I.

WEEKS 1-3 MODULE: LEARNING CONTENT

DEFINITION OF TERMS

ANATOMY – Scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body.

PHYSIOLOGY - Scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things.

Interest in the human body and how it functions probably developed when our ancestors began
to think about the reasons why people became ill and died. All earlier cultures had someone
designated as a healer who was responsible for finding plants and herbs that cured body
disorders. This healer also was responsible for praying or invoking the assistance of past ancestors
to help in the healing process.

As cultures developed and science began to evolve, interest in and knowledge about the human
body advanced. Leonardo da Vinci, an Italian (1452–1519), was the first to correctly illustrate
the human skeleton with all its bones. The Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)
wrote a book on the human body, and the English anatomist William Harvey (1578–1657)
discovered how blood circulates through the body. These are just a few of the many contributors
who added to our understanding of the human body and how it functions.

Human anatomy and physiology is the study of the structure and function of the human body.
The human body consists of many intricate parts with coordinated functions that are maintained
by a complex system of checks and balances. The coordinated function of all the parts of the
human body allows us to detect stimuli, such as observing a sunset; respond to stimuli, such as
removing a hand from a hot object; perform mental functions, such as remembering and thinking,
among many other functions.

The study of human anatomy and physiology is important for those who plan a career in the
health sciences because a sound knowledge of structure and function is necessary for health
professionals to perform their duties.

Understanding anatomy and physiology also prepares us to evaluate recommended treatments,

critically review advertisements and reports in the popular literature, and rationally discuss the
human body with health professionals and nonprofessionals.

Knowledge of the structure and function of the human body allows us to understand how the
body responds to a stimulus. For example, eating a candy bar results in an increase in blood
sugar (the stimulus). Knowledge of the pancreas allows us to predict that the pancreas will secrete
insulin (the response). Insulin moves into blood vessels and is transported to cells, where it
increases the movement of sugar from the blood into the cells, providing them with a source of
energy. As glucose moves into cells, blood sugar levels decrease.
Knowledge of human anatomy and physiology also provides the basis for understanding disease.
In one type of diabetes mellitus, for example, the pancreas does not secrete adequate amounts
of insulin. Without adequate insulin, not enough sugar moves into cells, which deprives them of
a needed source of energy, and they therefore malfunction.

Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. The word
“anatomy” means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study. Anatomy
covers a wide range of studies, including the structure of body parts, their microscopic
organization, and the processes by which they develop. In addition, anatomy examines the
relationship between the structure of a body part and its function. Just as the structure of a
hammer makes it well suited for pounding nails, the structure of body parts allows them to
perform specific functions effectively. For example, bones can provide strength and support
because bone cells surround themselves with a hard, mineralized substance. Understanding the
relationship between structure and function makes it easier to understand and appreciate
anatomy.

• Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by systems and is the approach taken in this
and most other introductory textbooks. Examples of systems are the circulatory, nervous,
skeletal, and muscular systems.

• Regional anatomy is the study of the organization of the body by areas. Within each
region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously. It is
the approach taken in most medical and dental schools.

• Surface anatomy is the study of external features, such as bony projections, which serve
as landmarks for locating deeper structures (for examples of external landmarks).
Anatomical imaging involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures.

Both surface anatomy and anatomical imaging provide important information useful in diagnosing
disease.

Physiology is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things. It
is important in physiology to recognize structures as dynamic rather than static, or unchanging.

The major goals of physiology are:

(1) to understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli, and
(2) to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in the
presence of a continually changing environment.

Physiology is divided according to (1) the organisms involved or (2) the levels of organization
within a given organism. Human physiology is the study of a specific organism, the human,
whereas cellular and systemic physiology are examples of physiology that emphasize specific
organizational levels.

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

The body can be studied at seven structural levels: chemical, organelle, cell, tissue, organ,
organ system, and organism.

Chemical. The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by
their chemical makeup. The chemical level of organization involves interactions among
atoms and their combinations into molecules. The function of a molecule is related
intimately to its structure. For example, collagen molecules are strong, ropelike fibers that
give skin structural strength and flexibility. With old age, the structure of collagen changes,
and the skin becomes fragile and is torn more easily.

Organelle. An organelle is a small structure contained within a cell that performs one or
more specific functions. For example, the nucleus is an organelle containing the cell’s
hereditary information.

Cell. Cells are the basic living units of all plants and animals. Although cell types differ in
structure and function, they have many characteristics in common. Knowledge of these
characteristics and their variations is essential to a basic understanding of anatomy and
physiology.

Tissue. A group of cells with similar structure and function plus the extracellular
substances located between them is a tissue. The many tissues that make up the body
are classified into four primary tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
 Organ. Organs are composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or
more common functions. The skin, stomach, eye, and heart are examples of organs.

Organ System. An organ system is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a

common function or set of functions. In this text the body is considered to have 11 major
organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular,
lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.The coordinated activity of
the organ systems is necessary for normal function. For example, the digestive system
takes in and processes food, which is carried by the blood of the cardiovascular system to
the cells of the other systems. These cells use the food and produce waste products that
are carried by the blood to the kidneys of the urinary system, which functions to remove
waste products from the blood. Because the organ systems are so interrelated,
dysfunction of one organ system can have profound effects on other systems. For
example, a heart attack can result in inadequate circulation of blood. Consequently, the
organs of other systems, such as the brain and kidneys, can malfunction.

Organism. An organism is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of

one cell, such as a bacterium, or trillions of cells, such as a human. The human organism
is a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent on one another.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

Humans are organisms and have many characteristics in common with other organisms. The most
important common feature of all organisms is life. Essential characteristics of life are organization,
metabolism, responsiveness, growth, differentiation, and reproduction.
 1. Organization is the condition in which the parts of an organism have specific
relationships to each other, and the parts interact to perform specific functions. Living
things are highly organized. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cells,
in turn, are composed of highly specialized organelles, which depend on the precise
functions of large molecules. Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of
functions and death.

2. Metabolism is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement, and reproduction. Plants can capture energy from sunlight, and humans
obtain energy from food.

3. Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and

make the adjustments that help maintain its life. Responses include movement toward
food or water and away from danger or poor environmental conditions. Organisms
can also make adjustments that maintain their internal environment. For example, if
body temperature increases in a hot environment, sweat glands produce sweat, which
can lower body temperature back toward normal levels.

4. Growth results in an increase in size of all or part of the organism. It can result from
an increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells.
For example, bones become larger as the number of bone cells increases and they
surround themselves with bone matrix.

5. Differentiation consists of changes in cell structure and function from generalized to

specialized. For example, following fertilization, generalized cells specialize to become
specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differential cells
form the tissues and organs.

6. Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Without reproduction of

cells, growth and tissue repair are impossible. Without reproduction of the organism,
the species becomes extinct.

HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the
body. Each cell of the body is surrounded by a small amount of fluid, and the normal functions
of each cell depend on the maintenance of its fluid environment within a narrow range of
conditions, including temperature, volume, and chemical content. These conditions are called
variables because their values can change. For example, body temperature is a variable that can
increase in a hot environment or decrease in a cold environment.
Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating or shivering, normally maintain body temperature
near an ideal normal value, or set point. Note that these mechanisms are not able to maintain
body temperature precisely at the set point. Instead, body temperature increases and decreases
slightly around the set point, producing a normal range of values. If body temperatures remain
within this normal range, homeostasis is maintained.

The organ systems help control the internal environment so that it remains relatively constant.
For example, the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and urinary systems function together so that
each cell in the body receives adequate oxygen and nutrients and so that waste products do not
accumulate to a toxic level. If the fluid surrounding cells deviates from homeostasis, the cells do
not function normally and may even die. Disruption of homeostasis results in disease and
sometimes death.

Negative Feedback

Most systems of the body are regulated by negative-feedback mechanisms, which function to
maintain homeostasis. “Negative” means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller
or is resisted. Negative feedback does not prevent variation but maintains variation within a
normal range.

The maintenance of normal blood pressure is an example of a negative-feedback mechanism.

Normal blood pressure is important because it is responsible for moving blood from the heart to
tissues. The blood supplies the tissues with oxygen and nutrients and removes waste products.
Thus, normal blood pressure is required to ensure that tissue homeostasis is maintained.

Many negative-feedback mechanisms, such as the one maintaining normal blood pressure, have
three components:
(1) a receptor monitors the value of a variable such as blood pressure;
(2) a control center, such as part of the brain, establishes the set point around which the
variable is maintained; and
(3) an effector such as the heart, can change the value of the variable.
Blood pressure depends in part on contraction (beating) of the heart: as heart rate increases,
blood pressure increases, and as heart rate decreases, blood pressure decreases. The receptors
that monitor blood pressure are located within large blood vessels near the heart. If blood
pressure increases slightly, the receptors detect the increased blood pressure and send that
information to the control center in the brain. The control center causes heart rate to decrease,
resulting in a decrease in blood pressure. If blood pressure decreases slightly, the receptors
inform the control center, which increases heart rate, producing an increase in blood pressure.
As a result, blood pressure is maintained with a normal range

Positive Feedback

Positive-feedback mechanisms are not homeostatic and are rare in healthy individuals. “Positive”
implies that when a deviation from a normal value occurs, the response of the system is to make
the deviation even greater. Positive feedback therefore usually creates a cycle leading away from
homeostasis and in some cases results in death.

Inadequate delivery of blood to cardiac (heart) muscle is an example of positive feedback.

Contraction of cardiac muscle generates blood pressure and moves blood through blood vessels
to tissues. A system of blood vessels on the outside of the heart provides cardiac muscle with a
blood supply sufficient to allow normal contractions to occur. In effect, the heart pumps blood to
itself. Just as with other tissues, blood pressure must be maintained to ensure adequate delivery
of blood to cardiac muscle. Following extreme blood loss, blood pressure decreases to the point
at which the delivery of blood to cardiac muscle is inadequate. As a result, cardiac muscle
homeostasis is disrupted, and cardiac muscle does not function normally. The heart pumps less
blood, which causes the blood pressure to drop even further. The additional decrease in blood
pressure causes less blood delivery to cardiac muscle, and the heart pumps even less blood,
which again decreases the blood pressure. The process continues until the blood pressure is too
low to sustain the cardiac muscle, the heart stops beating, and death results.

Following a moderate amount of blood loss (e.g., after donating a pint of blood), negative-
feedback mechanisms result in an increase in heart rate that restores blood pressure. If blood
loss is severe, however, negative-feedback mechanisms may not be able to maintain homeostasis,
and the positive-feedback effect of an ever-decreasing blood pressure can develop.

Circumstances in which negative-feedback mechanisms are not adequate to maintain

homeostasis illustrate a basic principle. Many disease states result from failure of negative-
feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. The purpose of medical therapy is to overcome
illness by aiding negative-feedback mechanisms. For example, a trans-fusion reverses a
constantly decreasing blood pressure and restores homeostasis. A few positive-feedback
mechanisms do operate in the body under normal conditions, but in all cases, they are eventually
limited in some way. Birth is an example of a normally occurring positive-feedback mechanism.
Near the end of pregnancy, the uterus is stretched by the baby’s large size.

This stretching, especially around the opening of the uterus, stimulates contractions of the uterine
muscles. The uterine contractions push the baby against the opening of the uterus, stretching it
further. This stimulates additional contractions that result in additional stretching. This positive-
feedback sequence ends only when the baby is delivered from the uterus and the stretching
stimulus is eliminated.
II. WEEKS 1-3 MODULE: LEARNING CONTENT FINAL MODULE

The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The simplest organisms consist of a single cell,
whereas humans are composed of trillions of cells. If each of these cells was about the size of a
standard brick, we could build a colossal structure in the shape of a human over 51⁄2 miles (10
km) high! Obviously, there are many differences between a cell and a brick. Cells are much
smaller than bricks: An average-sized cell is one fifth the size of the smallest dot you can make
on a sheet of paper with a sharp pencil! Despite their extremely small size, cells are complex
living structures. Cells of the human body have many characteristics in common. However, most
cells are also specialized to perform specific functions. The human body is made up of populations
of these specialized cells. Communication and coordination between these populations are critical
for a complex organism, such as a human, to survive

The main functions of the cell include

1. Basic unit of life. The cell is the smallest part to which an organism can be reduced that still
retains the
characteristics of life.
2. Protection and support. Cells produce and secrete various molecules that provide protection
and support of the body. For example, bone cells are surrounded by a mineralized material,
making bone a hard tissue that protects the brain and other organs and that supports the
weight of the body.
3. Movement. All the movements of the body occur because of molecules located within specific
cells such
as muscle cells.
4. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate
with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one another and with muscle
cells, causing them to contract.
5. Cell metabolism and energy release. The chemical reactions that occur within cells are
referred to collectively as cell metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell
activities, such as the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production,
which helps maintain body temperature.
6. Inheritance. Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual. Specialized
cells are responsible for transmitting that genetic information to the next generation.

Cell Structure

Each cell is a highly organized unit. Within cells, specialized structures called organelles (little
organs) perform specific functions (figure 3.1 and table 3.1). The nucleus is an organelle
containing the cell’s genetic material. The living material surrounding the nucleus is called
cytoplasm, which contains many other types of organelles. The cytoplasm is enclosed by the cell,
or plasma, membrane. The number and type of organelles within each cell determine the cell’s
specific structure and functions. For example, cells secreting large amounts of protein contain
well developed organelles that synthesize and secrete protein, whereas muscle cells have
organelles that enable the cells to contract. The following sections describe the structure and
main functions of the major organelles found in cells.

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outermost component of a cell. The cell
membrane encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between material inside the cell and
material outside it. Substances outside the cell are called extracellular substances, and substances
inside the cell are called intracellular substances. The cell membrane encloses the cell, supports
the cell contents, is a selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of the cell, and
plays a role in communication between cells. The major molecules that make up the cell
membrane are phospholipids and proteins. In addition, the membrane contains other molecules,
such as cholesterol, carbohydrates, water, and ions. The phospholipids form a double layer of
molecules. The polar, phosphate-containing ends of the phospholipids are hydrophilic (water
loving) and therefore face the water inside and outside the cell. The nonpolar, fatty acid ends of
the phospholipids are hydrophobic (water fearing) and therefore face away from the water on
either side of the membrane, toward the center of the double layer of phospholipids. The double
layer of phospholipids forms a lipid barrier between the inside and outside of the cell. Studies of
the arrangement of molecules in the cell membrane have given rise to a model of its structure
called the fluid mosaic model. The double layer of phospholipid molecules has a liquid quality.
Cholesterol within the membrane gives it added strength and flexibility. Protein molecules “float”
among the phospholipid molecules and, in some cases, may extend from the inner to the outer
surface of the cell membrane. Carbohydrates may be bound to some protein molecules, modifying
their functions. The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor
molecules, enzymes, or structural supports in the membrane. Membrane channels and carrier
molecules are involved with the movement of substances through the cell membrane. Receptor
molecules are part of an intercellular communication system that enables coordination of the
activities of cells. For example, a nerve cell can release a chemical messenger that moves to a
muscle cell and temporarily binds to its receptor. The binding acts as a signal that triggers a
response such as contraction of the muscle cell.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell (see figure 3.1). All
cells of the body have a nucleus at some point in their life cycle, although some cells, such as
red blood cells, lose their nuclei as they mature. Other cells, such as osteoclasts (a type of bone
cell) and skeletal muscle cells, contain more than one nucleus. The nucleus is bounded by a
nuclear envelope, which
consists of outer and inner membranes with a narrow space between them (figure 3.3). At
many points on the surface of the nucleus, the inner and outer membranes come together to
form nuclear pores, through which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus. The nucleus
contains loosely coiled fibers called chromatin consisting of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
proteins. During cell division, the chromatin
fibers become more tightly coiled to form the 23 pairs of chromosomes characteristic of human
cells. The genes that influence the structural and functional features of every individual are
made up of DNA molecules. The DNA molecules store information that allows the genes to
determine the structure of
proteins.

Nucleoli and Ribosomes

Nucleoli number from one to four per nucleus. They are rounded, dense, well-defined nuclear
bodies with no surrounding membrane (see figure 3.3). The subunits of ribosomes are formed
within a nucleolus. Proteins produced in the cytoplasm move through the nuclear pores into the
nucleus and to the nucleolus. These proteins are joined to ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA),
produced within the nucleolus, to form large and small ribosomal subunits. The ribosomal
subunits then move from the nucleus through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm, where one
large and one small subunit join to form a ribosome.

Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced. Free ribosomes are not attached to
any other organelles in the cytoplasm, whereas other ribosomes are attached to a membrane
called the endoplasmic reticulum.

Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes that extends from the outer nuclear
membrane into the cytoplasm. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached to it. A large amount of
rough ER in a cell indicates that it is synthesizing large amounts of protein for export from the
cell. On the other hand, ER without ribosomes is called smooth ER. Smooth ER is a site for lipid
synthesis in cells. Smooth ER also participates in detoxification of chemicals within the cell. In
skeletal muscle cells, the smooth
ER stores calcium ions.

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus (named for Camillo Golgi [1843–1926], an Italian histologist) consists of
closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs. It collects, modifies, packages, and
distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER. For example, proteins produced at the
ribosomes enter the Golgi apparatus from the ER. In some cases, the Golgi apparatus chemically
modifies the proteins by attaching carbohydrate or lipid molecules to them. The proteins then are
packaged into membrane sacs that pinch off from the margins of the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi
apparatus is present in larger numbers and is most highly developed in cells that secrete protein,
such as the cells of the salivary glands or the pancreas.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus. They contain a
variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems. Particulate material taken into
a cell is contained within vesicles that fuse with lysosomes. The enzymes within the lysosomes
break down the ingested materials. For example, white blood cells take up bacteria, which the
enzymes within lysosomes destroy. Also, when tissues are damaged, ruptured lysosomes within
the damaged cells release their enzymes and digest both healthy and damaged cells. The released
enzymes are responsible for part of the resulting inflammation
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty
acids and amino acids. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can be toxic to the cell, is a by-product
of that breakdown. Peroxisomes also contain an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen. Cells that are active in detoxification, such as liver and kidney cells, have many
peroxisomes.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are small bean-shaped or rod-shaped organelles with inner and outer membranes
separated by a space. The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes
have numerous infoldings called cristae, which project like shelves into the interior of the
mitochondria. Mitochondria are the major sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production within
cells. ATP is the major energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell, and cells with a
large energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less energy.
Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration in which oxygen is required to allow the reactions that
produce ATP to proceed. Cells that carry out extensive active transport, which is described on p.
54, contain many mitochondria, and, when muscles enlarge as a result of exercise, the
mitochondria increase in number within the muscle cells and provide the additional ATP required
for muscle contraction. Increases in the number of mitochondria result from the division of
preexisting mitochondria. The information for making some mitochondrial proteins and for
mitochondrial division is contained in a unique type of DNA within the mitochondria. This DNA is
more like bacterial DNA than that of the cell’s nucleus.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable
the cell
to change shape. The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits that perform a variety of roles,
such as helping to provide support to the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in the process of cell
division, and forming essential components of certain organelles such as cilia and flagella.
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm. Some microfilaments are involved with cell movements. For example, microfilaments
in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten or contract.
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments. They provide mechanical support to the
cell.

Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

Cilia project from the surface of cells, can move, and vary in number from none to thousands per
cell. Cilia have a cylindrical shape, contain specialized microtubules, and are enclosed by the cell
membrane.

Cilia are numerous on surface cells that line the respiratory tract. Their coordinated movement
moves mucus, in which dust particles are embedded, upward and away from the lungs. This
action helps keep the lungs clear of debris. Flagella have a structure like that of cilia but are much
longer, and usually occur only one per cell. Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which functions
to propel the sperm cell. Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments, but they do not actively move like cilia and flagella. Microvilli are
numerous on cells that have them and function to increase the surface area of those cells. They
are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function.

Whole-Cell Activity
To understand how a cell functions, the interactions between the organelles must be considered.
For example, the transport of many food molecules into the cell requires ATP and cell membrane
proteins. Most ATP is produced by mitochondria. The production of cell membrane proteins
requires amino acids that are transported into the cell across the cell membrane by transport
proteins. Information contained in DNA within the nucleus determines which amino acids are
combined at ribosomes to form proteins. The mutual interdependence of cellular organelles is
coordinated to maintain homeostasis within the cell and the entire body. The following sections,
Movement Through the Cell Membrane, Cell Metabolism, Protein Synthesis, and Cell Division,
illustrate the interactions of organelles that result in a functioning cell.

Movement Through the Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some substances, but not others, to pass
into or out of the cell. Intracellular material has a different composition from extracellular material,
and the survival of cells depends on maintaining the difference. Substances such as enzymes,
glycogen, and potassium ions are found at higher concentrations intracellularly; and sodium,
calcium, and chloride ions are found in greater concentrations extracellularly. In addition,
nutrients must enter cells continually, and waste products must exit. Because of the permeability
characteristics of the cell membrane and its ability to transport certain molecules, cells are able
to maintain proper intracellular concentrations of molecules. Rupture of the membrane, alteration
of its permeability characteristics, or inhibition of transport processes can disrupt the normal
intracellular concentration of molecules and lead to cell death.
Summary:

Cell Structure and Function

• Cells are highly organized units composed of living material.
• The nucleus contains genetic material, and cytoplasm is living material outside the nucleus.

Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. It determines what enters and
leaves the cell.
• The cell membrane is composed of a double layer of lipid molecules in which proteins float.
The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes,
and structural components of the membrane.

Nucleus
• The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes with nuclear pores.
• DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus as chromatin. DNA is the hereditary
material of the cell and
controls the activities of the cell.

Nucleoli and Ribosomes

• Nucleoli consist of RNA and proteins and are the sites of ribosomal subunit assembly.
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.
• Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and is a major site of lipid synthesis.

The Golgi Apparatus

• The Golgi apparatus is a series of closely packed membrane sacs that function to collect,
modify, package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.

Secretory Vesicles
• Secretory vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that carry substances from the Golgi apparatus
to the cell membrane, where the vesicle contents are released.

Lysosomes
• Membrane-bound sacs containing enzymes are called lysosomes. Within the cell the
lysosomes break down phagocytized material.