Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Augmented reality in vocational training: A systematic review of research

and applications
Feng-Kuang Chiang a, b, *, Xiaojing Shang a, Lu Qiao a
a
Department of Educational Technology, College of Education, Shanghai Normal University, China
b
Center for Future Education, School of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Augmented reality (AR) technology is widely used in various fields. However, there are few systematic reviews
Augmented reality (AR) on the application of AR in vocational training. To fill this research gap, the current study reviewed the appli­
Vocational training cation of AR technology in the training of various industries over a 20 year period (2000–2021). Through cross-
On-the-job training
referencing and abstract reading, 80 relevant studies were selected for the final analysis from two perspectives:
AR application
AR system
the improvement of vocational skills (including application area, target audience, training objectives, and ef­
fects) and AR training technology (including AR application, AR training system, and device). Furthermore,
CiteSpaceV was employed to analyze the research hotspots and trends of AR vocational training. The results
indicated that AR training is frequently applied in the industry, vocational education and medical fields. Among
these industries, AR has been most frequently used in medical training, industrial maintenance, and assembly.
Furthermore, AR glasses, simulators, the Unity3D game engine, 360◦ panorama, AR systems and apps are
becoming widely used for training tasks. The benefits of these systems have been identified. We also explored the
impact of AR on vocational training results. Based on 17 empirical studies, this study summarized the results and
advantages of AR vocational training. This verified that AR has a high promotion effect on vocational training
when the meta-analysis method is used. Future researchers can study how vocational skills education can be
combined with these new intelligent technologies to design more mature teaching practice cases.

1. Introduction
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that projects virtual objects
in real physical environments in the real world. It can provide people
with a more realistic and intuitive sensory experience by superimposing
virtual objects on or compositing them with the environment (Prasad
et al., 2012). Although developed based on VR technology, AR is not
required to render the natural environment like VR technology. AR
ensures that the interaction between employees and their related de­
vices is more efficient in reducing the workload. Therefore, AR supple­
ments reality as opposed to completely replacing it (Milgram &
Colquhoun, 1999). Ivan Sutherland and his students developed the first
AR system, the Sword of Damocles, at Utah University and Harvard
University in the 1960s (Van Krevelen & Poelman, 2010).
In 1992, Tom Caudell and David Mizell were the first to use
“augmented reality” in a paper. Furthermore, they developed the first
AR training application to assist maintenance in the Boeing Company’s
aircraft factory to reduce costs and improve efficiency (Caudell & Mizell,
1992). However, the use of AR for work-related training has notably
only developed in the last ten years, with the cost of devices preventing
its widespread use. In recent years, the availability of AR applications
and improvements in hardware equipment have facilitated AR adoption
in vocational and educational training (VET) and on-the-job training
(OJT). Moreover, prices have decreased for all relevant equipment, such
as AR glasses, head-mounted displays, hand-held devices and sensors,
because of an increased number of producers and developers. Conse­
quently, AR applications have become affordable for education and
training in various fields, such as medicine (Caudell & Mizell, 1992), the
military (Chmielewski et al., 2019), aerospace (Borgen et al., 2021),
manufacturing (Forest, 2021), construction (Choi & Park, 2021), agri­
culture (Yang et al., 2021), and industry (Bogicevic et al., 2021).
“Vocational education is defined as education programmes that are
designed for learners to acquire the knowledge, skills and competencies spe­
cific to a particular occupation, trade, or class of occupations or trades”
(UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012, p14). VET is a practice-oriented
approach to education, emphasizing acquired skills and the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fkchiang@shnu.edu.cn (F.-K. Chiang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107125
Received 8 April 2021; Received in revised form 10 October 2021; Accepted 1 December 2021
Available online 15 December 2021
0747-5632/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
F.-K. Chiang et al.
manifestation of learning results in the workplace (Mustapa et al.,
2015). In addition, VET is more focused on preservice education and
training, and students are prepared to supply the needs of the labor
market in specific occupations. Unlike VET, OJT is an education and
training method for improving individual and organizational knowl­
edge, skills, and attitudes. OJT encompasses all the tools and tasks at the
job site. OJT enhances the competence of employees by focusing more
on knowledge, functions and skills through direct coaching provided by
senior members. (Flippo, 1976). The ultimate goal of VET and OJT is to
enable organizational members to achieve workplace goals, improve
learners’ knowledge, skills and attitudes, and enhance individual ca­
pabilities. Traditional training methods have proven helpful throughout
the years. However, these methods may not be suitable for future trends
in VET or OJT. In some ways, traditional training still suffers limitations
in helping learners acquire knowledge and skills, such as costly pro­
cesses and considerable resources and time. Compared with conven­
tional training, AR training can enable more professional immersion by
seamlessly integrating real and virtual scenes. AR technology is
immersive, which leads to high engagement and allows trainees to
obtain a real feel through the facilitation of learning by doing. Moreover,
complex training manuals are simplified with AR, which helps reduce
trainees’ cognitive burden in tasks (Upadhyay & Khandelwal, 2018).
Above all, many studies have reported the positive impact of AR ap­
plications. However, few studies have reviewed the development status
of AR in vocational training (ARVT). Therefore, the present study aimed
to classify and summarize the application of AR technology in VET and
OJT. The research questions in this study are as follows:
1. What are the hotspots and research trends of AR applied in voca­
tional training?
2. In which industries is AR technology used to provide vocational
training?
3. What specific applications of AR technology are commonly used in
vocational training?
4. In vocational education training, does AR technology have an impact
on the training effect?
2. Methods
This review used the Scopus, Web of Science, EBSCO, and ProQuest
databases as our key data sources. We used “augmented reality” or “AR”
and “vocational training” or “on-the-job training” or “professional
training” as keywords and searched for AR studies published from
January 2000 to August 2021. In addition, only “English” was selected
as the search parameter for language. A set of inclusion and exclusion
criteria was applied (Table 1).
We found 703 papers from four databases: SCOPUS (379), Web of
Science Core Collection (128), EBSCO (92), and ProQuest (104) in the
preliminary search. The main types of articles are conference papers and
journals. First, 454 articles remained after eliminating duplicate litera­
ture, non-English articles and non-journal articles through endnote
Table 1
Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Criteria Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Period The last 20 years (1/2000–8/ Studies outside this time period
2021)
Study focus Vocational or on-the-job Studies that were conducted in
education and training (e.g., AR informal learning contexts (e.g.,
training for industrial K12 education)
maintenance)
Literature Studies related to the use of AR Research that mentions the term
focus for training purposes (e.g., “augmented reality” but
articles concerns VR or other topics
on specific training in an
industry)
Language English Not English
2
Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125
screening. Next, the two researchers screened according to their
screening criteria. In the process of reading titles and abstracts,
excluding the literature that does not involve specific vocational
training, the literature that does not use AR technology, or the literature
that mainly uses VR/MR/XR and other immersive technologies, it was
determined that there were 95 studies related to AR vocational training.
A total of 15 papers cannot be obtained in full text, therefore, 80 articles
were reserved for overall bibliometric analysis. After careful review of
the reading and analysis conditions, 17 empirical studies were eventu­
ally identified, and 12 were meta-analyzed.
Fig. 1 shows the database literature screening process. First, the
CiteSpaceV tool was used to explore the research hotspots and research
frontiers of 80 pieces of literature according to the keyword co-
occurrence knowledge graph and keyword time zone map. Word fre­
quency analysis and co-word analysis were used to analyze 80 pieces of
literature and summarize AR training fields, industries, and equipment
to understand the current situation of ARVT. Second, 17 empirical
studies were selected through a complete reading of 80 articles, and
qualitative descriptions were provided from 17 articles from the aspects
of vocational training objectives, skill improvement, training effects, etc.
Finally, 12 studies were included in the meta-analysis according to the
inclusion criteria of the meta-analysis, the actual impacts of AR training
were quantitatively counted, and the results were obtained in accor­
dance with the qualitative analysis. Fig. 2 shows publication records by
year of publication from 2000 to 2021. Based on the results, the first
article on ARVT was published in 2014. After 2016, the number of
publications on ARVT increased significantly, with the most significant
number occurring in 2020.
3. Results
This section presents the results of the analyses. First, we conducted
an overall bibliometric analysis of the last 80 articles. CiteSpaceV was
used as a data analysis tool to analyze the research hotspots and trends
according to the keyword co-occurrence knowledge map and keyword
time zone map. To further investigate the research status of AR tech­
nology in VET, the two researchers conducted a detailed review of 17
empirical studies from the aspects of training objects, training objec­
tives, skills improvement and training effects.
3.1. Research hotspots and trends of ARVT
In this study, the selected literature data were preprocessed using the
data format converter of CiteSpaceV and then imported into CiteSpaceV
to generate a scientific knowledge map. The parameters of CiteSpaceV
were set as follows: the period was from 2000 to 2021, the time slice was
Fig. 1. Database literature screening process.
F.-K. Chiang et al.
Fig. 2. Number of articles published by year.
one year, the node type was keywords or country, and the threshold
value of analysis data was TOPN% = 50%; furthermore, Pathfinder was
adopted. Finally, a correlation map was generated to analyze the rela­
tionship between cooperative countries, the keyword co-occurrence
map, and the time zone map.
3.1.1. National distribution of ARVT-related studies
Fig. 3 displays a cooperative relationship graph of countries with
node number 43 obtained from CiteSpaceV. The concept of enhancing
technology in vocational education has been implemented in North
America, Europe, East Asia, and other regions. The countries/regions
with the highest frequencies of ARVT studies were the USA (14), Ger­
many (6), Ukraine (6), Netherlands (4), India (4), Turkey (3), Japan (3),
South Korea (3), Spain (3), Italy (3), Portugal (3), Mexico (3), China (3)
and Taiwan (3). The top three countries in terms of centrality were the
USA (0.27), Italy (0.06), and Spain (0.05). The aforementioned results
reveal that research on ARVT has been conducted mainly in the USA and
Germany, and the USA demonstrates strong connections of cooperation
with Canada, Spain and other countries.
3.1.2. Keywords co-occurrence topic analysis
A research hotspot is a set of studies on a certain topic in a certain
period. The nodes on the map represent keywords, and the size of a node
indicates the frequency of occurrence (or cited frequency). The color and
thickness of the "+" in the node represent the occurrence (or cited)
frequency in different periods. The lines connecting the nodes represent
the co-occurrence (or cocitation) relationship, and the thicknesses of
these lines indicate the intensity (number of times) of co-occurrence (or
cocitation). Fig. 4 indicates that the analysis of high-frequency keywords
and words with high centrality in CiteSpaceV can reflect the research
direction and research hotspots of ARVT. After the retrieval keywords
were removed, the following findings were obtained through a
comprehensive analysis of the top 20 keywords with high frequency:
Fig. 3. Cooperation map of countries or regions.
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Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125
1. AR training mainly focuses on manufacturing, surgical training,
maintenance, assembly tasks, accident defense mechanisms, wound
sutures and other fields.
2. The training targets are mainly students, adults, and apprentices, and
AR technology is usually used to provide them with personalized
training.
3. The tools or methods commonly used in vocational training include
computer interfaces, AR systems, virtual simulation systems, human-
computer interactive training or computer-aided instruction (CAI).
3.1.3. Research trend analysis of ARVT
To explore the staged development of AR technology in vocational
training, the keyword time zone map was analyzed by CiteSpaceV to
display the update and interaction of keywords and further excavate the
evolutionary trend of AR vocational training-related research from the
time dimension. The corresponding results are illustrated in Fig. 5.
According to the keyword co-occurrence time zone map of
2004–2021 (Fig. 5), AR technology was first applied in vocational ed­
ucation and training in 2014. The focus of ARVT changed considerably
and exhibited a diversified trend during these 17 years. According to the
time zone distribution characteristics of the keywords, AR vocational
training-related research can be divided into three stages: the initial
stage, the development stage, and the maturity and rise stage. Table 2
shows that different stages of development adopt different technical
means and target training fields.
From 2004 to 2005, personalized training based on virtual technol­
ogy, cognitive systems and learning systems began to emerge. The
research fields mainly focused on aerospace engineering, aviation nav­
igation, aviation and the aerospace industry. The training targets were
mostly aircraft maintenance technicians. From 2008 to 2009, AR tech­
nology began to be widely used in education, maintenance and medical
education, such as surgical training, laparoscopic surgery, and suturing
methods.
From 2010 to 2015, with the maturity of AR applications, AR sys­
tems, vision-based registration and tracking technology (sensors),
human-computer interaction technology, and the continuous upgrading
and improvement of digital equipment, AR technology began to be
applied in training for maintenance operations and assembly tasks in
industrial training. This helped apprentices or students solve complex
operational problems in real-world environments through timely feed­
back from AR technology. In addition, medical students use augmented
reality simulators to perform operations such as laparoscopic cholecys­
tectomy to improve their clinical skills.
In 2011, based on the original AR vocational education, research on
feedback was deepened, and the development of force feedback or
“haptic” systems was introduced. The addition of VR technology
garnered more attention, and research on immersive virtual worlds
began to enhance the future learning environment. With the increased
use of AR technology in medicine, more research has begun to focus on
aspects such as the cognitive and emotional treatment of disadvantaged
groups of people, including autistic patients. Simultaneously, studies
established a “community-based rehabilitation” environment to provide
patients with greater convenience and freedom in the treatment and
consultation process. In 2013, researchers began to pay more attention
to industrial training and to study how to help people with cognitive
impairment improve their vocational skills.
Since 2016, with the advent of Industry 4.0, AR vocational education
has considerably increased, and the focus of this education has become
increasingly diversified. This focus provides not only the guidance for
the education industry but also enhances the benefits and performance
of many companies, such as for assembly and maintenance of the elec­
trical manufacturing industry. Training in manufacturing, disaster pre­
vention, accident prevention, architectural design, and occupational risk
involves the use of AR training technology, the combination of AR
training with practical training, and the identification of safety risks in
different occupational environments. The research in this stage
F.-K. Chiang et al. Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125

Fig. 4. Keywords co-occurrence knowledge graph of ARVT.

Fig. 5. Keyword co-occurrence time zone map.

gradually focuses on the evaluation results of cognitive activities, environment close to the real-world operating environment. From 2020,
cognitive processes and behavioral skills of training objects in the pro­ AR vocational training will be more widely applied in distance educa­
cess of vocational training in the development of emerging technologies. tion, engineering education and other fields and combined with
The literature published in 2019 was detailed in terms of classifica­ educational computing technology.
tion, and the focus became increasingly precise. In new and old in­
dustries, education and training, cyber-physical systems, human-
3.2. Research status of ARVT
computer interaction, deep learning, system construction, environ­
ment optimization, performance improvement, and corresponding work
3.2.1. Application scope of AR vocational training
skills can be considered from multiple dimensions. Graphics technology
Two researchers used NVivo 11 to encode the fields and industries of
provides additional choices in terms of graphics rendering and presen­
80 articles in which AR technology was used for training, obtaining 85
tation methods. The combination of a 360◦ panorama and VR technol­
industry and 69 AR technology nodes.
ogy offers an immersive experience for constructing a simulated
After these nodes were classified, nine fields of AR vocational

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F.-K. Chiang et al.
Table 2
2004–2021 AR technology development stage.
Time Developmental Field or occupation
stage
2004–2007 initial stage aviation、industry、 on the job training (OJT)
2008–2015 Development education、industry (laparoscopy）、 medical
stage (laparoscopic suturing、surgical training、
anatomy)、ergonomics、aviation、nuclear、
chemical
2016–2021 Maturity and rise industry (accident prevention)、construction、
stage vocational education and training (VET)、medical、
emergency service、construction、commerce、
electric
training applications were extracted. Among them, the percentages of
each category from large to small are shown in Fig. 6: Industry (35%),
Vocation Education and Training (VET, 26%), Medical (13%), Aviation
(9%), Construction (6%), Nuclear (5%), Electric (4%), Agriculture (1%)
and Military (1%).
Industrial training was cited by 35% of the 80 studies as the most
widespread use of AR, followed by vocational education and training
(26%) and medicine (13%). Each of the nine areas of AR career training
contains a variety of application subclasses. Taking industry AR training
as an example, its main application industries are assembly, automobile
parts testing, chemical plant teaching, engineering, maintenance, rail­
way, safety training, transportation industry, and welding. In terms of
maintenance, the training mainly focuses on the assembly process,
heavy equipment production, manual work, shipbuilding, small parts
manufacturing, welding, etc.
In the 80 studies, 42% mentioned the use of AR hardware and tools,
32% mentioned AR software applications, and 26% mentioned system
platform development, as shown in Fig. 7. Twenty-two studies
mentioned AR applications. Examples included hand-held augmented
reality applications, postal services, gamification AR, A4Juan mobile
applications, marker-based mobile AR, AN AR welding mobile applica­
tions, AR maintenance training applications, etc. Eighteen studies
mentioned the design of AR vocational training programs and the
development and use of systems or platforms, such as a video-based AR
system, a web-based platform, an interactive augmented reality system,
and a maintenance system based on distributed augmented reality. The
use of specific AR tools or hardware was mentioned in 29 studies, such as
AR glasses, AR simulations, dynamic markers and mobile devices,
augmented 360-degree panoramas, camera-equipped mobile tablets,
web cameras, 3D markerless tracking, and scene displays. AR head-
mounted displays (HMDs) are the most widely used AR glasses. The
most commonly used device for training in medical surgery is the
ProMIS augmented reality simulator. The application and purpose of AR
Fig. 6. The proportion of AR training in each field.
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Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125
Technology or tool Training objects
computer-aided instruction (CAI)、 cognitive aircraft maintenance
system、 learning system 、computer image technicians (AMTS)
augmented reality (AR)、 AR-simulation、CAI、 adult、apprentice、
computer simulation、audiovisual equipment、 student、automotive
collaboration tool、AR application technician、medical
student
diagnostic imaging、 human-computer interaction、 construction worker
image recognition technology、android application、
AR APP、computer graphics、 360-degree
panorama、AR-HMD
Fig. 7. AR technology distribution in vocational training.
technology will be further explained in combination with empirical
research.
3.2.2. The advantages of AR in vocational training
To further explore AR training in different fields, we selected 17
empirical studies from the sample literature. We sorted the training
areas, training objectives, use of technology or tools, skills improve­
ment, training effects, and other aspects. The corresponding results are
presented in Table 3.
Among the 17 empirical studies, five were focused on medical lap­
aroscopy, surgical training, suturing and knot-tying tasks, minimally
invasive surgery, and ophthalmology health care services. In general, a
quasi-experimental research method was used to divide medical stu­
dents into experimental and control groups. Studies have used an AR
simulator, such as the ProMIS augmented laparoscopic reality simulator,
to help novice participants improve their surgical skills. Studies have
indicated that such AR techniques are an effective tool for training in
laparoscopic suturing skills for inexperienced medical workers and
experienced surgeons (Botden et al., 2008, 2009b; Dixit & Sinha, 2019;
Nomura et al., 2015).
Some studies were based on VET institutions. The studies above
aimed to use a market-based AR application to improve the participants’
grades and help them gain a sense of self-efficacy. Among them, three
studies were related to car maintenance, the process of painting a car,
and computer hardware for vocational education. Two of the studies
revealed that mobile AR applications in VET increased motivation,
especially confidence and satisfaction. Another study found that the use
of AR had a positive effect on student achievement, whereas it had no
impact on student self-efficacy (Bacca et al., 2015, 2018; Sirakaya et al.,
2018). In addition, the application of augmented reality technology to
hotel training management forms a new efficient AR-OJT model based
on target detection and causality mining. This approach reduces the
costs of development and maintenance required to run OJT programs.
F.-K. Chiang et al. Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125

Table 3
Overview of 17 empirical articles on AR vocational education.
Training Areas Author/Year Training Objects Equipment/Application Training Skills Acquired
Effects

Construction Kwiateket al.2019 21 professional pipefitters Three-dimensional (3D) ＋ Spatial cognition

40 engineering students scanning and scan-vs.-BIM visualization skills
Eiris et al., 2018 Construction workforce 30 subjects 360◦ panorama AR ＋ Hazard-identification skills
Industry Gavishet al.2015 40 expert technicians IMA-AR training platform □ Cognitive & procedural skills
Yim et al., 2010 42 nuclear energy students ＋
Manufacturing Torres- 10 new employees VR & AR cabin & Unity 3D ＋ Welding skills
Guerreroet al.2019
Loch et al., 2016 17 undergraduate students AR-based system ＋
Vocational Education and Koo et al., 2019 70 undergraduate and graduate Prototype AR-OJT system for ＋ Professional expertise &
Training (VET) students in business administration hotel management training social skills
Bacca et al., 2018 35 vocational students Paint-cAR application ＋
Sirakaya et al., 2018 46 undergraduate students Hardware AR ＋ Assembly & application skills
Bacca et al., 2015 13 vocational students Paint-cAR ＋
Aviation Macchiarella et al., Aviation university undergraduates Video-based AR system □ Spatial ability & recall
2004 encoded information
Military Mao et al., 2017 40 military staff officers ARB-MDMP system (3D image- ＋ Task and decision-making
based AR) ability
Medical Dixit et al., 2019 45 experienced medical staff AR tools ＋ Laparoscopic skill
Nomura et al., 2015 19 medical students VRS (Lap Simulator) ＋ Laparoscopic skill
Botden et al., 2009b 10 experienced ProMIS AR simulator ＋ Suturing, surgical,
14 novice participants laparoscopic & knot-tying
skills
Botden et al., 2009a 18 novice participants ProMIS AR laparoscopic ＋ Suturing & laparoscopic skills
simulator
Botden et al., 2008 27 experienced ProMIS AR laparoscopic ＋ Laparoscopic skills
28 moderately experienced simulator

Note: “＋” means positive significant; “□” means nonsignificant.

Participants are immersed in the training environment, which increases enterprises.

the effectiveness of the training (Koo et al., 2019).
Two studies were related to safety training and pipe spool assembly
in the construction industry. These studies were focused on training
engineering students or the construction workforce. A hand-held AR
application with the features of three-dimensional (3D) scanning, a
flexible workflow, and a touch-sensitive user interface was employed to
help students acquire spatial cognition and spatial visualization skills.
Augmented 360◦ panoramas of reality (PARs) for safety-training appli­
cations can improve trainees’ hazard recognition skills (Eiris et al.,
2018; Kwiatek et al., 2019).
Other studies have mainly focused on maintenance in nuclear power
plants, assembly task training, welding training, manual work in
manufacturing and flight and aerospace maintenance training. Their
results reveal that AR training instruction has significant effects on
learners and may have an impact on long-term memory (Koo et al.,
2019; Loch et al., 2016; Macchiarella & Vincenzi, 2004; Torres-Guerrero
et al., 2019).
From the perspective of research objects, AR vocational education is
not only for in-service staff; training for technical experts can improve
product performance, thereby enhancing the efficiency of the system
platform. Moreover, pre-employment education and training are appli­
cation directions for AR vocational education. AR technology provides a
simulation platform for people with no work experience. It also provides
these people with the knowledge they would need for work in advance,
which improves the accuracy and operability of their work skills. From
the perspective of the platform or system, the work practiced through
AR technology is mainly performed with software or physical hardware.
For this form of education, attention should be given to the maintenance
and performance improvement of the platform or system. Therefore, AR
technology can also respond to future vocational training demands. The
effect of AR vocational-technical training is relatively positive, and such
training is essential for the promotion or advanced learning of fine
professional skills. In addition, new technologies can create additional
opportunities for vocational skill training, not only for mastering the
required work skills but also for effectively controlling the cost of trial
and error, thereby maximizing the benefits for individuals and
3.3. AR technology or equipment in vocational training
The key technologies for supporting the operation of AR systems are
interactive technology, display technology, and tracking registration
technology. Table 4 lists some AR applications or software, systems or
platforms, and hardware mentioned in studies on vocational training.
From the perspective of platforms and systems, each application has a
training purpose. Notably, the study that developed the ARCoach system
for vocational task prompting may have been the first to use AR in
vocational skill training for people with cognitive impairments. Previous
study results revealed that participants could engage in tasks with the
assistance of ARCoach, and this engagement can improve the quality of
life for people with disabilities (Chang et al., 2013).
From the perspective of software and AR applications, 360◦ pano­
ramas, the Blippar AR browser, and Unity3D are often used in AR
training. Augmented 360◦ PARs create low-cost, true-to-reality repre­
sentations of real construction job sites, which can improve the hazard-
identification skills of workers (Pereira et al., 2018). Blippar is one of the
most commonly used AR browsers with which students look for markers.
It can be used for mechanical engineers’ vocational and practical
training (Striuk et al., 2018). Unity3D is one of the most powerful
cross-platform game engines. It eliminates any difficulties that may be
encountered in the future when hardware changes are needed (Albayrak
et al., 2019)..
AR glasses, AR simulations, and HoloLens devices are usually used in
training. Microsoft HoloLens, DAQRI, ODG R-7, Vuzix M300, and Epson
Moverio BT-300 are commonly used AR glasses. AR technology com­
bined with image recognition technology is a training method. The
training process can be optimized, and the quality of training can be
increased by using AR glasses (Albayrak et al., 2019). AR simulators can
retain the benefit of realistic haptic feedback and generate informative
feedback and objective assessments during training (Botden et al.,
2009b).
Thus, AR technology offers an innovative alternative for trainees. In
AR training, AR technology can improve learning effectiveness in terms

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F.-K. Chiang et al.
Table 4
Overview of 17 studies on AR vocational training technology.
Category Description Purpose
System and A 3D AR training system The goal of the training is to
Platform for MIS on kidney tumors enhance the surgeon’s visual
perception, dexterity and
accuracy of surgical operations,
thereby significantly improving
surgical outcomes (Wang et al.,
2017).
A game-based evacuation The training system is designed to
training system provide adequate evacuation
drills to community members in
emergencies (Catal et al., 2020).
An electric power work It aims to create a more realistic
assist system and convenient training
experience for power training (
Tang et al., 2019).
An interactive AR system This system is designed to train a
user for specific maintenance
tasks (Besbes et al., 2012)
ARB-MDMP Training During the MDMP course,
System learners could observe the AR
simulated environment, objects,
and battlespace information
through monitors and screens. It
could save time in consulting
guides and books and improve
learning efficiency and interactive
learning capabilities (Mao et al.,
2017).
AR Coach The proposed system for
vocational task prompting is for
people with cognitive
impairments (Chang et al., 2013).
AR-OJT system for hotel This approach reduces the cost of
management training training required for OJT
programs and increases the
effectiveness of training (Koo
et al., 2019).
AR-based operation The use of this technology to build
training system for the virtual environment of the
operation and power training system
maintenance significantly improves the realism
and immersion of the training
scenes (Peng et al., 2018).
Maintenance applications These applications are intended
of AR systems for aeronautical maintenance and
training (Rios et al., 2011).
MDMP Training System It provides realistic troop
patterns, terrain environments,
and immediate battlefield
intelligence (Mao et al., 2017).
The Engine Air Bleed This system is intended to
System on the Boeing 737 enhance training in the process of
troubleshooting an aircraft engine
(Rios et al., 2013).
IMA-AR training platform With the AR training system, the
trainee performs assembly
operations on real machines by
using real instruments for
interaction under the guidance of
a mobile platform that supports
AR visualization (a tablet PC with
a touchscreen) and tactile
feedback (Gavish et al., 2015).
The PARs Platform It uses augmented 360◦ PARs for
safety-training applications to
enhance trainees’ hazard-
identification skills for four types
of sample hazards (Eiris et al.,
2018).
Software and 360◦ panoramas These panoramas are used for
AR visualizing complex situations on
application actual construction sites and can
be augmented with different
7
Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125
Table 4 (continued )
Category Description Purpose
layers of safety-related
information (Pereira et al., 2018).
Blippar AR browser It can be applied to the vocational
and practical training of
mechanical engineers (Striuk
et al., 2018).
Unifeye Unifeye not only makes it easy to
develop applications using the c#
programming language, but also
supports a variety of tracking
methods (Yim & Seong, 2010).
Unity3D Unity3D, one of the most
powerful engines for games, is
compatible with almost any
computer platform (Albayrak
et al., 2019).
A hand-held AR This application is used to assist in
application assembling and inspecting pipe
spools (Kwiatek et al., 2019).
A marker-based AR It supplies relevant information
application about hardware components,
ports, and assemblies (Sirakaya
et al., 2019).
A4Juan mobile It features multiple training
application modes, support for gesture and
voice control, flexible and
updatable training modules, and
on-screen video remote assistance
(Dayagdag et al., 2019).
The Paint-cAR application This is a marker-based mobile AR
application for supporting the
process of repairing and painting
cars (Bacca et al., 2018).
Hardware and AR glasses It optimizes the training process
AR tool in fast-food restaurants. The
researchers increased the quality
of the training by game flying and
personalizing the process (
Albayrak et al., 2019).
AR simulations It generates both assessment and
information feedback objectively
during the training process (
Botden et al., 2009b).
HoloLens device It provides a more realistic and
convenient training experience
for training in electricity (Tang
et al., 2019).
of motivation, self-directed learning, and learning performance. More­
over, this method reduces the time and money spent training new em­
ployees, thereby facilitating human resource management.
3.4. The effect of AR on vocational training: meta-analysis
To explore the impact of AR on vocational training, this study further
narrowed the scope of the research and conducted a meta-analysis on 12
studies using Review Manager 5.3. To guarantee the uniformity of the
meta-analysis studies and the rigorousness of the results, the literature
included in the meta-analysis must meet the following five criteria:
(1) The research topic must be the impact of AR technology or tools
on vocational skills or effectiveness training;
(2) The studies must be of experimental or quasi-experimental type,
including experimental and control groups, or the experiment
must include pre-test and post-test;
(3) Sufficient statistical information must be reported to estimate the
effect value of AR training, such as the mean (M), standard de­
viation (SD), t value, p value, and other data. If the study provided
only descriptive statistics or p values, they were excluded;
(4) The research object must have a relevant occupation or
profession;
F.-K. Chiang et al.
(5) Study publication dates must be between 2000 and 2021.
3.4.1. Quality assessment
Based on the Cochrane Risk Bias Assessment Tool, researchers have
conducted an assessment of the risk of bias for all included studies
(Higgins, 2008), including:(1) Whether randomization was used; (2)
Whether the scheme to allocate was hidden; (3) Whether the subjects
and researchers adopted a blind method; (4) Whether the result data
were complete; (5) Whether the research results were selectively re­
ported, for example, selective reporting of the results beneficial to their
research direction; (6) Whether there were other sources of bias, such as
conflicts of interest, small sample size, etc.
The results of the risk of bias assessed for the included studies are
shown in Figs. 8 and 9. (1) The 12 studies in this study were randomized
controlled trials (2) and did not mention the method of allocation hid­
ing. (3) Considering the characteristics of AR vocational training itself,
we believe that no study has adopted blindness, but this does not affect
the outcome indicators. (4) Of the 12 studies, none mentioned missing
data. (5) All studies had a low risk of being assessed as selective
reporting. (6) Three studies proposed that sample size and other factors
may affect the results. Fig. 8 is a statistical chart of the proportion of
each item in the methodological assessment.
For the quality methodology evaluation of the included literature
(Fig. 9), none reached the risk of low bias with high quality. Nine pieces
of literature reached the risk of 4 points, and the remaining three pieces
of literature all reached the risk of moderate bias. In Fig. 9, "+" was
regarded as a score, while "-" was regarded as no score.
3.4.2. Heterogeneity test
Revman provides the Q-test and I2 test. The Q test was based on the
total variance test; if p < 0.1, there was heterogeneity; and if p > 0.1,
there was no heterogeneity. The I2 test mainly reflects the real change in
effect size to the total change. I2 values of 25%, 50% and 75% are used to
indicate the limits of low, medium and high heterogeneity, respectively
(Higgins et al., 2003). If there were no significant differences in het­
erogeneity between the results, the fixed-effect model was used for
analysis. If significant heterogeneity existed among the results,
meta-analysis was performed using a random effects model. Further
analysis of the sources of heterogeneity is necessary, such as further
subgroup analysis or sensitivity analysis (Borenstein et al., 2009). Ac­
cording to the above criteria, the heterogeneity test of the I2pieces of
literature included in this meta-analysis showed that Q = 144.27, I2 =
88% > 50%, and p < 0.00001, indicating high heterogeneity among the
literature selected in this study. Random effects can be selected for
meta-analysis. To ensure the accuracy of the study, sensitivity analysis
should be continued.
3.4.3. Sensitivity analysis
This study explored the heterogeneous relationship between the use
of AR technology or tools and vocational training outcomes. Sensitivity
analysis was carried out for the I2 pieces of literature in this study, as
Fig. 8. Risk of bias graph.
8
Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125
Fig. 9. Risk of bias summary.
shown in the figure. The heterogeneity test showed that I2 = 88%, p <
0.00001, indicating the existence of relatively high heterogeneity,
which should be excluded before analysis. Studies with significant dif­
ferences were deleted, and changes in the total effect size were observed.
After removing data from three studies (Botden al., 2009a; Lee, 2020;
Sirakaya et al., 2018), the heterogeneity of the vocational training effect
decreased to 63%, p = 0.0003. Heterogeneity is significantly reduced so
that the results of the analysis can be used. Regardless of the degree of
heterogeneity, the vocational training effect was considerably correlated
with AR technology.
3.4.4. A meta-analysis of random effects
According to the impact of vocational training, the overall effect of
various studies is shown in Fig. 10. Both the fixed-effect model and
random effect model were statistically significant (p < 0.00001). Ac­
cording to the above heterogeneity test results, this study selected a
random effect model for meta-analysis. The overall effect of 12 studies
was 0.74 (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.31–1.17), and I2 studies had an
effective sample size of 815. AR vocational training subjects were sta­
tistically significant. According to the effect value classification stan­
dard, it is generally believed that an effective value of 0.2 has little
influence, 0.5 has a medium effect, and 0.8 has a significant effect
(Cohen, 1977). AR technology has a high promotion effect on the overall
effect of vocational training, which is helpful to improve the training
effect of vocational personnel.
3.4.5. Bias test
To ensure the reliability and scientificity of the research results, a
funnel plot was drawn to investigate whether there was publication bias
in this study. Publication bias refers to the failure of published literature
to systematically and comprehensively reflect the overall research done
in this field (Rothstein et al., 2005). The abscissa of the funnel plot
represents the effect size, the ordinate represents the standard error, and
the two oblique lines represent 95% confidence intervals. Publication
bias is mainly identified through observation (Schulz et al., 1995).
Funnel plot symmetry means there is no publication bias. Fig. 11 clearly
shows that the funnel plot of this study is symmetric, indicating that the
results of the overall meta-analysis are quite acceptable. However, there
are some points outside the two slanted lines, which implies that there
may be heterogeneity in the included studies. This conclusion was
consistent with the heterogeneity test results and was further analyzed
based on forest map data.
4. Conclusion and suggestions
CiteSpace’s keyword co-occurrence knowledge graph and keyword
timing knowledge graph indicated that research on AR vocational ed­
ucation was related to numerous fields, such as industry, medical
training, aerospace, nuclear energy, military, and agriculture, involving
industrial manufacturing, building safety, medical surgery training,
F.-K. Chiang et al.
Fig. 10. Forest plot of overall effects on students’ learning effects.
Fig. 11. Funnel plot of the studies included.
maintenance, assembly tasks, accident avoidance, suture methods and
many other aspects. The research subjects ranged from students to
workers, and the purpose of training ranged from skill acquisition to
professional improvement. Usually, AR system platforms are used for
the practical application of high-tech technology or the characterization
and observation of information technology and professional knowledge
through human-computer interaction. Computer-assisted instruction
ensures safety in skills training or performance improvement in
dangerous occupations and is easy to be implemented. In addition, the
fusion of virtual reality technology and simulation technology adds a
realistic experience to classroom practice by the new teaching combi­
nation of “computer & simulator”. The application of AR technology in
vocational education provides experience references for vocational skill
training and industry standards.
The clustering time zone diagram indicated that the number of
research topics on AR technology gradually increased around 2008.
According to the research evolution presented by the time zone chart,
ARVT can be roughly divided into three stages: 2004–2007, vocational
training in virtual environment entered the initial stage; 2008–2015,
RVT was in the development stage of the industrial age; 2016–2021, AR
vocational training isin the era of industry 4.0 and begins to enter a
mature and rising stage. In 2016, with the diversified growth of research
topics, the research content on AR was rich; however, the research
output, such as that for “performance and participation,” was relatively
limited. Therefore, additional in-depth theoretical and applied research
9
Computers in Human Behavior 129 (2022) 107125
aspects of AR should be conducted in the future.
Based on the in-depth interpretation of 17 empirical studies, this
study found that the advantages of AR in vocational training are mainly
as follows: (1) Improved relevant vocational skills, such as spatial
cognition skills, spatial visualization skills (Kwiatek et al., 2019),
hazard-identification skills (Eiris et al., 2018), assembly skills (Sirakaya
& Cakmak, 2018), task and decision-making ability (Mao et al., 2017),
suturing skills, surgical skills, laparoscopic skills (Botden et al. 2008,
2009a; Nomura et al., 2015), the capacity of employees as manifested by
professional expertise, experience, (Koo et al., 2019); (2) improved
participation (Nguyen et al., 2020)；(3) improved learning motivation
(attention, confidence, satisfaction) and self-regulated learning ability
(Bacca Acosta et al., 2019; Koo et al., 2019); (4) improved academic
performance (Sirakaya & Cakmak, 2018); (5) reduced cognitive load
(Botden et al. 2009a; Lee, 2020); (6) shortened training time (Botden
et al. 2009a; Gavish et al., 2015)；(7) reduced rate of operational error
(Gavish et al., 2015); and (8) provision of timely feedback as an
assessment tool (Botden et al. 2009b). These results also validate the
previous research results on AR enterprise training (Martins et al.,
2021), as Table 3 shows the work skills changed by AR vocational
training. Most of the skills are improved, but the skills related to spatial
cognition are not positively affected. This may be related to skill training
time, and the specific reasons can be understood in subsequent studies.
To further investigate the effect of AR on vocational training, we
further evaluated 17 empirical studies according to 5 criteria, and only
12 of them met the requirements. Using the standardized mean differ­
ence (SMD) or mean difference of test scores (MD) as outcome measures,
a meta-analysis was used to evaluate the effectiveness of AR vocational
training. The overall effect size was large (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI:
0.31–1.17), indicating that AR technology had a high promoting effect
on the overall effect of vocational training. Of course, there are also
some concerns about AR as a training tool, such as people’s adaptation
to and proficiency in AR technology, the cost of customization of AR
equipment, visual limitations, interference from the outside environ­
ment and dependence on internet connections (Martins et al., 2021).
In addition, employers often develop technology platforms suitable
for their own educational needs. They then combine these platforms
with digital products on the market to maximize the user experience. In
the statistical analysis of 80 pieces of literature, the application of AR
technology equipment also presents a particular distribution law.
Hardware AR was used as a training tool in nearly half of the studies.
Some of the research uses AR applications or software to establish vir­
tual simulation scenes; AR systems or platforms are also important
training equipment. This echoed the results of the CiteSpaceanalysis.
F.-K. Chiang et al.
This empirical research summary of AR technology in vocational
education reveals that a variety of new intelligent technologies, such as
AR, meet research needs in education and teaching and have value in
pre-employment learning and work skills training. In future research,
the multidimensionality of vocational education and training can be
explored from the aspects of human-computer interaction, system con­
struction, performance improvement, and environmental optimization
in emerging fields such as deep learning. Vocational and technical
training that integrates vocational skills and technology can be inves­
tigated. Thus, a more mature labor force can be developed, and higher
labor value can be created for the labor market. With the combination of
AR, artificial intelligence, VR, and other intelligent technologies, voca­
tional training classification will become more detailed, and the focus of
this training will be more precise.
5. Limitation
Although the authors wanted to obtain as much research as possible
on AR career training, the articles reviewed in this study were limited to
journals indexed in the database: SCOPUS, Web of Science Core
Collection, EBSCO, and ProQuest. This study is limited to the experi­
mental studies presented in the form of complete articles, such as con­
ference papers or journals, so some studies that do not provide the full
text, such as abstracts, may be lost. At the same time, our research was
limited to the English language, so excellent research published in other
languages is ignored. Moreover, due to the focus on AR technology, this
study did not include the relevant application research of VR, XR, MR
and other simulation technologies in vocational education into the sta­
tistical scope. While all selected studies were read entirely, some in­
formation may have been misunderstood or omitted during the analysis.
As the field advances and augmented reality technology rapidly ad­
vances, future iterations of this research may help us with our findings.
In addition to screening the limitation of the article, due to the work
experience, the training object, AR equipment, experimental period,
gender, different profession and different influencing factors such as
experiment purpose, the 12 studies included in the meta-analysis data
were limited and have higher heterogeneity. In the study, AR is verified
by its overall effect and has a great role in improving vocational training.
In the follow-up study, the discussion will be further combined with
meta-analysis.
Credit author statement
Feng-Kuang Chiang: Conceptualization Writing, Reviewing and
Editing. Xiaojing Shang: Data curation, Writing - Original Draf, Visu­
alization. Lu Qiao: Data curation, Writing - Original Draf, Visualization.
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