Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Art and Culture Notes From CD
Art and Culture Notes From CD
Art and Culture Notes From CD
Contents
Indian Architecture
Indian Paintings
2. Miniature paintings
Literature in India
4. The Puranas
Philosophy of India
Suddhadvaita
Miscellaneous Topics
4. Puppetry in India
Indian Music
1. Indian Music
2. Hindustani music
3. Carnatic music
Indian Dance
1. Indian Dance
Indian Architecture
What is a ‘Culture‘?
‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning tilling, or cultivating or
refining & worship.
Means cultivating & refining a thing to such an extent that its end product evokes our
admiration & respect.
In Sanskrit it is known as ‘Sanskriti’ & the term ‘Sanskriti’ has been derived from the
root ‘Kri‘(to do) of Sanskrit language.
3 words came from this root ‘Kri; prakriti’ (basic matter or condition), ‘Sanskriti’
(refined matter or condition) and ‘vikriti’ (modified or decayed matter or condition)
Simply when ‘prakriti’ or a raw material is refined it becomes ‘Sanskriti’ and when
broken or damaged it becomes ‘vikriti’.
Culture is a way of life i.e. the food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak
& the God you worship.
All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called
culture.
It is the expression of our nature in our modes of living & thinking & seen in our
literature, in religious practices, in recreation and enjoyment.
Aspects of culture
Art,
Music,
Literature,
Architecture,
Sculpture,
Philosophy,
Also includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living & one’s outlook on various
issues of life.
Material culture the material aspect of our life such as our dress, food, & household
goods.
Having better ways of living & sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs.
One possessing wealth may be considered as ‘civilized’ but he may not be cultured’
Sometimes it led to wars & holocausts, resulting in mass destruction of human beings.
Culture
Also includes arts & sciences, music & dance & various higher motions of human life.
One who may be poor & wearing cheap clothes may be considered ‘uncivilized’, but still
he or she may be the most cultured person.
Cultural heritage
The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our ‘cultural heritage‘.
Humanity as a whole has inherited a culture which may be called ‘human heritage‘.
A nation also inherits a culture which may be termed as national ‘cultural heritage.
It includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings by their
ancestors from generation to generation.
Ex;-Taj Mahal, Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar & Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s
Qutub Minar, Mysore Palace, Jain Temple of Dilwara, Nizamuddin Aulia’s Dargah, Golden
Temple of Amritsar, Gurudwara Sisganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa, Christian Church in Goa, India
Gate etc.,
Culture is Cumulative
Culture Changes
Culture is Dynamic
Culture is Diverse
Culture is Idealization
Human beings are creators of culture and, at the same time, culture is what makes us
human
3 eternal & universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked with
culture.
• Unity in diversity is one of the major characteristics of Indian culture which makes it unique.
• A synthesis of various cultures came about through the ages to give shape to what is recognised
as Indian culture today.
• Spirituality & value based life style is the core of Indian culture but it has a scientific
temperament too.
Indian Architecture
Architecture
It is not a modern phenomenon, since as soon as the early cave man times.
Architecture Design & construction of buildings with various type of material used like
Stone, wood, grass, metal etc.
Sculpture
Medieval India
Modern India
Engraved in pictographic script (Writing – Right to left) along with animal impressions
which are yet to be deciphered
Made up of soft river stone, Copper, steatite, gold & ivory – mainly for trade &
commerce
Decorated with animals’ pics like Unicorn, Bull, Rhinoceros, Elephant, Tiger, Bison,
Goat & Buffalo etc.
Significance of Seal
Used as an amulet i.e. to ward off the evil.
Also used as an educational tool. Some seals have presence of pie sign.
Bronze Sculptures
The technique used for casting is known as “Lost Wax Technique.”
It is a naked girl wearing only ornaments which include bangles, armlets, necklace &
amulets.
The left hand is on the hip & made using “Lost Wax Technique.”
wax figures are covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry
Then it is heated & the molten wax is allowed to drain out through a tiny hole at the
bottom of the clay
The hollow mould is then filled with bronze or any other metal
Ex:- ‘Dancing Girl’ & buffalo with its uplifted head, back & horns
Consists primarily of wheel- made wares, & very few being hand-made.
Under red & black pottery, red color was used to paint background.
While black colour to draw designs of trees, birds, human figures & geometrical patterns.
Use of Pottery
For decoration- Miniature vessels used for decoration (Less than 1/2 inch)
Used as perforated pottery i.e. large hole at the bottom & small holes all over the wall,
& probably was used for straining liquor).
Ornaments
Made of a large variety of materials like precious metals, gemstones, bone & even baked
clay.
Necklaces, armlets & finger rings were common & worn by male & female. But
earrings wore only by females.
Evidences of dead bodies buried along with ornaments have also been found.
Conscious of Fashion
Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic lipstick; face paint & eyeliner were also known.
Fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities shows that there may have been a
fear of being attacked
Granaries in Citadels with strategic air-ducts, gives an idea of an organized collection &
distribution system
Remarkable grid system of roads & Roads cutting at right angle to each other.
Remarkable underground drainage system connecting all houses & streets covered by
bricks / stone slabs.
Great Bath – public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and
cleanliness in this culture.
Most of the shapes & decorative forms employed were indigenous in origin, some exotic
forms show the influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
Chinese traveler Fa-hien stated that “Ashoka’s palace was made by spirits” and that its
carvings are so elegantly executed “which no human hands of this world could
accomplish.”
Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court
described Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement.
2. Popular Architecture (With Common Man Initiative) Ex: - Sculptures, Caves & Pottery
Pillars / Edicts
Monolithic Ashokan pillars are marvels of architecture and sculpture.
Top portion carved with sculptured capitals (bull, lion, elephant etc.)
Most important ones are located at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amravati and
Nagarjunakonda.
Ex: - Lion capital of Sarnath, Bull capital of Rampurva & Lion capital of Laurya
Nandangarh.
Stupas
The concept of Stupa started in the Vedic Period.
It is a conventional representation of funeral cumulus, in which the ashes of the dead are
buried.
It is a Buddhist monument which is a hemi spherical dome with Buddha’s relics & ashes
inside.
Originally 9 stupas were built after the death of Buddha; 8 of them over the relics &
9thover the vessel in which the relics were originally deposited.
King Ashoka the Great constructed more than 84,000 stupas in his reign.
Examples:
Sanchi stupas
Inscription by the ivory carvers of vidisha on the southern gateway throws light on the
transference of building material from perishable wood & ivory to the more durable
stone.
Amravati stupa
Built in 2nd or 1st century BC was probably like the one at Sanchi.
But in later centuries it was transformed from a Hinayana shrine to a Mahayana shrine.
Gandhara stupa
Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form of Swastika, which is a sun
symbol.
Facade of the Lomas Rishi cave is decorated with the semicircular Chaitya arch as the
entrance
Elephant frieze carved in high relief on the Chaitya arch shows considerable movement
Interior hall of this cave is rectangular with a circular chamber at the back.
The cave was patronised by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect. The important features of the
caves of this period were;
Pottery
Northern Black polished ware (NBPW) & made of finely levitated alluvial clay.
Sculpture
Large statues of Yaksha & Yakshini are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha &
Mathura.
Caves
Now 2 kinds of caves originated.
2.Vihara – (Residence or Rest place of monks) Ex:- Nachik Vihar & Ajanta Caves (29
caves; 25 Viharas & 4 chaityas)
Stupas
Now, more enlarged stupas were built.
A lower pradakshinapatha or circumbulatory path was added along with the upper one
at Stupa.
Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara.
Region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important centre of
Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D.
Absorbed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, and Saka &
Kushan.
Origin can be traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria & Northwest India.
During the reign of Kanishka that the art received great patronage.
Also known as the Greco – Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were
applied to Buddhist subjects.
“Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an Indian.”
Most characteristic trait – depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions.
Tallest rock cut statue of Lord Buddha – Bamiyan (Afghanistan) 3 – 4 century AD.
Making 4 types of hand gestures (mudras) & this is a remarkable feature in this art.
2. Dhyanamudra : meditation
Earliest sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the Yaksha prototype in mind.
Strongly built – right hand raised in protection & left hand on the waist.
Not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras &
gods & goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.
Purely indigenous in nature, reaching its zenith under the Kushanas, mainly Kanishka
Material used was red sandstone mainly with a little use of terracotta.
Also marked as the climax stage of Buddhist caves & monasteries esp. in western central
India.
Nagara & Dravidian styles of Temple making evolved during this period.
Mural paintings of Ajanta, which mainly depicted life stories of Buddha as in Jataka
stories belong to this period
Guptas were Brahmins by religion but they also showed their tolerance towards for both
Buddhism & Jainism.
Issued Coins with king on one side & goddess on the other.
Sculpture
One new school was added i.e. Sarnath school of sculpture
Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders
First stage
On low platforms
Second stage
On high platforms
Third stage
Most unique achievement of this stage was “Curvilinear tower” i.e. “Shikhara”.
“Nagara Style” temple making is said to be the success of third stage of temple making.
Ex: - Dasavatara temple in Deogarh, U.P. & Durga temple at Aihole, Karnataka.
Fourth stage
Ex. Kapoteswara temple at Cezarla (Andhra Pradesh) & Ter temple at solapur.
Kapoteswara temple
Fifth stage
Gupta Literature
Sanskrit became primary language in Gupta period
Ajanta Caves
Near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
Set into the rocky sides of a crescent shaped gorge in the Inhyadri hills of the Sahyadri
ranges
Only surviving example of the paintings of the 1st century BCE & 5th century CE
All 3 forms of Art are combined in these caves: Architecture, Sculpture, Paintings
Caves depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).
Were first mentioned by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (He did not visit them though)
Ellora caves
Representing 3 major religion of India- Hinduism, Buddhism& Jainism.
All 3 forms of Art are combined in these caves: Architecture, Sculpture, Paintings
Unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e. confluence of many styles at one place
Ajanta also has the excavated double story caves but at Ellora, the triple story is a unique
achievement.
Ellora cave temples were carved out on the sloping side of the hill. Hence most of the
temples have courtyards.
Cave no.16 is a rock cut temple, known as ‘Kailash leni‘ – carved out of a single rock
built by Rashtrakutas
Bhimbetaka caves
Located in the raisen district, Madhya Pradesh.
Excavations revealed history of continuous habitation from early stone age (about 10,000
years) to the end of stone age (c. 10,000 to 2,000 years)
Elephanta caves
6th century Shiva temple in the Elephanta caves is one of the most exquisitely carved
temples in India.
Central attraction here is a twenty-foot high bust of the deity in 3 headed form.
The maheshamurti is built deep into a recess & looms up from the darkness to fill the
full height of the cave.
Image symbolizes the fierce, feminine & meditative aspects of the great ascetic & the 3
heads represent lord Shiva as Aghori, Ardhanarishvara & Mahayogi.
Other sculptures in these caves depict Shiva’s cosmic dance of primordial creation and
destruction and his marriage to parvati.
Mahakali caves
Rock-cut
cut Buddhist caves situated in udayagiri hills, Mumbai.
Comprise
mprise of 4 caves on the southeastern face and 15 caves on the northwestern face.
Cave 9 is the chief cave & is the oldest and consists of a stupa & figures of Lord Buddha.
Verandah has wooden reliefs showing royal women driving chariots over a demon.
Has a huge lion pillars in front of Chaitya-griha (only two caves have this design- Karla
and Kanheri)
Located in Mandapeshwar
Have many interesting Buddhist caves – site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient times.
Vesara style
A tower (sikhara) gradually curving inwards & capped by a spheroid slab with ribs round
the edge (Amalaka) give the elevation
Nagara temples have 2 distinct features: In plan, the temple is a square with a no. of
graduated projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a no. of re
entrant angles on each side.
In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve in north
& eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the style followed by
them is referred to as the Nagara style.
Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and
the mandap (pillared hall).
Rekha Prasad
Simple Shikhara; Square at the base & the walls curve inward to a point on the top.
Phamsana
Roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the center of
building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers.
In North Indian temples it is used for mandapa & Latina for Garbhgriha.
Valabhi
Odisha School
Located in ancient Puri & Konark.
Shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves
sharply inwards.
Ground plan of the main temple is square, which, in the upper reaches of its
superstructure becomes circular in the crowning mastaka.
Exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare.
The sun temple at Konark was built in 13th century by the eastern Ganga ruler
Narshimha Deva I.
The temple is dedicated to Sun & has been designed as a twelve-wheeled chariot.
Ex: - Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga rulers & the Mukteshwara temple at
Bhubaneshwar & the Jagannath temple at Puri.
Khujuraho School
Khajuraho temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures.
Shaivite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev, built around 10th century by King
Ganda was the finest among them.
Standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and an entrance
portico.
Entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the Odishan style they were conceived as
separate elements.
Sikhara is curved for its whole length, & miniature sikharas emerge from the central
tower.
Halls & Porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which rise
progressively upto the main tower.
Ex: - The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth
and eleventh centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important
among them is the Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Solanki School
Patronized by Solanki rulers of Gujarat (11th to 13th century).
Vimala, Tejpala & Vastupala temples at Mount Abu exhibit this style.
These were built in pure white marble & adorned with exquisite sculpture.
Four stages of temple architecture had been observed in South India – Mainly during the
Pallava’s rule, around 6th century AD which are as follows:
Major development during this period was initiation of Decoration in rock cut cave
structures
Mandap’s now became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave, famous for beauty.
The biggest Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and smallest one was called as draupadi
Rath.
At this stage the real structural development of temple’s started and it moved outside the
cave, earlier temples were part of caves.
It is said to be the declining stage of south Indian temple architecture and only small
temples were constructed in this period.
Dravida Style
Deployed for Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu from the 7th to 18th century, characterized by
its pyramidal tower
Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/
Gopuram
Consists of an attached pillared porch or hall (Mandapa) which precede the door leading
to the nucleus cell
The Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the curving
shikhara of north India.
Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, and barrel-vault roofs at the
centre.
The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial.
A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south
Indian temples.
The origins of the Dravida style can be observed in the Gupta period.
The earliest examples include 7th century rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram and a
developed structural temple, the Shore Temple at the same site.
Finest examples are Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur, built about 1010 by Rajaraja 1,
& temple at Gangaikondacolapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rajendra Chola.
Subsequently, a number of successive court enclosures, each with its own gateway
(Gopurams), were added.
By the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the Gopurams had increased in size so that they
dominated the much smaller temples inside the enclosures.
They introduced the concept of enlarged high enclosure walls and more decoration on
these high enclosure walls and Gopuram’s.
Typically Vijaynagar period structures in the temple are the Amman Shrine (male deity
of temple)
Lotus Mahal
Nayaka Style
The most famous architectural landmark of this period is the Meenakshi- Sundareswara
temple at Madurai.
The great temple complex has actually two shrines; the first one dedicated to Shiva as
Sundareswara and the second one to his wife Meenakshi.
Have all the features of Dravidian style with an additional prominent feature known as
‘Parakram’s
Prakram’s are huge Corridore’s along with roofed ambulatory passageways. It served to
connect various parts of temple while enclosing certain areas.
The large tank set slightly off the axis to the main temple is another impressive feature of
the temple.
Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico, the tank was used for ritual bathing.
Shiva’s dancing position is associated with the end of the cosmic world
Shiva has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara,
the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of same leg.
Shiva raises his left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is
kicking away the veil of maya from the devotee’s mind.
His four arms are outstretched and lower right hand is posed in Abhayahasta mudra
The upper left hand is held in dola hasta and connects with the Abhaya hasta of the right
hand.
His Hair flocks fly on both the sides touching the circular jwala mala or the garland of
flame, which surrounds the entire dancing figuration.
It consists of two principle components like Dravidian style i.e. Vimana & Mandap.
Departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered ambulatory around the sanctum.
The early buildings of the Slave dynasty consisted of false domes and false arches
Introduction of true arches and true domes started to appear with construction of Alai
Darwaza by the side of Qutub Minar (By Allaudin Khilji)
As human worship and its representation is not allowed in Islam, the buildings and other
edifices are generally decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs
These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on plaster, painted or inlaid. The
use of lime as mortar was also a major element distinct from the traditional building style.
The tomb architecture is another striking feature of the Islamic architecture → Practice of
the burial of the dead
Presence of Minor.
Charbagh style.
Foresightening technique.
Tomb Architecture
The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of
To this general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing
gardens all around the tomb.
The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, the latter
being sub-divided
divided into square compartments, known as char-bagh
char style
The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome
architecture and the Pietra-dura
Pietra style of inlay decorations.
Arabesque Designs
Arabesque means geometricized vegetal ornament.
Secondary stems split again into tertiary stems to be reintegrated into the main stem.
They started converting existing structures into the Mosque’s on Qila Rai Pithora (1st of 7
historical cities of Delhi)
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque – first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest of India
The Qutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around 1199 by Qutub-ud-din and finally
completed by his son-in-law and successor IItutmish (1210-35).
Enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway known as Alahi Darwaja to
the enclosure of the mosque
Allaudin Khilji also established the 2nd city of Delhi at Siri and dug a vast reservoir at
Hauz Khas (Hydraulically structured) around 1311AD
Alai-Darwaza
Tughlaqs
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325
(1320 AD) built Tughlaqabad, the 3rd historical city of Delhi.
Tughlaqs introduced the concept of slopping walls known as “Battar”, combining the
principles of arch and the lintel as shown below
7 cities of Delhi:
4. Jahanpanah by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.
7. Shahjanabad by Shahjahan.
Delhi’s 4th city Jahanpanah was built by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in mid-14th century. Firoz
Shah Kotla ground is the only remnant of its past glory. He is also credited with founding the
fortified cities of Jaunpur, Fathehbad and Hissar.
This period was called as ‘crisis period of architecture’ because focus was on
strength rather than beauty
Delhi-Tughlaqabad-Fort
Sayyid Period
The Sayyid period was too short to evolve elaborate buildings, but the octagonal tombs of
the time possess a distinct architectural character.
The decorative features of these tombs consist of the use of blue enameled tiles
enhancing the color effect.
The Lotus motif crowning the tomb and free use of Guldasta’s used in this period
considerably influenced the style of subsequent period.
The Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD), Muhammad Sayyid (1444 AD) and Sikander
Lodi (1517 AD) are all of the octagonal type.
Lodi’s Style
Enamel tile decoration tended to be richer and more lavish.
The tomb architecture of this period is of two types, though both have grey granite walls.
One is octagonal in design having a verandah; the other is square in plan, having no
verandah.
A spacious somewhat ornamental walled garden encloses the tombs, which gives the
whole ensemble elegance.
Sikander Lodhi established the city of Agra and made it as his capital. He also repaired
Qutub- Minar.
The Tomb of Isa Khan (1547 AD), the Tomb of Adham Khan (1561 AD), Moth ki Masjid
(c.1505 AD), Jamala Masjid (1536 AD) and the Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid (c.1550 AD) belong to the
final phase of the Delhi style of architecture.
Brick was the chief building material with the use of stone being limited largely to pillars
for trabeate/Arcuate construction, mainly obtained from demolished temples.
The so-called “Bengal” roof with sloping cornices, which originated from the bamboo
construction, was adopted by the Muslims and later it spread widely, even in other
regions.
Covered brick & glazed tiles were usually pressed into service for decoration.
Ex: - kadam Rasul mosque in gaur, Bengal & Adina Masjid at Pandna, Bengal.
Impressive size of buildings, use of various colored stones & marbles with minor use of
bright colored glazed tiles.
Ex: - Rani Rupmati pavilion, Ashrafi Mahal, Hindola Mahal & Jahaz Mahal.
Developed by Sharqi Dynasty hence also called as Sharqi style. It was influenced by the
buildings of Tughlaq period.
During the rule of Shamsuddin Ibrahim (1402-1436 AD) Atala Masjid was built in 1378.
Atalla Masjid
Qutubuddin’s mosque (1454), Rani Sipri Mosque (1505), Sidi Bashir’s Mosque (1510),
Rani Rupmati Masjid at Mirzapur (built between 1430 & 1440) & the Kankaria Lake,
constructed in 1451 by Sultan Qutb-ud-Din.
Completion of the sixth city of Delhi called the Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shai around the
Purana Qila area in 1540s.
Purana Qila has 3 main gates – the Humayun Darwaza, Talaqi Darwaza and
Baradarwaza. Qila-i-kuhna Masjid built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541 AD in the Purana
Qila.
Second phase is represented by the architecture of Bidar initiated by Ahmed Shah (1422
(1422-
1436), which includes the Bidar Fort, Mahmud Gawan’s Madrassa and the Ali Barid’s
Tomb.
Hyderabad School
Qutub Shahi and Nizam Shahi dynasties contributed greatly towards the development of
the Deccan style
le of architecture.
Mecca Masjid- started in 1614 by Abdullah Qutub Shah and completed in 1687 by
Aurangzeb.
Golconda Fort (1525) – Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah, was an impregnable fort of great
strategic importance to most of the rulers.
It is the largest dome cubicle in the world covering a total interior surface of over
1600 sq. meters
Its underground vaults consist of a square grave chamber and a large single square
chamber above the ground
Each of its walls on the outside are divided into three recessed arches
A 3.4 m wide gallery rests on its interior, known as the whispering gallery, as even a
whisper here reverberates as an echo under the dome.
The large dome is hemispherical & is covered with a row of petals at the base.
Gol Gumbaz
Unlike Delhi Sultanate Sultans, Mughals mixed and mingled with the local population &
Rajput provinces
Akbar followed the policy of conciliation to live in peace with his Hindu subjects. He
founded Din-i-illahi religion collecting good points of all prevailing religions
Jahangir was half Hindu by blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput princess.
Shahjahan too continued this policy of tolerance and respect for the Hindus.
The Mughal empire, as well as Mughal architecture, flourished and rose to great
heights under their benign rule, but all this ended abruptly under the last of the great
Mughals, Aurangzeb, a puritanical Muslim, who tried to reverse the entire
conciliatory policy of his ancestors.
He looked upon art, music, dance, painting and even architecture as an evil born of
worldly desire
There was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in aesthetic appreciation and
architectural enterprise.
Babar
Babar, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a man of culture and exceptional aesthetic
taste.
For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in war.
However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of gardens are ascribed to him.
Ascribed to him are mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at Sambhal near
Delhi
Each side pierced by arches and the halls surmounted by a large and wide dome.
Surs made use of red and dark grey stone latticed screens, decorative turrets, painted
ceilings and colored tiles
The Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid inside are also ascribed to Sher Shah Suri.
Completed 6th historical city of Delhi called the Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shai around the
Purana Qila area in 1540s
The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi,
built by his widow, Begha Begum.
Humayun’s tomb
Although Sikander Lodi’s tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is Humayun’s tomb
which strikes a new note.
The tomb proper stands in the centre of a square garden, raised on a vast platform
Garden is divided into 4 main parts by causeways (Charbagh), in the centre of which ran
shallow water-channels.
The square, red, sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over a high
square terrace, raised over a series of cells.
The octagonal form of the central chamber containing the cenotaph is inspired by Syrian
and earlier Islamic models.
First time that red sandstone was used along with white → the white is used cleverly to
emphasise, surround & underline doors and windows, strengthening the design.
The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions, in the arched alcoves,
corridors and a high double dome as well as the kiosks (chhatris) which give it a pyramidal
shape from a distance.
Akbar
Akbar’s made Agra his seat of power. His architecture reflects a blend of the Hindu and
Islamic creation
Agra Fort
The city of Fatehpur Sikri was founded as a token of gratitude to Sheikh Salim Chisti who had
foretold that Akbar would have three sons who would survive after the sad demise of many
children in infancy.
Fatehpur Sikri was begun in 1569 and completed in 1574, the same year in which the fort
at Agra was completed.
The city is a modest township, consisting of halls, palaces, offices, gardens, pleasure-
resorts, baths, mosques, & tombs
Panch Mahal
The highest and the most impressive structure, called the palace of five stories with open
terraces on each story
Build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara is the topmost domed pavilion, purposefully
thrown out of the centre that crowns the entire building.
The tower was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor and members of the royal
household.
Panch Mahal
Diwan-i-Khas
It is a square chamber with three openings on each side and a richly carved column in the
center supporting a magnificent flower shaped capital.
The charming balcony supported by a circular top capital, runs round the halls whole
length of the four sides on the first floor level, supported by brackets.
It is believed that the central place was occupied by the Emperor’s throne while his
Ministers sat at the corners or on the peripheral passage.
Diwan-i-Khas
Jahangir
Introduced ‘Pietra Dura‘(decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious
stones started) was started in his reign only.
Ascribed with Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Dal Lake in Kashmir
Built Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra near Agra, which was completed in 1613.
Jahangir’s Tomb at Shadera near Lahore, built by his wife Nur Mahal
He also built Moti Masjid at Lahore & his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).
Shahjahan
Erected the most romantic building, Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal
Tajmahal is a square tomb built on a raised terrace, with graceful tall minarets at its four
comers.
As in Humayun’s tomb, the tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary chambers at the
angles
The tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome & made of white marble
(Substitution of red sandstone)
There is profuse carving and beautiful inlay work with precious multicolor stones (Pietra
dura style) in its floral and arabesque pattern,
Inscriptions in black marble, delicate traceries and trellis work are executed superbly
against the background of white marble.
Taj Mahal
Shahjahan also constructed a number of elegant, lavishly decorated buildings viz. Khas
Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, & Jama Masjid in Delhi
Built Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his daughter Jahanara Begum & Wazir
Khan’s mosque in Lahore, 1634
In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundation of
Shahjanabad, the Seventh City of Delhi, containing his famous citadel, the Red-Fort, which
was begun in 1639 and completed after 9 years.
Red Fort is an irregular octagon with its walls, gates, and a few other structures
constructed in red sandstone, and marble used for the palaces.
Red Fort
Diwan-i-Khas (In Red Fort) is a high ornamented pillared hall, with a flat ceiling supported
on engraved arches.
Its pillars contain Pietra dura ornamentation and the upper portion was originally gilded
and painted.
It is also said that its marble dais once supported the famous Peacock Throne.
Consists of the exquisite marble screen containing a representation of the scales of justice
Walls of this marble palace is ascribed with the famous couplet claiming that “If there be
a paradise on earth it is this, it is this, it is this”.
Diwan-i-Khas
Aurangzeb
The love of constructing magnificent buildings came to an end rather abruptly with the
last of the great Mughals, Emperor Aurangzeb.
Built Bibi-ki-Maqbara (tomb of his wife Begum Rabia Durani) → a poor replica of the
Taj Mahal
Mughal literature
Abdul Qadir Badauni wrote Kitab-ul-Ahadish, Tarikh-i-Alfi & Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh.
Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri (in Persian language), & patronized
the valuable dictionary, Farhang-I-Jahangiri.
Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk-I-Baburi from Turki to Persian during
Akbar’s reign.
Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
Some forts, such as those at Bharatpur and Deeg, were protected by wide ditch filled with
water surrounding the fort.
Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota Palaces → Built approx. 17th to early
18th century
Bikaner is encircled by 5.63 km long Stone wall made of rich pink sandstone with five
gates & three sally ports
Jodhpur Fort dominates the city, which is surrounded by a huge wall nearly 9.5 km long
with 101 bastions
Man Mandir
The largest palace in Gwalior, was built by Raja Man Singh Tomar (1486-1516)
Has two storey’s above, and two below ground level overhanging a sandstone cliff
This gigantic cliff is punctuated by five massive round towers, crowned by domed
cupolas and linked by delicately carved parapets
Man Mandir
Jaipur
Built by Jai Singh, represents a synthesis of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles.
The city is enclosed by a wall and has bastions and towers at regular intervals.
Hawa Mahal (1799) has a five-storeyed symmetrical facade composed of 953 small
casements in a huge curve each with a projecting balcony and crowning arch.
Jantar Mantar, the largest of five observatories built by Jai Singh II in the early
18thcentury, others being Ujjain, Mathura, Varanasi & New Delhi.
Hawa Mahal
Jantar Mantar
Bara Imambara → Built by the Nawab in 1784. Absence of pillars in the main hall
(Simple & symmetrical in design)
Chattar Manzil → Main attractions are the underground rooms and a beautiful dome
surrounded by a gilt umbrella
Roshanwali Kotiand Begum Koti → Situated at Hazratgunj with Italian style being more
prominent
Kashmir Style
Typified by use of woodwork.
log construction using deodar trees for the construction of wooden bridges called
kadals or the wooden shrines called ziarats
Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami Masjid at Srinagar built by Sikandar
Butshikan (1400 AD) – examples of the wooden architecture
Fort of Hari Parbat, the Pattar Masjid (1623) and the Akhun Mulla Shah’s mosque (1649)
are illustrations of art of stone building in Kashmir.
Features → multiplicity of Chattris /kiosks, fluted dome generally covered with copper or
brass gilt and enrichment of arches by numerous foliations
Notable example → Golden Temple at Amritsar (1764) built by the fourth Sikh Guru
Ramdas.
Most spectacular of all Jain temples are found at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan
Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ellora, Badami and Aihole also have some of the important
specimens of Jain Art
Portuguese used bricks as the main building material along with wooden roofs & stairs
Se Cathedral & Arch of Conception of Goa were built in the typical Portuguese – Gothic
style.
St. Francis Church at Cochin in 1510 is believed to be the first church built by the
Europeans in India.
Fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai and added fortifications to the Bassein fort
built by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, in 1532 AD.
Bassein fort is famous for the Matriz (Cathedral of St. Joseph), the Corinthian pillared
hall & the Porte da Mer (sea gate).
Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur De Jesus), Eglise de Notre
Dame de Angesand, Eglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinct
French influence.
Britishers used Red sandstone & coarse limestone as the main building material
Church of St. John at Calcutta (1787) inspired by St. Stephens Church at Walbrooks.
Sardar Ram Singh, a master builder of Punjab, designed the Central Museum & the
Senate House at Lahore (in Pakistan)
Designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, the structure became the symbol of
Bombay
Based on late medieval Italian models, the terminal was built over 10 years, starting in
1878
Drew elements from the indigenous & Indo-Islamic architecture combined with the
Gothic revival & Neo-Classical styles
Revival of Delhi
Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
Sir Edward Lutyens was made responsible for the overall plan of Delhi.
Vice regal palace appeared with a huge dome on the lines of a Buddhist stupa,
Herbert Baker added South Block and North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
Was called as the architect of the poor and the conscience keeper of India.
He merged the buildings with the environment and utilized locally available materials.
To reduce the consumption of steel and cement, he introduced filler slab construction.
Karl Heinz
He was a German Architect and was commissioned with instructions to stay clear of
elements of British or Mughal Architecture
Heinz used local materials like red sand stone and lime which were easily available.
Prominent Feature → Red sandstone buildings with white domes, with big courtyards
and windows
Le-Corbusier
Charles-Correa
He did pioneer work in urban issues and low cost shelter in the third world.
Features
Thinner walls
Pointed arches
Large windows
Ex: - St.Paul’s cathedral at Kolkata, Victoria, Lakshmi vilas & Gateway of India
Indian Paintings
Bhimbetaka – 5000BC
Background
Known from Primitive rock paintings of Bhimbetaka, Mirapurs & Panchmarhi.
But the real beginning of paintings can be traced from Gupta times.
Features
Bold lines
Used colors like Ache red, Yellow earth or Soot black colors
The rocks are first scratched with stone & then they were filled with colors.
Figures of Hunting, Animals, humans, Dancing scenes & Riding scenes etc were very
common.
Upper Paleolithic
Depicting Large animals like Bison, Elephant, Rhinoceros & Tigers etc…
Green used mainly for Dancing While red used for Hunting.
Mesolithic
Chalcolithic
Themes: Battle scenes, Men riding Horses & Elephant, Bow & Arrow scenes.
Mural paintings
Large works executed in form of paintings on the walls of large structures are known as
Mural paintings.
Ex:-
Lepakshi painting
Sitannavasal painting
Miniature paintings
Executed on a very small scale like paper, palm leaf, cloth & Glass etc..
The term Miniature derived from Latin & Minium means Red lead paint used in
illuminated manuscripts during Renaissance.
Pre conditions:
Subject must be painted not mere than 1/6th of its actual style.
Sadangas:
Sadrisyam; Similarity.
Features
Exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings & the pillars.
Features
Sitannavasal paintings
Cave & Mural paintings in Tanjore, Tamil Nadu.
Wide open eyes of all the figures as compared to Ajanta tradition of half closed drooping
eyes.
Miniature paintings
Theme: Buddhism.
Features:
Miniature paintings.
Bulging eyes,
Stiff figure.
Mughal period
Influence of Indian, Persian & European styles.
Features:
Ornamentation.
Used Foresightening technique – Objects are in a way that they closer & Smaller than
they really are.
Babur
Humayun
Akbar
Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Khusro Kuli, Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc were the
prominent painters.
Hamznama, which consisted 1200 paintings. Indian colors such as peacock blue, Indian
red began to be used.
Features:
3D figures
Use of Foresightening
Jahangir
Bishan Das was a master of portraits while Ustad Mansur specialised in animal painting.
Shahjahan
Reduced liveliness.
Aurangzeb
Discouraged paintings.
Choli (bodice) & long pigtails braided & ending in a tassel are the northern costume.
Rich color scheme, the palm trees, animals and men and women all belongs to the
deccani tradition.
Some flowering plants and arabesques on the top of the throne are derived from the
Persian tradition.
Continued long after the extinction of the Deccan sultanates of Ahmednagar, Bijapur &
Golconda.
Introduced by several Mughal painters who migrated to the Deccan during the period of
Aurangzeb and sought patronage there.
Distinctive features: treatment of the ethnic types, costumes, jewellery, flora, fauna,
landscape and colors.
Typical characteristics: rich colors, the deccani facial types and costumes
Style of painting: bold drawing, techniques of shading and the use of pure and brilliant
colors
Style is decorative and is marked by the use of bright colors and ornamental details.
Group of artists evolved a quick method of painting on mill-made paper. Using brush and
ink from the lampblack, these artists defined figures of deities, gentry and ordinary
people with deft and vigorously flowing lines.
Satirical paintings lampooning the hypocrisies of the newly rich & the changing roles of
men and women after the introduction of education for Women.
Continues today.
Used to paint the walls of room, known as kohbar ghar in which the newly wedded
couple meets for the first time.
Bhopas(local priests) carry these scrolls on their shoulders from village to village for a
performance
Most popular & largest phad – local deities’ devnarayanji and pabuji.
Gods are painted blue, Demons & evil characters in red and green.
Kolam
A ritualistic design drawn at the threshold of households
and temples.
Rajasthani style
Deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, Puranas, love
poems & Indian folk-lore.
Mughal artists of inferior merit who were no longer required by the Mughal Emperors,
migrated to Rajasthan.
Each school of painting has its distinct facial type, costume, landscape & color scheme.
Developed in 3 phases
Text of the painting is written in black on the top against the yellow ground.
Bundi School
Rich & glowing colors, the rising sun in golden color, crimson-red horizon, overlapping
and semi-naturalistic trees
Kishangad School
Developed under the patronage of Raja Savant Singh (1748-1757 A.D.), who wrote
devotional poetry in praise of Krishna
Master painter Nihal Chand who, in his works, has been able to create visual images of
his master’s lyrical compositions
Features:
Miniature paintings
Jaipur School
Pahari School
Influence of both Rajasthani & Mughal styles
Kangra
Thanka School
Use of Silk
Literature in India
The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas & Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit.
The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with the most ancient thought embodied in
the Rig Veda, the oldest literary heritage of mankind, & the Zend Avesta.
It was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically during the
18th century.
The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit & its word formation in his unrivalled
descriptive grammar ‘Ashtadhyayi‘.
The Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes the rich literature of the Mahayana school & the
Hinayana school also.
The most important work of the Hinayana school is the “Mahavastu” which is a
storehouse of stories.
While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana text which supplied literary
material for the Buddhacharita of Asvaghosa.
Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of regions &
boundaries.
From the north to the south & the east to the west there is no part of India that has not
contributed to or been affected by this language.
The writings of Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit writings.
Other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of Indian literature include
‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa, ‘Mrichakatika’ by Shudraka,
‘SwapnaVasavadattam’ by Bhasa, and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha.
Vedic literature
The Vedas are the earliest known Vedic literature in India & written in Sanskrit.
They treat the whole world as one human family ‘Vasudev Kutumbakam‘.
There are 4 Vedas, namely, the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda & Atharva Veda.
Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known a Traji.
It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they were written.
Max Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C.
1. Rig Veda
It is the earliest of the Vedas & collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.
The prayers are for seeking worldly prosperity & for the development of a highly
cultured society.
Along with religion Rig Veda provides us knowledge about social, political and
economic condition of ancient India.
Prominent gods: Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi & the Ashwini twins.
2. Yajur Veda
There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla & Krishna Yajur Veda.
This text reflects on the social & religious condition of India at that time.
3. Sama Veda
Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original & others are from the Rig Veda.
It prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda.
This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.
4. Atharva Veda
The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis called Atharva & Angiras.
This book gives detailed information about the family, social & political life of later
Vedic period.
In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the
Vedas.
The most famous example of this is Panini’s grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates the
rules of grammar & also throws light on society, economy and culture of those times.
After the 4 Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed.
These books gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions & deal with the
science of sacrifice.
The final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads which belong
to the later stage of the Brahmana literature.
Aranyakas
Deals with soul, birth and death and life beyond it.
These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living
inside the forests.
Initially they were handed down orally and were put to writing much later.
The Upanishads
The word Upanishad is derived from upa (nearby), and nishad (to sit-down), that is,
“sitting down near”.
Groups of pupil sit near the Guru to learn from him in the Guru-shishya parampara or
tradition.
The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian thought and are the final parts of the
Vedas.
Vedas start with the worship of the manifest, as that is obvious and then slowly transform
to the knowledge of the unmanifest
The Muktika gives a list of 108 Upanishads – this number corresponds to the holy
number of beads on a mala or Hindu rosary.
They deal with questions like the origin of the universe, life and death, the material and
spiritual world, nature of knowledge and many other questions.
The earliest Upanishads are the Brihadaranyaka which belongs to the Sukla Yajur Veda
and Chand yogya which belongs to the Sama Veda.
Some of the other important Upanishads are the Aitareya, Kena, and Katha Upanishad.
Mahabharata
Originally, it was written in Sanskrit & contained 8800 verses and was called “Jaya” or
the collection dealing with victory.
These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the
earliest Vedic tribes.
The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to be known as the
Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita.
It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the
Kauravas and the Pandavas.
Bhagavad Gita
The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of
divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today.
In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and
elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with examples and analogies.
This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a parochial, self-contained
guide to life.
In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and
many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.
This was mainly because the Bhagvad Gita spoke of positiveness in human actions.
It also spoke of duty towards God and human beings alike forgetting about the results.
The Gita has been translated nearly in all the main languages of the world.
Puranas
The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of the Hindus.
They are regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics.
There are said to be 18 Puranas and about the same number of Upapuranas.
Their origin can be traced as far back as the time when Buddhism was gaining
importance and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic culture.
Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual messages
through parables and fables.
They have a potent influence in the development of the religious lives of the people.
The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were compiled in the
Gupta period.
They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the education
of the common people.
These Puranas contain important geographical information / histories and deal with the
mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies.
This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse.
The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period.
Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five
topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa (Geneology)
(4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic history)
The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or
incidents.
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and
South Bihar.
The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three
baskets; Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains
dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma
while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha.
It was believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practicing
Dharma passed through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals.
Each birth story is called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and
economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They
also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD
in Valabhi in Gujarat.
The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and
Malasutras.
Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth
century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD).
Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and
grammar. These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political
history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
In fact Sanskrit language became the language of cultured and educated people.
1. Kalidas
2. Vishakadatta
He wrote two great historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Devi Chandra Gupta.
3. Shudraka
4. Harisena
5. Bhasa
He wrote 13 plays which echo the lifestyle of the era along with its prevalent beliefs and
culture.
Kushana period
The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars.
Asvaghosa
India produced great literary works on subjects like Math’s, Astronomy, Astrology,
Agriculture and Geography etc.
There is none that can compete with Varahamihiras Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia and
Vedanga Jyotisha
The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is the finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this period,
besides numerous works on different aspects of art and architecture, sculpture,
iconography and related fields.
The law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together known
as Dharmashastras.
These lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials.
They prescribed the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited.
They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery.
The Manusmriti tells us about the role of man and woman in society, their code of
conduct and relationship with each other.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state
of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provided us with glimpses
of the social and cultural life of northern and central India in times of the Guptas and
Harsha.
The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works of
Panini and Patanjali.
Tamil being the oldest of these languages began writing earlier and produced the Sangam
literature – the oldest literature in Tamil.
Telugu Literature
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature.
Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529)
Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as “Ashtadiggajas” adorned his court.
Allasani Peddana
The other 7 poets of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author
of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra
Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known
as Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam.
In the former, he attempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata simultaneously.
Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the Krishnadevaraya’s
court.
His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are recounted with pleasure even
today. Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam which was
considered one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and
Sanskrit writers as well.
The Sanskrit works of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha Desika and
Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
The earliest known literary work in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta
King, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I.
Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and
Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the tenth century AD.
Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta
Krishna III.
Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano.
Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title ratnatraya (the three gems).
Under the patronage of later Hoysala rulers, several literary works were produced.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings.
Poets of all religious groups made important contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote
Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana.
This is the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana.
Lakshamisha who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini Bharata and earned the
titled of Kamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).
The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the
people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source of
wisdom and ethics.
A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding poetess in
Kannada.
Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas.
Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam
literature.
Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam
has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression.
Now a large number of journals, newspapers and magazines are published in Malayalam.
When people read and write in their own language, they enjoy it more.
It is so well inter woven in their social life that they can express and feel their emotions
as well in their own language.
It is, therefore, no wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the
early four centuries of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD.
Poets who in these assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced the
Sangama literature over a period of three to four centuries.
Poets, bards and writers, authors came from various parts of South India to Madurai.
Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these
assemblies was called “Sangama literature”.
The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been
translated into many languages are noteworthy.
The Sangama literature is a collection of long and short poems composed by various
poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines.
There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies
called Ettuttokoi.
There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen lower collections)
and Pattupattu (the ten songs).
The former is generally assumed to be older than the latter, and considered to be of more
historical importance.
The first part deals with the epics, the second part with polity and government and the
third part with love.
Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with
grammar and poetry.
The first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil literature and deals with a love story.
These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of Tamils from second century to
sixth century AD.
From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars
(saints who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement
which engulfed the entire Indian sub-continent.
During this period, Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were two Tamil literary
classic writers.
Babur
Humayun
Akbar
‘Akbar Nama’, Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas are prominent among the books written
during his time.
Malik Muhammad Jayasis Padmavat and Keshav’s Ram Chandrika were also written
during the same period.
Jahangir
He too was a scholar of a high caliber and wrote his life story.
Shah Jahan
Aurangzeb
Urdu literature started developing during the last days of the Mughal emperor.
This credit goes to Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Mirza Galib.
The language of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was very simple and impressive.
His compositions inspired the other Urdu writer Mirza Galib, who was a famous poet of
his time.
Marathi literature
Maharashtra is situated on a plateau where a large number of local dialects were in use.
Marathi grew out of these local dialects.
The Portuguese missionaries started using Marathi for preaching their gospel.
The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived
in the thirteenth century. He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
Their songs are sung even today by the Verkari pilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur
pilgrimage.
Almost two centuries later, Eknath (l533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the
commentaries on the Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana. His songs are very popular all
over Maharashtra.
Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. He
was the devotee of Rama. He inspired Shivaji.
The closing years of the nineteenth century saw an upsurge in the Marathi literature.
It was a nationalist movement that made Marathi prose popular and prominent.
This helped the growth of Marathi literature. But the role of Keshav Sut and V.S.
Chiplunkar was no less.
Hari Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote novels which became very popular.
All these prose writers made great contribution to the development of Marathi literature.
Besides, the names of M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, G.T. Madholkar (poet and novelist) are
no less important.
Kashmiri literature
Kashmir shot into literary prominence, when Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini in Sanskrit
But this was in the language of the elite.
One Lal Ded, who lived in the fourteenth century, was probably the first to sing in the
Kashmiri language. She was a Shaivite mystic. After Islam spread in this area, the Sufi
influence also came to be visible.
Haba Khatoon, Mahjoor, Zinda Kaul, and Noor Din also known as Nund Rishi, Akhtar
Mohiuddin, Sufi Ghulam Mohammad and Dina Nath Nadim wrote devotional poetry in
Kashmiri.
The Western influence did not reach Kashmir till the end of the nineteenth century.
In 1846, after the first Sikh War, the Dogras of Jammu became the rulers there.
The Dogras were more interested in Dogri language than in Kashmiri. There were hardly
any schools or education.
Though the list of Modern Indian languages can have many languages, the constitution of
India has originally about 15 languages as national languages i.e. Assamese, Bengali,
Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Urdu, Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.
Three more languages i.e. Nepali, Manipuri and Konkani have been added now to the list.
The contribution of the Christian missionaries in the development of Indian literature was
no less significant.
First of all, they published dictionaries and grammar in several local languages.
The books written by them were meant for the newly arrived clergymen from Europe.
These books helped these missionaries as much as they helped the writers in the local
languages.
They could easily turn to the dictionaries to find a suitable word or see if the word was
grammatically correct.
The second fact is the role of lithographic printing press, which was introduced in India
in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The foreigners had established these presses for printing literature in local languages for
the benefit of the new, or would-be converts.
Therefore, the role of printing press in the development of literature cannot be ignored.
The third important fact is the establishment of schools and colleges by the missionaries.
Here, besides English, the missionaries also taught the local languages.
Perhaps their aim was to spread Christianity but they also produced a newly educated
class, who had a desire to read their literature.
Thus, the role of missionaries cannot be ignored while writing the history of Indian
languages and literature.
The Indians started writing work in English after 1835, when English was made the
medium of instruction.
Some of them showed their interest in the field of poetry, while some others showed their
keen interest in prose writing.
Michael. MadhuSudan Dutta, Taradutta, Sarojini Naidu and Ravindranath Tagore made
important contribution in the field of English Poetry.
Surendra Nath Banerjee, Firoze Shah Mehta and Jawahar Lal Nehru showed interest in
English prose.
Philosophy of India
1. Orthodox – Accepted the authority of Vedas & Believed in God. Ex: Shad Dharshanas
2. Heterodox – Questioned the authority of Vedas & Didn’t believed in God. Ex: Buddhism
& Jainism philosophy
During the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies about the true nature of
soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate reality
were developed.
These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools of
philosophies called Shada darshana.
They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is
recognised by all of them.
1. Samkhya System
The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one female
and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively.
The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between Purusha and
Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe.
The profounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra.
In fact Samkhya school explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and
answered all the questions aroused by the thinkers of those days.
2. Yoga
Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities.
The origin of yoga is found in the Yogasutra of Patanjali believed to have been written
in the second century BC.
Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also
considered a means of achieving freedom or mukti.
3. Nyaya
Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking.
According to Nyaya, valid knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one
knows about the object as it exists.
Nyaya system of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the
universe.
4. Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe.
The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories which are
substance, attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and inherence.
Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of five
elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether.
The living beings were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on
actions of merit and demerit.
Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic process and took place in agreement
with the wishes of God.
A number of treatises were written on this text but the best among them is the one written
by Prashastapada in the sixth century AD.
5. Mimamsa
Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of
the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda.
According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and
religion means the fulfillment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
Its main text is known as the Sutras of Gaimini which have been written during the third
century BC. The names associated with this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila
Bhatta.
The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which is the dispenser of fruits
of one’s actions, the law of righteousness itself.
6. Vedanta
Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of the Vedas.
According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self.
Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent,
unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self.
The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence.
Vedanta philosophy teaches that all these different religions are like so many roads,
which lead to same goal.
Vedanta (the end of the Vedas or knowledge) refers to the Upanishads which appeared at
the end of each Veda with a direct perception of reality.
It holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements which leaves
no trace after death. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy.
Hence, a death is the end of humans and pleasures the ultimate object in life.
Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas.
Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not recognise
ether as it is not known through perception.
Jain philosophy
Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the Vedas, but they admit the
existence of a soul.
They also agree with the orthodox tradition that suffering (pain) can be stopped by
controlling the mind and by seeking right knowledge and perception and by observing the
right conduct.
The names of Ajit Nath and Aristanemi are also mentioned with Rishabha Deva.
The first tirthankar realised that the source of Jaina philosophy was Adinath.
The 24th and the last tirthankar was named Vardhaman Mahavira who gave great impetus
to Jainism. Mahavira was born in 599 BC.
He left worldly life at the age of thirty and led a very hard life to gain true knowledge.
After he attained Truth, he was called Mahavira and he strongly believed in the
importance of celibacy or brahamcharya.
The Jains believe that the natural and supernatural things of the universe can be traced
back to seven fundamental elements.
They are jiva, ajivaa, astikaya, bandha, samvara, nirjana, and moksa.
Substances like body which exist and envelope (like a cover) are astïkaya.
The substance is the basis of attributes (qualities). The attributes that we find in a
substance are known as dharmas.
The Jains believe that things or substance have attributes. These attributes also change
with the change of kala (time).
From their point of view, the attributes of a substance are essential, and eternal or
unchangeable. Without essential attributes, a thing cannot exist. So they are always
present in everything.
For example, consciousness (chetana) is the essence of the soul; desire, happiness and
sorrow are its changeable attributes.
A the age of29, Gautama Buddha renounced family life to find a solution to the world’s
continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc.
He went to the forests and meditated there for six years. Thereafter, he went to Bodh
Gaya (in Bihar) and meditated under a pipal tree.
It was at this place that he attained enlightenment and came to be known as the Buddha.
He then travelled a lot to spread his message and helped people find the path of liberation
or freedom.
It is believed that soon after the Buddha’s death a council was called at Rajagriha where
Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka (rules of the order) and Ananda recited the Sutta
Pitaka (Buddha’s sermons or doctrines and ethics).
Sometime later the Abhidhamma Pitaka consisting of the Buddhist philosophy came into
existence.
Main Characteristics
Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people could follow
easily.
He considered the world as full of misery. Man’s duty is to seek liberation from this
painful world.
He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas.
Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of mind and
ultimate liberation from this material world.
When Buddha saw human beings suffering from sickness, pain and death, he concluded
that there was definitely suffering in human life.
There is pain with birth. Separation from the pleasant is also painful.
Pain also comes when objects of sensuous pleasure are lost. Thus, life is all pain.
2. Cause of suffering
3. Cessation of suffering
Tells that when passion, desire and love of life are totally destroyed, pain stops.
This Truth leads to the end of sorrow, which causes pain in human life.
That state of mind is the state of freedom from desire, pain and any kind of attachment.
4. Path of Liberation
Buddha suggests that the way or the path leading to liberation is eight-fold, through
which one can attain nirvana.
Ignorance creates a wrong idea of the relationship between the world and the self.
Thus, the right view of the world and its objects is the right vision.
It is the strong will-power to destroy thoughts and desires that harm others.
It means to be away from theft, excessive eating, the use of artificial means of beauty,
jewellery, comfortable beds, gold etc.
Right livelihood means to earn one’s bread and butter by right means.
It is never right to earn money by unfair means like fraud, bribery, theft, etc.
It means to keep one’s body, heart and mind in their real form.
When actions take place according to the bad thoughts, one has to experience pain.
If a person pursues the above seven Rights, he will be able to concentrate properly and
rightly.
Except for Charvaka school, realisation of soul has been the common goal of all
philosophical schools of India.
Ajivika Philosophy
A related philosophy which some classify under the heterodox system is Ajivika
Philosophy.
The Ājīvikas may simply have been a more loosely-organized group of wandering
ascetics (shramanas or sannyasins).
Some of its prominent figures were Makkhali Gosala and Sanjaya Belatthaputta.
This was an ascetic movement of the Mahajanapada period in the Indian subcontinent.
1. Advaita of Shankaracharya
Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as “Advaita
Vedanta”.
According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true; the world is false and self.
Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent,
unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self.
The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence.
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world tolerance and universal
acceptance. We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions as true.” –
Swami Vivekananda at Parliament of world Religions in Chicago 1893.
2. Vishistadvaita of Ramanujacharya
Vishistadvaita means modified monism.
The ultimate reality according to this philosophy is Brahman (God) and matter and soul
are his qualities.
3. Sivadvaita of Srikanthacharya
According to this philosophy the ultimate Brahman is Shiva, endowed with Shakti.
4. Dvaita of Madhavacharya
The literal meaning of dvaita is dualism which stands in opposition to non-dualism and
monism of Shankaracharya.
He believed that the world is not an illusion (maya) but a reality full of differences.
5. Dvaitadvaita of Nimbaraka
Dvaitadvaita means dualistic monism.
According to this philosophy God transformed himself into world and soul.
6. Suddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya wrote commentaries on Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita.
For him Brahman (God) was Sri Krishna who manifested himself as souls and matter.
His philosophy came to be known as Pushtimarga (the path of grace) and the school was
called Rudrasampradaya.
Indian Music
Indian Music
Origin of Indian Music: Traced from Sama Veda & its Upaveda, Gandharva Veda
In Puranas Narada is the reference of Music & First one who heard this revelation.
Swara,
Rāga &
Tāla
Swara
In general sense ‘Swara’ means tone or pitch.
Swara meanings
Rāga
Basis of melody
3 kinds of Rāgas
There are 6 principle Rāgas in Hindustani music & are time specific, season specific & mood
specific.
Tāla
Basis of timed Rhythm.
Note: Classification of Indian Music; 2 distinct styles i.e Hindustani & Carnatic.
Hindustani music
Hindustani music has 10 main forms of styles of singing & compositions: dhrupad,
dhamar, hori, khayal, tappa, chaturang, ragasagar, tarana, sargam and thumri.
Nowadays ghazals have become very popular as the ‘light classical’ form of music.
Dhrupad
khayal
Most prominent genre of hindustani vocal music depicting a romantic style of singing.
It is dependent to a large extent on the imagination of the performer & the improvisations
he is able to incorporate.
6 main gharanas in khayal: delhi, patiala, agra, gwalior, kirana & atrauli-jaipur.
Gwalior gharana is the oldest & is also considered the mother of all other gharanas.
Thumri
Originated in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, mainly in lucknow and Benares, around
the 18th century.
Supposed to be a romantic & erotic style of singing and is also called “the lyric
of Indian classical music”.
Its most distinct feature is the erotic subject matter picturesquely portraying the various
episodes from the lives of lord Krishna and Radha.
Dadra
Major difference is that dadras have more than one antara and are in dadra tala.
Dhamar-hori
Compositions are similar to dhrupad but are chiefly associated with the festival of holi.
This music, sung in the dhamar tala, is chiefly used in festivals like janmashthami,
ramnavami & holi. These compositions are mainly based on the love pranks of Radha-
Krishna.
Tappa
Developed in the late 18thcentury from the folk songs of camel drivers.
They are essentially folklore of love & passion and are written in Punjabi.
Ragasagar
Consists of different parts of musical passages in different ragas as one song composition.
Compositions have 8 to 12 different ragas & the lyrics indicate the change of the ragas.
Depends on how smoothly the musical passages change along with the change of ragas.
Tarana
Chaturang
Denotes 4 colours or a composition of a song in 4 parts: fast khayal, tarana, sargam and a
“paran” of tabla or pakhwaj.
Ghazal
Mainly a poetic form than a musical form, but it is more song-like than the thumri.
Described as the “pride of Urdu poetry” & Originated in Iran in the 10th century.
It never exceeds 12 shers (couplets) & on an average, ghazals usually have about 7 shers.
Found an opportunity to grow and develop in India around 12th century ad when the
Mughal influences came to India & persian gave way to Urdu as the language of poetry
and literature.
Developed & evolved in the courts of Golconda &Bijapur under the patronage of Muslim
rulers.
The 18th & 19th centuries are regarded as the golden period of the ghazal with delhi &
lucknow being its main centres.
Carnatic music
Tamil classic of the 2nd century.
The Tolkkappiyam, kalladam & the contributions of the saivite and vaishnavite saints of
the 7th & 8th centuries also serve as resource material for studying musical history.
Flourished in deogiri the capital city of the yadavas in the middle ages.
The entire cultural life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic empire of Vijayanagar
under the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music of south India came to be
known as Carnatic music.
Outstanding feature is its raga system & highly developed and intricate tala system.
Birth of the musical trinity – Tyagaraja, Muthuswami dikshitar & Syama sastri – at tiruvarur
between the years 1750 to 1850.
Gitam
Taught to beginners of music, the Gitam is very simple in construction, with an easy.
Suladi
Varnam
A beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order, combining in itself all the
characteristic features of the raga in which it is Composed.
Svarajati
More complicated than the gitas, the svarajati paves the way for the learning of the
varnams.
Jatisvaram
Very similar to the svarajati in musical structure, this form- jatisvaram – has no sahitya or
words.
Kirtanam
Had its birth about the latter half of the 14th century.
Kriti
The raga bhava is brought out in all the rich and varied colours in this form.
Pada
Though they are composed mainly as dance forms, they are also sung in concerts, on
account of their musical excellence & aesthetic appeal.
Javali
Sung both in concert programmes & dance concerts, the javalis are popular because of
the attractive melodies in which they are composed.
In contrast to the padas which portray divine love, javalis are songs which are sensuous in
concept and spirit.
Tillana
It is mainly a dance form, but on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes
finds a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece.
Pallavi
Branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the musician has ample opportunities of displaying
his or her creative talents, imaginative skill, & musical intelligence.
Tanam
The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating patterns, makes tanam singing the
most captivating part of raga exposition.
1. Taal vadya
2. Sushira vadya
3. Avanaddha vadya
4. Ghana vadya
Indian Dance
Indian Dance
Indian Dance is of ‘Divine origin’ i.e it was a ritual form of worship at the temples.
Principles of Indian classical dance are derived from “Natya Shastra” of Bharat Muni.
Bharat Muni traces its origin from Brahma & Brahma created 5th Veda known as ‘Natya
Veda.’
From Vedas:
Nataraja represents destruction, creation, preservation, release from bondage & the cycle
of Life & Death.
Dance is considered to be a complete art because it enfolds in its range, other art forms
too – music, sculpture, poetry & drama.
Lasya denotes grace, bhava, rasa, & abhinaya which are more feminine.
Earliest evidence: Bronze dancing girl, Bhimbetka caves, Ajanta & Ellora caves.
The classical dances are governed by rules of Natya Shastra & based on “Guru –
Shishya parampara”
What is Bharatanatyam??
Bha – Bhaav
Ra – Raag
Ta – Taal
Bhava or rasa is woven into the sahitya & then expressed by the dancer.
Bharatanatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of
Hindustani music.
The finale of the piece is a series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax.
The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.
It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime & gestures were perhaps added later on to
make the recitation more effective.
Being the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture, it represents a
unique synthesis of Hindu & Muslim genius in art.
Further, Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North
Indian music.
Earlier the invocation was limited to Ganesha Vandana. Now other gods are also
invoked.
It is followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and abstract dancing. A Kuchipudi recital is
usually concluded with tarangam.
Music that accompanies the dance is according to the classical school of Carnatic music
& is delightfully syncopation.
Exponents: Radha & Raja Reddy (wife & Husband), Yamini Krishnamurthy and Indarani
rehman.
4. Kathakali- Kerala
Comparatively recent origin.
A large oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain called
Tirasseela on the stage, the main dancers stand behind it before the performance.
The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the lower eye-lids as described in the
Natya Shastra are not used to such an extent in any other dance style.
5. Odissi – Odisha
Archaeological evidence of this dance form dating back to the 2nd century B.C. is found
in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhubaneshwar.
With Hinduism taking roots in Orissa by about the 7th century A.D., many imposing
temples were erected.
In each performance, even a modern Odissi dancer still reaffirms the faith of the
devadasis or maharis where they sought liberation or moksha through the medium of
dance.
Exponents: Kalicharan Patnayak, Sonal Mansingh, Sharan lower (U.SA) & Myrla Barve
(Argentina)
6. Sattriya- Assam
Introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great Vaishnava saint & reformer of Assam,
‘Mahapurusha Sankaradeva‘as a powerful medium for propagation of the Vaishnava
faith.
There were 2 dance forms prevalent in Assam before the neo-Vaishnava movement such
as Ojapali & Devadasi with many classical elements.
2 varieties of Ojapali dances are still prevalent in Assam i.e. Sukananni or Maroi Goa
Ojah & Vyah Goa Ojah. Sukananni Ojah paali is of Shakti cult and Vyah Goa Ojah paali
is of Vaishnava cult.
Sankaradeva included Vyah Goa Ojah into his daily rituals in Sattra. Till now Vyah Goa
Ojah is a part of rituals of the Sattras
of Assam.
Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from Assamese folk dances namely
Bihu, Bodos etc.
7. Manipuri – Manipur
Lai Haraobav (merrymaking of
the gods) is one of the main
festivals still performed in
Manipur which has its roots in the
pre-Vaishnavite period.
Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the
Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta.
There are five principal Ras dances of which four are linked with specific seasons, while
the fifth can be presented at any time of the year. In
Manipuri Ras, the main characters are Radha, Krishna and the gopis.
A short fine white muslin skirt is worn over it. A dark coloured velvet blouse covers the
upper part of the body and a traditional white veil is worn over a special hair-do which
falls gracefully over the face.
Krishna wears a yellow dhoti, a dark velvet jacket and a crown of peacock feathers.
The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as
Sankirtana in Manipur.
The martial dancers of Manipur – the Thang-ta – have their origins in the days when
man’s survival depended on his ability to defend himself from wild animals.
The main musical instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri classical drum.
Besides the Ras and other leelas, each stage in one’s life is celebrated with Sankirtana
performances – child birth, upanayanam, wedding and shradha are all occasions for
singing and dancing in Manipur.
The whole community participates as song and dance form part of daily life expressions.
8. Mohiniyattam- Kerala
Mohini means beautiful women & Attam means dance.
Of all the classical South Indian styles, Mohiniyattam can be singled out with admirable
distinction, for its characteristic body movements, marked by the graceful sway of the
torso.
The traditional costume worn in Mohiniyattam is white with a gold border, and gold
ornaments are worn.
2. Bihu, Assam
One of the most colourful folk
dances of India.
3. Jhijhiya, Bihar
Jhijhia is usually performed by a group of young
women dancers and portrays the offering of
prayers to please the King of Gods; Lord Indra for
a good monsoon & a rich harvest.
5. Kaksar, Chhattisgarh
Kaksar is performed by the Abhuj Maria
tribes of Bastar in Chhattisgarh to seek
the blessings of the village deity Kaksar
for a good harvest.
6. Choliya, Uttarakhand
Prevalent in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, the
Chholiya dance has elements of martial craft & is
associated with the Kirji Kumbh celebrations.
7. Samai, Goa
The metal lamps are traditional handicrafts of Goa & the Samai dance is performed with
these traditional metallic lamps or deepaks.
The men & women balance the samai on their heads & perform various movements.
8. Garba, Gujarat
Garba is one of the most popular dance forms of Gujarat, which is linked with the
worship of “Shakti”.. The word “Garbo” has
originated from Sanskrit word “Garbhdeep”,
an earthen pot with circular holes is
popularly known as “Garbo”.
The roar of the Dhol, the colourful gorgeous costumes, speed together with vigour and
gusto of dancers leaves audience spell bound.
Daang dance centers around the social life, feasts, fairs, festivals, ceremonies and rituals
connected to worship.
The two and three tier formation moves clockwise and anti clockwise.
Just like their ancestors from Africa, siddhies are master of rhythm dancing to the tune of
huge drums.
Slow movements with soft knee dips with accentuation of torso are the key step of this
dance.
enact battle scenes, symbolizing the great war of the mundas against the British.
The fast beat of the madal, along with the use of other musical instruments like dhol,
nagara, shehnai, and ranbheri make Paika dance performances truly captivating.
Though performed on various occasions, the Paika dance is most readily associated with
the dussehra celebrations.
The dance is performed during harvesting season but the most essential occasion is the
month of ramzan when every street and corner in Kashmir resounds with the Rouff songs
& dance.
Traditionally, no musical
accompaniment is used with
Rouff songs as they are sung while doing the daily chores.
The folk instruments like noot, tumbaknari, rabab etc are used when it is performed on
the stage or in some gathering.
Masks and elaborate head gears are the ornamental apparels of the chhau dancers.
The dance commences with an invocation of lord Ganesha before movements begin as
per the story.
They wear a typical attractive dress specially meant for this occasion.
It is primarily, a female dance, where the dancers with veils on their faces, move their
feet and whirl body in rhythm to the accompaniment of vocal and instrumental music.
Algoza, mridanga and dhapali are the main musical instruments used in this dance.
Performed on all festive occasions, it is also known as the bamboo dance, as bamboo
forms an integral part of this folk form.
Two long bamboo staves are kept crosswise and horizontally, parallel to ground and the
male dancers clap the staves, resultantly producing a sharp sound setting the rhythm for
the dance.
Performed in the month of chaitra, it is associated with the worship of Shiva and akin to
the mayurbhanj chhau.
The dedicated worshipers participate in the dance holding a ‘danda’ (pole) and a ‘pasa’
(knot) symbolic of a devout shaivite, they dance vigorously to the accompaniment of
drums and ‘mohri’ displaying various elements of martial practices.
Energetic and infectiously lively, Bhangra is a spectacular dance, the popularity of which
has crossed the borders of Punjab.
The boli deals with the day–to–day life situations of rural folk. Giddha is accompanied by
the dholak (drum) or gharah (earthen pot).
The dance highlights the unparalleled virtuosity of the dancers often reminiscent of the
graceful and supple movements of the snake.
At the two ends of the pole he was supposed to carry the favourite hills of muruga, the
popular deity of Tamil nadu.
The carrying of Kavadi by pilgrims is symbolic of idumban with the hillocks poised on
the pole.
The Karagam dance is very popular in Tamil nadu, puducherry, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
Standing on the pitcher, they move the metal plates while dancing on it while keeping the
bottle on the head atop which is a oil lamp alight or pick up a flower from the ground
bowing their body back.
All along the dance they twist their waist with much finesse.
The group of musicians also stands behind the dancers playing their instruments.
The dance begins with the music provided by drums, cymbals and ghunghroos which are
tied on waist and ankles.
A traditional wind instrument, called ransingha, which is the centre of attraction plays a
significant role in boosting up the tempo of the dancers.
Hori, kajri, chaiti, kaharwa, lachari, thumari, and dadra and nirgun songs are adopted in
dhobia dance.
Miscellaneous Topics
In 1875, he founded a modern school at Aligarh to promote English education among the
Muslims & later it grown into the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental College & then into
the Aligarh Muslim University.
Deoband Movement
The orthodox section among the Muslim Ulema organised the Deoband movement
which began after the foundation of the Dar-ul-Ulum at Deoband in 1866 by Maulana
Hussain Ahmad and others with the aim of resuscitating classical Islam and improving
the spiritual and moral conditions of the Muslims.
It was a revivalist movement where objectives were to propagate among the Muslims, the
pure teachings of the Quran and the Hadis and to keep alive the spirit of Jihad against
the foreign rulers.
The Ulema under the leadership of Mohammad Qasim Wanotavi and Rashid Ahmad
Gangohi founded the school of Deoband in the Saharanpur district of UP in 1866.
Deoband School welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.
In 1888 Deoband Ulema issued a religious decree against Syed Ahmad Khan’s
organizations.
Deoband School
Orthodox section among the Muslim Ulema organised the Deoband Movement.
Ulema under the leadership of Mohammad Qasim Wanotavi & Rashid Ahmad Gangohi
founded the school of Deoband in the Saharanpur district of UP in 1866.
In 1888 Deoband Ulema issued a religious decree against Syed Ahmad Khan’s
organizations.
Objectives:
(i) To propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran & the Hadis
(ii) To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.
Ahrar Movement
Founded in 1910 under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan,
Hasan Imam, and Maulana Zafar Ali Khar & Mazhar-ul-Haq in opposition to the loyalist
policies of the Aligarh movement.
Ahmadia Movement
Also known as the Qadiani movement & founded by Mirza Gulam Ahmad at Qadiani
in Punjab.
He called for the return of Sikhism to its origin & emphasized the worship of one God
&nirankar (formless).
Rejected idolatry & also prohibited eating meat, drinking liquor, lying, cheating, etc.
Laid emphasis on Guru Nanak & on Sikhism before the establishment of Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Sing at Anandpur and this separated them from the Namdaris.
Namdharis Movement
Founded by Baba Ram Singh in 1857.
Set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh’s founding of the Khalsa with the
requirement of wearing the five symbols but instead of the sword the followers were
supposed to carry a stick.
Made consumption of beef was strictly forbidden as protection of cattle was important.
Akali Movement
Main aim to purify the management of the Sikh Gurudwaras or shrines by removing the
corrupt priests.
Removed corrupt priests through the act and also through the Shiromani Gurudwara
Prabhandhak Committee (SPGC).
Kuka Movement
Founded by Bagat Jawaharmal, popularly known as Sian Sahib.
Started with the aim of Sikh reform & restoration of Sikh sovereignty in Punjab by
driving the British away.
Kukas recognised Guru Govind Singh as the only true Guru of the Sikhs.
Vikram Samvat
Saka Samvat
Hijri calendar
Gregorian calendar
1. Vikram calendar
Date back to 57 BC by king Vikramaditya to mark his victory over the Saka rulers
Shuklapaksha (15 days) – Starts new moon & ends full moon
Krishnapaksha (15 days) – Starts full moon & ends new moon
Hence every 3rd & 5th year in a cycle of 5 years has 13 months – Adhik mass
2. Saka calendar
Zero year 78 AD
365 days
Also known as ‘Indian national calendar’ introduced in 1957 based on the traditional
Hindu calendars
Month
1. Chaitra
2. Vaiśākha
3. Jyeṣṭha
4. Āṣāḍha
5. Śrāvaṇa
7. Ashvin
8. Kārtika
9. Agrahāyaṇa, Mārgaśīrṣa
10. Pauṣa
11. Māgha
12. Phālguna
3. Hijri calendar
The Islamic calendar, Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar (AH) is a lunar calendar
consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
With an annual drift of 10 or 11 days, the seasonal relation repeats about every 33 Islamic
years (every 32 solar years).
It is used to date events in many Muslim countries (concurrently with the Gregorian
calendar).
Also used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper days on which to observe the
annual fast (Ramadan), to attend Hajj, and to celebrate other Islamic holidays and
festivals.
The first year was the Islamic year beginning in AD 622 during which the emigration
of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijri, occurred.
4. Gregorian calendar
Used throughout most of the world & also known as “Universal calendar”
It replaced the previous Julian calendar because the Julian calendar had an error: it added
a leap year (with an extra day every four years) with no exceptions.
The length of the Julian year was exactly 365.25 days (365 days and 6 hours), but the
actual time it takes for the Earth to go around the Sun once is closer to 365.2425 days
(about 365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes).
Since the actors are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of
living, ideals and sensitivity is noticeable.
2. Swang – Haryana
Mainly music-based.
5. Bhavai – Gujarat
Main centers of – Kutch and Kathiawar.
6. Jatra – Bengal
Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have
Earlier form of Jatra has been musical & dialogues were added at later stage.
The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of Action, etc.
The sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and Then in either Brajboli
or Assamese.
9. Tamaasha – Maharashtra
Evolved from the folk forms such as gondhal, jagran
and kirtan.
Chakyaar or actor,
Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance and theatre form
unique.
Some scholars trace the origin of puppets to India 4000 years ago, where the main
character in Sanskrit plays was known as “sutradhara”, and “the holder of strings”.
Ancient Hindu philosophers have likened god almighty to a puppeteer and the entire
universe to a puppet stage.
1. String Puppets
Kathputli, Rajasthan
Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips – distinct facial features.
Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normally tied to their
fingers and not to a prop or a support.
Kundhei, Orissa
Have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate.
Use a triangle shape wooden prop, to which strings are attached for manipulation.
Gombeyatta, Karnataka
Highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees.
2. Shadow Puppets
Shadow puppets are flat figures.
Pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
Manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows
Found in Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil nadu.
Puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for
kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.
Ravanachhaya, Orissa
Puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses.
Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees, mountains, chariots,
etc. are also used.
3. Rod Puppets
An extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger & supported and manipulated by
rods from below.
Heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods
are joined at the shoulders.
Bamboo-made hub is tied firmly to the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod holding
the puppet is placed.
Puppeteers each holding one puppet, stand behind a head-high curtain and while
manipulating the rods also move and dance imparting corresponding movements to the
puppets.
Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized prose dialogues & a group of
musicians provide the accompanying music with a drum, harmonium and cymbals.
Music and verbal text have close similarity with the Jatra theatre.
Mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to strings instead of rods.
Elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of puppetry.
Puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra Pradesh.
Yampuri, Bihar
Made of wood.
4. Glove Puppets
Also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets.
Controlled by the human hand – first finger inserted in the head and middle finger and
thumb are the two arms of the puppet.
In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet
with the other.
Delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well
synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere.
Pavakoothu, Kerala
Head and the arms are carved of wood and joined together with thick cloth, cut and
stitched into a small bag.
Faces of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the
feathers of the peacock, etc.
Manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet.
Theme: based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
Delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well
synchronized and create a dramatic atmosphere.
The Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
was adopted on 17 November 1997 following the General Conference of the UNESCO
held from 17 October 1972 to 21 November 1972.
India’s first two sites inscribed on the list at the 7th Session of the World Heritage held in
1983 were the Agra Fort and the Ajanta Caves.
Over the years, 33 more sites have been inscribed, the latest being the Archaeological
Site of Nalanda Mahavihara (Nalanda University) in Bihar and Khangchendzonga
National Park in Sikkim in 2016.
Of these 35 sites, 27 are cultural sites,7 are natural sites and one is mixed site. A tentative
list of further sites/properties submitted by India for recognition includes 51 sites.
33 Nalanda Bihar
Apastanbha (2 cen BC) gives the reference of acute, obtuse and right angles.
There is also a mention of rotation system, decimal system and the use of Zero.
Astronomy was called Khagol Shastra and Khagol was the famous astronomical
observatory at Nalanda where Aryabhatta studied.
Aryabhatta stated that earth is round and rotate in its own axis.
The value of “Pi” by Aryabhatta was 3.1416 and it was much more accurate than that
Greeks given.
Arabs called Mathematics as Hindisat or the Indian art which was learnt by them from
India.
He wrote Brahmagupta Siddhantha and it was the first book which mentioned Zero as a
number.
He introduced Negative numbers and described them as Debts and Positive numbers as
Furtunes.
Sawai Jai Singh II setup 5 astronomical observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujjain
and Mathura.
The basic weight used in ancient India was Raktika, a bright red seed from the gunja.
5 ratikas = 1 masa,
10 palas = 1 dharana.
Satamana was the largest coin and was shaped like a small bent bar. 1 satamana would
weigh about 180 grains.
Karaspana was the basic silver punched coin and kakinis was the basic copper coin.
The Indo-European coins came from Rome during their expansion southward into the
area of Afghanistan.
Silver coins, drachm and obol, were the most abundant, copper coins, their metrology is
not clear, the second most abundant, and gold coins were also very rare.
Kusana coins were only made of gold and copper and copper coins were large.
Dinaras or suvarnas were based on Roman denarius and they were also double and
quarter dinaras.
The Pre-Gupran coins were made of silver and copper and the coins were not uniform in
weight or size and were made by the native king.
Satavahanas of the Deccan, were the first to issue lead and potin coins.
The Guptas also made gold coins called dinara and were made in relation to Kusana
standards.
The Indian standard of coin was the copper coin called the karasapana, and the silver
coin, rupaka, was based on the Sakas of Ujjayini.
The Medieval coins were also made of gold, silver, and copper.
The gold coins were called suvarna or tanka and were only minted in a few dynasties in
the 11th century.
The silver coins (dramma, tanka) also conformed to this standard, and coins of 3/4, ½,
and ¼ dramma are attested.
Silver Tanka and Copper Jital coins issued by Illutumish (1210 – 36)