Course File: Department of Agronomy

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
Course File
COURSE NO. : AGRO-235
COURSE TITLE: Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management
CREDITS: 2(1+1)
COURSE TEACHER
Prof. Prasad M. Patil

Assistant Professor
Course File
COURSE NO. : AGRO-235
COURSE TITLE: Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management
CREDITS: 2(1+1)
COURSE TEACHER
Prof. Prasad M. Patil

Assistant Professor
Prasad Mukundrao Patil. Department of Agronomy, K.K.Wagh College of Agriculture, Nasik 7507445546/986020851
Content
Sr. No Particulars
1. Syllabus copy
2. Teaching Plan
3. List of Books
4. Time Table
5. Academic Calendar (University)
6. Theory Question Bank
7. Practical Question Bank
8. Question Papers
9. Assignment
10. Model Solution of Paper
11. Theory & Practical Notes
12. Power Point Presentation
13. Attendance Record
14. Semester-wise Result
Prepared by
Prof.Prasad M.Patil
Assistant Professor
Course : AGRO 235 Credit: 2(1+1) Semester-III
Course title: Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management
Syllabus
Theory: Rainfed agriculture: Introduction, types, History of rainfed agriculture and watershed in
India, Problems and prospects of rainfed agriculture in India; Soil and climatic conditions prevalent in rainfed
areas; Soil and water conservation techniques, Drought: types, effect of water deficit on physio- morphological
characteristics of the plants, Crop adaptation and mitigation to drought; Water harvesting: importance, its
techniques, Efficient utilization of water through soil and crop management practices, Management of crops in
rainfed areas, Contingent crop planning for aberrant weather conditions, Concept, objective, principles and
components of watershed management, Factors affecting watershed management
Practical: Studies on climate classification, studies on rainfall pattern in rainfed areas of the country and
pattern of onset and withdrawal of monsoons. Studies on cropping pattern of different rainfed areas in the country
and demarcation of rainfed area on map of India. Interpretation of meteorological data and scheduling of
supplemental irrigation on the basis of evapo-transpiration demand of crops. Critical analysis of rainfall and
possible drought period in the country, effective rainfall and its calculation. Studies on cultural practices for
mitigating moisture stress. Characterization and delineation of model watershed. Field demonstration on soil &
moisture conservation measures. Field demonstration on construction of water harvesting structures. Visit to
rainfed research station/watershed.
Teaching Schedule
(a) Theory
Lecture Topic Weightage
(%)
1 Rainfed agriculture: Introduction, types, History of rainfed agriculture and 8
watershed in India
2-3 Problems and prospects of rainfed agriculture in India 8
4 Soil and climatic conditions prevalent in rainfed areas 10
5 Soil and water conservation techniques 10
6-7 Drought: types, effect of water deficit on physio- morphological characteristics of 10
the plants
8-9 Crop adaptation and mitigation to drought 8
10-11 Water harvesting: importance, its techniques, Efficient utilization of water through 10
soil and crop management practices
12 Management of crops in rainfed areas 8
13-14 Contingent crop planning for aberrant weather conditions 10
15 Concept, objective, principles and components of watershed management 10
16 Factors affecting watershed management 8

Total 100
(b)Practical
Experiment Topic
1 Studies on Agro-climate zones of India
2 Studies on Agro-climate zones of Maharashtra
3-4 Studies on rainfall pattern in rainfed areas of the country and pattern of onset and withdrawal of
monsoons
5 Studies on cropping pattern of different rainfed areas in the country
6 Demarcation of rainfed area on map of India
7 Studies on interpretation of meteorological data ( rainfall, temperature, humidity etc.)
8-9 Studies on critical growth stages of different crops and irrigation scheduling for survival of
crops
10 Studies on drought, its classification and effect on crop growth
11 Study on effective rainfall and its calculations
12-13 Studies on different soil and moisture conservation practices for mitigating moisture stress
14 Studies on watershed, its characteristics and delineation of model watershed

15 Studies on field demonstration on soil and moisture conservation measures
16 Studies on field demonstration on water harvesting studies
17 Visit to rainfed research station/ watershed areas
Chapter-I
Rainfed agriculture: Introduction, types, History of rainfed agriculture and watershed in India
 Rainfed Agriculture:-
 Indian agriculture is ‘a gamble in the monsoon’ even today.
 So, water has been prioritized to be the most crucial resource for sustainable development of
agriculture.
 The life of mankind and almost all the flora and fauna on the earth depends on the availability
of fresh water resources.
 It is an extremely important component of biological systems. The most of the plant cells and
tissues contain 80-90 per cent water by weight.
 Plant water status influences all the physiological processes of plants directly or indirectly.
 Highly variable global distribution of annual average rainfall of about 1000 mm on the earth
surface is responsible for the disparities in agriculture production and socio-economic
conditions.
 Fifty five per cent or more than one-half of the total land surfaces of the earth, receives an
annual precipitation of less than 500 mm and must be reclaimed, if at all by dry farming
practices.
 Area with 500-750 mm rainfall, which accounts for 10 per cent of the total land area, also need
dry farming measures for successful crop production
 In India also, distribution of the annual average rainfall of about 1200 mm, is highly variable,
irregular and undependable with wide spread variations among various meteorological
subdivisions in terms of distribution and amount.
 The spatial distribution of rainfall varies from 100mm/annum in Rajasthan to about 11000
mm/annum in Cherrapunji in Meghalaya.
 Agriculture uses almost 85 per cent of the total water available in the country.
 Of the total geographical and net cultivated area about 92 and 33 million hectares receive less
than 750mm rainfall annually respectively.
Distribution of dryland area in different rainfall zones in India

Mean annual Dry land area
Climate zone
rainfall (mm) (million ha)
<500 Arid 10.9
500-750 Dry semi-arid 22.2
750-1000 Wet semi-arid 21.2
1000-1250 Sub-humid 19.6
>1250 Humid 27.7
Source: Virmani et al. (1991) pp
 Agriculture continues to be mainstay of the Indian economy. It contributes 25 per cent of the
national gross product.
 In this contribution, rainfed lands in India are important today and will continue to be so in future.
Currently, about 63 per cent of agriculture in India is rainfed.
 Agriculture continues to be mainstay of the Indian economy. It contributes 25 per cent of the
national gross product. In this contribution, rainfed lands in India are important today and
will continue to be so in future.
 Currently, about 63 per cent of agriculture in India is rainfed. This area contributes nearly 44 per
cent to food production and supports 40 per cent of the human and 60 per cent of the livestock
population.
 Even if the entire irrigation potential of the country is used, still about half of the cultivated land
will remain rainfed. About 30 percent of the country (109 million ha) is drought prone and suffers
with critical water shortages.
 Rainfed agro-ecosystem covers about 90 million ha of net cultivated area, which is distributed
unequally among different states.
 In Assam, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Rajasthan more than 70 per cent of the net cultivated area is rainfed.
 Besides uncertainties in rainwater availability, the swings in the onset, continuity and withdrawal
pattern of monsoon make crop production in rainfed areas a risky proposition.
 The coefficient of variation in the monsoon rainfall in areas located in the rainfall zones of < 500
mm, 500-700 mm, 700-1000 mm and > 1000 mm is in the range of 50-55, 40-50, 30-40 and 20-
30 per cent, respectively.
State wise rainfed area (1991-92) in India

Cultivated
Net sown area Net irrigated area
State rainfed area
(Lakh ha) (Lakh ha)
(%)
Andhra Pradesh 110.4 66.9 60.6
Assam 27.1 21.3 80.9
Bihar 77.1 43.6 56.6
Gujarat 92.9 69.2 74.5
Haryana 35.1 7.5 21.4
H.P. 5.7 4.7 82.0
J&K 7.3 4.2 57.2
Karnataka 107.1 84.0 78.4
Kerala 22.5 19.2 85.4
M.P. 193.6 147.4 76.1
Maharashtra 177.3 155.6 87.8
Orissa 63.4 44.0 69.4
Punjab 42.1 2.80 6.6
Rajasthan 154.9 115.5 72.0
Tamil Nadu 57.2 31.2 54.5
Uttar Pradesh 173.0 67.6 39.1
West Bengal 53.3 34.2 64.1
Others 13.9 11.2 80.5
Total 1414.1 926.1 65.5
Source: Natural Resource Management for Agricultural Production in India.
Edited by J S P Yadav and G B Singh, pp 204
 Water is the scarcest resource in rainfed agriculture. Inefficient use of this scarce resource
leads to inefficiency of all other inputs.
 In water resource management, the focus is not merely on development of new water resources
but also on efficient utilization of already
developed ones particularly based on indigenous systems.
 The precipitation reaching the earth surface may be intercepted by vegetation, may infiltrate into
the ground, may flow over land surface as run-off or may evaporate.
 Evaporation may occur over the land surface or free water or from the leaves of the plant through
transpiration.
 Soil acts as a reservoir for the water that enters the soil. Water in the soil is always in transitory
storage.
 Rainfed areas can be made productive and profitable by adopting improved technologies for
rainwater conservation and harvesting and commensurate agricultural production technologies.
 Rainfed Agriculture:-
 Rainfed farming: is crop production in regions with annual rainfall more than1150 mm.
Or
 A system of producing crops without the use of irrigation.
 Growing of crops on natural precipitation without irrigation.
 History of rainfed Agriculture:-

 Over the years, following efforts have been made to transform rainfed farming into more
sustainable and productive systems:-
1. In 1880, the First Famine Commission was appointed by the then British Empire to
suggest ways and means to off-set the adverse effects of recurring droughts, which
country faced from 1860 onwards. An important recommendation of the commission
was to set up protective irrigation project.
2. In 1923, the then Imperial Council of Agricultural Research implemented six schemes
viz The Bombay Dry Farming Research Scheme at Sholapur; The Madras Dry Farming Research
Scheme at Hagari; The Madras Dry Farming Development Research Scheme at Hagari; The
Hyderabad Dry Farming Research Scheme at Raichur; The Hyderabad Dry Farming
Development Research Scheme at Raichur and The Punjab Dry Farming Research Scheme at
Rohtak for different periods at different locations up to 1957.
3. Kanitkar, Sirur, Gokhale and others pioneers of rainfed agriculture advocated ways and means
for effective soil and water conservation.
4. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) was established in 1959 at Jodhpur to tackle the
problems of arid agro-ecosystem.
5. Renewed efforts were made by the Government of India in mid-fifties to conserve the natural
resources and optimising their use by establishing eight Soil Conservation Research Centres at
Dehradun, Chandigarh, Udhagamandalam, Bellary, Kota, Vasad, Agra and Hyderabad, which
were put under the control of Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training
Institute (CSWCR&TI), Dehradun in 1976.
6. All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA) was initiated in
1970 at 23 centres, selected on agro-climatic basis.
7. International Crop Research Institute for Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in 1972 and Central
Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) in 1985, both at Hyderabad were established
to conduct basic, strategic and applied research on rainfed agriculture.
8. All India Coordinated Research Project on Agro-meteorology was started in 1983 to strengthen
the location specific weather forecasting.
9. State Agricultural Universities and other research institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) have contributed a lot to tackle the location specific problems of rainfed
agriculture.
 History of Watershed in India:-
1. Centrally Sponsored Scheme of “Soil Conservation Work in the catchments of River Valley Projects (RVP)”
was launched in 1962-63.
2. The Ministry of Agriculture started a scheme of Integrated Watershed Management in the Catchments of
Flood Prone Rivers (FPR) in 1980- 81.
3. During the 1980s, several successful experiences of fully treated watersheds, such as Sukhomajri in Haryana
and Ralegaon Siddhi in Western Maharashtra, came to be reported.
4. The Ministry of Agriculture launched a scheme for propagation of water harvesting/conservation technology
in rainfed areas in 19 identified locations in 1982-83.
5. In October 1984, the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) adopted this approach in 22 other locations in
rainfed areas.
6. With experience gained from all these, the concept of integrated watershed development was first
institutionalized with the launching of the National Watershed Development Programme of Rainfed Areas
(NWDPRA) in 1990, covering 99 districts in 16 states.
7. Meanwhile, conservation work was ongoing in the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) launched by
MoRD in 1972-73.
8. In 1977-78, the MoRD started a special programme for hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana
and cold desert areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (which were earlier under DPAP) called
Desert Development Programme (DDP).
9. In 1988 the National Committee on DPAP and DDP was set up under the Chairmanship of the Member,
Planning Commission to appraise and review the DPAP and DDP. The committee was initially headed by
Dr. Y.K. Alagh and later by Shri L.C. Jain who took over as Member, Planning commission in charge of the
subject. The committee submitted its report in August 1990.
10. In 1994, a Technical Committee under the Chairmanship of Prof. C.H. Hanumantha Rao was appointed to
appraise the impact of the work done under DPAP/DDP; identification of the weaknesses of the programme
and to suggest improvements.
11. The Hanumantha Rao Committee felt that “the programmes have been implemented in a fragmented manner
by different departments through rigid guidelines without any well-designed plans prepared on watershed
basis by involving the inhabitants. Except in a few places, in most of the programme areas the achievements
have been dismal. Ecological degradation has been proceeding unabated in these areas with reduced forest
cover, reducing water table and a shortage of drinking water, fuel and fodder” (Hanumantha Rao Committee,
1994, Preface).
12. The Committee, therefore, decided to revamp the strategy of implementation of these programmes, drawing
upon the “the outstanding successes” of some ongoing watershed projects.
13. It recommended that sanctioning of works should be on the basis of the action plans prepared on watershed
basis instead of fixed amount being allocated per block as was the practice at that time.
14. It called for introduction of participatory modes of implementation, through involvement of beneficiaries of
the programme and non-government organisations (NGOs).
15. It recommended that “wherever voluntary organizations are forthcoming, the management of watershed
development should be entrusted to them with the ultimate aim of handing over to them one-fourth of total
number of watersheds for development”.
16. The Committee also called for a substantial augmentation of resources for watershed development by
“pooling resources from other programmes being implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development, e.g.,
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, Employment Assurance Scheme, etc., and by integrating them with DPAP and
DDP”.
17. The Committee recommended suitable institutional mechanism for bringing about coordination between
different departments at the central and state levels with a view to ensuring uniformity of approach in
implementing similar programmes for the conservation of land and water resources.
18. On the basis of these recommendations, the Hanumantha Rao Committee formulated a set of “Common
Guidelines”, bringing five different programmes under the MoRD, namely, DPAP, DDP and Integrated
Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP), as also the Innovative- Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (I-JRY) and
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), 50% of the funds of both of which were to be allocated for
watershed works.
19. The watershed projects taken up by MoRD from 1994 to 2001 followed these Common Guidelines of 1994.
20. In 2000, the Ministry of Agriculture revised its guidelines for NWDPRA, making them “more participatory,
sustainable and equitable”. These were called WARASA – JAN SAHABHAGITA Guidelines.
21. The Common Guidelines of 1994 were revised by MoRD in 2001 and then again modified and reissued as
“Guidelines for Hariyali” in April 2003.
 The ongoing watershed programmes are listed below.

Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture and Cooperation)
1. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA):
2. Soil Conservation in the Catchments of River Valley Projects (RVP):
3. Shifting Cultivation: The Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Area (WDPSCA)
4. Reclamation of Alkali Soils.
5. Watershed Development Fund (WDF)
6. Externally Aided Projects (EAPs)
 Ministry of Rural Development (Department of Land Resources)
1. Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP
2. Desert Development Programme (DDP
3. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP
4. Externally Assisted Projects (EAPs)
6. Investment Promotional Scheme
7. Support to NGOs
8. The Wastelands Development Task Force
 Ministry of Environment and Forests
1. Integrated A forestation and Eco-development Projects Scheme
Chapter –II&III
Topic Name:-Problems and prospects of rainfed agriculture in India
 Introduction:-
1. In spite of visible increase in irrigated area in the India, about 80 million ha are still under rainfed.
2. About 90 percent area in pulses, oilseeds and millets are rain fed. Productivity in irrigated agriculture is
stagnating.
3. Therefore, increase in agriculture production has to come from rain fed area which constitutes about 56
percent of net cultivated area.
4. The productivity of the irrigated agriculture is either on decline or stagnating. Creation of irrigated area is very
costly and the gestation period is lengthy. At the same time the quantity of water available for irrigation is on
the decrease as more and more water is diverted to nonagricultural usages.
5. And it is not possible to bring all area under irrigation. This implies that certain areas of our agriculture will
remain rainfed. Therefore, it would be desirable to use the available agro‐techniques for higher productivity
and also to develop new and better technologies so that still higher productivity could be obtained.
 Problems of rainfed Agriculture:-

1. Problems of rainfed agriculture are many. Rainfed area is not only thirsty but hungry too.
2. Two most important limitations of the rain fed area are, therefore, soil moisture and plant nutrients
deficiencies. Rains fed farmers are resource poor too.
3. They have very little to invest in farming. Rain fed area is infested with natural calamities like drought and
flood even in the same cropping season. Crops grown are energy hungry but soils are energy starved. This is
why productivity is low.
4. Rain fed farming is risky and hard work is very much needed. As there is very little scope of opportunities for
employment in the rain fed area, migration from the village of the rain fed areas to the cites is very common.
This results in serious labour availability problems which restricts the agriculture operation. Available labors
are unproductive and costly too. That is why use of farm machinery is on increase.
5. Many institutes are working in rain fed areas:-
i) The Center for Research Institute for Dryland Area (CRIDA).
ii) Pulse Research Institutes, Oilseeds Reaches Institute, Coordinated Research Projects related to pulse
Crop, oilseeds crops are some of the them.
 Prospects of rainfed agriculture in India:-

The prospects are many. Proper use of technologies developed by the different ICAR institutes,
State Agriculture and Central Universities, NGOs, Input industries could be gainfully used to harvest the
potential of that exists in the rain fed areas.
A) Soil and water conservation technologies:-

1. Soil and water conservations are very important issues in rain fed agriculture.
2. Hence soil and water conservation measures are to be adopted religiously.
3. Many soil and water conservation measures are available (Table 1)
Table 1: Some Important Moisture Conservation Measures
Sr.No Soil Moisture Conservation Method Crop/Cropping System
1. Compartmental Bunding Rabi Sorghum, Sunflower, Safflower,
Chickpea, Maize, Bajra,Cotton
2. Conservation Furrow Groundnut,Ragi, Soybean etc
3. Broad bed and Furrow Soybean, Groundnut
4. Ridges and Furrow Rabi Sorghum, Pigeon Pea+ Rice
5 Ridges Planting Bajra
6 Set Furrow Bajra, Sunflower,
Method 1:-
1. The impact of the method is more during sub optimum rainfall years.
2. It also significantly controls run off.
3. The method is adopted in more than 800ha in Nothern Karnataka.
Method 2:-
1. Opening of the conversation furrow enhances in situ moisture conservation, thus the crop can overcome the
effect of dry spell resulting in increased rain water efficiency, better yield and additional net return.
Method 3:-
1. The ridges and furrow method helps drawing out excess water the black soil.
2. Further the rain water conserved in the furrow in better yield of the crop long dry spell.
Method 4:-
1. The method conserved 30‐45 percent more soil moisture than the method followed by farmers of the locality
concerned This practice is adopted in the 60 percent of the sorghum area in Sholapur district.
Method 5:-
1. It provides enough aeration and porosity to the soil for enhanced root growth, safe disposal of excess water and
reduction of soil loss apart from moisture conservation during low rain fall period.
Method 6:-
1. Conserved more moisture and make it available for longer period to the crop. This helps to overcome the effect
of drought.
 It is observed that a large number of crops are grown in dry land condition (Table 2).
Crop Area Production Yield
Bajra 0.1 4.2 4.1
Jowar 1.9 1.3 0.6
GroundNut 0.2 2.9 3.1
Mustard 5.3 7.1 1.7
Soybean 8.8 11.3 2.3
Sunflower 4.5 4.8 0.3
Gram 1.5 2.9 1.4
Redgram 1.7 2.5 1.1
Cotton 1.0 5.7 4.6
Source: CH Srinivas Rao and Gopinath (2016)
In addition to the work done by the different government agencies, IFFD C, a sister organization of
IFFCO has done very good work in the soil and water conservation. Work done by Anna Hazare, Popot Powar,
in Maharashtra, R K Mission Ashram in Ranchi District, Ram Krishna Ashram KVK, Nimpeth, South 24
Parganas district of West Bengal, SRC M‐ Knahna Santi Vana project In Chegur Village near Hyderabad,
Telangana are engaged in soil and water conservation measures deserve mention. It is interesting to make a
mention here that forest department and soil and water conservation departments of Telangana government are
actively involved in the development of the Kanhna Santi‐Vana project of SRCM.
B) Use of plant nutrients:-
1. Use of plant nutrient in rain fed has given very encouraging result.
2. Indian soils are universally deficient in nitrogen, deficient to medium in phosphorus, medium in potash.
3. Very good response of fertilizer has been obtained in the rain fed agriculture. Because of uncertainty, it is
recommended basal dose of fertilizer has to be applied before the onset of monsoon.
C) Harvest of interaction:-
1. As the rain fed farmers are resource poor, low cost or no cost technology needs to be encouraged in these areas.
2. Harvest of positive interaction is one such technology. Phosphorus is recommended in the legume oil seeds like
soybean and groundnut in the rained areas.
3. To be wisely harvested to get higher yield in Jute crop.
D) Harvest of legume effect:-

1. Legume effect is well documented in (Table 3).
Preceding Crop Succeeding Crop Fertilizer
N Equivalent (Kg/ha)
Chick pea Maize 60

Pigeon pea Wheat 40
Lentil Bajra 40
Peas Bajra 40
Maize 20-30
Mongbean Bajra 30
Cowpea Bajra 60
Wheat 43
In addition, the following listed agro‐techniques are also useful

1) Mulching: -
1. It controls weeds and conserves moisture. Mulching is very cheap and practical methods of soil and water
conservation.
2. Polyethylene mulching is vey effective means to conserve water and in controlling weeds.
2) Agro‐Forestry: It has been used in many projects. In addition, it is very environment friendly.
3) Rain‐fed Horticulture: Rain fed horticulture has been encouraged by the Maharashtra state department of
Agriculture. And the result is encouraging. Maharashtra has become number one in the
production of many
Fruit crops namely Mango, Chicku, Banana, grape, pomegranates etc.
4) Ridge and furrow.
5) Climate change mitigation techniques.
6) Rearing of goats/Sheep
7) Suitable crop and suitable variety Integrated Farming System.
8) Minimum Tillage.
9) Watershed management
10) Laser leveling
11) Precision and timeliness farm operations
12) Maintenance of optimum plant population
13) Effective weeds control
14) Foliar fertilization
Conclusions: -
It is observed that there are some serious limitations in rain fed farming like soil moisture
availability, nutrient deficiency, low organic matter content, labour availability etc. Use of technologies
developed by ICAR Research institutes, SAU, Central universites, KVKs etc. can be gainfully used to reduce the
problems and Harvest high yield. In promoting the agro‐technology, integrated approach consisting of skill
development of farm laborers, their effective health care through adoption of preventive measures of diseases
through practice of asanas and pranayams, and spiritual development through proper practice of heartfulness
meditation under cable guide is called for.
Chapter IV
Topic Name:-Soil and climatic conditions prevalent in rainfed areas
i) Soil: -
1. Out of total cultivable land in M.S. 87 per cent area comes under rained.
2. Soils of drought prone areas of M.S. area derived from the be igneous rock Basalt commonly
known as Deccan trap.
3. The colours of soil vary from reddish brown to dark gray black and are called verti.
4. The soils exhibit a definite to posegence of ridge medium dear 122 - 90 cm depth) soils on sloped
land deep soils (more than 90 cm meen) end of watershed.
5. The distribution of very shallow, shallow, medium deep and deep soils in drought prone areas of
M.S. is about 10,20,45 and 25% respectively.
6. They usually under lined partially decomposed rock locally known as murrum which overlies
parent material.
7. On account of more or less complete absence of leaching the soils are base saturated.
8. The exchangeable calcium is predominant cation.
9. The free lime is reserve is fairly high (3 to 10%) and at places excessive quantities of time nodules
accumulate.
10. The problematic soils viz. saline, saline sodic land sodic soils do occur in patches in low lying
areas. As regards the fertility status, the soils are generally low in organic carbon (0.35 to 0.5%)
total nitrogen (0.03 to 0.05%) low to medium available phosphate (10 to 30 kg p2O5/ha) and high
available potash (300 to 750 kg K2O/ha).
11. Usually micro-nutrient deficiencies are not observed in dry land crops.
12. However in eroded soils, crop like groundnut have shown some response to boron application.
13. Cereal crops give fairly good response to nitrogenous fertilizers while oilseeds and legumes give
good response to phosphatic fertilizers.
14. Soils exhibit adverse physical characters because of high clay content (35 to 65%) of type clay
mineral.
15. The soils exhibit high volume expansion when moist and shrink when dry.
16. The infiltration rate of soils is moderately slow (0.5 to 0.9 cm/ha). During the process of shrinkage,
wide land deep cracks are developed even up to Murrum strata in medium deep soils.
17. The crack development accelerates the soil moisture loss from the deeper layers (phases).
18. Further soils exhibit varying degree of erosion depending on the slope, tillage operations and
cropping season.
19. The soils classed as moderate to high erodible.
20. Hence soil and water conservation is a pre - requisite for successful cropping.
21. Limited soil depth puts limitations on availability of water and nutrients for cropping intensity.
22. Usually soils having less than 45 cm depth are useful for Kharif crops as they are unretentive of
soil moisture.
23. Inter mittant wetting due to frequent rainfall during June to Aug helps to mature crops on such
soils.
24. Soils having depth more than 45 cm have high moisture storage and retentive capacity.
25. Under dry land to bring the soil moisture in the available range (i.e. above PWP) the rainfall
required is quite high since the precipitation in the early part of monsoon is quite inadequate the
medium deep soils (beyond 45 cm deep) usually do not have adequate moisture for sowing.
26. It is only due to receipt of about 200 mm of rains during September the medium deep and deep
soils are adequately moistened for Rabi cropping. Hence Rabi cropping is predominant and
medium deep and despoils one grown with Rabi crops.
27. The moisture storage capacity of soil mainly depends on clay content and soil depth. However,
city content is generally above 45 percent in medium deep and deep soil the moisture deptetion of
soil depends on the moisture held in the soil at different tensions. The soil moisture is always
below the moisture at 15 bar (PWD) which ultimately results in failure of crops in dry land
agriculture.
ii) Climate:
1. Wether, which is part of climate, plays an important role in crop planning in dry farming area. Out
of the several elements of weather, rainfall has key position in success of dry farming.
2. In dry land areas, South West Monsoon brings the bulk of rainfall.
3. The South West Monsoon is followed by North East Monsoon which supplements to South West
Monsoon are the main source of rainfall.
4. There are four types of rainfall characterized by the nature in different parts of India.
5. Generally, the rainfall is scanty, erratic and ill distributed.
6. The draught prone area in Maharashtra State Covers about 1/3 of the total area of the state.
7. The climate in this is usually hot and PE (Potential Evaporation) is for in excess of the
precipitation is classified as semiarid e.g. Annual precipitation at Solapur is about 7/22 mm. but PE
is about 1300 mm annually resulting in deficient 60%.
iii) Rainfall features:-

1. The annual Average rainfall varies from 400 mm to 700 mm.
2. Year to year fluctuations are so much that there is no guaranteed of fixed quantity of rainfall.
3. Uncertain and ill distributions of rainfall are two qualities which makes the Rainfed farming
difficult.
4. Rainfall starts in lasted June to Early July.
5. There is depression during late July and early August Again there is good rainfall in late August
and September.
6. The rainfall totally recedes but mid October.
7. The probability of rainfall is more than half of the normal fairly good (P = 0.58) during September.
iv) Dry spells: -
1. It is another rainfall feature.

2. Breaks in monsoon a normally experienced (observed) during rate July and August.
3. They month extend by 2 week to 13 weeks at a stretch.
4. A break is defined as period receiving less than 15 mm rainfall in consecutive weeks.
5. The normal rainfall during the week being more than 50 mm.
6. A duration of break month than 4 week and frequently more than 3 times usually results in fatures
than 4 weeks and frequently more than 3 times usually results in faitures crops.
7. Variation in the rainfall within the district is also observed.
8. In Solapur, particularly variation in annual precipitation is noticed from 500 mm in western part to
about 700 mm in eastern parts.
v) Water availability period: -

1. Water availability depends on rainfall and PE.
2. Humid (when rainfall exceeds PE) and moist (when rainfall is less than PE but exceeds PET)
period together provides congenial weather for active crop growth.
vi) Wind velocity: -
1. Wind velocity is generally hitched during July and August.
2. If wind velocity exceeds 18 - 20 km./hr. Such period coincided with dry spell.
3. Hence Evapotranspiration is at high degree.
4. If velocity is low the lowest evaporation rates are observed during November and December.
vi) Bright sunshine hours: -
1. Bright sunshine is usually experienced during months of Jan. and Feb.
2. At Solapur it is about 8 to 9 hours. During April and May the sky is usually have with more dust
particles, lowest bright sunshine is noticed during Aug. (4 to 5 hours). This indicates the cloudy
weather but no rainfall.
vii) Humidity: -
1. Humidity is high during July and Sept. During Feb. to May it is low.
2. During dry spell, less relative humidity is noticed.
3. Evaporation demands are also accelerated with high temperature and low humidity.
4.
viii) Temperature: -
1. A Maximum temperature exceeds 410C during late April and early May. Minimum temp. Is
noticed during December.
2. Lowest weekly minimum temperature is about 14 to 150C.
3. Generally climate is semi and with mild winter and hot summer.
4. Crop like wheat and gram requiring longer cool period hence do poor while prolonged cold
weather however, Jowar suffers considerably.
Why crop failures are common, yields are not static under Rainfed farming because.....
1. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall.
2. Late on set and early cessation of rainfall.
3. Prolonged dry spells during the crop growth period.
4. Low moistone retension capacity of soils.
5. Low fertility of soils, low humidity, higher temperatures, higher wind velocity.
Different Soil Types and Their Characters in Maharastra:-

Particulars Soil type
Shallow Medium Deep
A) Area of state 10% 65 to 66% 25%
1. Parent material Trap basalt Trap basalt Trap basalt
2. Topography Undulating Undulating Flat
3. Depth (Cm) Up to 22.5 45 to 90 Above 90
4. Texture Clay Clay loam Clay
5. Colour Light black Grayish black Black
6. pH 7.5 to 8.0 5.0 to 8.5 8.0 to 8.5
7. T.S.S. % 0.2 0.2 0.2 to 0.3
8. Lime (CaCO3)% 0.5 to 5.0 1.0 to 10.0 2.5 to 15.0
9. Nitrogen kg /ha Trace 80 to 120 100 to 200
10. C/N ratio 8 to 10 10 to 12 18 to 40
11. Available P2O5 kg/ha 8 to 10 15 to 30 18 to 40
12. Available K20 kg/ha 60 Chapter-V 250 to 500 250 to 850
13. Base situation 10 to 15 mg/100 30 to 60 70 to 80
capacity per gram
14. Sodium Saturation % Trace 10 10
Chapter-V
Topic:-Soil and water conservation techniques
Introduction:-
1. Soil and water are most essential for the growth and sustenance of plant life.
2. Soil is important as it provides, foothold for plants and majority of nutrients needed by them.
3. Water is essential as it forms larger part of the living matter and acts as a nutrient carrier.
4. Though, both soil and water a sources are available in plenty, they are not distributed equally in quality
and quantity in every part of the world and are not inexhaustible.
5. Their abuse would mean a great loss resulting in poverty.
6. It takes centuries to form one inch layer of soil, but it does not take long to lose it by erosion.
7. Research work carried out in Maharashtra State which has an undulating topography, has shown that loss
of soil from unprotected land is as much as 125 tons per hectare every year and may be as high as 300
tons in a single year.
8. The weight of one hectare of soil 2.5 cm. deep is about 325 tons.
9. Similarly, rain water which can sustain a good crop, if not conserved properly will not only cause scarcity
and famine, but also wash way the soil which is a valuable national asset.
10. There are many examples which show how once fertile plains and valleys have become deserts or barren
lands due to neglect by mankind.
11. It is, therefore, the prime responsibility of each generation to conserve soil which is the main capital of
the farmer as well as the nation, at all costs and pass it on in good condition from one generation to
another, so that the posterity will not blame them.
12. Soil and water conservation cannot be achieved only by individual efforts.
13. The problem is too big, involving collective efforts on the part of farmers, technicians and Government.
14. Recognizing the seriousness of erosion problem, the Central Government established the Central Board
of Soil Conservation to assist the States and River valley Projects.
15. It has established soil conservation research stations at Dehradun, Kotah, Ootacamand, Bellary, Vasad
and Jodhpur, arranges for training of technical personnel and also served as clearing house for soil
conservation information.
16. On account of chronic scarcity conditions prevailing over 3 major portions of the Deccan tract.
17. Soil and water conservation research was started in 1924 and soil conservation work was taken up on a
large scale in Maharashtra from 1943 - 44 onwards.
18. At present Maharashtra contributes nearly 50 p.c., of the total progress in respect of soil conservation
measures in the country.
A) Soil and Water Conservation Methods - Management Practices:-

a) Strip cropping:
1. It is also a kind of agronomical practice, in which ordinary crops are planted or grown in form of
relatively narrow strips across the land slope.
2. These strips are so arranged, that the strips crops should always be separated by strips of close-growing
and erosion resistance crops.
This consists of growing erosion permitting crops and erosion resisting crops in alternate strips.
1. The erosion permitting crops are cotton, jawar, bajara, etc. which allow the run off water to flow freely
within the rows.
2. The erosions resisting crops are mostly legumes like groundnut, much (Phaseolus aconitiolius), hulgn
(Dolichos biflorus), Soybean (Glycine max) which spread and cover the soil and do not allow runoff water
to carry much soil with it the soil which flows from the strips growing erosion permiuming crops is caught
by the alternating springs.
3. In selecting a suitable legume crop it should be seen that the maximum canopy and root development of
the crop coincide with the period of high intensity of rainfall.
 Stages:
Controls erosion by
 Reducing the runoff flowing through the close growing sod strips.
 Increasing the infiltration rate of soil under cover condition.
Types of strip cropping:
a. Contour strip cropping.

b. Field strip cropping.
c. Buffer strip cropping.
d. Wind strip cropping.
b) Mulching:
1. Mulch is natural or artificially applied layer of plant residues or other material on the surface of the soil
with the object of moisture conservation, temperature control, prevention of surface compaction or crust
formation, reduction of runoff and erosion, improvement in soil structure and weed control.
2. Artificial mulches of different kinds such as Jowar or bajra stubbles, stubbles, paddy straw or husk,
sawdust etc., increase absorption of water and minimize evaporation. They also control run off and soil
losses.
3. Mulching material:
Cut grasses, straw material, wood chips. Saw dusts, paper and sand stones, glass wools, metal foils and
stone plastic.
Types of Mulch:
Natural, synthetic, petroleum, conventional, Inorganic, organic.
b. Vertical Mulching:
Insertion of stuffed plant residue vertically into subsoiler marks to keep the slot open.
c. Minimum Tillage:
Preparation of seedbed with minimum disturbance of soil
c) Rotation of crops:
1. Rotation means growing a set of crops in a regular succession over the same field within a specified
period of time.
2. Continuous growing of Jowar or bajra crop causes more erosion, but if followed by a legume crop viz.,
hulga, matki or gram which covers the soil is causes less erosion.
3. Rotation also helps in removal of plant nutrients in a uniform way from future depth of soil and in
maintaining the fertility of the soil in dry farming region of Maharashtra adoption of gram - Jowar
rotation not only helps in conservation of moisture but also in increasing the crop yields the beneficial
effect of rotation can be seen from the following table.
d) Contour cultivation:
1. Tillage operations viz., ploughing, harrowing, sowing and Interculture should be done across the slope of
land.
2. This will help in creating obstructions to the flow of water at every furrow, which acts like a small bund
and results in uniform distribution of water.
3. This helps more initration of water less run off and erosion, and gives higher crop yield.
4. Any cultivation done along the slope will accelerate golly formation, more run off and erosion and
consequently permanent damage to land.
e) Planting of grasses for stabilizing bunds:
1. Grasses prevent soil erosion and improve soil structure.
2. The entire soil mass is penetrated by countless roots and soil aggregates and particles are enmeshed by
the root system.
3. Grasses should be grown on bunds which are not suitable for cultivation, both for checking
erosion and providing pasture for cattle.
4. Several grasses as well as legumes were tried on bunds at the Agricultural Research Station; Solapur
which receives about 600 mm. of rainfall to see which of them will withstand drought conditions, give
maximum root growth and canopy coverage, and stabilize bunds effectively.
5. It was observed that anjan planted with spacing of 15 x 15 cm., produced the highest quantity of roots,
followed by marvel - 8, Rhodes, thin Napier, blue panic, and kusal .
6. Legumes do not have many roots but produce better canopy within a short period, while grasses are
under the process of establishment. Planting of legumes mixed with grasses is, therefore, advantageous in
preventing soil erosion in initial stages.
f) Planting of trees and afforestation:

1. Forests conserve soil and water quite effectively.
2. They not only obstruct the flow of water, but the falling leaves provide organic matter which increases
the water holding capacity of the soil.
3. If tree planting is done in the planned manner in open areas, it will serve as good wind break and if done
along the banks of streams and rivers, it will regulate their flow.
4. Farm forestry is another important aspect in soil and water conservation.
5. The danger caused by deforestation has been only recently appreciated and a big plantation programme
of hybrid eucalyptus, teak, casurina has been taken up by the Forest Departments in reserve forests,
catchments areas of irrigation projects and on Government waste lands Vanamahotsava is also observed
every year in the early part of monsoon and millions of trees are planted by the public with the help of
the maff of the Agricultural and Forest Departments local bodies like Zillah Paris had, Panchayat Samitis
and Gram Panchayat What is however important is to pay proper attention planted.
g) Cashew nut plantation:-

1. In coastal districts of Maharashtra which receive more than, 1,250 mm. rainfall a new programme of
cahsewnut plantation has been undertaken from 1963 - 64 on hills having slope between 10 and 20 p.c.
2. The sea breeze is conducive to the growth of cashew nut plants and they do not require much aftercare
once they establish in the soil. Staggered trenches of 300 x 30 x 30 cm. size are dug on contours at a
distance of 6m. Cashew plants are raised in polythene bags in nurseries and two months olds a plings are
planted on the lower side of the trench with plant to plant distance of 6m.
B) Soil and Water Conservation Methods - Mechanical Practices:-

1. The above measures control erosion by good management practices.
2. Bunding, terracing, gully or nala control, and construction of tanks and bandharas are mechanical
measures requiring engineering techniques and structures.
3. They reduce run off and impound water for longer time to help infiltration into the soil.
4. Their construction and design will depend upon rainfall, soil slope and such other factors.
5. These measures are costly but if properly maintained will improve the land over a long period of time.
A) Bunding:
i) Block bunding:
1. Bunding for control of soil erosion and conservation of surface run off was known to farmers for
centuries.
2. It was not uncommon to find Tals i.e., big bunds across large blocks of sloping lands.
3. These bunds are constructed of earth or stone or both, at a great cost, to impound water and arrest soil
washed from the fields lying above.
4. They are high and broad enough to withstand the force of water from the catchments.
5. Water is let out at the end of the monsoon and land which has received fertile silt is sown with crops.
6. Such type of big bloods bunds are not constructed now as contour bunding has been taken up on
catchments basis.
ii) Contour bunding:
1. It consists of construction of a series of earthen bunds of suitable sizes along contours at a lateral distance
of every 60 mm or a fall of 1 to 1.5 m. The shope of land is thus broken into smaller and more level
compartments which hold soil as well as rain water. It has been estimated that about 75 million hectares of
land i.e. about one fourth of the common land surfaces suffering from soil erosion. In Maharashtra State,
the problem is more acute and it is estimated that out of 186 lakh hectares about 144 lakh hectares require
bunding. The planning Commission has, therefore laid great stress on contour bunding programme,
because bunding alone has been found to increase crop yield by 20 to 30 p.c.
2. The size, cross- section and interbund spacing depend upon the nature of rainfall, soil and slope of the area.
3. In order to improve the technique of bunding, studies have been carried out in respect of spacing of bunds,
shrinkage of bund sections and hydraulic gradients and kind and location of outlets etc. in different soil and
rainfall conditions of Maharashtra State.
4. On the basis of such studies it has been observed that the spacing between bunds should not be allowed to
exceed 1.5m. Vertical drop or 67.5 m. lateral spacing.
iii) Graded bunding:
1. In high rainfall areas, while conservation of soil is important, drainage of surplus water has to be attended
to, for avoiding waterlogged condition of soil.
2. The bunds are therefore, slightly graded longitudinally about 7.5 cm. per running 33 m. to prevent safe
disposal of water into the nala.
3. The cross sections into for safe removal of excess runoff water it is essential to provide suitable waste
water or outlet structures at proper places so that no damage is done to bunds in case heavy precipitation is
received on any single day.
4. Normally stone outlets are provided low rainfalls areas. Channel weirs or pipe outlets may also be
provided.
5. Grass outlets have been found to be effective and cheaper in heavy soil.
6. The crest wall should be 30 cm. above the contour level and its length should be so designed as to
discharge the surplus water from the maximum intensity of rainfall with are Seasonable period. 1,250 mm.
Terrace bunds consist of comparatively narrow embankments constructed at intervals across the shope and
the vertical spacing between bunds may vary from 1to 2 m., depending upon the slope, type of soil, rainfall
etc.
7. Bench terracing is done when gradient is stceper than 10 p.c. as in hilly ranges of Himalayas, Sahyadry etc.
and consists of a series of step like platforms along contours.
8. These terraces are like table tops sloping outwards and are provided with stone wate weirs to drain away
surplus water.
9. Angular and big boulders should be used for terrace outlets because round and small boulders will slip and
get dislodged under the gushing water.
 Gully or nala control:
1. Gully or nala control is very essential to prevent its extension and further destruction of cultivated lands
and grasslands.
2. The sloping sides are planted with grass and trees. Suitable temporary and permanent structures such as
check dams, overflow dams, drop structures are also provided.
3. Small gullies can be stabilized by converting them into paddy fields. So far 17,034 nalas have been
controlled and the target for sixth plan (1980 - 85) period is 2005.
 Control of stream and river banks: Vulnerable sharp bends nalas by the sides of the rods and river bends
near village sites cause considerable damage to property. These should be protected by providing spurs,
jetties, rivets and retaining walls. Adjoining areas should be stabilized under permanent vegetation. Spurs
are constructed at an angle to reduce the velocity of water and thereby enabling the flood water to flow
away but deposit coarse sand which will cause obstruction to successive water currents from cutting into
the bank and thus straightening their course.
 Different Agronomical Practices For Moisture Conservation In Rainfed Areas - Contour Cultivation
1. Contour cultivation refers to all the tillage practices or mechanical treatments like planting tillage and
Intercultural performed nearly on the contour of the area applied across the land slope.
2. In low rainfall regions the primary purpose of contour cultivation is to conserve the rain water into the soil
as much as possible.
3. While in humid regions its basic purpose is to reduce the soil erosion / or soil loss by retarding the overland
flow.
4. In this farming system the furrows between the ridges made on the contours hold the runoff water and
stored them into the soil in this way they reduce the runoff and soil erosion both.
5. Prior to start the contour farming on straight hilly land which is not engaged under bounds or lerrces a
contour guide line should be established which should run across the field approximately at a constant level.
6. At agricultural operators should be done with reference to the guide line established.
7. In a relatively small field of conform shape, only one guide line is sufficient but in large area having long
and uneven shape several guide lines may be required.
8. For locating the first contour line on a sloppy land it should be started from the highest point of the field and
then preceded down the general slope.
9. The contour lines are located at distance of 25 to 33 meters.
10. Depending upon steepness of the land. On a long and gentle slope the first contour line is generally fixed
at about 50 meters apart from the top of the hill.
11. When contouring is done on steep shape and the area falls under high rainfall then there is probability to
arise a scope for gulling problem.
12. This may be overcome by applying contour farming practices along with strip cropping bunding or lerracing
like practices.
 Limitation of Contour Farming:
1. Contour farming gives a better result in the field of relatively uniform slope.
2. It is impracticable on the fields having irregular topographical features.
3. Similarly the use of grassed waterways in conjunction with contour farming system is essential to reduce
development of the gully.
 When and Where to use Contour Cultivation:
1. Contour cultivation is most efficient for reducing the runoff and soil erosion from gentle land slopes.
2. Intense rain storms on steeper slopes cause water to accumulate behind the ridges until it breaks overuses
downhill and crodes rills and gullies.
Table 10.1 Slope - Length Limits for contour farming:
Land slope (%) Maximum slope length

1-2 120
3-5 90
6-8 60
9 - 12 35
13 - 16 25
17 - 20 18
20 - 25 15
 Longer slopes until more crosion occurs in the gullies on contoured land than in the nills found between
crop rows on the non - contoured land.
 There is some limit of land slope and its length on which contour cultivation is successful for controlling
the soil crosion.
 Wischmeir and Smith (1978) have reported the values of kind slope and slope length for better contour
farming which is cited in table. 10.1
 The limits of slope - length change with the soil characteristics type of crops grown and rainfall of the
area.
 The length of slope is used as greater on more permeable soils for more protective covers crops such as
small grain crops and for less intense rainfall.
 Apart from the above the experience also reveated that with no - till and other reduced tillage systems that
make the soil surface very well protected with crop residues allow the field length far in excess of those
given in Table 10.1 can also be used safely for contour cultivation provided that the soil must be
adequately protected with the crop residues every year.
Chapter-VI
Topic Name:-Drought: types, effect of water deficit on physio- morphological characteristics of the plants
 Introduction:-
 Low rainfall or failure of monsoon rain is a recurring feature in India.
 This has been responsible for droughts and famines.
 The word drought generally denotes scarcity of water in a region. Though, aridity and drought are due to
insufficient
water, aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is the culmination of a number of
long term processes.
 However, drought is a temporary condition that occurs for a short period due to deficient precipitation for
vegetation, river flow, water supply and human consumption.
 Drought is due to anomaly in atmospheric circulation.
 Definition of drought:-
There is no universally accepted definition for drought
a) In General Drought is a period of inadequate or no rainfall over extended period of time, creating soil
moisture deficit and hydrological imbalance.
b) Physiologically, it is explained as the reduction in leaf water potential which occurs due to excess
transpiration than the water absorption. That is, when water absorption lag behind transpiration, water
deficit develops.
It is also defined as, “deficiency or dearth of water severe enough to check the plant growth”.
c) Early workers defined drought as prolonged period without rainfall.
d) According to Ramdas (1960) drought is a situation when the actual seasonal rainfall is deficient by more
than twice the mean deviation.
e) American Meteorological Society defined drought as a period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently
prolonged for lack of water to cause a severe hydrological imbalance in the area affected.
d) Prolonged deficiencies of soil moisture adversely affect crop growth indicating incidence of agricultural
drought. It is the result of imbalance between soil moisture and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a
fairly long period so as to cause damage to standing crops and to reduce the yields.
e) The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a situation occurring in any area where the annual
rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.
 Types of drought:
The term drought has been classified in two broad categories.
01. Soil Drought:

 It often leads to atmospheric drought; mainly resulting due to soil
 If both combine, it becomes disastrous
 Otherwise, the struggle for the plants soil drought is more serious/ difficult than that for the atmospheric
drought.
 Moreover, the water deficiency in the soil may be physical or physiological in nature.
a. Physical Soil Drought
In this case, there is an actual shortage of water due to limited or non-availability of water from various
sources like rainfall and irrigation.
b. Physiological Soil Drought

In this case, water is available in plenty in the soil but the plants growing in such environment can not be able
to avail or absorb the water due to the physiological reasons such as presence of excessive salts, pH
alterations etc.
02. Atmospheric Drought
This drought occurs due to low atmospheric humidity, high wind velocity and high temperature which cause a
plant to lose most of its water by transpiration, thus resulting in water deficit situations.
 Classification of drought:-
 Drought can be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of occurrence and using some specific
terms.
 Based on duration
a. Permanent drought:
This is characteristic of the desert climate where sparse vegetation growing is adapted to drought and
agriculture is possible only by irrigation during entire crop season.
b. Seasonal drought:
This is found in climates with well defined rainy and dry seasons.
Most of the arid and semiarid zones fall in this category.
Duration of the crop varieties and planting dates should be such that the growing season should fall
within rainy season.
c. Contingent drought:
This involves an abnormal failure of rainfall.
It may occur almost anywhere especially in most parts of humid or sub humid climates.
It is usually brief, irregular and generally affects only a small area.
d. Invisible drought:
This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area.
When rainfall is inadequate to meet the evapo-transpiration losses, the result is borderline water
deficiency in soil resulting in less than optimum yield.
This occurs usually in humid regions.
 Based on relevance to the users (National Commission on Agriculture,1976)
a) Meteorological drought:
 It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than the normal over an area for
prolonged period (month,season or year).
b) Atmospheric drought:
 It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds.
 It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture.
 It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day when
transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period.
 When absorption keeps pace with transpiration the plants revive. (Mid day wilt).
c) Hydrological drought:
 Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion of surface water
and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks etc. It results in deficiency of water for all sectors using water.
 This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole for bringing crops to maturity.
d) Agricultural drought (soil drought):
 It is the result of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and
evapotranspiration of a crop.
 It is usually gradual and progressive. Plants can therefore, adjust at least partly, to the increased soil
moisture stress.
 This situation arises as a consequence of scanty precipitation or its uneven distribution both in space and
time.
 Relevant definition of agricultural drought appears to be a period of dryness during the crop season,
sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the yield.
 The extent of yield loss depends on the crop growth stage and the degree of stress.
 It does not begin when the rain ceases, but actually commences only when the plant roots are not able to
obtain the soil moisture rapidly enough to replace evapotranspiration losses.
 Based on time of occurrence

a) early season drought: It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or due to long dry spells after early
sowing.
b) Mid season drought:

 Occurs due to long gaps between two successive rains and stored moisture becoming insufficient during the
long dry spell.
c) Late season drought: Occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water
stress at maturity stage.
 Other terms to describe drought
a) Relative drought:
 The drought for one crop may not be a drought situation for another crop.
 This is due to mismatch between soil moisture condition and crop selection. For Eg. A condition may be a
drought situation for growing rice, but the same situation may not be a drought for growing groundnut.
b) Physiological drought:
 Refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water from soil even when water is available, due to
the high osmotic pressure of soil solution due to increased soil concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils.
 It is not due to deficit of water supply.
 Important causes for agricultural drought are
1.Inadequate precipitation
2. Erratic distribution
3. Long dry spells in the monsoon
4. Late onset of monsoon
5. Early withdrawal of monsoon
6. Lack of proper soil and crop management
 Periodicity of drought:-
 The Indian Meteorological Department examined the incidence of drought for the period from 1871 to 1967,
utilizing the monthly rainfall of 306 stations in the country.
 It was seen that during 1877, 1899, 1918 and 1972 more than 40 per cent of the total area experienced
drought.
 General observation on the periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological sub divisions of
India is given below.
Meteorological sub Period of recurrence of drought
divisions
Assam Very rare, once in 15 years
West Bengal, MP, Konkan, Once in 5 years
Coastal AP, Kerala, Bihar,
Orissa
South interior Karnataka,
Eastern UP, Gujarat,
Vidharbha, Rajasthan, Once in 3 years
Western UP, TN, Kashmir,
Rayalaseema and Telangana
Western Rajasthan Once in 2.5 years
 Effect of drought on crop production
a) Water relations:
 Alters the water status by its influence on absorption, translocation and transpiration.
 The lag in absorption behind transpiration results in loss of turgor as a result of increase in the
atmospheric dryness.
b) Photosynthesis:
 Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to reduction in Photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content,
leaf area and increase in assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of translocation).
c) Respiration:
 Increase with mild drought but more serve drought lowers water content and respiration.
d) Anatomical changes:
 Decrease in size of the cells and inter cellular spaces, thicker cell wall , greater development of
mechanical tissue. Stomata per unit leaftend to increase.
e) Metabolic reaction: All most all metabolic reactions are affected by water deficits.
f) Hormonal Relationships:
 The activity of growth promoting hormones like cytokinin, gibberlic acid and indole acetic acid decreases
and growth regulating hormone like abscisic acid, ethylene, etc., increases.
g) Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of nitrogen is affected. Since dry matter production is
considerably reduced the uptake of NPK is reduced.
h) Growth and Development:

 Decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits.
 Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering while it advances if drought occurs after
flowering.
I) Reproduction and grain growth:
 Drought at flowering and grain development determines the number of fruits and individual grain weight,
respectively.
 Panicle initiation in cereals is critical while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen.
 Drought at grain development reduces yield while vegetative and grain filling stages are less sensitive to
moisture stress.
j) Yield:
 The effect on yield depends hugely on what proportion of the total dry matter is considered as useful
material to be harvested.
 If it is aerial and underground parts, effect of drought is as sensitive as total growth.
 When the yield consists of seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is detrimental.
 When the yield is fibre or chemicals where economic product is a small fraction of total dry matter
moderate stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields.
 Characteristics Of Drought Resistant Plants
1. Early closure or stomata:

Opening stomata for short time in easy morning & remained closed during rest of day when moisture stress
is minimum with photosynthesis with the least loss of water e.g. varieties of wheat, oats.
2. Increased photosynthetic efficiency:

The plant species using the pathways have a high rate or carbohydrate assimilation for given stomatal
opening higher temperature & light optimum e.g. maize sorghum.
3. Low rate of cuticular transpiration:

Thick cuticle results in low rate in transpiration e.g. cactus.
4. Deposits of lipid layers:

On exposure to moderate drought conditions the lipids are deposited on leaf surface which in reduction
transpiration losses e.g. soybean
5. Reduction in leaf area:

Rolling or curling of the leaves reduces the leaf surface exposed to sunlight thus helps in reducing the
transpiration loss under stress conditions. E.g. Maize, Sorghum, grasses etc.
6. Waxy leaf surface:

The leaf surface becomes waxy forming thick cuticle and develops spines on leaves which help in
reducing transpiration losses. Eg. Safflower.
7. Stomatal frequency and location:

Location of stomata in cavity or in depressions of leaves reduces the direct contact of stomata with
wind currents & reduces the transpiration losses. In drought resistant plants, the number of stomata found more
a lower leaf surface. Similarly, the number of stomata is also reduced which helps in reducing transpiration
losses.
8. Effect of awns:
The Awned varieties of wheat barley etc. can thrive well under stress conditions as the awns contain
chloroplasts & stomata & can continue photosynthetic activities even when the stomata on leaves get closed
during day time.
9. Accelerating water uptake:

The water uptake by plants in increased efficiently due to following plant characteristics.
i) Efficient root system:

i) Extensive root system
ii) Deeper root system
iii) Secondary root etc.
iv) Ability of roots to go towards available water
v) Ability of roots to penetrate in soil
ii) High root to top ratio:

1. Transpiring surface is reduced.
2. Water absorbing surface is increased.
3. High osmotic pressure: Under stress conditions the osmotic (Low osmotic potential) potential in roots and
above ground plant parts in reduced resulting increased water movement through soil and plant.
10. Nature of varieties suitable for Rainfed farming:

1. Varieties should have medium height with early grand growth period. e.g. rabi sorghum varieties - Selection -
3. SFV - 86, M -35 - 1.
2. Varieties should have medium tillering habit, bigger ear head size & bold grain size. E.g. bajra variety -
shraddha.
3. The variety should have deep and extensive root system.
4. The variety should be of shorter duration.
5. The variety should have High Harvest Index.
6. The intercrop varieties should be of longer duration with differentiation growth habit. E.g. Red gram varieties
BDN - 2, No. 148.
7. Varieties should be resistant to moisture stress.
8. Varieties should have coating either with wax or other material which prevent the loss of moisture through
evaporation from stem and leaves. E.g. Rabi sorghum varieties - white glumes on stem & leaf sheath. Safflower
varieties - waxy surface & spines on leaves.
9. The varieties should be photo and thermo insensitive e.g. Gr. nut variety - TAG - 24.
Chapter-VIII&IX
Topic Name:- Crop adaptation and mitigation to drought
 Crop Adaptations:-
The ability of crop to grow satisfactorily under water stress is called drought adaptation.
 Adaptation is structural or functional modification in plants to survive and reproduce in a particular
environment.
 Crops survive and grow under moisture stress conditions mainly by two: (i) escaping drought and (ii)
drought resistance.
Adaptations to moisture stress:-

1. Escaping drought
2. Drought Resistance:-
1. Drought avoidance:-1. Conserving water (Water savers)
2. Improving water uptake (Water Spenders)
2. Drought tolerance:-
1. Mitigating Stress
2. High tolerance
 Escaping Drought:-
 Evading the period of drought is the simplest means of adaptation of plants to dry conditions.
 Many desert plants, the so called ephemerals, germinate at the beginning of the rainy season and have an
extremely short life period (5 to 6 weeks) which is confined to the rainy period.
 These plants have no mechanism for overcoming moisture stress and are, therefore, not drought resistant.
 Germination inhibitors serve as safety mechanism.
 In cultivated crops, the ability of a cultivar to mature before the soil dries is the main adaptation to growth in
dry regions. However, only very few crops have such a short growing season to be called as ephemerals.
 Certain varieties of pearl millet mature within 60 days after sowing.
 Short duration pulses like cowpea, greengram, blackgram can be included in this category.
 In addition to earliness, they need drought resistance because there may be dry spells within the crop period of
60 days. The disadvantage about breeding early varieties is that yield is reduced with reduction in duration.
 Drought Resistance
1.Plants can adapt to drought either by avoiding stress or by tolerating stress due to different mechanisms.
2.These mechanisms provide drought resistance.
 Avoiding Stress:-
1. Stress avoidance is the ability to maintain a favourable water balance, and turgidity even when exposed to
drought conditions, thereby avoiding stress and its consequences.
2. A favorable water balance under drought conditions can be achieved either by: (i) conserving water by
restricting transpiration before or as soon as stress is experienced; or (ii) accelerating water uptake sufficiently
so as to replenish the lost water.
 Strategies for drought management:-
The different strategies for drought management are discussed under the following heads.
1. Adjusting the plant population:

1. The plant population should be lesser in dryland conditions than under irrigated conditions.
2. The rectangular type of planting pattern should always be followed under dryland conditions.
3. Under dryland conditions whenever moisture stress occurs due to prolonged dry spells, under limited moisture
supply the adjustment of plant population can be done by
a) Increasing the inter row distance:
By adjusting more number of plants within the row and increasing the distance between the rows reduces the
competition during any part of the growing period of the crop. Hence it is more suitable for limited moisture
supply conditions.
b) Increasing the intra row distance:
Here the distance between plants is increased by which plants grow luxuriantly from the beginning.
There will be competition for moisture during the reproductive period of the crop. Hence it is less
advantageous as compared to above under limited moisture supply.
2 Mid season corrections:

The contingent management practices done in the standing crop to overcome the unfavourable soil moisture
conditions due to prolonged dry spells are known as mid season conditions.
a) Thinning:
This ca be done by removing every alternate row or every third row which will save the crop from
failure by reducing the competition.
b) Spraying:
In crops like groundnut, castor, redgram, etc., during prolonged dry spells the crop can saved by
spraying water at weekly intervals or 2 per cent urea at week to 10 days interval.
c) Ratooning:
In crops like sorghum and bajra, ratooning can practiced as mid season correction measure after break of
dry spell.
3 Mulching:
It is a practice of spreading any covering material on soil surface to reduce evaporation losses. The mulches
will prolong the moisture availability in the soil and save the crop during drought conditions.
4 Weed control:
 Weeds compete with crop for different growth resources are seriously under dryland conditions.
 The water requirement of most of the weeds is more than the crop plants. Hence they compete more for soil
moisture.
 Therefore the weed control especially during early stages of crop growth reduces the impact of dry spell by
soil moisture conservation.
5 Water harvesting and life saving irrigation:

 The collection of runoff water during peak periods of rainfall and storing in different structures is known
as water harvesting. The stored water can be used for giving the life saving irrigation during prolonged dry
spells.
Chapter-10
Water harvesting: importance, its techniques,

Efficient utilization of water through soil and crop management practices
 Introduction:-
 Rainwater is the key input in dry land agriculture.
 In a tropical country such as India which experiences extreme variation in rainfall both in space and time, rain
water management assumes vital importance in cutting down risks and stabilizing crop production in dry
areas.
 When rains are received with an intensity far reaching infiltration rate, runoff is inevitable. It varies from 10
to 40% of total rainfall. Out Of this at least 30% can be harvested into water storage structures.
 About 10 - 20 percent of the total rain goes as runoff in medium deep black soils.
 This also considerable soil loss by way of erosion.
 The extent of runoff varies with rainfall intensity and its duration land topography soil type and land use
pattern.
 This runoff otherwise going as waste can be collected in suitable water storage structures such as farm ponds
and used further for crop production.
 This technique of collection of runoff water during the period or excess rainfall and its further use for crop
production is called "water harvesting" or "Runoff farming".
 Such collected water is used to provide supplemental irrigation to the crops at the most critical growth stages
or during the prolonged period of drought.
 In water harvesting the part of land from which the water is received is called "donor area" or "water
producing area" or water harvesting area or watershed area or catchments area and the area in which it is used
is called as "Recipient area" or crop production area.
The donor area generally is not suitable for crop production.
 Water Harvesting:-
 The process of runoff collection during periods of peak rainfall in storage tanks, ponds etc., is known as water
harvesting.
 It is a process of collection of runoff water from treated or untreated land surfaces/ catchments or roof tops
and storing it in an open farm pond or closed water tanks/reservoirs or in the soil itself (in situ moisture
storage) for irrigation or drinking purposes.
 Runoff farming and rainwater harvesting agriculture are synonymous terms, which imply that farming is done
in dry areas by means of runoff from a catchment.
 Runoff farming is basically a water harvesting system specially designed to provide supplemental or life
saving irrigation to crops, especially during periods of soil moisture stress.
 Collecting and storing water for subsequent use is known as water harvesting.
 It is a method to induce, collect, store and conserve local surface runoff for agriculture in arid and semiarid
regions.
 All water harvesting systems have three components viz., the catchment area, the storage facility and the
command area.
 The catchment area is the part of the land that contributes the rain water.
 The storage facility is a place where the runoff water is stored from the time it is collected until it is used.
 The command area is where water is used.
 Water harvesting is done both in arid and semi-arid regions with certain differences.
 In arid regions, the collecting area or catchment area is substantially in higher proportion compared to
command area.
 Actually, the runoff is induced in catchment area in arid lands whereas in semi-arid regions, runoff is not
induced in catchment area, only the excess rainfall is collected and stored. However, several methods of water
harvesting are used both in arid and semiarid regions.
 Inducing Runoff:-
 Rain water harvesting is possible even in areas with as little as 50 to 80 mm average annual rainfall.
 Ancient desert dwellers harvested rain by redirecting the water running down the slopes into fields or cisterns.
 This small amount of runoff collected over large area may be useful for supplying water to small villages,
households, cattle etc., for collection of higher amount of rainfall; runoff is induced either by land alteration
or by chemical treatment.
a) Land Alterations:
 Clearing away rocks and vegetation and compacting the soil surface can increase runoff. However, land
alteration may lead to soil erosion except where slope is reduced.
 When erosion is not excessive and low cost hill side land is available, land alteration can be very economical
way to harvest rain water in arid lands.
b) Chemical Treatment:
 A promising method for harvesting rain water is to treat soils with chemicals that fill pores or make soil
repellant to water.
 Some materials used for this purpose are sodium salts of silicon, latexes, asphalt and wax.
 Methods of Water Harvesting:-

The different methods of water harvesting that are followed in arid and semiarid regions are discussed
separately.
I. Arid Regions:-
1. The catchment area should provide enough water to mature the crop, and the type of farming practiced must
make the best use of water.
2. In general, perennial crops are suitable as they have deep root systems that can use runoff water stored
deep in the soil which is not lost through evaporation.
A) Water Spreading:
1. In arid areas, the limited rainfall is received as short intense storms.
2. Water swiftly drains into gullies and then flows towards the sea.
3. Water is lost to the region and floods caused by this sudden runoff can be devastating often to areas
otherwise untouched by the storm.
4. Water spreading is a simple irrigation method for use in such a situation.
5. Flood waters are deliberately diverted from their natural courses and spread over adjacent plains.
6. The water is diverted or retarded by ditches, dikes, small dams or brush fences.
7. The wet flood plains or valley floods are used to grow crops.
B) Micro catchments:
1. A plant can grow in a region with too little rainfall for its survival if a rain water catchment basin is built
around it.
2. At the lowest point within each micro catchment, a basin is dug about 40 cm deep and a tree is planted in it.
3. The basin stores the runoff from micro catchment.
C) Traditional water harvesting systems:-
1. Tanka, nadi, khadin are the important traditional water harvesting systems of Rajasthan.
2. Tanka is an underground tank or cistern constructed for collection and storage of runoff water from natural
catchment or artificially prepared catchment or from a roof top.
3. The vertical walls are lined with stone masonary or cement concrete and the base with 10 cm thick concrete.
4. The capacity of the tank ranges from 1000 to6,00,000 l, Nadi or village pond is constructed for storing water
from natural catchments.
5. The capacity of nadis ranges from 1200 m3 to 15000 m3- .Khadin is unique land use system where in runoff
water from rocky catchments are collected in valley plains during rainy season.
6. Crops are grown in the winter season after water is receded in shallow pond on the residual moisture.
II) Semiarid Regions:-

Water harvesting techniques followed in semi-arid areas are numerous and also ancient.
a) Dug Wells:
1. Hand dug wells have been used to collect and store underground water and this water is lifted for irrigation.
2. The quality of water is generally poor due to dissolved salts.
b) Tanks:
1. Runoff water from hill sides and forests is collected on the plains in tanks.
2. The traditional tank system has following components viz., catchment area, storage tank, tank bund, sluice,
and spill way and command area.
3. The runoff water from catchment area is collected and stored in storage tank on the plains with the help of a
bund.
4. To avoid the breaching of tank bund, spillways are provided at one or both the ends of the tank bund to
dispose of excess water.
5. The sluice is provided in the central area of the tank bund to allow controlled flow of water into the
command area.
c) Percolation Tanks:
1. Flowing rivulets or big gullies are obstructed and water is ponded.
2. Water from the ponds percolates into the soil and raises the water table of the region.
3. The improved water level in the wells lower down the percolation tanks are used for supplemental irrigation
D) Farm Ponds:
1. These are small storage structures for collection and storage of runoff water.
2. Depending upon their construction and suitability to different topographic conditions farm ponds are
classified as
 Excavated farm ponds suitable for flat topography

 Embankment ponds for hilly terrains
 Excavated cum Embankment ponds
3. There are three types of excavated farm ponds – square, rectangular and circular.
4. Circular ponds have high water storage capacity.
5. Farm ponds of size 100 to 300 m3 may be dug to store 30 per cent of runoff.
6. The problem associated with farm ponds in red soils is high seepage loss.
7. This can be reduced by lining walls.
8. Some of the traditional methods for seepage control are the use of bentonite, soil dispersants and soil-
cement mixture.
9. Bentonite has excellent sealing properties if kept

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DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

COURSE TITLE: Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management

Prof. Prasad M. Patil

COURSE TITLE: Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management

Prof. Prasad M. Patil

16 Factors affecting watershed management 8

14 Studies on watershed, its characteristics and delineation of model watershed

Distribution of dryland area in different rainfall zones in India

Source: Virmani et al. (1991) pp

State wise rainfed area (1991-92) in India

 History of rainfed Agriculture:-

 The ongoing watershed programmes are listed below.

 Problems of rainfed Agriculture:-

 Prospects of rainfed agriculture in India:-

A) Soil and water conservation technologies:-

D) Harvest of legume eﬀect:-

Chick pea Maize 60

In addition, the following listed agro‐techniques are also useful

Topic Name:-Soil and climatic conditions prevalent in rainfed areas

iii) Rainfall features:-

iv) Dry spells: -

1. It is another rainfall feature.

v) Water availability period: -

Different Soil Types and Their Characters in Maharastra:-

A) Soil and Water Conservation Methods - Management Practices:-

a. Contour strip cropping.

f) Planting of trees and afforestation:

g) Cashew nut plantation:-

B) Soil and Water Conservation Methods - Mechanical Practices:-

Land slope (%) Maximum slope length

01. Soil Drought:

b. Physiological Soil Drought

 Based on time of occurrence

b) Mid season drought:

 Other terms to describe drought

h) Growth and Development:

1. Early closure or stomata:

2. Increased photosynthetic efficiency:

3. Low rate of cuticular transpiration:

4. Deposits of lipid layers:

5. Reduction in leaf area:

6. Waxy leaf surface:

7. Stomatal frequency and location:

9. Accelerating water uptake:

i) Efficient root system:

ii) High root to top ratio:

10. Nature of varieties suitable for Rainfed farming:

Topic Name:- Crop adaptation and mitigation to drought

Adaptations to moisture stress:-

1. Adjusting the plant population:

2 Mid season corrections:

5 Water harvesting and life saving irrigation:

Water harvesting: importance, its techniques,

 Methods of Water Harvesting:-

II) Semiarid Regions:-

 Excavated farm ponds suitable for flat topography

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