Semiconductor Physics PDF

Semiconductor Physics
Dr Niket Shastri
Physics Department
Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology ,Surat
Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET
In this Module
• Free electron theory of metals, Density of states and energy band
diagrams
• Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
• Dependence of Fermi level on carrier-concentration and temperature
(equilibrium carrier statistics)
• Carrier generation and recombination, Carrier transport: diffusion and
drift, p-n junction,
• Metal-semiconductor junction (Ohmic and Schottky)

Free Electron Theory
• The most important characteristic of a metal is its high electrical
conductivity.
• Around year 1900, shortly after J. J. Thompson’s discovery of the
electron, people became interested in understanding more about the
mechanism of metallic conduction.
• The first work by E. Riecke in 1898 was quickly superseded by that of
Drude in 1900.
• Drude proposed an exceedingly simple model that explained a well-
known empirical law, the Wiedemann–Franz law (1853).
• This law stated that at a given temperature the ratio of the thermal
conductivity to the electrical conductivity was the same for all metals.
• The classical free electron theory :
Drude and Lorentz proposed this theory in 1900. According to this theory, the
metals containing the free electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics.
• The quantum free electron theory:
Somerfield developed this theory in 1928. According to this theory the free
electrons obey quantum laws. According to this theory the free electrons are
moving in a constant potential.
• The zone theory :
Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the free electrons
move in a periodic field provided by the lattice.
Drude model
• The assumptions of the Drude model are:
A metal contains free electrons which form an electron gas.
1
The electrons have some average thermal energy 𝑚 𝑣𝑇2 . but they pursue
2
random motions through the metal so that < 𝑣𝑇 > = 0 even though 𝑣𝑇2 ≠ 0.
The valence electrons of atoms are free to move about the whole volume of
the metal, like the molecules of a perfect gas in a container.
 The free electrons move in random direction and collide with either positive
ions fixed to the lattice or the other free electrons. All the collisions are elastic
in nature i.e., there is no loss of energy.

Drude model
The energy & momentum of free electrons obeys the laws of the
1 2 3
classical kinetic theory of gases. i.e Thermal energy 𝑚 𝑣𝑇 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 2
The electron velocities in a metal obey classical Maxwell-Boltzman
distribution of velocities.
 When the electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are
accelerated in the direction opposite to the direction of applied
electric field.
 The mutual repulsion among the electrons is ignored, so that they
move in all the directions with all possible velocities.

• Drift velocity 𝑣𝐷 :
It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons of a
metal in a particular direction by the application of electric field.
• Relaxation time (Г𝑟)
It is defined as the time taken by the free electrons to reach its equilibrium
position from the disturbed position in the presence of electric field.
• Collision time(τ )
It is defined as the average time taken by the free electrons between two
successive collisions.
• Current density( J )
It is defined as the magnitude of current passing through unit area.

Electrical Conductivity
• In the presence of an electric field E the electrons acquire a drift
velocity 𝑣𝐷 .
• 𝑣𝐷 which is superimposed on the thermal motion.
• Drude assumed that the probability that an electron collides with an
1
ion during a time interval dt is simply proportional to , where Г is
Г
called the collision time.

• Newton's law gives F= ma
• F = q .E = -e.E
𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝐷
• a= =
𝑡 Г
𝑣𝐷
• 𝑚 = −𝑒 𝐸 (1)
Г
−𝑒 𝐸 Г
• 𝑣𝐷 = (2)
𝑚
𝑣𝐷 −𝑒 Г
• = (3)
𝐸 𝑚

−𝑒 Г
• The quantity ,
the drift velocity per unit electric field, is called,
𝑚
the drift mobility.
• The velocity of an electron including both thermal and drift
• components is
−𝑒 𝐸 Г
• 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑇 + ( )
𝑚

• Let the number of electrons with velocity 𝑣 crossing area A in time dt
is given by n 𝑣 A dt.
𝐼 n 𝑣 A dt
The current density is then j =
𝐴
=n𝑣e
This velocity is 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑇 + 𝑣𝐷
−𝑒 𝐸 Г
•< 𝑣𝑇 > =0 and <𝑣𝐷 > = −𝑒 𝐸 Г
𝑣𝐷 =(𝑚
) 𝑣𝐷 =0
𝑚
−𝑒 𝐸 Г −𝑒 𝐸 Г 𝑣𝐷 =0
• 𝑣 =0+ =
𝑚 𝑚

• j = -ne 𝑣.
−𝑒 𝐸 Г
• j = -ne( )
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 Г
•𝑗 = 𝐸
𝑚
•𝑗 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑛𝑒 2 Г
•𝜎 = Here 𝜎, the electrical conductivity,
𝑚
•𝝈 ∝ Г

• According to classical free electron theory , The electrons have some
1
average thermal energy 𝑚 𝑣 𝑇2
2
3 1
• So 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑇2
2 2
3𝐾𝐵 𝑇
• 𝑣𝑇 =
𝑚
• 𝑣𝑇 ∝ 𝑇

• Expression for Relaxation time (Г r)
When the metal is subjected to an external electric field, the electrons
move opposite to the applied field.
After removal of electric field the drift velocity decays exponentially as
−𝑡
𝑣𝐷 = 𝑣0 𝑒 Г𝑟
Where 𝑣0 is the initial velocity of an electron, when electric field is

removed and Г𝑟 is the relaxation time.
−1 𝑣0
if t = Г𝑟 then 𝑣𝐷 = 𝑣0 𝑒 or 𝑣𝐷 =
𝑒
Thus the relaxation time may be stated as the time taken for the drift
1
velocity to decay to of its original initial value.
𝑒

• Mean free path (λ) :
• The distance traveled by the electron between two successive
collisions is called as free path and their mean is called the mean free
path.
• The mean free path is the average distance traveled by an electron
between two successive collisions with other free electrons.
• 𝝀 = 𝒄′ . Г
• Where c’ is the mean square velocity of electron.
1
• 𝝀 = 𝑣𝑓 . Г where 𝑣𝑓 is Fermi velocity ( 𝑚 𝑣𝑓2 = 𝐸𝑓 )
2
• Expression for Mean collision time:-
• The average time taken by the electrons between two consecutive
collisions of electron with the lattice points is called mean collision
time.
• If ‘𝑣 ’ be the total velocity of electron i.e. thermal and drift velocity,
then the mean collision time is given by
𝝀
•Г= where 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑇 + 𝑣𝐷
𝑣
𝟏
•𝒗∝
Г

𝟏
• 𝑣𝑇 ∝ 𝑻 and 𝒗 ∝ and 𝝈 ∝ Г
Г
𝟏
• So 𝝈 ∝
𝑇

Thermal Conductivity :
• The thermal conductivity is the ratio of the thermal current (i.e., the
energy current) to the magnitude of the temperature gradient.
𝒅𝑻
• In the presence of a temperature gradient , the average thermal
𝑑𝑥
1
energy 𝑚 𝑣𝑇2 will depend on the local temperature T(x).
2
• The electrons sense the local temperature through collisions with the
lattice. Thus, the thermal energy of a given electron will depend on
where it made its last collision.

• If we choose an electron at random, the
mean time back to its last collision is Г .
• Therefore, an electron crossing the plane
x = x0 at an angle ϴ to the x-axis had its
last collision at x = x0 − 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ.
• (See Figure)

• The energy of such an electron is
E(x) = E (x0 − 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ.).
• The number of electrons per unit
volume whose direction of motion is
in the solid angle ꭥ is simply
𝒅ꭥ
• n . (See Figure.)
4П

𝒅ꭥ
• The number of such electrons crossing a unit area at x0 is n 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ
4П
• The energy flux through a unit area at x0 is..
𝒅ꭥ
• 𝑤(x0 )= ‫ ׬‬E (x0 − 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ) n 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ
4П
• We expand E (x0 − 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ) and perform the integral over ꭥ

• from 0 to П This gives
1 2 𝒅E
• 𝑤(x) = - 𝑛 𝑣𝑇 Г
3 𝑑x
𝒅E 𝒅E 𝒅T
• But =
𝑑x 𝑑T 𝑑x
• The thermal conductivity is the ratio of the thermal current (i.e., the
energy current) to the magnitude of the temperature gradient.
− 1
𝑛 𝑣𝑇2
E
𝒅
𝑤(x) Г
x ) = 1 𝑛 𝑣 2 Г 𝒅E
• K= T=(
3
T
𝑑
𝑇
𝒅 𝒅 3 𝑑T
− −
𝑑 x 𝑑x
1 𝒅E 3
• K= 𝑣𝑇2 Г 𝐶𝑣 where 𝐶𝑣 = n = 𝐾𝐵 n
3 𝑑T 2
• 𝐶𝑣 is the heat capacity per unit volume (or the specific heat).
• According to Wiedmaan –Franz Law.
• This law stated that at a given temperature the ratio of the thermal
conductivity to the electrical conductivity was the same for all metals.
1 2
𝐾 𝑣 Г 𝐶𝑣
3 𝑇
• = 𝑛𝑒2 Г
𝝈
𝑚
1 3
• According to Drude assumption 𝑚 𝑣𝑇2 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 2
𝒅E 3
• 𝐶𝑣 = n = 𝐾𝐵 n
𝑑T 2
𝐾 3 𝐾𝐵 2
• = ( ) 𝑇
𝝈 2 𝑒

Success of Classical free electron theory
( Drude model )
 Ohm’s law can be derived using this model
 Electrical and thermal conductivity can be explain.
 Widemann- Franz law can be derived.

Failure of Drude model
• It does not explain temperature dependence of the electrical
conductivity
𝟏
• 𝝈 𝑇ℎ ∝ and 𝝈𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ T
𝑇
• So it shows that theoretical result do not match with experimental
results.
𝒌
• According to Drude model is constant. But experimentally this fact
𝝈𝑇
fails at very low temperature

𝒅E 3
• Drude model describes that 𝐶𝑣 = n = 𝐾 n is constant
𝑑T 2 𝐵
• But experimentally it is observed that 𝐶𝑣 ∝ 𝑇.
• It could not explain the photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and black
body radiation.
• Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators could not be
explained.

Kroning and Penney Model
• According to Kroning and Penney the electrons move in a periodic
square well potential. This potential is produced by the positive ions
(ionized atoms) in the lattice.
• The potential is zero near to the nucleus of positive ions and
maximum between the adjacent nuclei. The variation of potential is
shown in figure.

• The corresponding Schrödinger wave equations for I region is
𝑑2 𝛹 8𝜋2 𝑚
• + 𝐸𝛹 = 0 (𝑉𝑥 = 0 )
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝑑2 𝛹
• + 𝛼2 𝛹 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
• Where 𝛼2 = 2
ℎ

• The corresponding Schrödinger wave equations for II region is
• + (𝐸 − 𝑉0 )𝛹 = 0 (𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉0 )
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
• − (𝑉0 − 𝐸)𝛹 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝑑2 𝛹
• − 𝛽2𝛹 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
8𝜋2 𝑚
• Where 𝛽 2 = (𝑉0 − 𝐸)
ℎ2
• The general solutions of the equations are of the form
• 𝛹1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝒊𝛼𝒙
• 𝛹2 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛽𝒙
• Solving the above equations by applying boundary conditions,
• we get

8𝜋2 𝑚𝑉0
• 𝑏. sin 𝛼𝑎 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos(𝑘𝑎)
2ℎ2 𝛼
𝑃
• sin 𝛼𝑎 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos(𝑘𝑎)
𝛼𝑎
•
8𝜋2 𝑚𝑉0 𝑎𝑏
•𝑃= = potential barrier strength
2ℎ2

𝑃
• The Plot of sin 𝛼𝑎 + cos 𝛼𝑎 and 𝛼𝑎 is shown in the figure
𝛼𝑎

• From the spectrum we observe that
• 1. The energy spectrum of the electron
consists of a large number of allowed
energy bands and forbidden energy bands
• 2. The width of the allowed energy bands
increases with increasing of 𝛼𝑎 i.e. with
increases energy.

• The individual valence electrons are no longer localized to their
original atomic positions.
• The single energy level splits into two energy levels one higher and
one lower energy than the original energy E.
• The transformation of single energy level into two or more separate
energy levels is known as Energy level splitting.

Introduction about Band Theory and definitions
• The origin of an energy gap is explained by considering the formation
of energy bands in solids.
• The concentration of atoms in a gaseous medium is very low
compared to the concentrations of atoms in a solid medium.
• As a result, the interaction between any two atoms in a gaseous
substance is very weak, since the interatomic distance is very large.
• In case of solid substance interatomic distance is very small, and
hence there is an interaction between any two successive atoms.
• Due to this interaction the energy levels of all atoms overlap with
each other and hence bands are formed.
• Band
• A set of closely packed energy levels is called as band
• Valence band
• A band which is occupied by the valence electrons is called as valence
band. The valence band may be partially or completely filled up
depending on the nature of the material.
• Conduction band
• The lowest unfilled energy band is called as conduction band. This
band may be empty of partially filled. In conduction band the
electrons can move freely.

• 1. Calculate the velocity due to thermal vibration of electron at 27 o
on the basis of classical electron theory . KB = 1.38 X10 -23 J/K
• me = 9.1 X10 -31 kg
• Ans : 1.16 X10 5 m/s
• 2. What will be Fermi velocity of electron in copper if Ef = 7.04 eV

and mass of the electron em = 9.11 X10-31 kg
• Ans : 1.57 X106 m/s
• In real crystal , the concentration of interacting atoms are given by
𝑁𝐴 𝜌
𝑁=
𝑀
𝑁𝐴 is Avogadro number , 𝜌 is the density and M is the atomic weight
Example :
For silicon 𝑁𝐴 =6.02 𝑋1026 atoms/K.mol , 𝜌 =2330 kg/𝑚3 and M= 28.09 kg/k .mol
N = 5 𝑋1028 atoms/ 𝑚3

• Band Gap in semiconductors
Ge : 0.7 eV
Si : 1.1 eV
GaAs : 1.43 eV

Carrier concentration
• To quantify electron concentration we count the number of electrons in
the conduction band per a unit volume, typically a 𝑐𝑚3
• This is shown by the symbol n. When the system is in equilibrium, it is
shown by 𝒏𝟎 .
• When an electron leaves the valence band to go to the conduction band, it
is essentially breaking free of its bond, leaving behind an empty state
available for another electron in the valence band energy levels.
• This empty state is called a ”hole” and effectively behaves like a positively
charged particle. The number of holes in the valence band per unit volume
is called ”hole concentration” and shown by the symbol p.
• In equilibrium, we use 𝒑𝟎 .

Intrinsic Semiconductor
• An intrinsic semiconductor is ideally a perfect crystal.
• When an electron in an intrinsic semiconductor gets enough energy, it
can go to the conduction band and leave behind a hole.
• This process is called ”Electron-hole pair (EHP) creation”.
• For the intrinsic material, since electrons and holes are always created
in pairs
• n = p = 𝑛𝑖 (5)
• where 𝑛𝑖 is the symbol for ”intrinsic carrier concentration.”

• At room temperature, relatively few electrons have enough thermal
energy to make this jump.
• In fact, approximately one electron per 6.9 𝑋1012 silicon atoms does.
so the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at room temperature is
approximately
𝟏
• 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 [ 𝟑 ] silicon, 300 K
𝒄𝒎

• A balancing process known as recombination occurs in semiconductor
in which an electron –hole pair disappear.
• The merging of free electron with a hole is called recombination.
• When recombination occurs, the free electron enters the ruptured
covalent bond and rebridges it.

Extrinsic semiconductors
• Extrinsic semiconductors are made by introducing different atoms,
called dopant atoms, into the crystal.
• We can get two types of extrinsic material
• n-type
• p-type

n-type semiconductor
• The dopant atoms added to the semiconductor crystal in this case are
donor atoms.
• For silicon, we can use phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb) as
donors. These are column V elements, with five electrons in their
outermost shell.
• When these atoms are included in the silicon crystal, one of the electrons
in this shell can easily jump to the conduction band, leaving a positively
charged atom behind.
• This process is sometimes called “activation” or “ionization” of the donor
atoms.
• The positively charged donor atom that is left behind after ionization
is immobile and does not contribute to conduction.
• The electron leaving the atom by ionization does, and is counted in
the electron concentration n.
• Because the activation energy is low, at room temperature almost all
of the donor atoms included in the crystal will give an electron to the
conduction band.
• So if 𝑁𝐷 is the donor concentration, for an n-type material at
equilibrium:
1
• 𝑛0 = 𝑁𝐷 [ 3 ]
𝑐𝑚

p-type semiconductor
• The dopant atoms in this case are acceptor atoms.
• For silicon, we can use boron (B), Aluminum (Al) and Gallium (Ga) as
acceptors.
• These are column III elements, with three electrons in their outermost
shell.
• When these atoms are included in the silicon crystal, one of the electrons
in the silicon valence band can easily jump to the valence shell of one of
the acceptor atoms, leaving a hole behind and making the acceptor atom
negatively charged.
• Figure shows where the valence shell energy level is for these atoms
relative to the silicon valence band.

• The negatively charged acceptor atom after an electron joins its
valence shell is immobile and does not contribute to conduction.
• The hole left behind by that electron does, and is counted in the hole
concentration p.
Because the activation energy is low, at room temperature almost all
of the acceptor atoms included in the crystal will accept an electron
from the valence band.
So if 𝑁𝐴 is the acceptor concentration, for a p-type material at
equilibrium
1
• 𝑝0 = 𝑁𝐴 [ 3 ]
𝑐𝑚
Law of Mass Action
• For both intrinsic and extrinsic materials, at equilibrium:
• The law of mass action is the proposition that at equilibrium the
concentration is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the
charge carrier .
• 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑛𝑖 2
• 𝑛0=
𝑝0
𝑛𝑖 2
• 𝑝0=
𝑛0

• The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons
in the conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band
is constant at a fixed temperature and is independent of amount of
donor and acceptor impurity added.
• Mathematically it is represented as
• np = ni2 = constant
• Where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration

n is number of electrons in conduction band
p is number of holes in valence band
• So for an n-type material with only donor atoms:
𝑛𝑖 2 𝑛𝑖 2
• 𝑛0= 𝑁𝐷 𝑝0= 𝑝0=
𝑛0 𝑁𝐷

• And for a p-type material with only acceptor atoms:
𝑛𝑖 2 𝑛𝑖 2
• 𝑝0= 𝑁𝐴 𝑛0= 𝑛0=
𝑝0 𝑁𝐴

• If we dope the intrinsic silicon with 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 atoms of As per unit
volume. For silicon 𝑛𝑖 = 1.45 X 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
• Find the concentration of holes ??? Find the concentration of
electrons ?
• 2.20 X𝟏𝟎𝟑 holes per unit volume

Semiconductor Physics PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Semiconductor Physics PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Semiconductor Physics

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Where 𝑣0 is the initial velocity of an electron, when electric field is

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

• We expand E (x0 − 𝑣𝑇 Г cos ϴ) and perform the integral over ꭥ

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

• Ans : 1.16 X10 5 m/s

• 2. What will be Fermi velocity of electron in copper if Ef = 7.04 eV

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

• where 𝑛𝑖 is the symbol for ”intrinsic carrier concentration.”

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

• Where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

Dr. Niket Shastri , SCET

You might also like