IGCSE Chemistry

Topic 4: Stoichiometry

1) Chemical Formula 4) Moles (3 laws)

2) Chemical Equations 5) Empirical formula & Molecular Formula
3) Relative Molecular/Formula mass (Mr)

1) Chemical Formula

Valency or combining power:

 The valency of an element is the number of electrons lost, gained or shared to from
compounds. The valency of an element depends on the number of valence electrons.
 In covalent molecules; the valency gives the number of covalent bonds which the
atoms can form.
 In ionic compounds; the valency gives the charge on the ions of the element.
 The following table shows the valencies & charges of common elements used in
chemistry:

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Another way to memorize Valency

 Silver – Ag – is mainly monovalent (valency = +1)

 Lead – Pb – is in group 4, but it exists mainly as divalent (valency = -2)
 +ve sign indicate losing e-, -ve sign indicate gaining e-, no sign indicate sharing e-

Polyatomic ions (formerly known as Radicals):

Groups of atoms that are combined together covalently & carry a charge, behave like ions.
They act as one unit in chemical reactions.

Valency Radical name & Symbol Charge

Hydroxide OH- -1
Nitrate NO3- -1
Monovalent Nitrite NO2- -1
Hdrogen carbonate HCO3- -1
Ammonium NH4+ +1

Carbonate CO32- -2
Divalent Sulfate SO42- -2
Sulphite SO32- -2

Trivalent Phosphate PO4-3 -3

Names of some covalent compounds to be learned:

Methane CH4 Carbon dioxide CO2 Nitrogen dioxide NO2

Ammonia NH3 Carbon monoxide CO Nitrogen monoxide NO
Water H2O Sulfur dioxide SO2 N2O4
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Sulfur trioxide SO3 SF6
Number of atoms in covalent compounds: mono = 1 … di=2 … tri = 3 … tetra = 4 … penta = 5 … hexa = 6

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Steps of writing a Chemical formula:

1. Write the symbol of elements (metals on the left, non-metals or radicals on the right).
2. Write the valency or charge of each element above its symbol, simplify if needed (?)
3. Cross valencies
4. Radical (polyatomic ions) must be placed between brackets "( )" if they acquire a
valency of more than their own after crossing (?)

 Compounds ending with (-ide) are made of 2 elements – except hydroxide (OH-)
 Element + Oxygen  Oxide
 Element + Sulfur  Sulphide
 Element + Nitrogen  Nitride
 Element + Phosphorus  Phosphide
 Element + Halogen  Halide
 Element + Carbon  Carbide
 Element + Hydrogen  Hydride
 Compounds ending with (-ate) are made of 3 elements, one element is oxygen  ex: SO42-
 Compounds ending with (-ite) are made of 3 elements, one element is oxygen but with less
number of oxygen than (-ate)  ex: SO32-

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2) Chemical Equations
 A chemical reaction occurs when substances react together to form new substances.
No atoms are created or destroyed in the process, they are just rearranged.
 Reacting substances are called reactants. New chemicals formed are called products.

Steps of writing symbol equation for a reaction:

1) Write the equation in words (word equation)

2) Write the equation again using correct symbols & formula for elements & compounds.
3) Balance the equation for each atom in turn. Make sure you do not change any formula.
4) Some chemical equations include state symbols after the formula. They show if the
substance is a solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g), or dissolved in water/aqueous (aq).

Example 1:

 Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride

Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
Na + Cl2 NaCl
1 Na 1 Na
2 Cl 1 Cl
2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s)
2 Na 2 Na
2 Cl 2 Cl
2 sodium atoms react with 1 molecule of chlorine to form 2 sodium chloride compounds.

Example 2:

 Methane burns in air (oxygen) to form carbon dioxide & water

1 methane molecule reacts with 2 oxygen molecules to form 1 molecule of carbon dioxide & 2
molecules of water.

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Q: Write down the formula for each of these ionic compounds:

1) Potassium carbonate …………………… 8) Lead (II) nitrate ……………………

2) Zinc Oxide …………………… 9) Magnesium nitride ……………………
3) Iron (II) phosphate …………………… 10) Ammonium phosphate ……………………
4) Silver chloride …………………… 11) Iron (III) oxide ……………………
5) Aluminium hydroxide ………………….. 12) Lithium carbonate ……………………
6) Copper (II) bromide …………………… 13) Zinc sulphide ……………………
7) Barium sulfate …………………… 14) Calcium hydroxide ……………………

Q: Balance the following equations:

1) N2 + ___ H2 ___ NH3

2) ___ Al + ___ O2 ___ Al2O3

3) C + CO2 ___ CO

4) ___ Li+ ___ H2O ___ LiOH + H2

5) C2H5OH + ___O2 ___CO2 + ___ H2O

Q: Write the following word equation into symbol equations with proper balance:

1) Sodium + Copper II Sulfate  Sodium Sulfate + Copper

2) Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid  Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen

3) Iron III Oxide + Carbon Monixide  Iron + Carbon Dioxide

4) Magnesium Sulphide + Oxygen  Magnesium Oxide + Sulfur Dioxide

5) Iron III Chloride + Sodium Hydroxide  Iron III hydroxide + Sodium Chloride

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3) Relative Molecular/Formula Mass (Mr)

 Each element has its own relative atomic mass (Ar). This is the average mass of its
isotopes compared with the mass of a standard atom of carbon-12.
 Compounds have a relative molecular mass (or formula mass). It's the sum of the
relative atomic masses of the all the elements shown in the formula.
 Mr = RMM for covalent molecules while RFM for ionic compounds.

Examples:

Ionic: Sodium chloride, NaCl Covalent: Ethane, C2H4

1 atom of Na 1 X 23 = 23 + 2 atoms of C 2 X 12 = 24 +
1 atom of Cl 1 X 35.5 = 35.5 4 atoms of H 4 X 1 = 4

Relative formula mass = 58. 5 Relative molecular mass = 28

Q1: Calculate the relative formula mass of the following:

1) CaCO3 : ……………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….
2) C4H10O: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3) KMnO4: ………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………….
4) (NH4)2SO4: ………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….

Q2: Complete the following table:

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Percentage Mass:

𝐴𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ×𝑛𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

The % of an element by mass = X 100
𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
In a compound

Examples:

1) The percentage mass of calcium in calcium carbonate, CaCO3

𝐶𝑎 40
= × 100 = × 100 = 40%
𝐶𝑎+𝐶+3×0 40+12+48

40% of the mass of calcium carbonate is calcium.

2) The percentage mass of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

2 ×𝑁 28
= × 100 = × 100 = 35%
2×𝑁+4×𝐻+3×0 28+4+48

35% of the mass of ammonium nitrate is nitrogen.

Reacting Masses:

Q1: When 16 g of methane reacts completely with an excess of steam, 6 g of hydrogen are
produced. Calculate the mass of methane required to produce 300 g of hydrogen.

16 g of CH4 6 g of H2 Simple cross multiplication

? g of CH4 300 g of H2 Mass of CH4 = 300 x 16 / 6 = 800 grams

Q2: The equation for the reaction between magnesium and dilute sulfuric acid is shown.

Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2 ; Where the Mr of MgSO4 is 120

Which mass of MgSO4 will be formed if 12 g of magnesium are reacted with H2SO4?

Eq: Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2 Simple cross multiplication

Mr: 24 + 98 120 + 2 24 grams of magnesium forms 120 grams of MgSO 4
Then, 12 grams of magnesium forms 60 grams of MgSO4

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4) The Mole
 A mole (or molar mass) of any substance is: the relative atomic mass (Ar) – if it is an
element – or relative molecular mass (Mr) – If it is a compound – expressed in grams.

Calculations

 For Elements:
1) 1 mole of sulfur (32S) = the relative atomic mass (Ar) in grams = 32 g
2) 1 mole of calcium (40Ca) = the relative atomic mass (Ar) in grams = 40 g
 For compounds:
1) 1 mole of Water = the relative molecular mass (Mr) of water in grams
= (2 X H) + O = 2 + 16 = 18 g
2) 1 mole of CaCO4 = the relative molecular mass (Mr) of calcium carbonate in grams

= Ca + C + (3 X O) = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100 g

1) What is the mass of one mole of each of the following:

a) Sodium (Na) ………………………………………
b) Copper (II) oxide (CuO) ……………………………………….

2) What is the mass of:

a) 0.2 mole of nitrogen (N2) ……………………………………..
b) 0.5 moles of carbon (C) ………………………………………
c) 4 moles of ammonia (NH3) ………………………………….…..

3) How many moles are in:

a) 2.4 g of magnesium (Mg) ……………………………………….
b) 36 g water of (H2O)? ……………………………………….
c) 50 g of calcium carbonate? ……………………………………….

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Avogadro's number:
It's it the number of particles (atoms or molecules) in 1 moles of any substance.
There are 6.02 x 1023 particles in 1 moles of any substance.
 1 mole of potassium (element) contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms of potassium.
 1 mole of carbon dioxide (compound) contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules of carbon dioxide.

Calculations involving moles

Example 1:

Calcium burns in oxygen to form calcium oxide. Calculate the mass of calcium needed to
prepare 28 grams of calcium oxide.

1st step: Write a balanced equation to find the moles ratio.

Calcium + Oxygen Calcium oxide

2 Ca(s) + O2(g) 2 CaO(s)

Moles ratio: 2 : 1 : 2
2nd step: Calculate the moles in 28 grams of CaO

 Mr of CaO = 40 + 16 = 56
 No. of moles of CaO = Mass / Mr = 28 / 56 = 0.5
 Since the moles ratio between CaO : Ca is 2 : 2 or 1 : 1
 Then the no. of moles of CaO = No. of moles of Ca = 0.5

3rd step: Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles Ca

 Mass of Ca = No. of moles x Ar = 0.5 x 40 = 20 grams

Example 2:

6 grams of magnesium reacts completely with 30 grams of excess Cl2. What is the
maximum yield (mass) of magnesium chloride that can be formed from this reaction?
What is the mass of Cl2 left unreacted?

1st step: Write a balanced equation to find the moles ratio

Magnesium + Chlorine Magnesium Chloride

Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)

Moles ratio: 1 : 1 : 1

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2nd step: Calculate moles of Mg that completely reacted

 No. of moles of Mg = Mass / Ar = 6/24 = 0.25

 Since the moles ratio between Mg : MgCl2 is 1 : 1
 Then the No. of moles of Mg = No. of moles of MgCl2 = 0.25

3rd step: Calculate mass of 0.25 moles of MgCl2

 Mass of MgCl2 No. of moles x Mr = 0.25 x (24 + 71) = 23.75 grams

4th step: Calculate mass of Cl2 left unreacted

 No. of moles of Cl2 reacted = 0.25

 Mass of Cl2 reacted = moles x Ar = 0.25 x 71 = 17.75 grams
 Mass of Cl2 left unreacted = 30 g – 17.75 g = 12.25 grams

Calculations involving gases – Molar gas volume

 The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 (24 liters or 24000 cm3) at standard
room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.). This rule applies to all gases.

Example 1:

What volume does 0.25 moles of CO2 occupy at r.t.p?

 No. of moles x 24 dm3 = 0.25 x 24 = 6 dm3

Example 2:

What is the volume of SO2 gas produced from burning 5 grams sulfur?

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1st step: Write a balanced equation to find the moles ratio

Sulfur + Oxygen Sulfur dioxide

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

Moles ratio: 1 : 1 : 1

2nd step: Calculate the moles of SO2 produced

 No. of moles of S = Mass / Ar = 5/32 = 0.156

 Since the moles ratio between S : SO2 is 1 : 1
 Then the No. of moles of S = No. of moles of SO2 = 0.156

3rd step: Calculate the volume of SO2 produced

 No. of moles x 24 = 0.156 x 24 = 3.75 dm3

Example from past papers:

The equation for the complete combustion of butane is given below. Insert the two
missing volumes.

2C4H10(g) + 1302(g ) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

………….. …………… 40 volume of gas/cm3

[2]

Example from past papers

Iron (II) sulphate decomposes when heated. Calculate the mass of iron (III) oxide formed
and the volume of sulphur trioxide produced when 10.0g of iron(III) sulphate was heated.

Mass of one mole of Fe2(SO4)3 is 400 g.

Fe2(SO4)3 (s) Fe2O3 (s) + 3SO3 (g)

Number of moles of Fe2(SO4)3 =

Number of moles of Fe2O3 formed =
Mass of iron (III) oxide formed = g
Number of moles of SO3 produced =
Volume of sulphur trioxide at r.t.p. = dm3

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A 20 cm3 sample of butyne, C4H6, is burnt in 150 cm3 of oxygen. This is an excess of
oxygen.

2C4H6(g) + 11O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 6H2O (l)

(i) What volume of oxygen reacts?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) What volume of carbon dioxide is produced?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(iii) What is the total volume of gases left at the end of the reaction?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

A compound contains only aluminium and carbon. 0.03 moles of this compound
reacted with excess water to form 0.12 moles of Al(OH)3 and 0.09 moles of CH4.

While a balanced equation for this reaction.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

Calculations involving concentration of solutions

 Concentration of a solution is the amount of solute (in grams or moles) that is dissolved
in 1 dm3 (1 liter) of solution.
 Molar solution: A solution that contains 1 mole of solute in 1 dm3 of solution. The
concentration of solutions is expressed in g / dm3 or mol / dm3.
o If we want to prepare 1 mol/dm3 of NaCl solution
Dissolve 58.5 g of NaCl (1 mole) in water to give a total volume of 1 dm3
o If we want to prepare 2 mol/dm3 of NaCl solution
Dissolve 2 x 58.5g (2 mole) in water to give a total volume of 1 dm3
o If we want to prepare 0.1 mol/dm3 of NaCl solution
Dissolve 5.85g (0.1 mole) in water to give a total volume of 1 dm3

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Example:

What is the concentration of a solution when 11.7 grams of NaCl dissolves in 500 cm3?

 Moles of NaCl = Mass/Mr = 11.7/58.5 = 0.2

 Conc. Of NaCl solution = 0.2/500 x 1000 = 0.4 mol / dm3

Example from past papers

In an experiment, 25.0 cm3 of aqueous sodium hydroxide, 0.4 mol/dm3, was neutralized
by 20.0 cm3 of aqueous oxalic acid, H2C2O4.

2NaOH + H2C2O4 Na2C2O4 + 2H2O

Calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid mol/dm3.

(i) Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in 25.0 cm3 of 0.4 mol/dm3 solution.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(ii) Use your answer to (l) and the mole ratio in the equation to find out the number
of moles of H2C2O4 in 20 cm3 of solution.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(iii) Calculate the concentration, mol/dm3, of the aqueous oxalic acid.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

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Percentage yield & Percentage purity

Percentage Yield

 Some reactions do not to completion Not all of the reactants are converted to
products.
 The theoretical yield is the maximum (calculated) yield expected from the balanced
chemical equation.
 The actual yield is the true yield that is produced from the reaction in a real
experiment.
 Yield is the mass (in grams)

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 )

Percentage yield = × 100
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 )

Example: On heating 12.4 g of calcium carbonate, 7 grams of calcium oxide are formed.
Knowing that the calculated amount is 8 grams; what is the percentage yield of the reaction?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………

Example from past papers

Strontium chloride-6-water can be made from the insoluble compound, strontium

carbonate, by the following reactions.

SrCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  SrCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

SrCl2(aq) + 6H2O(l)  SrCl2.6H2O(s)

In the above experiment, 50.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 2.0 mol/dm3
was used. 6.4 g of SrCl2.6H2O was made.

Calculate the percentage yield.

number of moles of HCl used = ……………………….

number of moles of SrCl2.6H2O which could be formed = ……………………..

mass of one mole of SrCl2.6H2O is 267 g

theoretical yield of SrCl2.6H2O = ……………………… g

percentage yield = ………………………. % [4]

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Percentage Purity

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Percentage purity = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Limiting reactant & Excess reactant

 No matter how many tires there are, if there are only 8 car bodies  only 8 cars
can be made. Likewise with chemistry, if there is only a certain amount of one
reactant available for a reaction, the reaction must stop when that reactant is
consumed whether or not the other reactant has been used up.
 Limiting Reactant: is the reactant that limits the amount of product that can be
formed. The reaction will stop when all of the limiting reactant is consumed.
Limiting reactant is always in a smaller portion than the other reactant.
 Excess Reactant: is the reactant that still remains present in the reaction mixture
when a reaction stops. The excess reactant remains because there is nothing with
which it can react. (limiting reactant is consumed).

Example from past papers

0.07 moles of silicon reacts with 25 g of bromine.

Si + 2Br2 SiBr4

(i) Which one is the limiting reagent? Explain your choice.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………. [3]

(ii) How many moles of SiBr4 are formed?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………… [1]

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5) Empirical Formula & Molecular Formula

 Empirical formula shows the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of the different
elements present in it.
 Molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of the different elements
present in it.
Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula
Ethane C2H6 CH3
Benzene C6H6 CH
Covalent

Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) C2H4O2 CH2O

Methane CH4 CH4
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 MgCl2
Ionic

Sodium phosphide Na3P Na3P

Example 1 (Covalent compound)

Oxalic acid was found to contain 26.7% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen by mass and the rest is
oxygen. The Mr of oxalic acid is 90. Find the empirical formula and the molecular formula.

A) Find the empirical formula by following the steps in the table:

C H O
1- Mass (%)  always given 26.7 2.2 100-28.9=71.1
2- Relative atomic mass (Ar)  from P.T 12 1 16
3- Moles  Step 1 + Step 2 26.7/12=2.2 2.2/1=2.2 71.1/16=4.4
4- Ratio (dividing) by the smallest value) 1 1 2
Empirical formula CHO2

B) Find the molecular formula by following the steps in the table:

1- Mr of empirical formula CHO2 = 12 + 1 + (2 x 16) = 45

Molecular formula
𝐌𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 𝟗𝟎 (𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧)
2- N=2 is twice the
𝐌𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 𝟒𝟓 (𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝)
empirical formula
3- Multiply each element in the
empirical formula by 2
2 x CHO2 = C2H2O4
n = shows how many times the empirical formula is multiplied / repeated.

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Example 2 (Ionic Compound)

A compound contains 72% magnesium & 28% nitrogen. What is the empirical formula?

Mg N
1- Mass (%) 72 28

2- Relative atomic mass (Ar) 24 14

3- Moles 72 / 24 = 3 28 / 14 = 2

4- Ratio (dividing by the smallest value) 3 2

Empirical formula Mg3N2

N.B: In ionic compounds, the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula

Example from past papers

Maleic acid is an unsaturated acid. 5.8g of this acid contained 2.4g of carbon, 0.2g of
hydrogen and 3.2g of oxygen.

(i) How do you know that the acid contained only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(ii) Calculate the empirical formula of maleic acid.

Number of moles of carbon atoms = …………………………………..

Number of moles of hydrogen atoms = ………………………………

Number of moles of oxygen atoms = …………………………………..

The empirical formula is ………………………………………………………….…………….……………. [3]

(iii) The mass of one mole of maleic acid is 116g. What is its molecular formula?

………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………….…………… [2]

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Types of Chemical Reactions

 Chemical reactions can be classified according to 1) type, 2) heat change (endo or exo) or
3) gain or loss of oxygen (Redox)
 To know more about chemical reactions types, chemists classified them into five major
categories according to the rearrangement of atoms during the reaction.

(1) Synthesis reaction (direct combination)

 Takes place between two or more simple substances (reactants) to form one product.
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
Fe + S FeS

 Photosynthesis is an essential process of life. It's a type of synthesis reaction; it needs

sunlight & chlorophyll to occur (endothermic reaction).
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒍
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

(2) Decomposition reaction (opposite of synthesis)

 Takes place when one reactant breaks down to give two or more simpler products.
 Decomposition may take place by adding a catalyst (catalytic decomposition), heating
(thermal decomposition), light (photo-degradation) or by electrolysis (electric
decomposition).
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐
2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2 (Catalytic decomposition)
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (Thermal decomposition)
𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
2AgCl 2 Ag + Cl2 (Photochemical degradation)
2 NaCl (l) 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) (Electrolysis)

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N.B: Silver bromide (cream) & Silver iodide (yellow)also photo-degrade  topic 10

(3) Displacement reactions

A) Single displacement reaction

 Takes place when a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its
aqueous salt solution. Elements are arranged according to their reactivity in the
"Electrochemical / Reactivity series".

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B) Double displacement reaction

i) Neutralization (involves an acid)

 Takes place between an acid and a base to form a salt  topic 7

 Acid: Substance that dissolves in water to give H+ in water (proton donor)
 Base: Substance (metal oxide & metal hydroxides) that neutralizes an acid, accepting
give H+ from acid to produce salt and water (proton acceptor)
 Alkali: Soluble base that dissolves in water to give OH- in water.

HCL + NaOH NaCl + H2O

H2SO4 + ZnO ZnSO4 + H2O

2 HBr + Ca(OH)2 CaBr2 + 2 H2O

ii) Precipitation (product is insoluble in water).

 Takes place when two solutions soluble salts react to produce an insoluble salt
(precipitate)

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 Kl (aq) Pbl2 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq)

insoluble salt (ppt)

 Precipitation reaction can also take place when a gas is bubbled into a solution.
Limewater test for carbon dioxide is a type of precipitation reaction.

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

milky suspension

(4) Combustion
 Combustion is an exothermic reaction between a fuel & oxygen accompanied by
releasing of heat energy. An example of this kind of reaction is the burning of the
hydrocarbon; like methane gas (natural gas).
 Incomplete combustion of methane gas – due to insufficient oxygen or a poor
ventilated room can lead to the formation of carbon monoxide which is poisonous.

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g) Complete combustion

2 CH4 (g) + 3 O2 (g) 2 CO (g) + 4 H2O (g) Incomplete combustion

N.B:

 Combustion is both an oxidation & exothermic reaction.

 Fuels are mainly carbon, hydrogen, hydrocarbon & alcohols  topic 9

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 IGCSE Chemistry

Redox reactions

A) Redox in terms of oxygen/hydrogen loss or gain

Oxidation reaction Reduction reaction

Gaining of Oxygen
Removal of Hydrogen
A substance is said to be oxidized when it
gains oxygen/loses hydrogen during
reaction
A substance which is oxidized is called
reducing agent (reductant)
Removal of Oxygen
Gaining of Hydrogen
A substance is said to be reduced when it
loses oxygen/gains hydrogen during
reaction
A substance which is reduced is called
oxidizing agent (oxidant)

Examples for redox reactions:

Oxidixing agent (Oxidant):

 Substance that will give/add oxygen to neighbouring reactants & gets reduced itself.
 Examples: Oxygen (O2), Ozone (O3), Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), potassium chromate VI
(K2CrO4), potassium dichromate VI (K2Cr2O7), potassium manganate VII (KMnO4).

Mr. Fady Youssuf 57 0546163902

 IGCSE Chemistry

Reducing agent (Reductant):

 Substance that will take/remove oxygen from neighbouring reactants & gets oxidized
itself.
 Examples: Carbon, Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen, Reactive metals (Na, K, Ca), Potassium
iodide (Kl) & Ethanol.

B) Redox in terms of electron transfer & oxidation state

Oxidation reaction Reduction reaction

Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL) Reduction is gain of electrons (RIG)

increase in oxidation state decrease in oxidation state

From the above definitions we can deduce that

Reducing agents lose/give electrons.

Oxidizing agents gain/accept electrons.

Example focusing on electron transfer:

Word equation: Magnesium + Sulfer Magnesium Sulphide

Symbol equation: Mg + S MgS

Ionic equation: Mg + S Mg2+ + S2-

 During this reaction, two electrons are transferred from magnesium to sulfur.
Magnesium ion and sulphide ion are formed. The magnesium is oxidized and the sulfur
is reduced
 Mg Mg2+ + 2e- (Magnesium loses 2 electrons) (Magnesium is the
reducing agent)
 S + 2e- S2- (Sulfur gain 2 electrons) (Sulfur is the oxidizing agent)

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 IGCSE Chemistry

Oxidation state / Oxidation number:

 It's the number given to an element to show whether it has been oxidized or reduced.
It's the charge on its ion. Some transition elements have more than one oxidation
state.
 The oxidation state is the roman number written after the element in a compound.
 The oxidation state of an uncombined element – not in a compound – is always zero.
 The oxidation state of iron in iron (II) oxide is 2 and in iron (III) oxide is 3.
 The oxidation state of manganese in manganese (IV) oxide is 4 and in potassium
manganate (VII) is 7.
 The oxidation state of chromium in chromium (III) oxide is 3 and in potassium
dichromate (VI) is 6.
 Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation state Fe2+ Fe3+
 Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation state Fe3+ Fe2+

Q: Indicate on the following equation which reactant is the oxidant

2 V3+ + Zn 2 V2+ + Zn2+

Q: Which change in the following equation is oxidation? Explain your choice.

V3+ + Fe3+ V4+ + Fe2+

Mr. Fady Youssuf 59 0546163902

 IGCSE Chemistry

Oxidation reduction summary

Oxidation Reduction

Oxygen Addition of Oxygen Removal of Oxygen

Hydrogen Removal of Hydrogen Addition of Hydrogen

Electrons Loss of electrons (OIL) Gain of electrons (RIG)

Oxidation state Increase in OS Decrease in OS

Mr. Fady Youssuf 60 0546163902