Understanding the Hazard
Ignitable-Liquid
Process Hazards
Ignitable liquid is a necessary part of
almost any occupancy. If it’s spilled and
ignited, it is likely the resulting pool
fire will overtax your sprinkler system.
Your FM Global engineer can help you
understand and minimize this risk to
your facility.
UTH topic categories:
n Construction
n Equipment
n Fire Protection
n Human Element
n Natural Hazards
Process Hazards
This series of publications is designed
to help you understand the everyday
hazards present at your company’s
facilities. For more information on how
you can better understand the risks your
business and operations face every day,
contact FM Global.
Handling
The Hazard
Handling ignitable liquid is part of most facilities’ normal operations. This
publication is designed to help you understand the hazards of ignitable liquid
operations and the steps that can be taken to lessen those hazards.
Because ignitable-liquid vapor is invisible and can be ignited easily, it is im-
portant you understand how it is generated. Ignitable liquid is normally kept in
closed containers so its vapor cannot be released. If exposed to the atmosphere,
some types of ignitable liquid emit vapor at room temperature while others have
to be heated. If an ignitable liquid is put under pressure and then released through
a small pinhole or other leak, it can atomize, lowering the temperature needed for
ignition. If it spills by accident, it covers a large area and can be ignited by any of
several ignition sources, including electrical, static or open flames, such as pilot
lights. None of the above scenarios is unusual and most of them probably exist in
your facility.
By keeping vapor from being liberated, eliminating possible ignition sources and
limiting the potential fire area if an unexpected release occurs, you can reduce this
necessary hazard to your facility to an acceptable level of risk. FM Global clients
have experienced 707 ignitable-liquid fires over a recent 10-year period, causing
nearly US$800 million in damage.
Prevention and control features can reduce the frequency of ignitable-liquid op-
erations loss and limit potential damage. If equipment safeguards and automatic
sprinklers are provided as needed and employees handle ignitable liquid safely,
loss typically can be kept smaller and less frequent.
Science of the Hazard
Ignitable liquid ignites and burns more quickly than solid combustible material
because it vaporizes more readily. “Flash point” describes the lowest temperature
at which a particular ignitable liquid ignites in air when exposed to flame. Some
types of ignitable liquid, such as gasoline, vaporize easily in their liquid state at
room temperature. Other types require much higher temperatures, but, if heated
or sprayed (for example, as part of a process), they can be ignited easily at room
temperature.
This brochure is made available for informational purposes only in support of the insurance relationship
between FM Global and its clients. This information does not change or supplement policy terms or
conditions. The liability of FM Global is limited to that contained in its insurance policies. page 1 of 4
What you can do at your facility
Now:
n Limit and control hot work with
a permit system.
n Control smoking.
n Use properly rated electrical
equipment.
n Control static electricity with
bonding and grounding.
n Provide equipment safeguards to
contain liquid and vapor. Train
employees in their use. Examples
of such equipment include:
• Safety cans
• Safety bungs and self-closing
faucets
• Self-closing covers
n Inspect equipment regularly, and
practice preventive maintenance.
Soon:
n Separate ignitable-liquid operations
from other areas.
n Provide safety/emergency shutoff
valves.
n Properly arrange process controls.
n Provide automatic sprinkler, deluge
and/or special protection as recom-
mended by FM Global. Even though
your entire facility may need auto-
matic sprinkler protection, identifying
areas in which the ignitable-liquid
risk is high, and providing very lim-
ited “spot sprinkler” protection may
greatly reduce your overall risk.
n Design new ignitable-liquid operations
to incorporate noncombustible and
damage-limiting construction, spill
containment and drainage.
If vapor from an ignitable liquid is released from a container and is allowed to
mix in the right concentration with air within an enclosed space, such as a room,
an explosion can occur. A liquid’s ignitable or explosive range describes the con-
centration of vapor and air required for a fire or explosion.
Ignitable liquid usually has a high heat of combustion, meaning it has the poten-
tial to release a great deal of heat when burned. Below is a comparison of the heat
of combustion of some common types of solid material and ignitable liquid.
Material Heat of Combustion
Btu/lb. kJ/g
Wood
6,000–9,000 19
Solid Paper
Plastic 12,000–22,0000 28–47
Acetone 13,200 31
Toluene/Asphalt 17,500 41
Liquid
Fuel Oil 19,000 44
Gasoline 20,000 48
Even though some types of ignitable liquid have a lower heat of combustion than
plastic, they still present a greater fire hazard due to the rate at which they release
energy in a fire. A fuel’s heat-release rate is a function of its heat of combus-
tion, the quantity of fuel consumed in a given time, and its exposed surface area.
Because ignitable liquid is fluid, it spreads out, creating a larger surface area for
burning than would be available in a solid. This larger burning surface area gener-
ates heat at a faster rate, increasing the chance the fire will ignite nearby combus-
tible material and produce a large, fast-growing fire. For example, an 8-ft. (2.4-m)
diameter pool fire of gasoline can produce flames as high as 38 ft. (11.6 m). An
8-gal. (30-L) spill of gasoline could create a pool of this size (assuming a 0.25-in.
[0.6-cm] depth).
If an ignitable liquid’s flash point is below ambient temperature, the amount of
water needed to cool the fuel to the point of extinguishment is very high. Ordi-
nary ceiling sprinklers alone will be ineffective because water droplets will be
vaporized by heat rising from the fire before they can reach the fuel surface and
cool it.
Preventing Ignitable-Liquid Fire
The best protection against fire involving ignitable liquid is to eliminate the fuel
source (for example, by substituting a nonignitable liquid). If the fuel cannot be
eliminated, follow these guidelines to prevent a potential fire:
n Design process equipment to prevent liquid or vapor escape. Design tanks and
vats to be closed during normal operation and to resist failure when exposed
to fire. For example, provide open tanks with automatic-closing covers. And,
provide personnel with the equipment and training they need to safely handle
ignitable liquid.
Understanding the Hazard: Ignitable-Liquid Handling page 2 of 4
Definitions
Vaporize
Liquid molecules release from the
surface and convert to a gaseous state.
Flash point
The minimum temperature at which a
material gives off sufficient vapor to form
a vapor-air mixture that will ignite and
propagate a flame away from the ignition
source.
Flammable or explosive range
Describes the percent concentration of
flammable vapor in the air. This dangerous
range is delimited by the lower explosive
limit or LEL (the minimum concentration
below which the mixture is too lean
for combustion to occur) and the upper
explosive limit or UEL (the maximum
concentration of vapor and oxygen
above which the mixture is too rich for
combustion to occur).
Heat of combustion
The amount of heat released when
fuel is burned completely to yield stable
end products.
Heat-release rate
The rate at which energy is released
in a fire.
n A properly designed low-level ventilation system will sufficiently dilute the
ignitable vapor with air to prevent the concentration from reaching the lower
explosive limit.
Loss Experience
A study of FM Global loss statistics has identified the most frequent ignition
sources in ignitable-liquid operations fire loss.
Most Frequent Ignition Sources of Fire Loss in Ignitable-Liquid Operaions
6%
7% ■ Hot Surface / Radiant Heat
21% ■ Overheating
8% ■ Electrical / Static Electricity
■ Unknown
9% ■ Hot Work
17%
■ Sparks / Smoking / Incendiarism
■ Other
16%
■ Chemical Action / Spontaneous Heating
16%
Source: FM Global clients
Control Measures
Control measures can minimize damage in the event of a liquid release or fire.
n Location and construction features, such as space separation, noncombustible
construction and damage-limiting construction, can limit damage to other
areas of your facility.
n Automatic sprinkler protection is your first line of defense for controlling
temperatures in an ignitable-liquid fire. Automatic sprinklers cool the area
to prevent structural and equipment damage, and they extinguish a fire that
involves high flash-point liquid.
n Drainage and containment protect the building by controlling and removing
the fuel, and protect the environment by controlling the released liquid and
sprinkler discharge. Without drainage and/or containment, burning fuel spreads
inside the building and contaminated water is released to the environment.
But What About…..
...impact on production?
Some people think safe-handling procedures “slow down” operations. But noth-
ing slows down operations as much as a major loss. Well-designed safeguards
combined with training should not significantly decrease productivity. Consult
your FM Global engineer to develop workable options for your facility. For ex-
ample, upright drum pumps can be used in place of safety bungs and self-closing
faucets in some instances, creating a less hazardous (and more convenient) ar-
rangement than side-dispensing.
Understanding the Hazard: Ignitable-Liquid Handling page 3 of 4
Need more information?
Ask your FM Global engineer or client
service team about the following:
n Real-life example of an oven explosion
involving ignitable liquid
n Video clips of ignitable liquid fire
n Illustration of a well-arranged
ignitable-liquid-handling process
n Photos of ignitable-liquid handling
equipment
n How to identify FM Approved
ignitable-liquid-handling equipment
...small amounts of ignitable liquid?
If a 5-gal. (19-L) container of ignitable liquid spills, there is a chance it can be
ignited by a spark or another ignition source. But, the size of the fire is not limited
to the size of the spill. As the burning liquid spreads, it can ignite nearby combus-
tible material, creating an even larger fire. Ask your FM Global engineer for an
opportunity to see video footage of ignition of an ignitable-liquid spill.
...the need for protecting high flash-point liquid?
The loss experience of FM Global clients points to many large losses involving
types of liquid with high flash points, such as heat-transfer fluid, cutting oil and
mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid. When heated above their flash points or pressur-
ized, these types of liquid can be just as dangerous as those with low flash points.
...sprinkler protection of tank supports?
Tanks or vats of ignitable liquid supported on steel beams or legs require sprinkler
protection below the tank or vat to protect the supports. Heat from a fire could
weaken the exposed steel, and may lead to the collapse of the tank, spreading fire
far beyond the protection limits of ceiling-level sprinklers. If the tank is wider
than 3 ft. (0.9 m), ceiling-level sprinklers will have a very hard time reaching the
shielded fire below it. Another solution is to encase the leg in concrete or other
fire-proofing material to allow it to withstand fire exposure.

...the need for automatic shutoff valves?

If a fire develops in an ignitable liquid-handling area, one of the most important
Ordering Information control measures is to eliminate additional fuel for the fire. Automatic shutoff
For additional copies of Understanding valves tied into water flow alarms or heat detectors ensure the fuel will be shut off
the Hazard publications, contact your without the risk of employees trying to re-enter the area to do so manually.
FM Global engineer or client service team.
Additional FM Global brochures and educational Don’t Let This Happen to You
material can be found in the FM Global Resource
Catalog and ordered or downloaded online at
www.fmglobalcatalog.com. Or, for personal
assistance worldwide, contact our U.S.-based
customer services team, Monday – Friday,
8 a.m. – 5 p.m. ET :
n Toll-free: (1)877 364 6726

(Canada and United States)

n By phone: +1 (1)401 477 7744
n By fax: +1 (1)401 477 7010
n E-mail: customerservices@fmglobal.com

Failure to provide adequate protection for ignitable liquid can result in catastrophic damage to
P0039 © 2000, 2011 FM Global. your facility.
(Rev. 09/2011) All rights reserved.
www.fmglobal.com
In the United Kingdom:
FM Insurance Company Limited
1 Windsor Dials, Windsor, Berkshire, SL4 1RS
Regulated by the Financial Services Authority.
Understanding the Hazard: Ignitable-Liquid Handling page 4 of 4