Biology Student’s Companion Resources SB025

CHAPTER 2: ECOLOGY
SUBTOPIC
LEARNING OUTCOMES
: 2.1 Ecosystem Concept
: a. Define ecosystem.
b. Describe lake ecosystem based on:
i. light penetration (photic and aphotic)
ii. distance from shore and water depth (littoral, limnetic)
c. Describe terrestrial ecosystem of tropical rainforest stratification
(emergent, canopy, understory, ground/forest floor).

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Ecosystem:

A basic functional unit of nature including both organisms and

their non-living environment.

Each interacting and influencing each other and necessary for

maintenance and development of the system.
(Odum, 1969)

a. Define
ecosystem

b. Describe lake Zonation of lake ecosystem is based on:

ecosystem based
on: 1. Light penetration.
a. Photic
• The upper part of lake or marine environment.
i. light • Light is sufficient for photosynthesis.
penetration • Biotic components: almost all are the primary producer (high
(photic and productivity occurs).
aphotic)
b. Aphotic/ Profundal
• The deep part of open water.
• A region that does not received light.
• No photosynthesis.
• Biotic components: some fishes, decomposers, detritivores

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Compensation point:
A point in between of photic and aphotic zone where the rate of
photosynthesis equal to the rate of respiration.

2. Distance from shore and depth of water:

a. Littoral
 Area nearby shore that receives sunlight.
 Extending down to the depth of water where rooted plants stop
growing.
ii. distance from  Most photosynthesis occurs in this part of the lake.
shore and water
 Diversity greatest here.
depth (littoral,
limnetic)
Animals Plants
 Suspension feeders (clams)  Emergent plants
 Herbivorous grazers  Floating plants
(snails)  Submerged plant
 Herbivorous and
carnivorous insects
 Crustaceans
 Fishes
 Amphibians
 Some reptiles
 Mammals

b. Limnetic
• Open surface waters of a lake, farther from the shore.
• It is above the aphotic/profundal zone.
• The main photosynthetically zone of the lake.
• This zone produces the oxygen and food that support the lake's
consumers
• The densest zone that occupied by a variety of phytoplankton,
consisting of algae and cyanobacteria, as well as zooplankton,
small crustaceans, and fish.

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Terrestrial ecosystems are land-based communities of organisms

interacting with biotic and abiotic elements in a given environment or
area (McNaughton, 2021).

 More complex than aquatic ecosystem.

 Extremely high biodiversity compared to other ecosystems
 Competition for light is intense.
 Consists of several stratifies:

• Emergent
- Trees that project 50m – 60m above the general level of the
canopy.

• Canopy
- Contains many kinds of epiphytic plants.
c. Describe
- Forms a continuous evergreen carpet
terrestrial
- Plants are about 25 – 35 m tall.
ecosystem of
tropical rainforest
• Understory
stratification.
- Many understory species are vines that attach themselves to the
tall tree as they grow towards the sun.
- Dark and humid area contains saplings (young trees) between
the trunks of larger trees.
- About 15 – 24 m high.

• Shrub
- Contains small trees and shrubs.

• Ground layer / forest floor

- Composed of tall herbs and ferns with a deep litter of fallen
leaves and branches.

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SUBTOPIC : 2.2 Energy Flow through ecosystem

LEARNING OUTCOMES : a. Explain the energy transfer in ecological pyramids in
relation to trophic level.
b. Calculate energy loss in each trophic level.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
1. Trophic level
The position that an organism occupies in a food chain.

a. Explain the
energy transfer in
ecological 2. Ecological pyramid
pyramids in A diagram representation of the relative energy value at each
relation to trophic trophic level / the flow of energy through the food chain
level.
3. Types of ecological pyramids:
a. Pyramid of numbers
- Based on counting numbers of organisms at each trophic
level.

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to count Ignores size of organism

Numbers can be too great to represent

No organisms accurately
killed Numbers will change as the organism are
born or being killed

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
b. Pyramid of biomass
- Which note weight (usually dry weight) of organisms at
each trophic level.

Advantages Disadvantages
Impossible to catch/weight all
Shape always gets narrower organisms
nearer the top
Organisms need to be killed
in order to measure its dry
mass.

c. Pyramid of energy
- Which monitor energy content of organisms at each
trophic level.

Advantages Disadvantages
Shows efficiency of energy Very difficult and complex to
transfer from one trophic collect energy data
level to another

b. Calculate energy Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to
loss in each trophic another. The rest is lost as heat in:
level.  Respiration
 Excretion
 Photosynthesis
 Movements
 Growth

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SUBTOPIC : 2.3 Biogeochemical Cycles

LEARNING OUTCOMES : a. Describe biogeochemical cycle components (cycling
pool and reservoir pool) in carbon and nitrogen cycles.
b. Illustrate phosphorus cycle.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
1. Biogeochemical Cycles
 A pathway by which a chemical substance moves through biotic
and abiotic compartments of Earth.
 Each cycle summaries the movement of chemical elements
through the living components of ecosystem
2. Components of biogeochemical cycles:

a. Describe Reservoir Pool (sinks) Cycling/Exchange Pool

biogeochemical Portion of the earth that acts as Portion of the environment from
cycle a storehouse for the element. which the plants & animals take
components the abiotic component from
(cycling pool reservoir.
and reservoir
pool) in carbon
and nitrogen
cycles

A. Carbon Cycle

1. Reservoir Pool:
 Atmosphere: As gas CO2
 Ocean: Major reservoir pool for stored carbon. CO2
dissolves in the form of carbonate ion (CO32-) and
bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

2. All of these reservoirs of carbon are interconnected by

pathways of exchange in the carbon cycle.

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3. Carbon is available in organisms because the element in

proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and other
molecules essential to life contains carbon.

4. Carbon in atmosphere
 Carbon in terrestrial plants fix CO2 directly from the
atmosphere for photosynthesis.
 The sugar formed are then assimilated into complex
carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids.
 The carbon in this form passes from producers to
consumers in the form of food and finally to decomposers.
 When the plants and animals died, saprophytic organisms
will be decomposing the organisms and make it available
again to living organisms.
 CO2 is returned to the atmosphere through respiration of
all living organisms.
 Combustion also return CO2 to the atmosphere.

5. Carbon in ocean water

 Carbon dioxide from the air combines with water by
diffusion to produce bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).
 Similarly, when aquatic organisms respire, the CO2 they
give off becomes HCO3-.

6. Carbon in biosphere
 Bicarbonate ions near the surface of the ocean may be
taken up by photosynthetic algae and bacteria that live near
the surface.
 Autotrophic organisms use bicarbonate ions or other forms
of carbon to synthesize organic compounds.

7. Carbon in rock and sediments

 Erosion of limestone dissolves CO2 to the water and
atmosphere.
 Volcano eruption returns some of the stored carbon in the
mantle to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.

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B. Nitrogen Cycle

Reservoir pool: Atmosphere

1. Nitrogen is an essential part of proteins, nucleic acids and

chlorophyll.
2. Nitrogen is very stable and does not readily combine with other
elements.
3. Must be broken up by chemical reactions.
4. Involves 5 process:
a. Nitrogen fixation
N2 enters ecosystems through 3 pathways:
- Atmospheric N2 fixation
• Usable N2 is added to the soil by combustion,
volcanic action, lightning discharges

- Biological N2 fixation
• Certain prokaryotes convert N2 to minerals that can
be used to synthesize nitrogenous organic
compounds
• Mutualistic blue-green bacteria: Rhizobium
• Free-living blue-green bacteria: Azotobacter,
Clostridium
• Involves conversion of N2 from the atmosphere into
ammonia (NH3)
N2 NH3

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- Industrial N2 fixation
• Haber process.
• Atmospheric fixation and industrial fixation fix N2
into nitrate (NO3-).

b. Nitrification
• Conversion of ammonia(NH3) or ammonium(NH4+) to
nitrites(NO2-) and nitrates(NO3-).
• Ammonium(NH4+) formed when water reacts with
ammonia.
• Involve the role of nitrifying bacteria:
- Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter

c. Assimilation
• Absorption of ammonia, ammonium or nitrate by roots.
• Incorporate the N2 into proteins, nucleic acids and
chlorophyll.
• When animals consume plant tissues, assimilate N2 by
taking in plant N2 compound and converting them into
animal N2 compound.

d. Ammonification
• Conversion of organic N2 compound into ammonia(NH3)
or ammonium(NH4+)
• Begins when excretion (urea) and nitrogen compound in
dead organisms are decomposed
• Releasing the N2 into the abiotic environment as
ammonia(NH3) or ammonium(NH4+)
• Done by ammonifying bacteria

e. Denitrification
• The reduction of nitrates(NO3-) to gaseous N2.
• Denitrifying bacteria reverse the action of nitrogen-fixing
and nitrifying bacteria.
• Return N2 to the atmosphere.

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Nitrogen Cycle

b. Illustrate
phosphorus
cycle.

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SUBTOPIC : 2.4 Conservation and Management

LEARNING OUTCOMES : a. Describe sustainable development.
b. Explain threats to biodiversity in Malaysia.
c. Illustrate conservation of diversity in Malaysia.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.

1. Sustainable Agriculture
• Crop rotation
• Contour farming
• Strip farming
• Terracing
a. Describe
sustainable
2. Sustainable Forestry
development.
• Cutting limits
• Forest reserves
• Reforestation

3. Sustainable Fishery
• Leaves enough fish in the sea to breed and maintain future
stocks and ensures the environment they live in is kept
healthy

1. Habitat loss due to land development.

• Habitat loss or conversion and economic exploitation of
natural resources have been the primary cause of biological
diversity loss in Malaysia to date.

2. Deforestation.
• A direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity, due to
logging and other human practices.
• Destroying the ecosystems on which many species depend.
b. Explain
threats to
3. Poaching.
biodiversity in
• Poaching and other forms of hunting for profit increase the
Malaysia.
risk of extinction.

4. Overfishing.
• Fishing of juvenile fishes for the live reef fish trade increases
the impacts of high fishing effort as well as commercial
fishing which lacks a proper management plan.
• Destructive fishing – Fish bombing and cyanide fishing are
still carried out which affect coral reefs, mangroves and
coastal waters.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
5. Pollution.
• Now more likely to be industrial pollution rather than habitat
loss due to ongoing structural changes in the Malaysian
economy.
• Inevitably, the industrial sector is rapidly emerging as the
major threat to biological diversity in the country.
• Industrial wastes that are incorrectly or indiscriminately
disposed of will alter the abiotic condition of the ecosystem
and subsequently alter species composition in the area.
• Industrial pollution alters the ecosystem's chemical balance,
the biological diversity and its capacity to support biological
forms.

Sources:
http://www.chm.frim.gov.my/About-CHM/Useful-Links-to-Bio-
Diversity/Threats-to-Biological-Diversity.aspx

http://www.fishdept.sabah.gov.my/tagal.asp

Conservation of Diversity in Malaysia

c. Illustrate Ammonia Planned land use

conservation of
diversity in
Malaysia.

Nature reserves & National parks Botanical gardens & Zoo

(In-situ conservation) (Ex-situ conservation)

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SUBTOPIC : 2.5 Population Ecology

LEARNING OUTCOME
: a. Explain biotic potential and environmental resistance and their
effect on population growth.
b. Explain carrying capacity and its importance.
c. Describe natality and mortality and their effects on the rate of
population growth.
d. Explain population growth curves (state the basic forms of growth
curves):
i. Exponential growth curve (human)
ii. Logistic growth curve (Paramecium sp.)
e. Explain the limiting factors affecting the population size:
i. Density dependent factors
ii. Density independent factors

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Population Ecology
The study of population in relation to their environment, including
environmental influences on population density and distribution, age
structure and variations in population size.

Population Growth
The increase in the number of individuals in a population.
- A population will increase in number when the available
resources are greater than required at that particular time.

1. Biotic potential (r)

Maximum number of offspring an organism can produce under ideal
conditions.
a. Explain biotic
potential and - Biotic potential is the highest possible rate population increase
(rmax), resulting from maximum rate of reproduction &
environmental
minimum mortality
resistance and
their effect on - This is dependent on several factors:
population • The age beginning of reproduction
growth. • The frequency of reproduction to occur
• The number of offspring born at a time

- Ideal condition:
• plenty of space for each member
• unlimited resources
• no resistance

- Important to sustain unlimited growth

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

2. Environmental resistance (K)

All those environmental conditions that prevent populations from
achieving their biotic potential.

- Interplay between biotic potential and environmental

resistance determines the size of a population of a species.
- Exponential growth cannot continue for long because of
environmental resistance.
- When populations become too large, will run out of some
- limiting resource.
- As a result, growth slows and population size tends to
stabilize.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Carrying capacity
The maximum population size that can be supported by the available
resources.
- Determined by both biotic potential and environmental
resistance.
- Changes in response to environmental changes.

b. Explain
carrying capacity
and its
importance

Importance of carrying capacity.

• Important limit on populations to prevent population crash
• Measured relative to a particular species and a particular
habitat
• A population below carrying capacity need not deplete any
natural capital.

1. Natality (birth rate)

- The rate at which a particular species or population produces
offspring.

2. Mortality (death rate)

c. Describe - The rate at which a particular species or population dies,
natality and whatever the cause.
mortality and
their effects on
the rate of
population
growth.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 Density is not a static property but changes as individuals are
added or removed from a population.
 Additions occur through birth, while death will remove the
individuals from a population.
 If the birth rate of a population increases, the population size
will expand.
 If the death rate of a population increases, the population size
will also decrease.

d. Explain
population
growth curves
(state the basic
forms of growth 1. Exponential growth curve
curves): Refers to unlimited growth of a population.

i. Exponential - Occurs when environmental conditions are not limiting.

growth curve - Reproduce at maximum biotic potential.
(human) - Cause a large population growth.
ii. Logistic - E.g.: human population growth
growth curve
(Paramecium sp.)

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
- Shows how the increase of individuals added each generation
occurs exponentially due to:
• very productive agriculture.
• raised the carrying capacity for humans.
• inherited a high birth rate from ancestors.

2. Logistic growth curves

- S- shaped curve.
- Is a result of environmental resistance which increases in
intensity as the population density increases until it reaches a
steady level.
- Achieve its maximum carrying capacity.
- E.g.: Paramecium population
- Population growth is stabilized by environmental resistance.

Divided into 4 phases:

Paramecium prepares to grow, cell division

Lag phase and differentiation of tissues

Paramecium are growing, producing new

Log / Exponential organisms and dividing rapidly to take
phase advantage of fresh medium

Growth slows down because of limited

Transitional phase nutrients.

Birth of new organism and death of old

ones is in equilibrium. (natality =
Stationary phase
mortality)

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

1. Density Dependent Factors

A limiting factor that depends on population size is called
a density-dependent limiting factor.

- Density-dependent limiting factors include:

a. Competition
• When populations become crowded, organisms compete
for food, water space, sunlight and other essentials.
- Intraspecific competition
An interaction in population ecology, whereby
members of the same species compete for limited
e. Explain the resources.
limiting factors - Interspecific competition
affecting the Individuals of different species compete for the
population size: same resources in an ecosystem.

i. Density b. Predation
dependent • Populations in nature are often controlled by predation.
factors • The regulation of a population by predation takes place
ii. Density within a predator-prey relationship.
independent
factors c. Parasitism
• Parasites can limit the growth of a population.
• A parasite lives in or on another organism (the host) and
consequently harms it.

d. Territorial behavior
• Animal defending land from other member of a species.
• Animal defend their territories for:
- food
- shelter
- mates

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

2. Density Independent Factors

Refers to any characteristic that is not affected by population
density.

- Density-independent limiting factors affect all populations in

similar ways, regardless of the population size.
- Examples of density-independent limiting factors include:
• unusual weather
• natural disasters
• seasonal cycles
• certain human activities—such as damming rivers,
pesticides, and clear-cutting forests

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