SGL 407 Engineering Geology1.Pdf1

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Lecture Series: SGL 407-Engineering Geology
LECTURE 1:
ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS AND THEIR USES.
1.1 Introduction
Welcome to the first lecture of this unit. In the overall introduction we have defined
engineering geology and broadly outlined the various engineering works. To start this
lecture think about the various engineering works you have just listed during the
introduction. For example the building you are sitting in or live in, the roads we use
everyday, the pavements you walked above on your way to this lecture. Some of the
most recent buildings in town have shiny colored decorative finishing we call granite
and marble. Some floors are having tiles of different colors.
Different rocks and Minerals are used differently during varied engineering works
because of the fact that they pose different engineering properties e.g density, strength
(dimension stone), and hardness e.t.c
As a prerequisite to this lecture you should have covered SGL 101 Earth materials,
SGL 301, Igneous Petrology, SGL 302 Metamorphic Petrology and SGL 303
Sedimentary Petrology.
1.2 Objectives
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. List the various kinds of construction materials and their uses

2. Classify the various geological engineering materials and tabulate
their uses.
3. Describe the physical properties materials for engineering works
4. Differentiate between geological and engineering classification of
rocks
5. Briefly outline Alkali Silica Reaction and its effect to engineering
works
SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 1
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1.3 General description, classification and uses of rocks
Geologist use the term “Rock” for all constituents of the earth crust. In this lecture,
however, the engineering usage of subdividing these constituents into rock and soils is
followed. Rocks and minerals will be discussed in Lecture 1 and 2 while soils will be
discussed in lecture 3.
Generally materials for engineering purposes can be divided into two as follows:
i) Soils
ii) Rocks
IN TEXT QUESTION
What does the term rock mean in Engineering Works!
The term rock as used in engineering geology means a compact,

semi hard to hard mass of natural material composed one or
several minerals
1.3.1 Soils
Soils maybe classified by their mineralogical properties or grain size useful for
engineering works e.g Clays for making bricks, tiles, pottery, drilling mud and sand for
glass and abrasive industries. The classification of soils will be given in Lecture 2
1.3.2 Rocks and their classification

There are two classifications of rock
• Geological Classification of rocks
• Engineering Classification of rocks
1.3.2.1 Geological Classification of Rocks

Geologists have classified earth’s rocks on the basis of origin. The rocks are broadly
classified into three major groups based on their mode of origin as follows: -
i) Sedimentary rocks
ii) Igneous rocks
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iii) Metamorphic rocks.
i) Sedimentary
The classification scheme of sedimentary rocks is based on the mode of deposition and
the chemical composition of the rocks as well as particle size. Sedimentary rocks form
from cemented aggregates of transported fragments of rocks from the accumulation of
organic debris such as shell fragments and dead plants or minerals that are chemically
precipitated. Some examples of Sedimentary rocks include;
a) Fragments of Rocks (Sandstone, Siltstone, Mudstone)

b) Organic Debris (Limestone, Coal)
c) Chemical Precipitates (Rock salt, Gypsum)
ii) Igneous Rocks

The classification scheme for igneous rocks is based on crystal size. Because crystals
size is dependent on rate of cooling, the rock formation’s mode of origin can be
determined. Igneous rocks form from the solidification of molten materials that
originates in or below the earths crust. The composition depends on the kind of molten
material (magma) from which it crystallizes and its texture depends on the rate at
which the material cools. Slow rates of cooling promote larger crystal sized rock
(pegmatite), whereas fast cooling rates produces fine crystallized rock (basalt, gabbro,
ryholite), or even amorphous glasses e.g obsidian
iii) Metamorphic Rocks

The classification of metamorphic rock is based on grain structure and mineralogy.
Metamorphic rocks form deep in the earth from pre-existing rocks of all types in
response to increases in temperature or pressure or both. The composition of the
metamorphosed rock depends on the original material and the temperature and
pressure; its texture reflects the deformational forces. Metamorphic rocks are formed
from igneous and sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure hence most of them are
strong and can withstand stress and strain making them suitable for engineering
purposes. Examples of metamorphic Rocks include gneiss schist, slate, marble,
quartzite etc.

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This grouping, however, gives little or no inkling of the engineering properties of a

particular rock. For example granite to an engineer generally means hard, reliable
bearing material; however, it is known that the bearing properties of granite are
exceedingly variable from locale and from outcrop to outcrop due to reasons such as
weathering, fracture e.t.c.
ACTIVITY
List the various kinds of Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary

Rocks
1.3.2.2. Engineering Classification of Rocks
Engineering classification of rocks is much more elaborate than a typical geologist

classification. Engineers need a classification or classifications of rocks by their
engineering properties, and such classifications either do not exist or are yet in their
infancy. Clayton, Simons and Mathews (1982) classification proposes a simplified
system for rock identification based on origin and grain size from igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks that provides a useful framework, within which engineers can
work. Modification of existing rock classification by use of descriptive adjectives
appended to the rock name is the best method for describing a rock for engineering
purpose. For example completely decomposed, partially cohesive granite etc. Such
adjectives should denote
(i) The primary structure and mineral make-up
(ii) The extent and nature of alterations
(iii) The structural features of strength or weakness The weakening effects of
weathering
(iv) The continuous processes that may cause further change
(v) The surface conditions.
(vi)
Lets us briefly look at the Clayton, Simons and Mathews (1982) classification of
engineering rocks. The classification scheme for igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks
and igneous rocks is given in table 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4.

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Table 1.1 Igneous Rocks based on crystal size

Grain Size Acid Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic
Light-Colored Rocks Dark-Colored Rocks Dark-Colored Rocks Dark-Colored Rocks
Very coarse Rock consists of very large and often well-developed crystals of quartz, feldspar mica, and frequently rare minerals.
grained
PEGMATITE
60 mm
Coarse grained At least 50% of the rock is coarse grained enough to allow individual minerals to be identified.
Rock is coarse grained and dark in colour (dull
Rock is light colored with an Rock may be medium to dark in color Rock is dark colored and often greenish
green to black) with a granular texture. It contains
equigranular texture (majority of grains with more or less equigranular texture with abundant plagioclase (about 60%)
olivine and augite in abundance but no feldspars
approximately the same size) and and contains > 20% quartz with and augite together with some olivine.
contains > 20% quartz with feldspar in feldspar and homeblende in The rock usually feels dense.
abundance. abundance.
PERIDOTITE
2 mm GABBRO
GRANITE DIORITE
Medium At least 50% of the rock is medium grained. Crystal outlines are generally visible with the aid of a hand lens, but individual Rock is grayish green to black with a splintery
grained minerals may be difficult to identify. fracture when broken and generally feels soapy or
Rock is similar in appearance to granite, Rock is similar in appearance to Rock is similar in appearance and often waxy to the touch. It is of ten crisscrossed by
but the crystals are generally much diorite, but crystals are generally greenish with a granular texture. veins of fibrous minerals and /or banded.
smaller. much smaller. Individual minerals may be difficult to
0.06 mm identify. The rock usually feels dense.
MICO-GRANITE MICRO-DIORITE DOLERITE SERPENTINE
Fine grained At least 50% of the rock is fine grained. Outlines of crystals are not usually visible even with the aid of a hand lens. All rocks in
this category may be vesicular.
Rock is light colored (often pale reddish Rock is medium to dark color Rock is black when fresh and becomes
brown or pinkish grey) and may be banded. (shades of grey, purple, brown, red or green when weathered. The rock is
or green) and frequently often vesicular and/or amygdaloidal.
RHYOLITE porphyritic.
Rock is light colored with a very low specific

gravity and highly vesicular.
ANDESITE BASALT
PUMICE
Glassy Rock is glassy and contains few or no phenocrysts. It is often black in color and has a characteristic vitreous luster and
conchoidal fracture.
OBSIDIAN
Rock is glassy and contains few or no phenocrysts. It may be black, brown, or gray in colored with a characteristic dull or waxy
luster.
PITCHSTONE

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Table 1.2 Sedimentary classification of Rocks based on mode of deposition and chemical composition as well as particle size
Group Detrital Sediments Bedded Pyroclastic Sediments Chemical and Organic Sediments
Bedded Massive Bedded
Composition Quartz, rock fragments, feldspar, and At least 50% of rock is At least 50% of grains are fine- Crystalline carbonate rocks Depositional textures often not
and Texture other minerals. comprised of carbonate grained volcanic material. Rocks often
depositional texture not recognizable.
minerals (rocks usually composed of angular mineral or
react with dilute HCI). igneous rock fragments in a fine- recognizable. Fabric is
grained matrix.
non-elastc.
Grain Size Rock is composed of more or less CALCI-RUDITE Rock is composed of: Rock is crystalline, salty to taste,
rounded grains in a finer grained matrix: i) Rounded grains in a fine grained
and may be scratched with a finger
matrix:
Coarse grained nail:
CONGLOMERATE HALITE (rock salt)
2mm
AGGLOMERATE
Rock is composed or angular or sub
Rock is crystalline and may be
angular grains in a finer grained matrix: i) Angular grains in a
fine grained matrix: scratched with the fingernail.
BRECCIA Grains turn into a chalky white
VOLCANIC BRECCIA
substance when burned for a few
minutes.
GYPSUM

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Medium Rock is composed of: Rock is composed of mainly sand- Rock is crystalline and
grained i)Mainly mineral and rock fragments: CALCI-ARENITE sized angular mineral and rock
composed of calcium
fragments in a fine-grained matrix:
0.06mm carbonate (>90%) – reacts Rock is crystalline, colorless to
SANDSTONE
violently with HCI. white, frequently with a bluish
ii) Quartz. The voids tinge. It is harder than gypsum and

between the grains may LIMESTONE has three orthogonal cleavages:
be empty or filled with
chemical cement: ANHYDRITE
Rock is crystalline and
QUARTZ SANDSTONE may show a yellowish Rock is black or brownish black
coloration and/or the and has a low specific gravity (1.8-
ii) Quartz and Rock
fragments and up to 25% feldspar presence of voids reacts 1.9). It may have a vitreous luster
(grains commonly angular). The mildly with cold dilute and conchoidal fracture and
voids may be empty or filled with
chemical cement: HCI. fracture and/or breaks into pieces
that are roughly cuboidal
ARKOSE DOLOMITIC
LIMESTONE COAL
iii) 75% Quartz and rock fragments
together with 15% + fine detrital TUFF
material:
ARGILLACEOUS SANDSTONE
Composition Quartz, rock fragments, feldspar, and At least 50% of rock is At least 50% of grains are fine- Crystalline carbonate rocks Depositional textures often not
and Texture other minerals. comprised of carbonate grained volcanic material. Rocks often
depositional texture not recognizable.
minerals (rocks usually composed of angular mineral or
react with dilute HCI). igneous rock fragments in a fine- recognizable. Fabric is
grained matrix.
nonclasitc.

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Fine grained Rock is composed of at least 50% fine- CALCI-SILTITE Rock is composed of silt-sized Rock is crystalline and Rock is black or various shades of
grained particles and feels slightly fragments in a fine-grained matrix.
composed of magnesium gray and breaks with a
0.002 mm rough to touch: Matrix and fragments may not always
be distinguished in the hand specimen: carbonate (>90%). When characteristic conchoidal fracture
Very fine
SILTSTONE small chip of rock is affording sharp cutting edges. The
grained
FINE-GRAINED TUFF
immersed in dilute HCI, rock cannot be scratched with a
there is no immediate penknife:
Rock is homogenous and fine grained.
Feels slightly rough to smooth to touch: reaction; but there is a slow FLINT
formation of CO2 beads on
MUDSTONE the surface of chip:
DOLOMITE Rock has a similar appearance and
Rock has same appearance and feels as hardness as flint but breaks with a
mudstone but reacts with dilute: more or less flat fracture:
CALCAREOUS MUDSTONE CHALK (bioclastic)
CHERT
Rock is composed of at least 50% very
fine-grained particles and feels smooth
to the touch:
CLAY STONE
Rock is finely laminated and or fissile. VERY FINEGRAINED

It may be fine or very fine grained: CALCI-LUTITE
SHALE
TUFF
Table 1.3 Metamorphic classification of Rocks based on grain structure and mineralogy
Fabric Grain Size Foliated Massive
Rock appears to be a complex intermix of metamorphic schist’s and gneisses and Rock contains randomly oriented mineral grains. (Fine to coarse grained). Foliation, if
granular igneous rock. Foliations tend to be irregular and best seen in field exposure: present is essentially a product of thermal metamorphism associated with igneous
intrusions and is generally stronger than the parent rock: HORNFELS
MIGMATITE
Rock contains more than 50% calcite (reacts violently with dilute HCI), is generally
light in color with a granular texture:
Rock contains abundant quartz and/or feldspar. Often the rock consists of alternating
layers of light-colored quartz and/or feldspar with layers of dark-colored
MARBLE
biotite and homblende. Foliation is often best seen in field exposures:
If the major constituent is dolomite instead of calcite (dolomite does not react

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immediately with dilute HCI), then the rock is termed:

Coarse grained
GNEISS
DOLOMITIC MARBLE
Rock consists mainly of large platy crystals of mica showing a distinct subparallel or
2mm parallel-preferred orientation. Foliation is well developed and often nodulose: Rock is medium to coarse grained with granular texture and is often banded. This rock
type is associated with regional metamorphism:
SCHIST
GRANULITE
Medium grained
Rock consists of medium-to fine-grained platy, prismatic or needlelike minerals with
0.06mm a preferred orientation. Foliation is slightly nodulose due to isolated larger crystals Rock consists mainly of quartz (95%) grains that are generally randomly oriented
that give rise to spotted appearance: giving rise to a granular texture:
QUARTZITE
Fine grained (META-QUARTZITE)
PHYLLITE
Rock consists of very fine grains (individual grains cannot be recognized in hand
specimen) with a preferred orientation such that the rock splits easily into
thin plates: SLATE

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Table 1.4 Classification of Discontinuities for Particular Rock Types

Rock or Soil Type Discontinuity Type Physical Characteristics Geotechnical Aspects Comments
Sedimentary Bedding Parallel to original deposition surface and Often flat and persistent over tens or hundreds of Geological mappable and therefore, may be extrapolated
planes/bedding plane making a hiatus in deposition. Usually almost meters. May mark changes in lithology, strength, and providing structure understood. Other sedimentary
joints horizontal in unfolded rocks. permeability. Commonly close, tight with considerable features such as ripple marks and mudcracks may aid
cohesion. May become open due to weathering and interpration and affect shear strength.
Close parallel discontinuities formed in unloading.
mudstones during diagenesis and resulting in
Slaty cleavage fisslity.
Common in recent sediments probably due to
shrinkage and minor shearing during
Random fissures consolidation. Not extensible but important Controlling influence for strength and permeability for Best described in terms of frequency.
mass feature. many clays.
Igneous Cooling joints Systematic sets of hexagonal joints Columnar joints have regular pattern so are easily dealt Either entirely predictable or fairly random.
perpendicular to cooling surface are common with. Other joints often widely spaced with variable
in lavas and sills. Larger intrusions typified by orientation and nature.
doming joints and cross-joint.
Metamorphic Slaty cleavage Closely spaced, parallel, and persistent planar High cohesion where intact but readily openend to Less mappable than slaty cleavage but general trends
integral discontinuities in fine-grained strong weathering or unloading. Low roughness. recognizable.
rock.
Applicable to all rocks Tectonic joints Persistent fractures resulting from tectonic Tectonic joints are classified as shear or tensile May only be extrapolated confidently where systematic
stresses. Joints often occur as related groups or according to probable origin. Shear joints are often less and where geological origin is understood.
sets. Joint systems of conjugate sets may rough that tensile joints. Joints may die out laterally
be explained in terms of regional stress field. resulting in impersistence and high strength.
Fractures along which displacement has Often low shear strength particularly where Mappable, especially where rocks either side can be
occurred. Any scale form millimeters to slickensided or containing gouge. May be associated matched. Major faults often recognized as photo
hundreds of kilometers. Often associated with with high groundwater flow or act as barriers to flow. lineations due to localized erosion.
Faults zones of sheared rock. Deep zones of weathering occur along faults. Recent
faults may be seismically active.
Rough, often widely spaced fractures; parallel May be persistent over tens of meters. Commonly Readily identified due to individuality and relationship
to the ground surface; formed under tension as adverse (parallel to slopes). Weathering concentrated with topography.
a result of unloading. along them in otherwise good quality rock.
Sheeting joints
Lithological Boundaries between different rock types. May Often mark distinct changes in engineering properties Mappable allowing interpolation and extrapolation
boundaries be of any angle, shape, and complexity such as strength, permeability and degree and style of providing the geological history is understood.
according to geological history. jointing. Commonly form barriers of ground water
flow.
Note: From A.A.Afrouz, 1992, Practical Handbook of Rock Mass Classification Systems and Modes of Ground Failure.

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1.4 Rock Materials and their uses
Some of the physical properties of rocks and minerals e.g color, Hardness, fracture
and specific gravity play an important role in the selection of materials for uses such
as construction. Some of these physical properties are also considered engineering
properties. For example hardness plays a major role in determining the strength of the
rock to withstand forces. This and other engineering properties will be discussed in
det ails in lecture 2.
Before we proceed to outline the various uses of rocks i would like to briefly mention
that the availability and production (mining and transportation) costs should be
considered during the choice of material for engineering works. Materials must be
obtained at least expense to the user otherwise substitution may be made. The supply
should be continuous throughout the lifetime of a project. See lecture 4 on site
investigation and selection for materials.
One of the major users of geological materials is the construction industry. We will
therefore classify the construction materials in terms of their applications and proceed
to briefly discuss the various kinds of rocks of choice in each case.
a) Building/Structural Stones:- Dimension stones , Roofing stones, Aggregates

b) Ornamental stones:- Dimension stones, Slabs and floor tiles, Tabletops,
Aggregates
c) Road/ Rail stones:- Aggregates
1.4.1 Building stones

• Dimension stones
These includes Granites, Limestones and Sandstones among others ations
i) Granite;
Granite is suitable for heavy construction work (block of 0.5 m 2 can withstand a load
of 7.5 tons). Consequently many walls of docks are been built of this rock. Granite is
also useful for facing concrete structures. The granites are aesthetically more pleasing
than concrete and is resistant to the chemically corrosive atmospheres of large cities.
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Granite has a very low absorption (0.09-0.3% by weight so it also resists the
disintegrating action of frost. “Dock wall stone is termed ‘armour stone’ since it is
required to take the force of waves.
ii) Limestone
The chemical and structural variability necessitates care in selection for building
purposes. Load pressure on a calcite assemblage increases its strength and stability.
Calcite crystals respond to stress due to increased pressure by acquiring a preferred
orientation. Limestone breaks irregularly so that there is little /no shearing between
rock and concrete. In thin bended limestone, shear may take place along bedding
planes and the shear strength may be impaired by interbedded clayey shales and clays.
It is susceptible to chemical weathering (due to acid rain) and hence in cities may
exfoliate
CaCO3 ( s ) + H 2O + Co2( g ) ﾮ Ca2 + 2 HCO3 ( aq ) .......eqn.1
iii) Sandstone
Sandstones vary considerably upon the grain sizes and the cementing material. The
strength of a sandtone depends largely upon the cohesive strength and amount of the
cement (silica or iron compounds). The rock must have a low porosity since water
absorption is governed by porosity (2%-12% in sandstones). The rock must not be
used with limestone in adjacent courses of stonework. A case maybe taken for
example where atmospheric sulphur is expected to react with limestone and penetrate
the underlying course of sandstone to promote the growth of gypsum crystals. This
results in a very rapid deterioration of the sandstone. Dense mortars must be avoided
since for stonework it requires a low content of lime.
For sandtone emplacement, the bedding should be placed horizontally. If the bedding
is placed vertically (face building), there is a tendency for the rock to flake with
resultant patches of spalled rock, which contribute to weakness and also look
unaesthetic.
• Roofing Stone
Slate was widely used as a roofing stone in former times. With time it has been
replaced by artificial products e.g tiles
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1.4.2 Ornamental Stone

i) Granite:- The colors range from white, pink, flesh to deep red and depends on the
prevailing feldspars which generally constitutes between 50% and 75% of the rock
substance.
ii) Limestones:- Clay impurities should be <5%. They are subject to large variations
as to lithification and composition. Limestone low in clay take good polish and are
durable.
iii) Dolomite:- It contains CaCO3 and more than 40% magnesium carbonate. High
magnesium dolomites are often finely crystalline and porous due to extensive
crystallization of the original low magnesium carbonate rock. Dolomites are generally
harder, denser and more brittle than limestones. Uses of dolomites are the same as
limestones.
iv) Onyx Marble:- A spring or hot water deposit that often recrystalized to a
translucent rock of very fine grain size. Pastel colors of off white, ivory, light green
e.t.c make excellent translucent walls and windows panels spreading warm light
inside.
Read more in (SGL 101)
ACTIVITY
Write short notes on the use of the following rocks in the construction
industry.
Shell limestone, Chert, Gneiss, Schist, Marble, Serpentine, Greenstones
1.4.2 Road/Rail Stones

• Road stone
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The uppermost layer of a road is it’s surfacing and this rests upon a base and a sub-
base. Depending on the base, the surfacing can be composed of crushed rocks of small
grade size (chippings) with a binder of bitumen or the top layer of a concrete base, or
cemented stone or stabilized gravel. Road surfaces have to withstand abrasion as well
as resist impact. Hence any rock used in surfacing must be fresh and strong.
Fragments should be angular and without any oxidation coatings on their surfaces.
The polishing properties must be low because of high vehicular velocities.
TAKE NOTE
The physical properties of crushed stone to be used as a roadstone

include
i) High impact and low attrition values,
ii) Low water absorption
Suitable crushing strength (186,000 to 225,000KNm-2)
Optimal rocks for roadstone come from the basalt group. The Gabbro group is
weaker while the granite group is good but does not bind as well as dolerite with
bitumen. Hornfells maybe useful because it can have a high crushing strength
(393,000 Knm-2)
IN TEXT QUESTION
What is Asphalt?
A black sticky substance like coal tar, mixed with sand or gravel for
making road surfaces, or use to make roofs e.t.c waterproof.
Materials derived from shale by metamorphism are particularly valuable as roadstone

and may also be employed as ballast. Gritstone group of rocks have a low polishing
coefficient which makes them excellent for the surfacing of roads.
TABLE 1.5 Layers of a Modern Road

Layer Size Composition
Wearing 13-38 mm concrete with granite aggregate or rolled asphalt with bitumen
coated clumps
Base course 38-76mm air entramed concrete or hot rolled asphalt
Road base 104-204 rock with high crushing strength (permeable)
Sub-base thickness variable consist of crushed rock
Natural foundation

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• Railroad Ballast
One of the most demanding applications for crushed

stone is railroad ballast. This product serves as a
bed for railroad tracks and provides track stability,
drainage, and support of significant loads carried by
railcars. In addition, it deters the growth of
vegetation and allows for track maintenance to be Figure 1.4 Railway line showing
ballast bed
performed more easily. Ballast is produced from natural deposits of granite, trap
rock, quartzite, dolomite or limestone.
1.5 IMPORTANT AND WIDELY USED VOLCANIC ROCKS AS

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Volcanic rocks in particular play a major role in the construction industry. This
section therefore highlights the main use of some of these volcanic rocks. Crystalline
and consolidated rocks can either be utilized as building and dimension stone or
crushed for use as aggregate. Properties such as their fracture pattern, degree of
weathering and alteration are of paramount importance. Some vitreous (glassy)
material may be undesirable as aggregate due to their brittle fracture and potential for
alkali-silica reactivity (ASR).
The volcanic raw materials can be classified as follows:

• Lavas
• Pryoclastic rocks (ashes and tuffs)
• Perlite (hydrated glassy lava or tuff)
1.5.1 Lavas
Lavas are the predominant type of volcanic rocks found at the earth’s surface and are
produces by effusion of magma. Basalts account for 90% of all lava flows. Individual
lavas vary considerably in their internal texture, fracturing, grain size and vesicle

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content, thus producing very varied lithologies. It is therefore their physical rather
than chemical attributes that dictate their value and use as industrial minerals.
Uses
The principal use of lava is in crushed form as coarse-medium sized aggregate. These
aggregates are used primarily in concrete products as roadstone and as railway ballast.
Dense, non-vesicular lavas with minimal alteration or weathering are needed to
produce good quality aggregate. Another common use of lava is as rough or dressed
blocks as a building or dimension stone in structures such as walls, and paths. The
basal part of some lavas contains a horizontally foliated zone with closely spaced
fractures enabling the rock to split into tabular sheets referred to as lajas (Latin
American countries). These thin sheets can be dressed using hand tools to form useful
roofing materials analogous to slates.
Finely crushed basalt can also be used as a petro-fertilizer, exploiting the relatively
high content of Mg and Ca and the presence of many important trace elements to
enhance soil characteristics. A recent development is the use of basalt in the
production of quality textile fibres by melting the rock and then blowing it into fine
strands of glass.
1.5.2 Pyroclastic Rocks

Pyroclastic material (tephra) is produced when magma is disrupted by the explosive
expansion of the gases trapped in it. Pryoclastic deposits are commonly composed of
individual fragments (clasts) and many are granular or poorly consolidated.
Pyroclastic deposits can be classified into airfall, surges and flows. Unconsolidated
pyrocalstic debris (tephra) can be divided on the basis of its predominant grain size
into ash, lapilli and blocks/bombs. Welding of the material or lithification produces
tuffs, lapilli, tuffs, volcanic breccias and aggloromerates. Individual pyroclastic units
can be composed of fragments of pre-existing rocks (lithics), glass (vitrics) and
minerals (crystals). The relative proportions of these materials can be used to classify
the deposit e.g. a lithic tuff.

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Uses
• Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated pyroclastics are commonly passed
through screens to remove oversized blocks and bombs to yield fine aggregate
for use in construction.
• Ash deposits that are well-sorted and devoid of large fragments can often be
used directly as a source of fine aggregate.
• Volcanic ash is also widely worked as a Pozzolanic raw material. Moderately
consolidated and welded tuffs are used as building or dimension stone by
cutting the rock into regular sized blocks either using hand tools or by
mechanized use of saws or wires.
• Such blocks form usable building materials of moderate strength and relatively
low density and are generally suitable for low-rise buildings.
• Welded and consolidated tuffs from ancient volcanic sequences
(metavolcanics), comprise sufficiently resistant and dense rocks that they can
be utilized as a source of crushed rock aggregate.
Figure 1.5. the east African Portland perimeter fence made up of different colours of tuffs and
calcite
1.5.2. Other Pyroclastic Rocks

a) Pumice and Scoria
The vesicular structure and chemical composition of pumice and scoria result in a
series of useful properties:
• Low bulk density (pumice 0.5-0.7g/cm3, scoria 0.7-0.9g/cm3),
• High strength to weight ratio

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• Good thermal and acoustic insulation

• High surface area
• Relatively hard
• Low chemical reactivity
• Very porous (but of variable permeability)
• Relatively refractory (fire proof)
This combination of attributes makes both pumice and scoria suitable for construction
uses such as:
• Light weight aggregate blocks, concrete and plasters
• Pozzolans
• Loose fill
• Decorative stone (e.g. landscaping)
• Roofing granules
Additional applications of pumice and/or pumicite are:-
• Abrasives (toothpaste, cosmetics, scouring blocks)
• Filtration
• Carriers (in particular for agrochemicals and bleach for stonewashing denims)
• Moisture retention (horticulture)
• Wall and ceiling tiles (sawn from large pumice blocks),
• Fillers e.g. textured paints, non-skid coatings).
b) Perlite
Perlite, as initially defined by geologists, was a petrographic term for volcanic glasses
of rhyolitic composition such as obsidians and pitchstones that displayed a pearly
luster and a concentric onion-skin fracture pattern. In an industrial sense however, the
term perlite is used in two main ways:
• Firstly to describe any fine-grained or glassy volcanic rock with appreciable

amounts of bound water (hydrated) which can be expanded to many times its
original volume by flash heating to high temps. Sources include acid-lavas
and pyroclastic rocks.

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• Secondly, to describe the resulting expanded lightweight commercial product.

Fine-grained vitric rocks with speherulitic, microvesicular and granular
textures have proved to be excellent commercial perlites with good expansion
characteristics. Many of these are altered rhyo-dacitic lavas but some appear to
be altered vitric pyroclastic rocks. Many commercial perlites occur as an
altered vitric outer skin of rhyolitic lava domes or flows or as an alteration
product of rhyolitic vitric tuffs.
Primary rhyolitic glasses, such as obsidian or pitchstone, typically have about 1%

contained water that is juvenile (magmatic) in origin. Commercial perlites however
have 2-5%. Isotopic composition of the contained water indicate that perlites are
usually formed by the secondary hydration of the glass by meteoric water. Volcanic
domes or flows resulting from a single eruptive event tend to have simple internal
geometrics from which perlite can be extracted more early than from composite
(resurgent) domes and flows with complex, often interleaved, internal lithological
arrangements.
Commercial perlites have been located in a variety of tectonic settings:-

• Volcanic arcs (Japan, Phillipines)
• Cordillera (Western united states)
• Orogenic belts (mediterranean region)
Commercial perlities mainly occur in late Tertiary to Quaternary Volcanic terrains

characterized by highly siliceous volcanism. The chemical composition of most
commercial perlite falls within the following ranges:
Table 1.2 Chemical Composition of some minerals

SiO2 71.0 75.0%
Al2O3 12.5 18.0%
Fe2O3 0.5 1.5%
Na2O 2.9 4.0%
K2O 4.0 5.0%
H2O (>105oC) 2.0 5.0%

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Ground commercial perlites when heated rapidly to temperatures of 850oC - 1100oC

in specially designed furnaces produce a lightweight expanded product, ten to twenty
times their original volume.
In this expanded form perlite has the following key properties:-

• Ultra lightweight
• Good sound and thermal absorption
• Low thermal conductivity
• Chemically inert
• High porosity and permeability
Uses of Expanded Perlite
Combinations of these basic properties make expanded perlite suitable for the
following uses:
 Construction sector
• Products such as ceiling tiles, plasterboard and wall panels and pipe insulation.
• Loose fill insulation.
• Lightweight aggregate (for example in plaster or cement)
 Other sectors
• Fillers (in products such as rubber, paints and plastics)
• Filter – Aids
• Horticulture (moisture retention and agrochemical carrier – improves drainage
and aeration)
1.6 Summary
Table 1.6.1 Summary of the various rocks and their uses
Construction USE IGNEOUS METAMORPHIC SEDIMENTARY

classification of
construction materials
Building Stones Dimensional Stone i) Tuff Gneiss i) Limestone
ii) Granite Schist ii) Sandstone-Sculpture
Phylite Glass
Roofing Stone Schists Slate
Sandstone
Clays -for tiles
Ornamental Stones i) Obsidian Chert , Gneiss Shell limestone
ii) Colored Tuffs Schist, Marble Conglomerate
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ii) Greenstones Quartzite, Amphibolite Breccia

Road Stone and Riprap* Quartzites Marbles, Chert Sand
Aggregates Road stone Crushed Quartzite
Railway aggregate Crushed Granulites
Crushed Migmatites
Industrial Tuffs Calcite -cement Sandstone-glass
-Polishing Powder Sand- Abrasive
Gypsum –cement
Clays- Bricks, -Pottery
Limestone-Cement
* Riprap is sedimentary aggregate. It reduces soil erosion by resisting hydraulic action

and dissipating the energy of flowing water, It is used together with geotextile or in
gabion baskets. Other uses include slope stabilizer, dam overtopping, spillways
biofilters e.t.c
1.7 REFERENCES
1. Plummer, McGregory and Carlson, 2001. Physical Geology

Updated Edition
2. Blyth. F.G.H and the Freitas M.H. (1984). Geology for Engineers
(7th edition) Elsevier Science Publish Co.
3. Blyth F.G.H (1955). A Geology for Engineers Edward Arnold
(Publishers) LTD.
4. Brady, B.H.G., Brown, E.T. (1999), Rock Mechanics for
Underground Mining, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
5. Journals (Elsevier)
• Identify areas /chapters in the books

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LECTURE 2:
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND ROCK MECHANICS.
2.1 Introduction
There are several quantities and qualities that affect the mechanical and hydrologic
behaviour of rocks. These engineering properties affect the planning and the cost of
the project considerably and will be introduced in this lecture.
Rocks and stones loaded by a structure or otherwise, undergo displacement and if

overloaded may be damaged e.g they may crack and break. The possible effects of
loads on rocks depend on the engineering properties and should be known to the
engineers of the structure.
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behaviour of
rock and rock masses. It is concerned with the responses of rock and rock masses to
the force fields of their physical environment. Soil mechanics will be delt with in the
next chapter. Latter in this chapter we will briefly look at mechanical behavior of
rocks and rock masses under load.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
a) Outline important engineering properties of rocks

b) Discuss mechanical behavior of rocks and rock masses under
load.
2.3 Engineering Properties of Rocks
Different types of rocks posses certain engineering properties which affect their
mechanical behavior and subsequent use in enginnering work. We will briefly look at
some of the engineering properties under the following headings:

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a) Rock Index Property (Weight, (Specific Gravity, Porosity and Sorption)

b) Hardness
c) Mineralogy, their Chemical Stability and Reactivity
d) Mechanical behaviuor of rocks and rock masses under load
• Strength of rocks (Stress)
• Rock Deformation in nature: Creep Behavior of rocks, Structures and
Discontinuity of rocks, Strain (E)) and Elasticity of Rocks.
2.3.1. Rock Index Property

The weight of the rock affects the rock index property. We will briefly look at weight
in relation to density, porosity and sorption.
a) Weight (Wo)
The unit weight of a rock depends on the specific gravity of its constituents, on its
porosity and on the amount of water in the pores (sorption). It is very important to
know the weight of the rock. Unit weight (γ ) = Weight/Volume, while density (ρ) is
Mass/Volume (e.g kg/m3) where the density of water = 103kg/m3.
• Specific Gravity (G)

Minerals range from 1 to over 20 in specific gravity. Specific gravity (density of a
rock ρ/ρ of water) may be determined in the laboratory where by the mineral (or
rock) is weighed in air and in water and the specific gravity (G) is calculated from the
formulae below:
G = W0 / Ww − Ws .............eqn....2.1
This value is called Bulk or Apparent Specific Gravity and is one of the most
frequently used in studying the physical/engineering properties of rock. Heavy liquid
e.g bromoform (CHBr3) G=2.80 and Methylene Iodide (CH3I2) G=3.33 maybe used to
estimate the specific gravity of small minerals.
The density of the rock maybe affected by mineralogy and porosity.

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TAKE NOTE
Rocks containing heavy metals posse’s high densities (4.5 and over).
The following rocks have different specific gravity Gabbro( 3.08),
Gneiss (2.97), Granites ( 2.65), Halite (2.16), Apatite (3.2) and
Zircon (4.7).
• Porosity (η )
Porosity is referred to in engineering terms as the void ratio. It is of the volume of
voids (pores) to the over-all volume of the rock specimen. To determine the porosity
of a rock specimen, the volume of the water filling the pores Ww -W o is divided by the
total volume of the sample (V) that is obtained by direct measurement. Obviously a
sample of regular shape is preferable for convenience in measurement.
η = ( Ww − W0 ) / V *100................eqn..........2.2
The porosity of a mineral/rock is affected by the following Rock type, Weathering,

Sorting e.g excellent sorting (or poor grading leads to high porosity)
• Sorption: Absorbed Water

Water filling the pores of an immersed rock specimen maybe attracted by the rock or
remains un-attracted (free). In a rock of low and medium porosity all water is
probably attracted. If a rock is immersed in water for a specified period of time and at
a specified temperature, the ratio between the volume of the specimen and the volume
of sorbed water is the percent sorption by volume of that rock under the specified
conditions.
( Ww − Wo ) / V *100 = ( A / W0 ) *100......................eqn......2.3
Take note
under natural conditions water fills only a certain portion of the

total volume of pores. The degree of saturation is the ratio of the
volume of the pores filled with water to the total volume of pores;
it is proportionally less than 100 per cent.

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Factors affecting sorption are interconnection and apertures of pores, Mineralogy,

Fluid density and dynamic viscosity.
2. 3. 2. Hardness of Rocks
Hardness is the ability of rock to resist scratching. Hardness is described using Moh’s
Scale of hardness as given below.
Table 2.1 Moh’s Scale of Hardness
Standard Mineral Hardness Scale Field Guide

Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Finger nail
Calcite 3
Cooper peny
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5 Iron Nail
5.5 Window Glass
Orthoclase/Feldspar 6 Pen Knife
Quartz 7 Steel File
Topaz 8
Corrundum 9
Diamond 10
Given below in table 2.2 are some selected Rocks and their Hardness.
Table 2.2. Selected Rock Hardness Guide Based on Moh’s Scale of Hardness
Rock Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Granite, Gneiss
Basalt, felsites
Shale
Limestone, Marble
Dolomite
Slate
Quartzite
Sandstone
Factors affecting Hardness are Mineralogy (see 2.3.3) and Weathering .
Weathering
The weathering process involves Physical disintegration, the mechanical breakdown
of rocks as well as the chemical decomposition, resulting from alteration and

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replacement of the original mineral assemblage with more geochemically stable

minerals, such as clay minerals and grains of quartz. The characteristic of a
weathering zone is dependent on the parent rock but even more on the climate where
temperature and moisture conditions vary.
2.3.3 Mineralogy (Reactive Volcanic and Alkali Silica Reactivity (ASR))

Mineral characteristics influence the engineering properties of rocks especially when
the mineral forms a significant part of the rock. Anhydrous silicates (feldspars, quartz,
hornblende, augite, olivine) are considerably harder and stronger than most other
common minerals and can affect the strength of a rock, its cut ability and how it
deforms. Large amounts of relatively soft material such as micah or calcite can result
in rapid breakdown due to weathering processes. Minerals with marked cleavage can
cause anisotrophy in a rock. However since individual mineral particles are small,
each particle usually has little direct influence on the mechanical properties of the
rock will influence the behavior of a rock, mechanical tests on the rock samples are
generally needed to define the engineering properties. Other factors such as the
chemical composition of the grains and cementation will affect how easily it weathers
or disintegrates on exposure and how abrasive it will be to cutting during excavation.
TAKE NOTE
Isotrophism is the arrangement of minerals constituent and textual

elements of rock in 3-D and this is described as fabric. In
metamorphic rocks, there is a parallel orientation of mineral e.g.
schists and banded gneiss and are said to be be isotropic. The rocks
that have no preferred arrangements of this component e.g. igneous,
plutonic are known as anisotrophic e.g hyperbyssal igneous rocks
are in this group.
• Reactive Volcanic Rocks (ASR)

Volcanic rocks include materials considered potentially highly reactive and some of
lower reactivity. Opal and chalcedony can occur in any volcanic rocks in form of
veins, vug infills or other secondary deposits. Volcanic glass, cryptocrystalline or

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microcrystalline silica, trydymite and crytobbalite are common in volcanic rocks,

particularly the more acid and intermediate types.
Lavas of ryholitic to dacitic composition as well as tuffs and pyroclastics contain

substantial amount of siliceous glassy material and microcrystalline quartz and are
also potentially highly susceptible to ASR.
However older volcanic rocks that initially potentially contained these highly reactive
metastable forms of silica are likely to be non-reactive because the silica may have
altered to a less reactive form by devitrification (Conversion of glass especially of
volcanic origin to crystalline materials)
• Alkali Silica Reactivity (ASR)

Reactions between certain minerals in aggregates and alkalis in cements can induce
expansion and cracking in concrete. The alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is the most
commonly found type of reaction. The reaction forms a swelling gel that can induce
stress, resulting in expansion and cracking which, over time, can threaten structural
integrity. This expansive cracking can be observed on the external surface of affected
structures as a typical map-type cracking.
TAKE NOTE
Alkali Silica Reactivity (ASR) is a chemical reaction between

variously disordered forms of silica found as major components of
many aggregate rock types and the hydroxyl ions formed by the
release of alkali compounds from the cement
For ASR induced cracking to develop three components are required:-

 A potentially reactive source of silica
 A sufficient source of Alkalis (generally from the cement)
 Moisture

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Some rock types are more commonly associated with the reaction than others, but it is
the presence and form of the silica that affects the degree of ASR development. The
reactivity of the silica depends on a number of factors relating to the amount of order
in the crystal structure, which include the fact that Opal is highly disordered and is the
most reactive form of silica. Other highly reactive forms include volcanic glass that is
poorly or non-crystalline. In Contrast well-ordered unstrained quartz is usually
unreactive.
Potentially reactive forms of silica include

-Opal -Volcanic Glass -Chalcedony
-Tridymite/cristobalite - Micro-crystalline quartz - Strained quartz
2.4 Mechanical behaviuor of rocks and rock masses under load
• Strength of rocks (Stress)

• Rock Deformation in nature: Creep Behavior of rocks, Structures and
Discontinuity of rocks, Strain (E)) and Elasticity of Rocks.
2.4.1 Strength of Rocks (Stress (τ ))
Strength is the maximum stress that a rock can withstand while strain measures
deformation. In this topic we will outline three kinds of strengths Compressive
strength, which tend to decrease the volume of the material; shear strength which
tend to move one part of a specimen with respect to the other or make it flow; and
tensile strength which tend to produce cracks and fissures in the material. Tensile
strength of both rocks and soil is negligible. Besides rocks in natural conditions are
sometimes subject to torsion, or twisting. The dimension of stress are force/area/e.g
N/m2
Stresses occur in all directions and carry out settlement and stability analyses it is
often necessary to relate the stresses in a particular direction to those in other
directions.

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normal stress
σ = Fn / A
shear stress
τ = Fs / A
• Components of stress at a point (the “on-in rule”)
σij acts on the plane perpendicular to the Xi axis and in the Xj direction
if i=j:shear stress:σ11,σ22.σ33
if i=j:shear stress:σ12,σ13,σ21,σ23,σ31,σ32
�σ11 σ12 σ13 �

� �
σij= �σ 21 σ22 σ23 �
�σ31 σ32 σ33 �
� �
• Mohr Circle Construction

Values of normal stress and shear stress must relate to a particular plane within an
element of soil or rock. In general, the stresses on another plane will be different.
To visualize the stresses on all the possible planes, a graph called the Mohr circle is
drawn by plotting a (normal stress, shear stress) point for a plane at every possible
angle.

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There are special planes on which the shear stress is zero (i.e. the circle crosses the
normal stress axis), and the state of stress (i.e. the circle) can be described by the
normal stresses acting on these planes; these are called the principal stresses σ'1 and
σ'3..
• Types of failure
Materials can ‘fail’ under different loading conditions in three main ways shearing,
uniaxial extension and uniaxial compresion. In each case, however, failure is
associated with the limiting radius of the Mohr circle, i.e. the maximum shear stress.
The following common examples are shown in terms of total stresses:
Shearing Uniaxial extension Uniaxial compression

Shear strength = τ f Tensile strength σ tf = 2τ f Compressive strength σ cf = 2τ f
σ nf = normal stress at failure
Note:
Water has no strength τ f = 0.

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Hence vertical and horizontal stresses are equal and the Mohr circle becomes a point.
Tensile stress occurs when we have stress quantities with 2 associated directions. The
rock should be design to resist pulling force. This is known as tensile strength. The
tensile strength depends on both the strength of the rock and the cement of the rock. It
is considered that during the tensile strength the fracture apparently starts at the grain
boundaries which loosen and become partially detached as tension continues and
fracture pushes.
TAKE NOTE
The factors influencing rock strength (compressive strength) are
•Rock type (Their mineralogy, grain size and crystalinity except in

sedimentary rocks were the type of cement e.g clay plays a major
role.
•Weathering
• Discontinuities
•Sample Size (small samples are stronger than large samples)
*The direction of the acting compressive stress with relation to
bedding i.e the highest compressive strength is obtained when the
compressive stress is normal to the bedding.
Table 2.2 Compressive Strength of Rocks (General Values)*
Compressive strength Type of Rock

(psi)
Over 40,000 Some basalts, diabase, some quartzites
25,000-40,000 Fine-grained granites, dolerite, basalt, compact, well-cemented
[Type text]
sandstones and limestones, quartzite

10,000-25,000 Average sandstone and limestone, medium and coarse grained
granites, gneiss
5,000-10,000 Porous sandstones and limestones, shales
Under 5,000 Tuff, chalk, very porous sandstone, siltstone
From A. Von Moos & F.de Quervain,“Technische Gesteinkunde,“ Birkhaeuser Verlag Basel,
Switzerland, 1948.
Table 2.3 Tensile Strength of Rocks (General Values)*
Compressive Strength*, psi Type of Rock

1,000 Granite
700-900 Marble
500 Limestone
100 t0 200 sandstones
2.4.2 Rock Deformation in nature

• Creep Behavior of Rocks
• Structures and Discontinuity of rocks,
Strain (E) and Strain (ε ) and Elasticity of Rocks.
• Creep Behavior of Rocks
Creep is the “slow” inelastic deformation at low stress. Time dependent deformation
of a rock substance subjected to constant stress conditions creep is accelerated by well
developed perfect cleavage especially in calcite and therefore marble slabs are often
noted. They have bends due to their own weights, creep rates are also influenced by
the E values of the rock.
TAKE NOTE
Ice and salt are two examples of rocks and minerals that creep.
Table 2.6: The creep is high in non-elastic rocks, highest in rock salts.
Degree of Elasticity E-value Creep rate
7.6 x 10-7
Quasi-elastic 12 1.0 x 10-6
10 1.4 x 10-6
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8
Semi-elastic 6 2.1 x 10-6
4 4.0 x 10-6 Values are much
Non-elastic 2 1.1 x 10-5 higher to show creep is
0.5 8.9 x 10-5 highest in non elastic
materials
2.4.3 Rock Deformation in nature (Structures and Discontinuities)

Here we look at imperfection such as
i) Voids (pore space), inclusions, grain boundaries and weak particles. Pore
spaces are made up of continues irregular capillary cracks separated by the
mineral grains. The strength of the rock will depend on the matrix and the
contacts between the grains
ii) Faults, Joints, folds and bedding planes.
All rocks have physical discontinuities present. They occur as a result of geological
activities and introduce defects into the rock mass that alter the properties of the rock
material. The mechanical breaks in the rock have zero or low tensile strengths,
increase rock deformability and provide more or less tortuous pathways for water to
flow
Unless rock properties are established that includes representative samples of these
defects within the test specimen, the results are not representative of the insitu rock.
Therefore parameters derived from laboratory testing of intact specimen must be used
with care for engineering applications.
• Fractures in Rock
Any break in a mass of rock can be defined as a fracture, regardless of its size.
Since strains are caused by stresses it is obvious that fracturing is caused by
stresses which are greater than the strength of the rock that resists them. See
SGL305 Global Tectonics.
• Folds in Rocks
Both vertical and horizontal forces acting at the earth surface produce
distortions of rock masses termed folds. Some folds are formed when rocks re

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bent (bending folds) by vertical stresses originated by magmatic forces. These

forces deform and stretch the rock mass with a lengthening of the earth
surface.
• Faults
Rocks fracture long a plane known as fault plane. Significance of faults and
folds in Engineering include the following:-
- Its important to take note of active and inactive faults below every
construction. This is because active faults may affect the building or increase
the maintenance cost. Its not easy to tell an active or inactive fault and changes
may arise in the life time of the dam due to loading. Thorough investigations
maybe necessary.
-Gouge is an impervious material and may hinder or stop the movement of
ground water from one side of the fault to the other and thus create disastrous
hydrostatic heads e.g if encountered in a tunnel.
- The syncline folds has the capacity to convey and accumulate fluids leading
to serious water problems. Hence the elevation of the tunnel maybe be
necessary in order to place the tunnel on the drier strata. The significance of
monoclines for dam construction is important since it may help to retain or
seepage the water from the reservoir.
According to the international society of rock mechanics (ISRM) 10 parameters are

important in characterizing discontinuities and allow their engineering attributes to be
established. There are
i) Orientation
ii) Spacing- perpendicular distance between adjacent discontinuities
iii) Persistence-Discontinuities in trace length as observed in an exposure
iv) Roughness-Inherent surface roughness and waviness relative to the mean
plane of the discontinuity
v) Wall strength-Equivalent compression strength of the adjacent rock walls of a
discontinuity

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vi) Aperture-Perpendicular distance between adjacent walls of a discontinuity in

which the intervening space is air or water filled
vii) Filling-Material that separates the adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity and
that is usually weaker than the parent rock e.g sand, clay e.t.c
viii) Seepage-Water flow and free moistures visible in individual discontinuities or
in the rock mass as a whole
ix) Number of sets-The number of joint sets comprising the intersecting joint
system. The rock mass may be further divided by individual discontinuity.
x) Block size: dimension of a block result from the natural orientation of
intersecting joint sets and resulting from spacing of the individual tests,
individual discontinuities may further influence the block size and shape.
The ISRM has suggested quantities measures for describing discontinuities (ISRM
1981). It provides standard description for factors such as persistence, roughness, wall
strength, aperture, filling, seepage and block size. It allow measuring of
discontinuities in a manner that allows comparison
Discontinuities will affect stability of tunnels and cut slopes and portal areas.
Mitigation measures such as the following maybe necessary
i) Additional ground support
Ii) Reorientation of important structures e.g powerhouse
Mapping and oriented coring
Why oriented coring! In order to obtain statistical description of joint patterns for
analysis
2.4.4 Rock Quality Designation

The most common measure of the intensity of rock mass discontinuity is the Rock
Quality Designation (RQD) defined as the core recovery. One counts only pieces
longer that 100mm (4in). The RQD measure is employed to evaluate tunnel or slope
stability, to estimate ground support requirements empirically and to furnish
correlations between intact rock and rock mass strength and deformation modulus.

[Type text]
Figure 2.4 Photo showing cores in a box during

calcite exploration at Enkirien, Kajiado (Photo
taken by Kianji 2008)
2.4 5 Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Compression
This the property governed by the reaction of the rock after a load acting on it is
removed. After removal of a load the sample tends to recover its original shape and
size. The rock is said to posses elastic deformation properties. However under
sufficiently large loads or over sufficiently large time frames, the materials will fail or
flow and they will not recover their original shapes when the loads are removed. This
is plastic or irreversible deformation. If in addition at each loading the deformation
ΔL is proportional to the load p’ that caused it the material is said to obey Hooke’s
Law of proportionality of stress to strain (‘perfect” elasticity)
Unit Stress/Unit Strain E=(p’/B *B)/ ΔL/L ………………….2.5
Symbol E is the modulus of elasticity for the given rock in compression and is also
known as young’s modulus.
Elastic modulus describe how a material will deform elastically under a given load or
stress. Elastic moduli have dimensions of stress: they are the ratio between an applied
or induced stress and the associated strain. Strain is a dimensionless term that
describes the deformation of a material.

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There are a few common ways strain is described. Longitudinal strain (ε) refers to the
change in length of an element of material divided by its original length: ε=ΔL/Lo.
Volume strain (Δ) refers to the change in area of an element of material divided by its
original area: Δ=ΔV/Vo. Consider the unaxial loading arrangement below:
Strain ( ε ) = ( L1 − L0 ) / L0 = ∆L / L0
Young’s modulus(E) relates the normal stress to the longitudinal strain as follows
E=σ/е
Now consider the three dimensional loading arrangement below, where the load on
each side of the element is the pressure p

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The bulk modulus (K) relates the pressure (P) to the volume strain Δ as follows:
K=P/Δ. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is the compressibility β. A highly
compressible material has a low bulk modulus.
As one may guess, K and E are related. For isotrophic materials

E = 3 K ( 1 − 2ν )
where ν=poisson’s ratio, and

K = E / θ { 3 ( 1 − 2ν ) }
TAKE NOTE
When the shear stress τ is increased, the shear strain γ increases;

there will be a limiting condition at which the shear strain becomes
very large and the material fails; the shear stress τ f is then the shear
strength of the material. The simple type of failure shown here is
associated with ductile or plastic materials. If the material is brittle
(like a piece of chalk), the failure may be sudden and catastrophic
with loss of strength after failure.
The Stress-Strain Diagram below represents the results of an unconfined compression

test performed to determine the modulus of elasticity E of a granite. The sample was
loaded, unloaded and loaded again. In reality what is obtained in the first loading of a
sample is the modulus of compression (or modulus of deformation) of the material,
which includes both elastic and plastic deformations. To obtain the true value of the
modulus of elasticity the sample should be unloaded and loaded again and this cycle
repeated until the stress-strain diagram becomes a straight line.
Stress
Strain
Figure 2.1. Giving the Stress-Strain curve and associated modulus of Elasticity

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The strain of an ideal elastic substances recovers fully after the removal of the stress
the (E) which is the Linear Stress/strain relationship is expressed as:
Ε = δ / ε............................eqn.......2.6
δ = Stress
ε = Strain
Table 2.5: Showing Modulus of Elasticity for various kinds of rock

Rock E (kg/cm2) 105 Rock E (kg/cm2) x 105
Granite 2 – 6 Microgranite 3 -8
Syenite 6 – 8 Diorite 7 – 10
Gab boo 7 – 11 Basalt 6 – 10
S stone 0.3 – 8 Shale 1 – 3.5
Limestone 1 – 8 Dolomite 4 – 8.4
2.5 Field Testing of Volcanic Rocks for strength and durability
Volcanic rocks are required to be strong and durable. There are two methods can be
used
a) Schmidt hammer (Deere and Miller, 1966)
b) Point Load tester (Broch and Franklin, 1972)
The Schmidt hammer is lightweight, portable, robust and durable device that is
relatively cheap. The hammer measures the distance of rebound(R) of a controlled
impact because elastic recovery depends on the hardness of the surface. It operates by
releasing a spring load plinger, which rebounds from the rock surface moving an
index pointer up a scale from 10 to 100, indicating the rebound number (R). This can
be converted to unconfined compressive strength, by constructing a correlation curve.
The test is affected by surface texture, mineralogy, porosity, fracturing and
weathering. and test procedure must be followed closely.
The point load test enables measurements to be made of the crushing strength of hand
specimen or rock cores. The specimen is loaded to failure using a hand-operated
hydraulic pump. The point load strength index (ls) is calculated by dividing the force
[Type text]
at failure (recorded on a pressure gauge) by the square of the distance between the
loading points on the apparatus. The strength index gives a measure of tensile rock
strengths and can be used to predict uniaxial compressive strength. It is however
cumbersome and would be best located in a working field station.
Results are affected by anisotropy (fractures and other planes of weakness) and
moisture content. (Strength reduces with increase of water volume).
2.6 Laboratory Testing of Compression, Tensile and Shear tests on Rock
The compressive (or tensile) and shear stresses in rock and any other material are
simultaneously and if a failure in a compressed rock occurs, this is generally a result
of their common action. Compression tests duplicate the behavior of a material under
this combined compression and shear stress action. These are the unconfined
compression tests and the triaxial compression
• Uniaxial tests
The Uniaxial test is performed by applying an increasing load at a constant rate of
stress between 0.5 and 1.0 MPa/s. Axial and radial strain are measured with high
sensitivity (about 5x10-6). Subsequent load-unload cycles are also carried out to
obtain a correct evaluation of the compressibility properties.
• Triaxial tests
The Triaxial test is performed on test rock samples, contained in a rubber sealing
membrane, placed within a triaxial chamber and subjected to an isotropic pressure
(generally between 5 and 60 MPa), kept constant during the test. An axial load is
subsequently applied; tests and measurements are carried on in the same way as for
unixial tests.

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Figure 2.6. Diagram showing sketch of the triaxial shear tests.
In both cases a rock sample is acted upon by a vertical stress which increases
gradually until a failure occurs. In the triaxial test the specimen is enclosed in a
cylinder containing fluid (generally water, glycerol, kerosene or oil) under pressure.
Thus the specimen is acted upon not only by a vertical support to the specimen. The
unconfined compression test is made in the open air and the lateral support to the
specimen is zero. In both cases not only compressive strength but also shear strength
can be determined as explained hereafter. The compressive strength is the unit axial

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load at failure either in the unconfined compression test or in the triaxial test with zero
lateral pressure.
2.7 SUMMARY
• Different rock materials posses differing engineering
properties and hence behave differently under load.
• The stability of any engineering foundation depends on
the engineering properties of materials at site and
materials used.
2.8 REFERENCES
1. Swanson, C.O.: Notes on stress, Strain and Joints, J.Geol.,
vol.35,pp.193-223,1927.
2. Dimitri P. K. and William R. Judd:- Principles of
engineering Geology and Geotechnics pp 46 -81, 1998.

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LECTURE 3:
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND SOILMECHANICS
3.1 Introduction
The soil is phase through which much of the rock-waste of the lands must pass before
it is ultimately removed. The bulk of engineering soils is formed as a result of
disintegration of the rock material. Engineering soil can therefore be defined as
any geological material which can be excavated without resorting to drilling,
blasting or other methods normally employed in hard rock.
3.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
a) Definition of engineering soil and classify them.
b) Outline types of clays and their engineering properties
c) State and carry out engineering soil sampling
d) Discuss behavior of engineering soils under load
e) Carry out insitu and laboratory engineering soil tests
3.3 Classification of Engineering soils

Soil classification generally divides unconsolidated earth materials into Boulders,
Cobbles, Gravel, Sand, Silts, Clays and Peats. However, geotechnical engineers
classify soils, or more properly unconsolidated earth materials, for their properties
relative to foundation support or use as building material. The systems are designed to
predict some of the engineering properties and behavior of a soil based on a few
simple laboratory or field tests. The most commonly used by geotechnical engineers
is the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), with three major groups:
a) Coarse-grained soils
b) Fine-grained soils
c) Highly organic soils (referred to as peat even when the soil is not truly
a peat).
The first two groups are further subdivided as follows:

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1. Coarse grain: gravels, sands, based on the grain-size of the coarse-grained

fraction.
2. Fine grain: silts, clays, organics silts & clays, based on plasticity and organic
content.
Fine-grained soils are then further subdivided according to their plasticity, while
coarse-grained soils are subdivided by the presence and properties of the fines or the
grain-size distribution of the soils.
TAKE NOTE
A full geotechnical engineering soil description should include

other properties of the soil, including color, in-situ moisture
content, in-situ strength and somewhat more detail about the
material properties of the soil than is provided by the USCS code.
• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
The Unified Soil Classification System (or USCS) is a soils classification system
used in engineering and geology disciplines to describe the texture and grain size of a
soil. The classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is
represented by a two-letter symbol. Each letter is described below (with the exception
of Pt):
Table 3.1 :- Definition of Soils Symbols

First and/or Definition Second Definition
second letters letter
G Gravel P poorly graded (uniform particle sizes)
S Sand W well graded (diversified particle sizes)
M Silt H high plasticity
C Clay L low plasticity
O Organic
Table 3.2 :- Unified Soil Classification System giving associated symbol chart
Major divisions Group symbol Group name
Coarse grained Gravel clean gravel GW well graded, fine to coarse gravel
soils > 50% of coarse GP poorly graded gravel
more than 50% fraction retained gravel with GM silty gravel
retained on on No.4 (4.75 >12% fines GC clayey gravel
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No.200 (0.075 mm) sieve

mm) sieve Sand clean sand SW well graded sand, fine to coarse sand
≥ 50% of coarse SP poorly-graded sand
fraction passes sand with SM silty sand
No.4 sieve >12% fines SC clayey sand
Fine grained Silt and clay inorganic ML silt
soils liquid limit < 50 CL clay
more than 50% Organic OL organic silt, organic clay
passes No.200 silt and clay inorganic MH silt of high plasticity, elastic silt
sieve liquid limit ≥ 50 CH clay of high plasticity, fat clay
organic OH organic clay, organic silt
Highly organic soils Pt peat
• Clays and their Uses for Engineering Works
Clays affect engineering works due to their varied engineering properties such as
• Swelling (Expansion and Contraction)
• Absorption
We will briefly look at some common clay minerals and giving their relevance to
engineering works.
- Kaolinite -Al4Si4O10(OH)8
- Montmorilonite -Al4Si8O20(OH)4
- Bentonite
- Fullers Earth
- Illite (KxAl4(Si8-xAlx)010(OH)4
• Kaolinite
Kaolinite (Al4Si4O10(OH)8 ) is made up of alternate silicon and aluminum layers.

Kaolinite occurs in hexagonal flakes of minute size and forms the greater part of
Kaolin (China Clay) deposit. It is also found in soils and sedimentary clays. In this
class we have Dickite clays were the layer in the structure similar in chemical
composition to Kaolinite have a different relative arrangement to one another.
Halloysite clay mineral on the other hand contains more water than the latter.
• Montmorillonite

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It has important base-exchange properties and is built up of 3 layer units comprising

two silicon layers separated by an aluminumum-layer and has the ideal formula
Al4Si8O20(OH)4. Some aluminum is usually replaced by magnesium or iron and small
amounts of sodium or calcium are then attached. The alkali atoms (ions) when present
lie on the flat surface or around the edges of the flakes and are exchangeable, giving
rise to the high base-exchange capacity of the mineral.
In addition layers of molecules of water may occur between the layer units. . The
water gives rise to the considerable swelling properties possessed by clays containing
much montmorilonite. Chief constituents of fullers earth and bentonite when the
aluminum in Montmorillonite is replaced with magnesium or ferric iron we get
saponite and montronite respectively.
• Bentonite
Bentonite is clay derived from the alteration of volcanic dust and ash deposits and is
mainly composed of montimorilonite. Owing to the capacity of the mineral to absorb
water with the crystal lattice as well as acquire a film of water around each particle
bentonite clays swell enormously on the addition of water yielding a viscous mass.
This property renders the material useful for various purposes such as the thickening
of drilling mud in sinking oil wells.
It’s also used as an ingredient of molding sands for foundries and as an absorbent in
many pre-processes. Bentonite has been employed as a sealing layer in trenches and
cofferdams to prevent the percolation of water and as slurry pumped into sands or
gravel to fill the voids and render the mass impervious.
• Fullers Earth
Its clay largely composed of montmorrilonite and has low plasticity and disintegration
in water. Its readily absorbs grease and is uses for the bleaching and filtration of oils
for cleaning and removing grease out of wool and for medicinal purposes. fire clays
can withstand high temperatures as are used in the manufacture of refractory

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Other uses of clays include: bricks, Tiles, -Terracotta, -Tile drain, -Earth ware,
-Porcelain, Fire bricks, Crucibles, Puddle for engineering structure (core of the earth
dams), Cement Manufacture.
• Illite
It has less potassium and more water in its composition and gives a distinct x-ray
pattern. It has a much lower base Exchange capacity than monitmorilonite. Its bult up
of units comprising two silicon layers separated by aluminum layer and forms minute
flaky, crystals in a similar way to monitmorillonite.
Cohesive materials have shear stress which must be achieved in order to overcome the
initial strength from the physical chemical forces binding the particles together. The
clays possess great active surface area for given volume due to small size and platy
slopes.
3.4 Soil Sampling
Soil samples are obtained in either "disturbed" or "undisturbed" condition; however,

"undisturbed" samples are not truly undisturbed. A disturbed sample is one in which
the structure of the soil has been changed sufficiently that tests of structural properties
of the soil will not be representative of in-situ conditions, and only properties of the
soil grains can be accurately determined. An undisturbed sample is one where the
condition of the soil in the sample is close enough to the conditions of the soil in-situ
to allow tests of structural properties of the soil to be used to approximate the
properties of the soil in-situ.
Soil samples may be gathered using a variety of samplers; some provide only
disturbed samples, while others can provide relatively undisturbed samples. Samples
can be obtained by methods as simple as digging out soil from the site using a shovel.
Samples taken this way are disturbed samples. More sophisticated sampling methods
include split-spoon samplers, piston samplers, and pushed samplers. The Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) is partially a split-spoon sampler. The SPT test returns a

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sample as well as providing in-situ soil data. SPT samples are disturbed samples, but
samples from larger split-spoon samplers can be considered relatively undisturbed.
Piston samplers are thin-walled metal tubes which contain a piston at the tip. The
samplers are pushed into the bottom of a borehole, with the piston remaining at the
surface of the soil while the tube slides past it. These samplers will return undisturbed
samples in soft soils, but are difficult to advance in sands and stiff clays, and can be
damaged (compromising the sample) if gravel is encountered.
The pitcher barrel sampler is a direct-push sampler similar to piston samplers, except
that there is no piston. There are pressure-relief holes near the top of the sampler to
prevent pressure buildup of water or air above the soil sample.
Figure 3.4 showing a Split spoon sampler
Attempt the activity below
ACTIVITY
Discuss other engineering soil sampling techniques
3.5 Basic Soil Mechanics and behavior of engineering soils under load
A wide variety of analysis and tests can be performed on engineering soils to measure
a wide variety of soil properties. Some soil properties are intrinsic to the composition
of the soil matrix and are not affected by sample disturbance, while other properties
depend on the structure of the soil as well as its composition, and can only be
effectively tested on relatively undisturbed samples. Some soil tests measure direct
properties of the soil, while others measure "index properties" which provide useful
information about the soil without directly measuring the property desired.
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Some of the more commonly performed laboratory tests include:
i) Mechanical analysis of engineering soils (Coarse Grained and Fine Grained

soils (see USCS classification)
ii) Material behavior of engineering soils (Atterberg limits, California bearing
ratio, Hydraulic conductivity, Casagrade test, In-situ density (This test
requires an undisturbed sample, and measures the bulk density of the soil).
iii) Analysis of stress and strain (Soil compaction, Strength (unconfined
compression/Consolidation, triaxial shear and California Beraing test )
We will briefly look at each of the above
3.5.1 Mechanical analysis of Soils (Coarse and fine grained soils)
According to the USCS engineering soils are broadly classified by their grain sizes. In
order to achieve this broad classification soils must be analyzed using mechanical
methods (see table 3.1 below).
Table 3.1 showing the mechanical methods and their applications.

Mechanical Physical Properties Geophysical /Engineering Properties
Method
Sieve Analysis Coarse to Medium grained Materials
Elutriation Fine Grained Material
Beaker Method
Magnetic Separator Magnetism
Panning High Specific Gravity/Density
3.5.1.1 Sieve Analysis

Sieve analysis is also known us standard grain size test and determines the relative
proportions of different grain sizes as they are distributed among certain size ranges.
The analysis is used or performed on a wide range of any type of organic or non-
organic materials such as sands, clays, crushed pieces of rock, feldspars and even
manufactured and non-manufactured products such as powders, seeds and any other
grains depending on their sizes.
We will briefly look at Sieve analysis as applied in engineering soils

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TAKE NOTE
Good molding sand should contain a small proportion of particles of

the clay grade, which help to bind the sand grains together; good sand
for glass manufacturing would be composed mainly of one grade of
clean grains. Coatings of iron oxide maybe removed from a sample
using HCL
• Sieve Analysis Method

In sieve analysis one uses mesh with grain size measurements down to No 200 or
about 0.07mm. Sieves are made in a graded series. We have two types of mesh the
British Standard Screen (B.S.S) and the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy series
(I.M.M). In the latter the thickness of the wire equals the size of mesh.
IN TEXT QUESTION
1. Does the sieve or screen measure the minimum or the
maximum diameter of a particle?
2. Why is sieve analysis only applied to Medium and Course
sediments
The data obtained after sieve analysis is used in the design of filters for earth dams,
boreholes and determining the suitability of soil for road construction, air field e.t.c.
Information obtained can predict soil water movement although permeability tests are
more generally used. Accurate sieve analysis is required for petro physical studies
which relate sand texture to porosity and permeability. The distribution of sediments
for water wells also requires a detailed knowledge of the sediment of aquifers. Sieve
analysis data can be used as an interpretive tool to determine the depositional
environment of ancient sediments.
Attempt the activity below
ACTIVITY
a) Describe the sieve analysis procedure.

b)The following results were obtained during a sieve analysis test. Complete
the table, draw the graph and briefly describe the soil analyzed
Mesh #5 #7 #8 #10 #12 #16 #22 #25 #30 #72 #100 #150 >150
Sample Weight 76 407:
SGL 96.1Engineering
16.1 20.1 19. 7
Geology 35.4
Prepared45.0
by Ms25.4
Gladys29.0 259.6
Kianji, 138.8
July 2010 84.3 102.2
1 %Weight 50
Cumulative
%
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3.5.2 Elutriation/Hydrometer tests
This method utilizes the natural principle of sorting by a current of water, the Velocity
of a particle falling freely in a fluid is a function of its size and the its specific gravity
Some approximate falling velocities for quartz in water at 150C are given in table 3.2
below
Table 3.5.2 Falling velocities of Quartz

Diameter (mms) 0.03 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.30
5 5 0 5 0 5
Velocity(mm/Sec) 1 2 7 13 19 25. 32
5
In this method a sample is placed in the elutriation which is elongated tapering glass
vessel of circular cross-section, through which an upward current of water is passed.
The flow is controlled by the head of the water and the size of the jet, which is the
outlet from the apparatus.
The maximum velocity of flow, which in turn control the size of grain which is
carried up by the current. The smaller grades in a sample are separated from the flow
through the elutriation being gradually increased to carry off successfully large grains.
Figure 3.5.2 Showing Elutriation/hydrometer test for

fine soil particles after sieve analysis
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3.5.3 Beaker Method.
This method gives rough values for the grades present in a sample of fine sediments
and may be useful for a fine determination or when elutriation is not available.
The weighed samples is placed in the first of three beakers, water is powered in to the
height of 10cms, starred and allowed to stand for about 100 seconds. In the time the
coarse silt, down to 0.04mm in size, settles to the bottom. The sediment still in
suspension is then poured off and placed in the second beaker which is filled with
water to a height of 7.5cms stirred and left for 12.5 minutes, after which time a fine
silt fraction between 0.04 and 0.01 mms in size has settled. The residual in suspension
is poured out the third beaker, filled up to level of 8.5 cms and left for 24 hours,
giving a clay grade (less than 0.01 cms). The three residuals (coarse and fine silt and
clay) are dried and weighed.
3.5 4 Panning Method
It’s useful for testing a deposit in the field and is the method used by prospectors. Ore
mineral grains of high specific gravity are present in stream sands in certain localities.
In order to separate the “heavies” as they are called, from the abundant lighter
material one may use the panning methods
A sample (e.g. of stream sand) is placed in the pan, a shallow metal dish with
preferably not too smooth a surface and the whole is agitated under water. The
heavier grains gradually work their way to the bottom of the sample and the lighter
material (Quartz and Feldspar, etc can then be allowed to escape over the edge of the
pan. The grains possessing considerable buoyancy in water are removed. When the
operation is carried out in a stream, the running water is made to assist the panning. A
rough separation into light and heavy fraction is obtained in this way.
For a small sample or more accurate separations, liquids of high density are used, in
which only the heavier grain sink. The solutions used include bromoform, methylene
iodide and cleric’s solution.

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3.6 Hydrologic Behavior of Engineering Soils
Unconsolidated materials behave different when water is involved. We will briefly

look ate three kinds of laboratory tests that help us in quantifying the moisture content
and plastic and liquid limits of engineering soils. The two tests are;
a) Water Content or Moisture content tests.
b) The Atterberg tests
c) The Casagrade tests
d) Soil Penetration test
e) Soil Cohesion tests
These tests determine the moisture contents at which the portion of the soil smaller
than 2 mm grain size transitions from a brittle solid to a plastic solid and from a
plastic solid to a viscous liquid. The results are called the Plastic Limit and the Liquid
Limit, respectively.
The Plasticity Index is the difference between the Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit, and
is the range of moisture contents over which the soil acts as a plastic solid while the .
3.6.1 Water content or moisture content.
Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material,

such as soil (called soil moisture), rock or ceramics. The property is used expressed as
a ratio, which can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials porosity
at saturation. Volumetric water content, θ, is defined mathematically as:
θ = Vw / Vb
where Vw is the volume of water and Vb is the bulk material volume. Water content
may also be based on its mass, thus the gravimetric water content is defined as:
µ = M w / Mb
where Mw is the mass of water and Mb is the bulk material mass.

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3.6.2 The Atterberg limits
Atterberg Limits tests are used to determine whether the soil will act primarily as silt
or a clay, and whether it is considered "highly plastic". Plastic limit (PL) is the water
content where soil starts to exhibit plastic behavior. A thread of soil is at its plastic
limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm and crumbles.
Figure 3.6.2 Roll threads until they shear both longitudinal and and horizontally and transversely at
3mm diameter, i.e, the first crumbling point
ACTIVITY
- Carry out Plastic Limit (PL) test as follows:-

- Roll a water soil sample which is finer than no. 40 sieve on a
glassy plate into thin threads.
- Repeat the procedure until a critical point is achieved which
is usually defined by sample crumbling at a thread diameter
is 3.2mm.
- Moisture content is then measured by oven drying and
comparing the weight before and after drying.
3.6.3 The Casagrade tests
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content where a soil changes from plastic to liquid
behavior. It is found using a Casagrade device.
Soil is placed into the cup portion of the device and a groove is made down its center.
The cup is repeatedly dropped until the groove is closed for 13 mm (½ inch). The
Figure 3.6.1 Showing Casagrade Device for measuring Liquid Limit

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moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close is
defined as the liquid limit.
The Plasticity Index (PI) , Liquidity Index (LI) and Activity (A) of a soil
The Plasticity Index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is
the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic
properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI
tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 tend to have little or no silt or
clayLiquidity index
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to
the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content,
plastic limit, and plasticity index: LI = (W-PL)/(LL-PL) where W is the natural water
content.
The activity (A) of a soil is the PI divided by the percent of clay-sized particles
present. Different types of clays have different specific surface areas which controls
how much wetting is required to move a soil from one phase to another such as across
the liquid limit or the plastic limit. From the activity one can predict the dominant
clay type present in a soil sample. High activity signifies large volume change when
wetted and large shrinkage when dried. Soil with high activity is very reactive
chemically.
TAKE NOTE
Normally, activity of clay is between 0.75 and 1.25. It is assumed

that the plasticity index is approximately equal to the clay fraction (A
= 1). When A is less than 0.75, it is considered inactive. When it is
greater than 1.25, it is considered active.
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• Expansion Index and Shrinkage limit Test.
This expansion index test uses a remolded sample of the soil to estimate the amount of
expansion which can be expected in expansive soils due to changes in moisture
content.
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not
result in anymore volume reduction. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used
than the liquid limit and the plastic limit.
3.6.3 Soil Penetration Tests
The soil penetration test is carried out to determine consistency. Consistency is the
degree to which a soil resists deformation where a force is applied. Table below gives
the terms used to define soil consistency
Table 3.6.3. Field tests and terms used to describe consistency of soils.
Soil at insitu Field penetration Test

Moisture
Soft Blunt end of pencil penetrates deeply with ease
Medium Firm Blunt end of pencil can penetrate aabout 1.25cm with moderate effort
Firm Blunt end of pencil can penetrate about 0.5cm
Very Firm Blunt end of pencil can makes slight indentation, thumbnail easily penetrates
Hard Blunt end of pencil makes no indentation, thumbnail penetrates
A modification of McCarthy (1993).
Field observations of consistency provide valuable information to guide decisions

about loading and manipulating soils for construction purposes
3.6.4 Soil Cohesion tests
By working clays between the fingers and assigning them to one of the following
categories, estimates of cohsion may be made

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Table 3.6.4 Give the soil cohesion estimates
Soil at insitu Soil Cohesion test Cohesion

Moisture
Very soft Clay oozes between Less than 375 1bf/ft2
fingers
Soft Can be moulded easily Between 375 1bf/ft 2and 750 1bf/ft2
in the fingers
Firm Can be molded in the Between 750 1bf/ft2 and 1,500 1bf/ft2
fingers without difficult
Stiff Cannot be molded
Vane test
 Its is suitable for ccohesive soils that are too soft or too sensitive for
preparation of good quality undisturbed specimens for use in oher types of
shear strength test. This test is determined by applying a torque in the vane
during shear test. The top of the vane should not be less than 4 times the
bladewidth below the soil surface. The vane shear strength Sv(k ρ a) is given
by the equation
Sv = 100Csθ / J κρa
Cs spring calibration factor N/mm/degree
-θ= angular rotation
Ĵ-constant depending on the vane dimensions (mm3)
3.7 Analysis of Stress and Strain in Engineering Soils

[Type text]
Stress and strain has already been discussed in lecture 2. Here we will look at soil
testing of stress and strain using the shear box.
The following tests will be briefly outlined:-

• Triaxial and Uniaxial tests
• Shear Box tests
• California Bearing RatioTest
• Oedometer tets (consolidation tests)
3.7.1 Triaxial and Uniaxial tests
Triaxial and uniaxail test are common method to measure the mechanical properties
of many deformable earth materials especially soil, sand, clay and other granular
materials or powders. For more details see lecture 2.
IN TEXT QUESTION
Explain how effective stress can be determined in the laboratory

and briefly discuss its significance in geological engineering.
3.7.2 Direct Shear Box Test
A direct shear test is a laboratory test used by geotechnical engineers to find the shear
strength parameters of soil.
The test is performed on three or four specimens from a relatively undisturbed soil
sample. A specimen is placed in a shear box which has two stacked rings to hold the
sample; the contact between the two rings is at approximately the mid-height of the
sample. A confining stress is applied vertically to the specimen, and the upper ring is
pulled laterally until the sample fails, or through a specified strain. The load applied

[Type text]
and the strain induced is recorded at frequent intervals to determine a stress-strain

curve for the confining stress.
Direct Shear tests can be performed under several conditions. The sample is normally
saturated before the test is run, but can be run at the in-situ moisture content. The rate
of strain can be varied to create a test of undrained or drained conditions, depending
whether the strain is applied slowly enough for water in the sample to prevent pore-
water pressure buildup.
Several specimens are tested at varying confining stresses to determine the shear
strength parameters, the soil cohesion (c) and the angle of internal friction (commonly
friction angle) (φ).
The results of the tests on each specimen are plotted on a graph with the peak (or
residual) stress on the x-axis and the confining stress on the y-axis. The y-intercept of
the curve which fits the test results is the cohesion, and the slope of the line or curve
is the friction angle.
Figure 3.7.2 showing a

schetch of shear box
Table 3.7.2 (a) Typical values of shear strength

Undrained shear strength su (kPa)
Hard soil su > 150 kPa
Stiff soil su = 75 ~ 150 kPa
Firm soil su = 40 ~ 75 kPa
Soft soil su = 20 ~ 40kPa
Very soft soil su < 20 kPa
Drained shear strength c´ (kPa) ´ (deg)
Compact sands 0 35° - 45°
Loose sands 0 30° - 35°
Unweathered over consolidated clay
critical state 0 18° ~ 25°
peak state 10 ~ 25 kPa 20° ~ 28°
residual 0 ~ 5 kPa 8° ~ 15°
Table 3.7.2 (b) Undrained Shear Strength of British Clays related to Consistency Description
(modified from head K.H.(1989) pp88)

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Consistency Undrained Autographic

Shear Strength Apparatus Spring Ref.
Very Soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in hand Less than 20 (a)
Soft Easily penetrated by thumb. Moulded by light finger 20-40 (b)
pressure
Firm Penetrated by thumb with effort. Moulded by strong 40-75 (c) or (d)
finger pressure
Stiff Indented by thumb. Cannot be moulded by finger. 75-150 Not applicable
Very Stiff Indented by thumbnail. Penetrated to about 15mm 150 or more Not applicable
with knife.
3.7.3 California Bearing Ratio Test.
This test measures the response of a compacted sample of soil or aggregate to a

bearing pressure, and is used primarily for the design of pavement sections. It is still
used by other agencies as a cheap method to estimate resilient modulus.
3.7.4 Oedometer tests (Consolidation Tests)
It is a process by which soils decrease in volume. When stress is applied to a soil that
causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk
volume. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed
out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different
methods. In the Classical Method, developed by Karl Terzaghi, soils are tested with
an oedometer test to determine their compression index. This can be used to predict
the amount of consolidation.
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining
some of the volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied,
the soil will consolidate again along a recompression curve, defined by the
recompression index.
The soil which had its load removed is considered to be overconsolidated. This is the
case for soils which have previously had glaciers on them. The highest stress that it
has been subjected to is termed the preconsolidation stress. A soil which is currently
experiencing its highest stress is said to be normally consolidated. The process of
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consolidation is different from secondary compression, soil compaction, and other

processes of volume
3.8 Mineral Analysis of Soil
• Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer (PIMA)
This is a rapid method (typically 30 s per measurement) for the collection of data in
the field-PIMA can be used to detect the presence of such minerals as calcite, clay
minerals, dolomite, gypsum, magnesite and zeolite, together with bound water which
is essential in perlitte prospecting. It can be used (without penetration) from outcrop,
drill cores, rock chips, powders and soils)
3.9 SUMMARY
The engineering properties of soils are varied. Engineering
geologists have a basic function of providing description of soil in
order to make quantitive estimates of particle size, permeability
Table 3.9 Summary cohesion,
of particleconsistency, bearing capacity
size and descriptive and the general nature of the
terminology
soil stratum in engineering soils assessment. The table 3.8 below
Descriptive terminology mm
gives
Coarse grained the particle
gravel sizes and descriptive
20-60 terminology
Medium grained gravel 6-20
Fine grained gravel 2-6
Coarse-grained sand 0.6-2
Medium-grained sand 0.2-0.6
Fine-grained sand 00.6-0.2
Coarse-grained Silt 0.02-0.06
Medium-grained silt 0.006-0.02
Fine-grained silt 0.002-0.006
Clay fraction Less than 0.002
ACTIVITY
3.9.1.REFERENCES
List insitu soil testing methods
2.
1. Briefly
Donald outline three tests
Mc Glichey, 2005,which
CRC can be Characterization
Press. carried in the field
ofusing
bulk
light
solidsweight
pp 237and portable field equipments.
2. Mamlouk M.S. and Zanieluski D.P. 199. Materials for Civil
Construction Engineers Addition Wesley, Menlo Park. C.A
3. Brandy, N.C & Weil. R.R., (2002)-The Nature and Properties of
Soils, 13th Edition Published by Pearson Education (Singapore).
4. Head K.H 1989, Soil Technicians’ handbook, published by
Pentech Press, London, pp.50, 70, 87.
5. Duncan 1969. Engineering geology and rock mechanics,
published by Leonard Hill: 1969 Part B pp 200; pp 204-209;
pp.218-221.
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LECTURE 4:
SITE INVESTIGATIONS FOR ENGINEERING WORKS
4.1 Introduction
In this lecture we are going to discuss site investigations for various engineering
works. Both geological and geophysical site investigation methods to identify the
rock/soil types and associated structures for the given engineering works are
discussed. Acquisition of preliminary field data location of role materials, presence of
high water levels levels, degree of weathering existence of faults or landslides,
drainage systems, abandoned river channels is paramount for all engineering
purposes. The nature, extent and size of research in the preliminary phase vary from
one project to another. The main concern for the geologist should be how are these
rocks and soil distributed under the site?
This information will then be required by the project planners and the quantity experts
to assess the feasibility of a project plan and design appropriate of engineering works
such as dams. The type of rock will determine the excavation method e.g blasting,
ripping e.t.c which has a direct cost implication on the project.
A site survey should give the following information;-

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i) What rocks and soils are present on the site, including a sequence of structure,
e.g stratigraphy, nature in the thickness of superficial deposits and the presence
of igneous intrusions
ii) How these rocks are distributed over and under the site (that is thin structured –
detailed geological mapping of the site.
iii) The frequency and orientation of joints different bodies of rocks and the
location of faults found in the area.
iv) The presence and extent of any weathered rocks found in the site and
particularly soluble rocks such as limestone.
v) Ground water conditions, including the water table (level) and whether the
ground water contains noxious materials (removing material) in solution e.g. in
the sulphates which may affect cement when it comes in contact.
vi) The presence of economic deposits on the site which may have been extracted
by mining or gratifying to leave concealed voids or disturbance ground.
vii) Suitability of local rocks and soils especially those to be excavated as
construction material.
Special information such as seismicity of the region and sediment movement in an
estuary may also be required. After the desktop research, a reconnaissance and a
preliminary study of the area are done in the field. Preparation of geological maps is
normally carried out in large big projects.
4.2 Objectives
OBJECTIVES

• Carry out site investigation for various purposes
• Advice on geological consideration for construction of dams and
various excavations
IN TEXT QUESTION
Is there a standard systematic way of carrying out site investigations?
4.2. Systematic Site Investigation (SSI)

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Let us briefly go through standard steps expected in systematic site investigation

works.
4.2.1. Desktop Study

i) Preliminary investigation using published information and other existing data.
ii) Detailed geological survey of the site possibly with photogeology and remote
sensing data study.
ii) Preliminary Report
4.2.3. Fieldwork
i) Applied geophysical surveys of subsurface geology.
ii) Boring and drilling and excavation in order to confer the previous results and
quantitative
detailed of critical points of the site.
iii) Testing of soils and rocks: to assess durability particularly their mechanical
properties, either insitu or in the laboratory.
NB. In many projects, however, where the sites has previously been built on, only
statement (ii) and (iii) is necessary together with the desktop study which is cheap and
always worth doing.
TAKE NOTE
Preliminary investigation/desk study gives the following advantages:-
• To search for and study the existing information, this is quite adequate for
the initial estimate of feasibility of planning and costing of the project,
and to plan full (complete) exploration of the site.
• It provides the geological model, which can progressively be refined
by the data from detailed surveys or mapping and drillings.
These preliminary investigations is referred to as desktop study
Site investigation can be classified into two Geological field Investigations and
Geophysical field Investigations
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4.3 Site Investigation for Raw Materials for Construction: their Exploration and
Exploitation.
One of the major roles of an engineering geologist during any engineering works is to
locate relevant sources of raw materials. Construction materials must be obtained
economically. The transportation costs must be minimum. The supply of construction
materials should be continuous throughout the life time of a project.
When citing any engineering works one also should investigate the various geological
characteristics of the site and advice
TAKE NOTE
The exploration phase may involve multistage exploration as follows;
i) Desk top study giving earlier prospecting for mineral resources

ii) Reconnaissance survey of any particular deposits located
iii) A positive preliminary report is prepared
iv) Detailed examination of the deposit (to consider the size,
suitability of the site or materials for the purpose for which it is
sought).
v) Geological and geotechnical testing to evaluate rock quality
ease of excavation, petrographic characteristics and also
general hydrogeology).
The requirements for a potential site for raw materials for road construction
-The rock type should be suitable for the purpose e.g hardness, grainsize,
colour e.t.
- Little overburden
-Appropriate joints and bending
-Adequate drainage
-Adequate water supply.
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4.3.1 Geological Field Investigation for Raw Materials for Construction.
This involves a general appreciation of regional geology of the project area. Geologic
report and accompanying geological maps are of great assistance. The reports may
indicate for example, geological geochronological sequences and structural
dynamisms in an area like overriding litho types in the project area. It may contain
some geotechnical information like the thickness of clay soil deposit in an area.
Friable reaction materials landslides are indicated in geologic maps and reports. The
fieldwork involves a geological survey of the area to a scale and degree of accuracy
dependent on extent of the project area and the nature of the project. The objectives
of geological field investigation are not only to identify reactions and soils in the
project area but also include the following:
• Determination of the ground condition at and near the project area e.g. is it
prone 2 landslides.
• Determine of general distribution of ground H2O.
• Determine of the nature and characteristics of soils or reactions in the project
area as for example in tunnel and dam site investigation.
The geologist should if possible suggest the degree extent and pattern of weathering
in the project area.
In site investigation aerial photo is used in the analysis of terrain. The information
obtained from aerial photo interpretation includes lithological structures, vegetation
and drainage of an area and the general morphology which includes landslide prone
areas escarpments etc.
Aerial photo interpretation is important also in the location of sand and gravel and
other burrow deposits in the location of the project area. Geologically, aerial photos
can be used to interpret ground texture the physiographic pattern especially the
drainage system, sedimentary reactions beddings and orientation of the bedding
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discontinuities. It must be noted that the larger the area under investigation the more
useful will aerial photos be.
This does not mean that the photos would substitute ground investigation. This is
because the earth is not dynamic and thus it may have changed from the time of photo
being taken and implementation of project (time factor) and also non-uniqueness i.e.
total variations does not show actual reaction type present.
Among other advantages of aerial photos give saves considerable time and effort by
eliminating obviously unsuitable sites or routes, save cost of investigation and serve
as forehand information dispature especially during preliminary phase
4.3.2 Geophysical Investigation for Raw Material for Construction
Geophysical methods are generally indirect methods for subsurface investigation.

They involve the techniques of determining underground materials by measuring
some physical property of the material in the site. The data obtained is used for
correlations with well logs to understand the subsurface.
Geophysical methods have limitations and their reliability will depend on information
obtained from borings and test pits in the site. Two geophysical methods are mainly
used in site investigation and they include:
• Seismic refraction method

• Electrical resistivity method.
(i) Seismic Refraction Method

Shallow seismology is used in determination of shallow sub-surface conditions for
construction purposes mainly the depth to bed rock for structures e.g. dams,
foundations, bridges, tunnels, highways etc).
Usually shock impact is created with sledge hammer hitting a striking plate placed on
the ground. The seismic waves created travel underground and are then picked up by
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receivers/sensitive geophones that convert such waves into electric signals that can be
measured.
The field survey involves obtaining a series of geophone readings at different

distances along a straight line for the direct wave traveling through the upper layer of
the earth the time to reach the geophone is proportion to the distance from the point of
impact. Refraction of seismic waves is due to differences in hardness or density of
the reactions and soil material through which the waves pass.
It is important to note that seismic wave velocity is greater in harder material than in
soft material. The velocity for earth materials in the upper and lower strata are
obtained by drawing graphs of arrival time of a wave against geophone distance from
the geophone. The graphs are usually straight line graphs and velocities are observed
from the gradient/slope of each segment.
x v − V1
z1 (thickness ) = cross 2 Xcross 2 v3 − v2
2 v2 + v1 z2
2 V3 − V2
Where
Z = thickness of layer under consideration
X = cross over distance taken from the graph
V1 & V2 = Seismic velocities in the upper & lower layers
Limitations of seismic refraction methods:

• The method should not be used where a hard layer overlies a softer layer. This
is so because there will be no measurable refraction from the deeper soft layer.
• The method should not be used in an area covered by concrete or asphalt
pavement because these materials will represent a condition as above.
• An ice-frozen surface often give result similar to those obtained in (i) and (iii)
above.

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ii) Electrical Resistivity Method

This method is used mainly to determine sub-surface condition by utilizing the
electrical conductivity of subsurface materials. The resistivity at a site is determined
by inducing electrical currents into the ground through two current electrodes. By
measuring the changes in electrical potential between a known horizontal distances
within the electrical field created by the induced current, the resistivity of soils or
reactions can then be determined. Two configurations are employed in electrical
resistivity surveys
• Electrical Sounding
This involves vertical exploration. It is useful for the following
• Determining the depth to clay, sand, gravel, bedrock or water bearing strata
• Determining thickness of subsurface formations.
For a four electrode array used in electrical resistivity surveys which consist of a
current dipole A & B and potential dipole M & N, it can be shown that the electrical
potential caused by a current at A, minus current at B then at M w have the
following;
Iρ � I 1 �
Vm = � − �
2Π �AM BN �
And at N
Iρ � I 1 �
Vn = � − �
2 ﾮ �AN BN �
ρ = Resistivity of the ground
In electrical sounding the potential different between electrodes M & N is:

Iρ � 1 1 1 1 �
∆V = Vm − Vn = � − − − �
2Π �AM BM AN BN �
−1
�1 1 1 � AV
ρ = 2Π � − + �
�AM BM BN � I
�1 �∆V
ρ = 2Π � �
�G � I
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Where
� 1 1 1 1 �
G =�
( − − − �−
�AM BM AN BN �
G= geometric factor and represent the geometry of the electrode configuration on

the surface of the ground.
Since the ground is non-homogenous, ρ is replaced by ρ a the scalar apparent

resistivity. In electrical sounding surveys the current electrodes A & B are expanded
at a much greater spacing than the potential electrodes M & N. A graph of apparent
resistivity
ρ a(N-M) against half the current spacing (AB/2) is then drawn on a semi-logarithimic
graph paper.
Interpretation of the resulting graph is then done manually by use of partial curve
matching techniques or by use of computers.
SKETCH
K-type 1st layer low H-type 1st layer high

2nd layer high 2nd layer low
3rd layer low 3rd layer high
Q-type 1st layer high A-type 1st layer low

2nd layer low 2nd layer high
3rd layer low 3rd layer high
Depending on the ground, you may get a combination of above curves.

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ii) Electrical Profiling

It involves horizontal exponential at a constant depth
A M N B
V AM = MN = BN = a
AM MN BN
Determined
In the above configuration the distances

Figurebetween
… the ?? and electrodes is kept
constant and the whole array is moved along the surface. As opposed to electrical
sounding, electrical profiling involves exponential.
The Equation below reduces to:

� 1 1 1 1 �∆V
ρ = �2π − − − �
� AM BM AN BN � I
∆V
ρa = 2 Xa
I
where a = travelled distance as opposed to electrical sounding, electrical profiling
involves exponential
Electrical profiling is often used in searching for the following buried materials, fault
zones, evaluating sand and gravel deposits, delineating boundaries, tracing dipping
contacts of different formations.
IN TEXT QUESTION
The following data was obtained during a site investigation using the
electrical resistivity method.
TAKE NOTE
Layer Thickness (m) Resistivity (m) Remarks
1 2 2 Silt
Main
2 Sources
3 of information
5 in Kenya Clay
3 • Department
10 200 Dry sandy,
of Mines and Geology, Ministry Clay Soil and
of Environment
5 ∞ 1300 Moderate Weathered
Mineral Resources Phonolite
• Department of Geology, University of Nairobi
• Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Geological Survey of Kenya
• Ministry of Energy, Natural Museums
• Local mining and Engineering Organizations
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4.4 ACTIVITY
You are required to carry out site investigation for raw materials for a
sewerage site at Ruai. Briefly outline the your site investigation
procedure
i)
4. 5. SUMMARY
5. 6 REFERENCES

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LECTURE 5:
DAMS AND RESERVOIR
5.0 INTRODUCTION
In lecture 4 we have looked at site investigations for engineering works. In this lecture
we will look site selection for reservoirs and dams, types of dams, engineering
problems and their mitigation.
Let us first define a dam and reservoir. A dam is the engineering structure built to
impound water while the reservoir is the impounded water itself. A dam is required
for one to create a surface reservoir. Reservoirs may also be created underground
either by utilizing the natural storage space of pores and fractures in rocks.
Let us briefly look at the site selection and design of dams.
5. 2. SITE SELECTION AND DAM DESIGN
The design of a dam must be capable of preventing uncontrolled leakage of a

reservoir around and beneath the structure. Water may be stored successfully in
valleys whose floor and walls do not permit leakage from such artificially created
lakes.
TAKE NOTE
The principal attributes required of a dam foundation are;
a) Adequate strength,
b) Low compressibility
c) Transmisivity
5.1.2 Strength:-The force of a dam foundation must not exceed the strength of the
ground. In foundations composed of sediment compressible and weak strata
are either strengthen by drainage and consolidation or removal of material.
Investigations should be carried out to ascertain the liquid limit of materials
especially when subjected to earthquakes. .Clay and silt materials should be

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removed. Faults and gaps between bedding are removed and replaced by
cement.
5.1.3. Deformation:- Every foundation settles beneath the load placed upon it
during construction. The drainage of water from pores due to loading should
be checked before construction. The dam is loaded and unloaded as the
reservour levels falls and rise. The foundation must be capable of withstanding
this form of loading.
5.1.3 Transmissivity:- A cut off is used to control leakage of reservoirs through

permeable zones beneath the dam and maybe extended to a depth where the
permeability is low. Partial cut off may be allowed to permit some water to
flow downstream to maintain water supply. A cut off may be taken deep
enough so as to increase hydraulic gradient under the dam sufficiently to
reduce the hydraulic gradient under the dam and the discharge. Modern cut
offs are created by drilling closely spaced boreholes to the required depth and
injecting into them grout which permits the surrounding ground to fill soils,
pores and fractures. The pressure head of water beneath a dam is greatly
reduced by a cut off but drains are provided to ensure that such head is
completely disputable. Unwanted groundwater pressures that may reduce
effective stress in the ground beneath the dam are thus avoided.
Joints and other fractures in the rocks can be closed by load from a foundation
thus trapping within them water which cannot easily drain and creating a zone
of low transmissivity. If drainage is not possible undrained conditions develop
and the strength of the zone cannot increase with increasing confining pressure.
The contact between the dam and the ground must be protected from the
adverse effect of excessive groundwater flow. In many embankments the
contact is protected by a filter, which has the role of dissipating excessive water
pressures and preventing erosion both of the core and the sediment beneath the
dam.

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Joint and their fractures are usually cleaned and filled with cement before they
are covered by the earth fill of an embankment so that water cannot issue from
them at a velocity which can erode fine particles from their fill.
The dam and its impounded water exert enormous loads stresses on the floor and sides
of a valley, which were not present prior to their construction.
The site should have the following:-

• Location in a narrow valley with steep hard rock slopes
• Absence of fractures both at the damsite and in the reservoirs area
• Absence of weathered rocks at the foundation area of the dam
• Satisfactory slope stability as at the damsite and above the proposed dam crest
so that excavation at the future abutment will not disturb anything
• Tectonic or seismic stability
• Surface groundwater of such a chemical nature that will not attack the dam or
its foundations
• Workable rocks in the area
• Adequate local supply of building materials
These factors also influence the type of dam to be constructed. Beneath every dam, is
a cut-off, which is a thin barrier, that extends into the foundation and either prevents
or reduces leakage of reservoir water under the dam. The cut-off reaches from one
abutment to another and often extends some distance into the side slope of the valley.
The depth and lateral extent of a cut–off is governed by the geology of the valley base
and the sides. Every dam must be protected against sudden influxes or floodwater into
reservoirs by an overflow structure such as spillway or other outlets that discharge
overflow of the dam.
To construct a dam it is necessary to divert existing water and its flood waters either
by retaining it or by diversion into a tunnel .The magnitude of ground acceleration
coming from natural seismicity will influence the design of a dam and its auxiliary
structures hence the geological evidence of past earthquakes must be sought in
regions where records are inadequate.
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5.3 TYPES OF DAMS
There are three types of dams

a) Embankment dams
b) Concrete dams (The Gravity, Buttress and Arch Dams)
c) Composite dams
5.3.1 Embankment Dams

These are made from rock fills and earth fills such as clay, sand etc. They consist of a
core that is impermeable such as rolled clay or concrete supported by permeable
shoulders of earth and rock fills. When an impervious clay core is used it is normally
flanked by filters of permeable materials such as sands protecting the core from
erosion by the seepage of water thru the dam. By virtue of the slope required for their
stability they have a broad base and impose lower stresses on the ground than
concrete dams of similar heights. Their fill is plastic and can accommodate
deformations such as those associated with settlement more readily than rigid
concrete dams.
Thus this kind of dams can be built in areas where high strength materials are not
within easy reach of the surface. They are also the safest of the dams types against
risk or damage by earthquakes. Their large volume requires large volumes of
materials and rock fills.

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5.3.2 Concrete Dams

These assume one of the three designs; gravity, buttress or arch. All require strong
foundations that will deform little while loaded by the dam. A gravity dam is a
massive impermeable concrete monolith of triangular cross-section having
dimensions that give it sufficient weight to result the load from the reservoir. They
require ample supply of concrete aggregate and cement.
A buttress dam consists of a series of inclined water tight slabs as its upstream phase
supported by a series of buttress which are triangular in vertical section. It is less
massive than a gravity dam and uses smaller quantities of co0nstruction material. The
strength of the concrete is used to better effect than a gravity dam) where concrete
weight is the prime factor as the pressure of water on the upstream phase is exploited
to load the buttress and assist the stability of the structure. Foundation loads are high
but may be reduced by widening the base of the buttress.
An arch dam is an impermeable shell shaped as an arch in plan. When curved in

vertical section it forms a cupola. Many gravity dams are arched in plan but the
characteristic of an arch dam is such that the arching effect reduces its cross-section.
Arch dams are thin and require least volume of material of all the designs yet the
shape gives them the strongest of all types of dam against overtopping.
5.3.2 Composite dams.

These are favored at sites, which are unsuitable for one kind of dam. They may
incorporate two or more of the three kinds of dams stated above. The composite dams
may be as a result of the alternating geology e.g between weathered and unwearthed
areas, shape of the valley etc
5.4 PROBLEMS AFFECTING DAMS

There are four major problems associated with dams
a) Sedimentation

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b) Landslides
c) Leakages
d) Seismicity
5.4.1 Sedimentation
This affects the volume of water available for storage. Sub-aerial erosion transports
debris to river channels where it is carried as alluvium to lakes and the sea. A dam
interrupts this natural flow sequence by preventing alluvium-traveling downstream.
Sediments accumulate behind a dam and reduce the space available for storage of
water. Sediments also accumulate at deltas and at ether margins of reservoirs where
rivers discharge into and around the lakes. A shoreline develops from the action of
waves generated by wind blowing from the action of waves generated by wind
blowing across the lake. These waves erode the topsoil and underlying profile of
superficial deposits and weathered rock. This erosion contributes to sediments to there
reservoirs.
5.4.2 Landslides
These occur on steep slopes on the margins of reservoirs. They may be controlled by a
major rise in the level of the reservoir followed by major fall in the level of the
reservoir level. The landslides may reduce the volume of the reservoir or generate a
tidal wave causing flooding down stream.. Reservoirs in mountain regions are more
prone to landslide. The landslide may occur upstream and travel down stream as a
flow or avalanche.
5.4.3 Leakages
Their exist reservoirs that have almost uncontrollable leakage of water from their
bases and sides. To avoid such loses the valleys selected as sites for reservoir should
not have faults and the formations at the margin should contain low permeability or a
natural water level in the valley sides that is higher than the level proposed for the
reservoir.
Hydrological investigations of surrounding water levels are essential assessment of

likely reservoir leakage. Care must be taken to accurately interpret the significance of

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water levels encountered in boreholes and to distinguish patched water table from
other pisometric levels. Fluctuations of water levels due to seasonal variations should
be recorded in arid regions where water levels can be low or artificial impermeable
barrier may be created by injecting cement and clay mixtures into the ground so as to
reduce unacceptable reservoir leakage. Mapping of geological structure and rock
types is necessary to reveal the presence of zones and horizons that may either
prohibit or permit excessive leakage of water from a reservoir.
5.4.4 Seismicity
Regions apparently free from earthquakes have experienced seismic activity
subsequent to the creation of load within a large reservoir. Induced seismicity is used
to describe these events as they are attributed to changes in the groundwater
conditions beneath and around the reservoirs and from load of water held within the
reservoir. A major difficulty in accessing the cause of induced seismicity is that the
natural seismicity of most reservoirs sites is not known prior to impounding.
Another difficulty is that of the small-scale seismicity associated with progressive

failure of slopes. Unlike normal earthquakes the more violent shocks associated with
impounding are preceded by numerous fore shocks, which progressively increase with
time.
Seismic activity increase with impoundment and decrease with decrease in load. Case
history of seismicity at reservoirs suggests that there are two primary types of induced
seismicity or reservoir induced sesmicity (RIS).
ii) The first is the rapid response in which the seismicity follows immediately after
the 1st loading of the reservoir consist primarily of low magnitude swarm like
activity and is confined to the immediate reservoir are and is closely correlated
with the changes in water level of the reservoir.
iii) A delayed response after the 1st filling is often associated with large magnitude
earthquakes and may extend significantly beyond the confines of the reservoirs
and may not show an immediate correlation in major changes of the reservoir
level.

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5. 5. SUMMARY
5. 6 REFERENCES

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LECTURE 6
EXCAVATIONS AND EXCAVATION METHODS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to lecture 6. From lecture for and five we have learnt that site investigations
determine the design of the engineering works and may increase the cost of the work
itself. We now turn more specifically to excavations both surface and underground.
In this lecture we will study the various types of excavations and methods of
excavation used in each case.
We will restrict ourselves to the geological related aspect of these engineering works
6.2 OBJECTIVES
- Describe surface and underground excavations

- Outline types of excavation methods
- Explain geological problems associated with excavations and their
mitigations
6.3 EXCAVATION METHODS
a) Augering
b) Machine Boring
c) Blasting
d) Scrapping, ripping and digging
6.3.1 Augering

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An auger consists of a drag bit cutting head connected to a spiral conveyor or flight.
Auguring is most efficient in soft materials such as clay and can produce holes with
diameters up to 1.5m or more. Auger are frequently used to drill through thick
overburden prior to drilling the reaction beneath, for drilling weak reactions and for
excavating large holes for cast piles and similar structures. Penetration of augers is
severely hindered by boulders if they are >1/3 of the diameter of the tool.
6.3.2 Machine Boring

Large diameter machines may be used to bore tunnels. They carry at their head
cutters capable of breaking and excavating the ground (shot teeth for sediments, picks
for weak reaction and discs for strong rocks). Severe difficulties develop when a
machine designed for excavating weak reaction unexpectedly encounters hard rock.
Machine designed to excavate sediments e.g. clay and sand are enclosed along the
length by an outer tube or shield at the tail of which is erected a permanent tunnel
lining needed to support the ground.
Stronger materials can often support themselves. The machine only needs a hood
above it to protect it from occasional reactions falls from the tunnel roof. Lateral jacks
extend from the side of these machines and press against the tunnel wall to generate
the reaction the machines require two thrust forward when boring. This reaction can
be difficult to obtain in deformable material such as fault gorge.
6.3.3 Blasting
Blasting is extensively used to create surface and underground excavations in rocks.
It is part of the cycle that includes drilling the holes to house the explosive and
clearing away the blasted debris (an activity termed mucking). The structure of rock
has a profound influence upon the efficiency of blasting as bedding, jointing, cleavage
and other discontinuities reflect the shock waves radiating from a blast and cause the
reaction to fail intension.
The fractures are also opened by the expansion of gases liberated by the blast so that
the combined effects of an explosion is to break and loosen the reaction mass. A

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boundary separating rocks of contrasting seismic velocity can refract shock waves and
cause severe ground vibrations to be felt some distance from the site of the blast.
The strength of rocks also influences the efficiency of blasting. Considerable

difficulties are presented by fragmental rocks containing hard and soft materials.
Aggromerates, conglomerates and breccias are particularly difficult when their
included fragments are significantly stronger than the matrix which binds them
together. Stresses within the ground affects the efficiency of a blast. High stresses can
increase the difficulty with which fractures may be generated and opened.
6.3.4 Scrapping, ripping and digging

These techniques are commonly used for removing soft and weak material e.g. clay,
silt, sand, shale, weathered reaction and top soil. Machines used (scrappers, rippers,
dozers, graders and excavators) work best in ground that has a seismic velocity lower
than 1000m/sec. Prior knowledge of the spacing of fractures and other discontinuities
their continuity and orientation when combined with the measure of insitu seismic
velocity of the ground can be used to indicate the ease with which the reaction or soil
may be excavated.
6.4 TYPES OF EXCAVATIONS
There are two main types of excavations namely:-

i) Surface excavations -for foundations and roads
ii) Underground excavations -for tunnels and shafts
6.4.1 Surface Excavations

Excavations are required for motorways, tunnels, foundations, quarries and
foundations. Some excavations must be stable for long periods e.g. motorway cuttings
whilst others such as production phases in quarries and foundations need only short-
term stability.

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TAKE NOTE
The most important investigations being

5 The reaction strength values used in analysis of excavations
stability
6 The change in ground water pressure that will occur during the
life-time of an excavation.
7 Presence of gases
Site investigations for surface excavations must reveal the geology of the area, asses
the strength and permeability of the ground. Since slopes are influenced by the
geology of the ground behind them, investigations may have to be extended beyond
the proposed boundary of excavation. Investigations should also be made of the
ground beneath the floor of the proposed excavation.
Geophysical techniques (see Lecture 4 for more details) can be of considerable

assistance especially as the seismic velocity of reactions and soils is an indication of
the ease with which they may be excavated. Vertical geological sections should be
constructed to display the geology (weathered or weak material overlying relatively
stronger material, dip of structures, faults or rock joints) will affect the excavation
procedures.

[Type text]
6.4.1.1 PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH EXCAVATIONS
6.4.1.2 GROUNDWATER
i) Surface Excavations on Groundwater

There are two problems peculiar to surface excavations on groundwater. These
include
• The depletion of near surface aquifer
• The groundwater pollution
Excavations acts as natural sinks and pumping water out of deep excavation can
gradually deplete local groundwater reserves. A remedial measure to this problem is
to install a cutoff to prevent the floor depleting local resources.
Top soils and weathered horizons are important purifiers of water infiltrating into the
ground. The soil and weathered horizons host microbiological species that can break
down dangerous substances to harmless by products. The stripping of these horizons
proceeds surface excavations and once removed groundwater below the site become
vulnerable to pollution.
6.4 2 Underground Excavations (Tunnels and Shafts

Common underground excavations are Tunnels, Large underground chambers, shafts,
and drifts (or inclines) for access to underground works and mines for mineral
extraction or rail transport.
6.4.2.1 Types of Tunnels
6.4.2.2 Important Field Investigations issues

The difficulty of adequately predicting geological conditions for such work from
surface investigation requires that working practices for underground excavations be
quickly adapted to the working conditions encountered. Water bearing zones and
fractures are always potentially dangerous.

[Type text]
Limestones in particular are difficult materials to investigate if they contain solution

cavities. Water filled fissures and cavities do not have to be intersected by an
excavation to endanger it. If the thickness of rocks separating them from the
excavation is insufficient to withstand the pressure head of water within them the
rocks will fail.
The design of large escalations requires better geological information than can
normally be provided by boreholes drilled from ground level. Boreholes however can
enable the feasibility of such an excavation to be assessed by confirming the presence
of reaction having adequate mechanical properties or the absence of unusually
difficult insitu stresses and groundwater pressures. Orientation of major structural
characters in the reactions such as bedding, jointing and cleavage may similarly be
established. Shafts and adits can then be excavated to obtain the detailed geological
data required for final design. The smaller preliminary excavations can be
incorporated into the final excavation and are therefore will be considered as an extra
cost.
For sediments excavations eg in gravel, sand, silt and clays support at all times is
necessary. Investigations should therefore establish the stratigraphy of the ground to
be excavated especially the variety of sediments to be encountered. All permeable
horizons that could drain water into excavation should be identified. The strength of
sediments must be established and their insitu moisture content should be determined.
It important to note the occurrence of silt since with little moisture silt dries to a
powder of little strength.
6.4.2.3 Engineering problems in tunneling

i) Groundwater inflow
ii Gasses in the ground
i) Groundwater inflow
Groundwater causes more difficulty for tunneling than any other single geologic
parameters. Groundwater Occurrence, inflow and potential effects should be assessed.
See Lecture 4. on Geophysical exploration methods.

[Type text]
Groundwater inflow predictions are needed for at least the following purposes
a) Leakage into or out of permanent structures
The choice of lining systems depends on the assessment of leakage inflow.
b) Groundwater control during shaft sinking
Often the overburden and the uppermost weathered rock will yield water
which must be controlled to prevent instability, excessive inflows, or
quicksand conditions, water maybe controlled by construction of slurry walls,
grouting, freezing, installation of wells or a combination of these methods.
c) Groundwater control during tunneling
Probing ahead maybe necessary in some or all reaches of the tunnel or
whether dewatering or grouting in advance or from the tunnels face will be
required, or perhaps an alternative route might be better in order to avoid high
water inflows.
d) Pumping Requirements
A reasonable estimate of water inflow must be made to allow for the
acquisition of the appropriate pumping and dewatering equipment.
e) Environmental effects
Estimation of the extent of water table drawdown temporary or permanent for
reasons of environmental protection e.g Sustainability of vegetation or
groundwater rights (see SGL 406 on hydrogeology)
ii) Gases in the Ground
An effort to determine gases in the ground must be made during exploration phase
and classified the works as gassy, potentially gassy or non gassy. Methods to be
employed include:-
a) Desktop study of the history of tunneling in the region
b) Geological and Hydrologic setting
c) Borehole gas methods (see Lecture 5) to determine existence of gas traps.
These gases include Methane, Hydrogen Sulfide,

[Type text]
• Methane
Methane gas associated with thermo mechanical degradation of organic materials at
great depths or near surface bacterial decay of organic matter in sediments with low
oxygen environment. Methane may also be generated from man-made organic
landfills, leakage from natural gas and sewer line/or sewage treatment plants.
• Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen Sulfide is lethal in very small quantities. It has a characteristic smell of
rotten egg and low concentrations quickly paralyze the olfactory nerves, deadening
the sense of smell. It’s a product of decay of organic materials.
• Sulphur Dioxide and other gases
-Sulphur dioxide result from oxidation of sulphur or sulfides in sediments and in

hydrothermal deposits with sulfides or directly from volcanic action. It’s also
encountered as a component of blast fumes, fire and combustion engine exhaust.
-Carbon dioxide devices from carbonaceous material; subject to oxidation or effects

of acid water, CO2 is heavier than air and settles into depressions, shafts or large drill
holes.
-Hydrogen is explosive and is associated with hydrocarbons
-Radon Gas is a decay proc\duct of uranium. Radon and its first four decay products
are hazardous because of their emission of alpha particles during their relatively
short half-lives. The alpha particles may cause respiratory cancer. Radon detectors
can detect the presence and activity of radon in borehole or tunnel air.
6.5 SUMMARY

[Type text]
6.6 REFFERENCE
Plummer, McGeary and Carlson, 2001. Physical geology updated edition.

[Type text]
LECTURE 7
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON
ENGINEERING WORKS
7.1 Introduction
Welcome to Lecture 7. In this lecture we will briefly look at two types of geological
hazards earthquakes and landslide. We will look at the main causes, their effect on
various engineering works and their mitigation
7.2 OBJECTIVES
- Describe earthquakes and landslide and their main causes
- Outline their effects on engineering works
- Give the precautionary action to mitigate these two hazards
discussed above.
7.3 Landslides and Mass movements

These involve the down slope movements of rocks and superficial material en masse
under the influence of gravity. Landslides can occur in terrain ranging from vertical
cliffs to slopes as gentle as one or two degrees (1o or 2o). Movement in landslides is
generally very rapid. The centre of gravity moves in and outwards direction.
inwards
outwards
Rock material soil
The materials of slope are subjected to land sliding. These materials include rock, soil
and artificial fills. Most slopes of rocks and soil debris are caused by the materials that
becomes separated from the underlain stable – of sheer zone of slip surface. The types
of slope failure depends on the nature of the geological environment. For example the
material strength and slope configuration and poor water pressure.

[Type text]
Three types are commonly recognized based on the increasing water content.
• More falls:- movement of debris (mainly rocks through the air).
• Slides: downslope movements of rocks and soils along a slip surface.
• Flows: these are downslope movements or debris {fluidized soil} as viscous

mass
Hazardous rock fills include among other earthquakes or weekly cemented materials,
on slopes which are steeper than 40o. Highly folded stratigraphy where the joints and
bedding are included at steeper angle; rock fall hazard do.
7.3.1 Landslides
We include both a bedrock and the overlying soils. These are always associated with
disturbance of the equilibrium in relationship which normally exists between stress
and strength of the material. The time this is disturbed the whole relationship is
disturbed. The relationship is determined by certain factors are:
1. Height
2. Steepness of the slope
3. Density
4. And cohesion of material on the slope
The above factors in turn will depend on the weight of loading and moisture
conditions on of the slope. Weight of the material resolves parallel to the slope
creating shear stress. Other stresses existing shear strength of the material then the
slope will fall or fail. The slide surface is a shear failure which can be set in motion
when the stress along the potential surface rapture, exits the resistance of shear. The
results are usually a pattern of scars and depositional features which must be common
like spoon shaped associated with failure along an acute planes.
Mechanisms of landslides: When we consider a simple figure of block resting on an

inclined slope.

Sketch
[Type text]
We find that there are forces denting to drive the rocks downwards to the slope. The
forces existing. Forces resting movement on this slope are rep. by W cos δ and
coefficient of friction which is (F). the angle of slope (δ ) increases than the (sine) of
δ increases then the driving force increase also.
7.4 Earthquake and Earthquake Engineering

Disaster, catastrophe and hazard all define certain violent distinction. Earthquake is
released of energy from the earth over a short period of time. The famous term “333”
stand for first 3 days of self reliance after disaster, thus violent destruction of
property, life. The other 3 months is of relief since a lot of people have been displaced
thus affected and the final three years of reconstruction.
7.4. 1 Definition of an Earthquake

An earthquake is unavoidable, is non-predictable natural phenomenon that has been
defined by man as revenge by some gods or spirits. It is a phenomenon of long return
period. The last major earthquake in Kenya (1928) was M 6.9, while in Juba
Southern Sudan we experience M 7.5 in 1990. It’s a phenomenon whereby certain
release of huge amount of energy is experienced in a very short period of time.
The earthquake is generating from focus which is the point immediately vertical to the
focus on the surface receiving highest energy is the Epicenter. There are 3 main kinds
of waves generated by an earthquake, the primary, secondary and Surface waves. The
travels fastest and is received first. It travels through both solids and liquids. The S-
waves (secondary waves) strikes next and is sinosaudal in nature. Its movement is
right angles to the wave direction. It gets transmitted through solid and gets absorbed
when it strikes liquid. Raleigh wave and love wave both surface waves i.e. get
transmitted on the surface.

[Type text]
TAKE NOTE
The surface waves are the most distinctive since they are transmitted on surface
and as the structures are on the surface.
Sources of earthquakes
There are the natural and man made event of the Natural events. There are 4
categories:
1. Tectonic earthquakes – occurring at place margins during converging,
diverging or sliding procedure of the plates.
2. Volcanic earthquake when there is an injection of magma into the country

work within some side effects.
3. Implosions collapse earth quakes – (opposite of explosion) it is internal

blowing.
4. Oceanic microseismic – where there is overloading on earth causing

adjustments.
Man made events are controlled events e.g Explosions (during quarrying, testing,
bonds) and cultural noise (noise track passing by you) etc. Others are triggered events
caused by loading and off loading of dams or reservoir. Mining activities, fluid-
injection etc. .
TAKE NOTE
Earthquakes are of concern because of the following problems:-
• Lack of concern about seismic safety. T
• There is lack of awareness that a building could be made

earthquake resistant at a very low additional cost.
• Lack of financial resources among the populace for additional

input for meeting construction. There are other priorities on
financial in the daily life of people.
SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010
94
• There is scarcity in the building materials which are
recommended for earthquakes i.e. cement, timber etc.
[Type text]
For engineering purposes Modified Merchali Scale (mm scale) is used or the MSK
scale – Russian scale all range from common numerical.
Maximum Typical effects Energy ratio compared

Richter to a amplitude 4.0 E4
Magnitude
1 and under I – III Not generally felt by people
3.0 III Felt indoor by some people, no damage
4.0 IV – V Felt by most, object disturbance, No. structure damage 1
5.0 VI – VII Some structure damage, such as walls and chimneys 48
6.0 VII – VIII Moderate damage such as fractures of weak walls and 2,100
toppled chimneys
7.0 IX – X Major damage, such as collapse of weak buildings and 80,500
cracking of strong buildings
8.0 and over XI - XII Drainage, total or nearly total 2,800,000
These are two international recognized stations monitoring institutions in Kenya

namely
1. United States Geological Survey (USGS): -. Its located at Mt. Kilimambogo..
2. The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO):- It is

the mainly concerned with nuclear explosion.
• Its impact is magnified by a number of factors:
(a) Geography (Where plates meet (coverage, strike-slip- fault

and even where there is atmosphere.
(b) In accessibility
(c) Associated effects e.g. fire, flood, land slide, ground cracks,
liquefaction, subsidence.
(d) Loss of life and property mainly due to man-made effects.
(e) There are sociological factors which include:
a. Density of population
b. Time of a day when it occurs
c. Community preparedness for the possibility of certain

[Type text]
7.4.2 Analysis of Earthquakes

It has shown that earthquakes are exposing the human weakness in buildings. The
earthquake effects can be classified into two effects:
1. Primary effects include:-
• Out ground movement whereby cracking yielding or fault – will occur

immediately
• On structures – they are destroyed or partly destroyed.
• On water bodies – ground water levels are affected; a lot of direct effect on
running water on surface.
2. Secondary effects:
(i) Landslides will occur triggered by earthquake especially high lying

area.
(ii) Liquification is also triggered by earthquake.
Dams, bridges and foundation failures

(iii) They may trigger off some waves in the sea known Tsunamis (very
distructive). Atomic power plant are affected. They are supposedly
safe place when man has ever made.
(iv) Create earthquake fires, disrupting gas pipes, electricity wires.
7.4 3 Ground Shaking Effects on Structure

• The 1st forces experienced by a structure/building are inertial forces (forces
which move the base of the building). When the base moves to the right, then
its content vibrate from the position of rest in an irregular manner which also
depends on their masses.

[Type text]
• Seismic loading – resultant force which is a factor of S which is seismic

intensity: F which is soil foundation factor, I which is hazard factor depends
on the usage of building; C which is the stiffness and damping of structures,
W – which is a fraction of weight of the structure and its content.
• F = [ f(s) * (f) *i* c * w) ]
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
REFERENCE
• Manual of Earthquake resistance. Non – Engineering
•
construction
• Indian society of Earthquake Technology

[Type text]
FURTHER READING
1.Plummer, McGregory and Carlson, 2001. Physical Geology Updated Edition

2. Blyth. F.G.H and the Freitas M.H. (1984). Geology for Engineers (7th edition)
3. Elsevier Science Publish Co.
4. Blyth F.G.H (1955). A Geology for Engineers Edward Arnold (Publishers) LTD
5. Brady, B.H.G., Brown, E.T. (1999), Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining
Kluwer Academic Publishers

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[Type text]

Lecture Series: SGL 407-Engineering Geology

ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS AND THEIR USES.

1. List the various kinds of construction materials and their uses

1.3 General description, classification and uses of rocks

What does the term rock mean in Engineering Works!

The term rock as used in engineering geology means a compact,

1.3.2 Rocks and their classification

1.3.2.1 Geological Classification of Rocks

iii) Metamorphic rocks.

a) Fragments of Rocks (Sandstone, Siltstone, Mudstone)

ii) Igneous Rocks

iii) Metamorphic Rocks

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 3

This grouping, however, gives little or no inkling of the engineering properties of a

List the various kinds of Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary

1.3.2.2. Engineering Classification of Rocks

Engineering classification of rocks is much more elaborate than a typical geologist

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 4

Table 1.1 Igneous Rocks based on crystal size

Rock is light colored with a very low specific

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 5

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 6

ii) Quartz. The voids tinge. It is harder than gypsum and

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 7

Rock is finely laminated and or fissile. VERY FINEGRAINED

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 8

immediately with dilute HCI), then the rock is termed:

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 9

Table 1.4 Classification of Discontinuities for Particular Rock Types

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 10

1.4 Rock Materials and their uses

a) Building/Structural Stones:- Dimension stones , Roofing stones, Aggregates

1.4.1 Building stones

1.4.2 Ornamental Stone

Read more in (SGL 101)

Shell limestone, Chert, Gneiss, Schist, Marble, Serpentine, Greenstones

1.4.2 Road/Rail Stones

The physical properties of crushed stone to be used as a roadstone

Materials derived from shale by metamorphism are particularly valuable as roadstone

TABLE 1.5 Layers of a Modern Road

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 14

One of the most demanding applications for crushed

1.5 IMPORTANT AND WIDELY USED VOLCANIC ROCKS AS

The volcanic raw materials can be classified as follows:

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 15

1.5.2 Pyroclastic Rocks

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 16

1.5.2. Other Pyroclastic Rocks

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 17

• Good thermal and acoustic insulation

• Firstly to describe any fine-grained or glassy volcanic rock with appreciable

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 18

• Secondly, to describe the resulting expanded lightweight commercial product.

Primary rhyolitic glasses, such as obsidian or pitchstone, typically have about 1%

Commercial perlites have been located in a variety of tectonic settings:-

Commercial perlities mainly occur in late Tertiary to Quaternary Volcanic terrains

Table 1.2 Chemical Composition of some minerals

SGL 407: Engineering Geology Prepared by Ms Gladys Kianji, July 2010 19

Ground commercial perlites when heated rapidly to temperatures of 850oC - 1100oC

In this expanded form perlite has the following key properties:-

Uses of Expanded Perlite