration
Process
•
of Gas
exchange 13 transpiration :

C) Epidermal cells → secrete wax to form an

external
waterproof waxy cuticle to

prevent water loss but also block

gas
measured " ""
F
(2)
polo meter Photosynthesis occurs in
palisade mesophyll requiring coz ,

31
expelling Oz .

(3) Gas
exchange occurs in the
large humid airspaces
of the
spongy mesopnyll -

(4) Guard cells open stomztz to let oxygen in for gas

exchange and coz out
(5) water loss occurs because of gas exchange
Ctranspi ration) , 31 it evaporates from cell walls to
factors replace lost water 31 maintain humidity
affecting plants :

Temp : 2stemp increases the kinetic energy ,

energy of particles increases increasing ,

§e
water 3) thus
evaporation rate
of
the rate of transpiration .

temp

¥
atmos humidity: humidity increases ,
the conc .

gradient
of water between the leaf 31 the
outside decreases , the
decreasing
transpiration rate
At . mom .

Wind speed : As wind speeds increases, ✗ water

of leaf

#
is removed from the outside
,

increasing the concentration

gradients
of water $ so the rate
of transpiration .

After a
point
certain
,
stomata closes ,

stopping transpiration wind speed

Xerophytes adapted themselves

→ desert
plants that have to
•
a

environment to conserve water .

Ex : cacti and Mar ram

grass .

Halophytes →
plants that have adapted themselves to a saline
environment .
 Xylem → vessels in
plant that transport water to replace the losses

|
of transpiration
Part of the plant's
vasaeearbundle.hr
•

phloem 31 cambium
xylem ,

structure = end-to-end
empty cells , essentially making a
robe
of cell
walls .
+ contain an inner lining of cellulose + lignin
to the walls +
reinforce prevent inward collapse .

•
theories of how xylem move water

a) Adhesion : water adheres to rise up the

capillary tube
b) cohesion: water rises through cell wall capillaries due
to adhesion + cohesion .

c) Evaporation : causes tension to draw water from the

tobe into the
pot .

Exact water movement

(1) water diffuses through soil
(2) roots actively transport mineral ions into themselves to draw
water via osmosis die in
req oxygen this is
why prints
→ ,

waterlogged scenarios .

(3) Evaporation at the leaf causes tension in the

xylem thzt pulls
on water to create a flow celled the transpiration stream
(4) Cohesion due to H -

bonding allows transportation as a

single
column
(5) Adhesion of water to cellulose pulls it out of the xylem
into the
leaf .

* CAVITATION when a stream

→
of water is broken in a xylem .

Cannot be repaired + renders the whole xylemis unusable .

 9.2 Transport in the phloem of plants
Phloem transport organic compounds from sugar production sources

{to

tubes
sugar

of
storage
end-to-end
sinks

empty cells with strengthening Steve plates ,

to prevent inward collapse 31 plasmodesmata .

↳connects the phloem to other

cells .

•
Pressure -

flow hypothesis : ( transport

of organic comp) .

d)
hydrogen actively transported into the source to
ions are

build
up a gradient .

(2) co transporters→ transport sugar into the phloem using

-

the proton
gradient creating a ✗ ,

Sowle conc . in the phloem

(3) water comes into the phloem via osmosis 31 creates a

build-up of hydrostatic pressure at the source .

(4) ( sink) the phloem 31 creates

water is
leaving
→ a

hydrostatic pressure gradient that flows 211

Sowtes from source to sink .

(5) Scutes are

actively transported into the sink 31 Water
follows to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure ,
→
creating
a low -

pressure sink .

9.3 Growth in plants

Plant
growth is indeterminate
•

d '
they grow in
length (primary growth) 13 width Csec .

grow
d via : mitosis their diff
+ cell division
of on .

cells in their shoot 31 root 2pica meristems .

•
leaves initiate as small bumps ceeaf primordial → then mzwre into mature leaves

•
Shoots respond to the environment via tropisms .
→ (most common: phototropism
d
direction21
growth as a

response to eight .

shoots show photowopi

meaning they grow
towards
light .
 9.4 Reproduction in plants

1st flower
→
they need to
binvoices a
change in
gene expression in the shoot
apex dependent on the length of the day .

t
•
PHYTOCHROME → hormone responsible for triggering this
change in
expression
gene .

Activated to Pfr during the day

]constant flux between
•
.

their concentrations
•
Inactivated to Pr at night
long
-

day plants → a specific concentration of Pfr needs

to be left at dawn to promote the

gene expression for flowering .

In short -

day plants →Ppr inhibits gene expression 13 thus needs

to be low enough concentration to stop

inhibiting flowering .

Reproductive structure
of flower 8
(1) stamen : male reproductive
organ anther fitment) +

(2) Anther : exhibits pollen grains for pollinators to pick up

(3) filament tobe ; transports pollen
:
to the anther
(4) Pollen : the male
gamete
(5) carpet ! femzle reproductive organ (stigma style + ovaries) +

(6) style : tube ; transports pollen to the ovaries

(7) stigma: attracts pollinators 31 receives pollen grains attached to
them
(8) Ovaries : contains ovules 31 houses the development of fertilized
ovules
(9) Ovule : female gamete
to) sepzl : leaves underneath the flower
 Reproduction :
(1)Pollinators are attracted to the
stigma but will rub off on the
anther to
gather pollen
(2) Pollination facilitate
= the
supplying of pollen plants to
to other

fertilization →
self pollination is possible
-

d
reduces genetic variation
③Pollinator deposits pollen on the stigma which travels through ,
the style to the ovaries
(4) Fertilization fusion of pollen 13 an ovule to form
=
zygote a

(5) the zygote develops into seeds whilst the ovary develops into
a
fruit
(6) Seed dispersal = release
into more
of seeds so
they can germinate 31
grow
plants
d
may be assisted by anim21s .

After seed dispersal

to
they germinate +
grow
①writer for rehydration
② oxygen for cell respiration
③ warmth for enzyme activity .

done EA reaches a certain level , the seed

sprouts .
Relies on the cotyledon nutrient
$ the
gradiae_
the
storage to
grow plumule

Shoot

GENETICS 13 EVOLUTION
+ root

10 .
embryos .

10.1 Meiosis
d important contributor to
generic variation .

a) crossing
•
over (prophase I)
b) random
•
orientation Cmetaphase I)

A)
crossing
to
over

the non -
sister chromatids of homologies chromosomes ,

random)
exchange DNA .
→ location : chiasma (
completely
d Results alleles
in new combinations
of being produced
DX variation
generic .

once
homologous chromosomes are crossed over
they line up at the
-
•

equator .
→ Each pair of homologous chromosomes czn line up -

facing either pole ,

give different of
divide into different alleles
L daughter cells to combo .

random orientation .