CHAPTER 5 Nervous System

Chapter 7
The Nervous
System
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input—
gathering information
 Sensory receptors
monitor changes, called
stimuli, occurring inside
and outside the body
2. Integration
 Nervous system processes and interprets sensory input
and decides whether action is needed
3. Motor output
 A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands

Figure 7.2 Organization of the nervous system.
Central Nervous System

(brain and spinal cord)
Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous system (cranial and spinal nerves)
classifications are
based on:
Sensory Motor
– Structures (afferent) (efferent)
(structural
classification) Sense Somatic
Autonomic
organs (voluntary)
– Activities
(involuntary)
Skeletal
Cardiac and
(functional
muscles
smooth muscle,
glands
classification)
Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
 Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as

neuroglia
 General functions
 Support
 Insulate
 Protect neurons

Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
 Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell

types
 Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial cells, or glia)
 Resemble neurons
 Unable to conduct nerve impulses
 Never lose the ability to divide
 Neurons

Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells
 CNS glial cells:

astrocytes
 Abundant, star-
shaped cells
 Brace and anchor
neurons to blood
capillaries
 Determine permeability and exchanges between blood
capillaries and neurons
 Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood
 Control the chemical environment of the brain

 CNS glial cells: microglia

 Spiderlike phagocytes
 Monitor health of nearby neurons
 Dispose of debris

 CNS glial cells: ependymal cells

 Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
 Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

 CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes

 Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous
system
 Produce myelin sheaths

 PNS glial cells
 Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS
 Satellite cells
 Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

Nervous
Tissue:
Neurons

Nervous Tissue: Neurons
 Neurons = nerve cells
 Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulses)
 Major regions of all neurons
 Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
 Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body
 Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron

 Nucleus with large nucleolus
 Nissl bodies
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Neurofibrils
 Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape

Figure 7.4b Structure of a typical motor neuron.
Neuron
cell body
Dendrite
(b)

 Processes (fibers)
 Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites
 Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body
 Neurons have only one axon arising from the cell body at
the axon hillock
 End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
 Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron by a
gap
 Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals and the next
neuron
 Synapse—functional junction between nerves where a
nerve impulse is transmitted
 Myelin
 White, fatty material
covering axons
 Protects and
insulates fibers
 Speeds nerve
impulse transmission

 Myelin sheaths
 Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–like
fashion (PNS) to form the myelin sheath
 Neurilemma—part of the Schwann cell
external to the myelin sheath
 Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath
along the axon
 Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths
around axons of the CNS
 Lack a neurilemma

 Terminology
 Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
 Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the
CNS in the PNS
 Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
 Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
 White matter—collections of myelinated fibers
(tracts)
 Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers and
cell bodies

Figure 7.6 Neurons classified by function.
Central process (axon)
Sensory
neuron Spinal cord
Cell
(central nervous system)
body
Ganglion
Dendrites Peripheral
process (axon)
Afferent
transmission Interneuron
(association
neuron)
Receptors Peripheral
nervous
system
Efferent transmission
Motor neuron
To effectors
(muscles and glands)

Functional Classification of NEURONS
 (1) Sensory (afferent) neuron
 Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the
CNS
 Receptors include:
 Cutaneous sense organs in skin
 Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
 (2) Motor (efferent) neuron
 Carry impulses from the central nervous system
to viscera and/or muscles and glands
 (3) Interneurons (association neurons)
 Cell bodies located in the CNS
 Connect sensory and motor neurons
Figure 7.7a Types of sensory receptors.
(a) Free nerve endings (pain

and temperature receptors)
Figure 7.7b Types of sensory receptors.
(b) Meissner’s corpuscle

(touch receptor)
Figure 7.7c Types of sensory receptors.
(c) Lamellar corpuscle (deep

pressure receptor)

Figure 7.7d Types of sensory receptors.
(d) Golgi tendon organ (proprioceptor)

Figure 7.7e Types of sensory receptors.
(e) Muscle spindle (proprioceptor)

Structural Classification of NEURONS
 Based on number of processes extending from the cell
body
(1) Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body

 All motor and interneurons are multipolar
 Most common structural type

(2) Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite

 Located in special sense organs, such as nose and eye
 Rare in adults

(3) Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the
cell body
 Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
 Conduct impulses both toward and away from the cell body

Functional properties of neurons
 Irritability
 Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve
impulse
 Conductivity
 Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons,
muscles, or glands

 Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s
membrane
 The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)
 Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma membrane
than outside
 K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
 Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
 As long as the inside of the membrane is more negative (fewer
positive ions) than the outside, the cell remains inactive
 Action potential initiation and generation
 A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s
membrane to sodium ions
 Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+) diffuses
into the neuron
 The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity at
that site and is called depolarization

 Action potential initiation and generation
(continued)
 A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists
where the inside of the membrane is more positive and
the outside is less positive
 If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx
great enough, local depolarization activates the neuron
to conduct an action potential (nerve impulse)

 Propagation of the action potential

 If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential
(nerve impulse) starts and is propagated over the
entire axon
 All-or-none response means the nerve impulse either
is propagated or is not
 Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses
more quickly

 Repolarization
 Membrane permeability changes again—becoming
impermeable to sodium ions and permeable to
potassium ions
 Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron,
repolarizing the membrane
 Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the
membrane to a negative charge and the outer surface
to a positive charge

 Repolarization (continued)
 Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are
restored using the sodium-potassium pump
 This pump, using ATP, restores the original
configuration
 Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two
potassium ions are returned to the cell
 Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot
conduct another nerve impulse

 Transmission of the
signal at synapses
 Step 1: When the
action potential
reaches the axon
terminal, the
electrical charge
opens calcium
channels

 Transmission of
the signal at
synapses
(continued)
 Step 2: Calcium,
in turn, causes
the tiny vesicles
containing the
neurotransmitter
chemical to fuse
with the axonal
membrane

 Transmission of
the signal at
synapses
(continued)
 Step 3: The entry
of calcium into the
axon terminal
causes porelike
openings to form,
releasing the
neurotransmitter
into the synaptic
cleft

 Transmission of
the signal at
synapses
(continued)
 Step 4: The
neurotransmitter
molecules
diffuse across
the synaptic
cleft and bind to
receptors on the
membrane of
the next neuron

 Transmission of the signal

at synapses (continued)
 Step 5: If enough
neurotransmitter is
released, a graded potential
will be generated
 Eventually an action
potential (nerve impulse)
will occur in the neuron
beyond the synapse

 Transmission of the signal at
synapses (continued)
 Step 6: The electrical changes
prompted by neurotransmitter
binding are brief
 The neurotransmitter is quickly
removed from the synapse
either by reuptake or by
enzymatic activity
 Transmission of an impulse is
electrochemical
 Transmission down neuron is
electrical
 Transmission to next neuron
is chemical

BioFlix: How Synapses Work

REFLEXES
 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary

responses to stimuli
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex
arcs
 Two types of reflexes

 Somatic reflexes
 Autonomic reflexes

2 TYPES of REFLEXES
 Somatic reflexes
 Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
 Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under
voluntary control
 Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
 Autonomic reflexes
 Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart,
and glands
 Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and
blood pressure, glands, digestive system

Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and
directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be stimulated

TYPES of REFLEXES ARCS
 Two-neuron reflex arcs
 Simplest type
 Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
TYPES of REFLEXES ARCS
 Three-neuron reflex arcs
 Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron,
interneuron, motor neuron, and effector
 Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
Structural Classification
 Central nervous system (CNS)
 Organs
 Brain; Spinal cord
 Function
 Integration; command center
 Interprets incoming sensory information
 Issues outgoing instructions
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
 Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and from the spinal
cord
 Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and from the brain
 Functions
 Serve as communication lines among sensory organs,
the brain and spinal cord, and glands or muscles
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Functional anatomy of the
brain
 Brain regions
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum

Table 7.1 Functions of Major Brain Regions (1 of 2)

Table 7.1 Functions of Major Brain Regions (2 of 2)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain
 (1) Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and
right) superior parts of the brain
 Include more than half of the brain mass
 The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
 Fissures are deeper grooves
 Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie over them

 Three main regions
of cerebral
hemisphere
1. Cortex is
superficial gray
matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are
deep pockets of
gray matter

 Cerebral cortex
 Primary somatic sensory area
 Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
 Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
 Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special senses)
 Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
 Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives
impulses from right side (and vice versa)
 Cerebral areas involved in special senses

 Visual area (occipital lobe)
 Auditory area (temporal lobe)
 Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
Figure 7.13c Left lateral view of the brain.
Central sulcus
Primary motor area Primary somatic sensory
Premotor area area
Anterior Gustatory area (taste)
association area
• Working memory Speech/language
and judgment (outlined by dashes)
• Problem Posterior association

solving area
• Language
comprehension
Visual area
Broca’s area
(motor speech)
Olfactory
Auditory area
area
(c)

Figure 7.14 Sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex.
Posterior
Motor Sensory
Motor map in Anterior
Sensory map in
precentral gyrus postcentral gyrus
Trunk
Neck
Hip
Foot
Toes
Genitals
Lips
Jaw
Tongue Primary motor Primary somatic

cortex sensory cortex Intra-
Swallowing
(precentral gyrus) (postcentral gyrus) abdominal

 Cerebral cortex
 Primary motor area
 Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
 Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract,
which descends to spinal cord
 Motor homunculus is a spatial map
 Broca’s area (motor speech area)

 Involved in our ability to speak
 Usually in left hemisphere
 Other specialized areas
 Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
 Posterior association area (posterior cortex)
 Speech area (for sounding out words)
 Cerebral white matter

 Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
 Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
 Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known as
commissures
 Association fiber tracts connect areas within a
hemisphere
 Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower
CNS centers

Figure 7.15 Frontal section (facing posteriorly) of the brain showing commissural, association, and projection fibers running through the cerebrum
and the lower CNS.
Longitudinal fissure Association fibers

Superior
Lateral Commissural fibers
ventricle (corpus callosum)
Corona
Basal nuclei radiata
Fornix
Internal
Thalamus capsule
Third
ventricle
Pons Projection
fibers
Medulla oblongata
 Basal nuclei
 ―Islands‖ of gray matter buried deep within the white
matter of the cerebrum
 Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying
instructions sent to skeletal muscles by the primary
motor cortex

 (2) Diencephalon
 Sits on top of the brain stem
 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
 Made of three structures
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

Figure 7.16a Diencephalon and brain stem structures.
Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Third ventricle
Choroid plexus of third
ventricle
Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
Thalamus
Anterior (encloses third ventricle)
commissure Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Hypothalamus Corpora
quadrigemina
Optic chiasma
Cerebral
Midbrain
aqueduct
Pituitary gland
Cerebral
peduncle
Mammillary body
Fourth ventricle
Pons
Choroid plexus
Medulla oblongata (part of epithalamus)
Spinal cord Cerebellum
(a)

 Diencephalon: thalamus
 Encloses the third ventricle
 Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to
the cerebral cortex
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
localization and interpretation

 Diencephalon: hypothalamus
 Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
 Important autonomic nervous system center
 Regulates body temperature
 Regulates water balance
 Regulates metabolism
 Houses the limbic center for emotions
 Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
 Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell)

 Diencephalon: epithalamus
 Forms the roof of the third ventricle
 Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
 Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

Functional Anatomy of the Brain 1. Midbrain
 (3) Brain stem 2. Pons
3. Medulla
 Attaches to the spinal cord
oblongata
 Parts of the brain stem

 Brain stem: midbrain

 Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons
inferiorly
 Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the third and
fourth ventricles
 Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, convey
ascending and descending impulses
 Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, are
visual and auditory reflex centers

 Brain stem: pons

 The rounded structure protruding just below the
midbrain
 Mostly composed of fiber tracts
 Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

 Brain stem: medulla oblongata

 The most inferior part of the brain stem that merges
into the spinal cord
 Includes important fiber tracts
 Contains important centers that control:
 Heart rate
 Blood pressure
 Breathing
 Swallowing
 Vomiting
 Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and medulla

 Brain stem: reticular formation
 Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
 Involved in motor control of visceral organs
 Reticular activating system (RAS)
 Plays a role in
awake/sleep
cycles and
consciousness
 Filter for incoming
sensory information

 (4) Cerebrum
 Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
 Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of white
matter
 Controls balance
 Provides precise
timing for skeletal
muscle activity and
coordination of body
movements

Protection of the Central Nervous System
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Blood-brain barrier
Figure 7.17b Meninges of the brain.
Skull
Scalp
Superior
sagittal sinus
Occipital lobe Dura mater
Tentorium
cerebelli Transverse
Cerebellum sinus
Temporal
Arachnoid mater bone
over medulla oblongata
(b)

 Meninges
 Dura mater
 Outermost leathery layer
 Double-layered external covering
 Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull
 Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
 Folds inward in several areas
 Falx cerebri
 Tentorium cerebelli
 Arachnoid layer
 Middle layer
 Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater and
absorb cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
 Pia mater
 Internal layer
 Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Similar to blood plasma in composition
 Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
 Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of the
brain
 CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and
spinal cord
 Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord

Figure 7.18c Ventricles and location of the cerebrospinal fluid.
4
Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid granulation
Choroid plexuses Subarachnoid space

of lateral and Arachnoid mater
third ventricles
Meningeal dura mater
Corpus callosum
Periosteal dura mater
1
Interventricular Right lateral ventricle
foramen (deep to cut)
Third ventricle
3
Choroid plexus
of fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Lateral aperture
1 CSF is produced by the
Fourth ventricle
2 choroid plexus of each
Median aperture ventricle.
2 CSF flows through the ventricles
and into the subarachnoid space via
Central canal
the median and lateral apertures.
of spinal cord
Some CSF flows through the central
canal of the spinal cord.
3 CSF flows through the
subarachnoid space.
4 CSF is absorbed into the dural
venous sinuses via the arachnoid
granulations.
(c) CSF circulation
 Blood-brain barrier
 Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
 Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass
through the capillary walls
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances from
entering the brain, such as wastes
 Useless as a barrier against some substances

Brain Dysfunctions
 Traumatic brain injuries

 Concussion
 Slight brain injury
 Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
 Contusion
 Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Coma may occur
 Death may occur after head blows due to:
 Intracranial hemorrhage
 Cerebral edema

Brain Dysfunctions
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke

 Results when blood circulation to a brain area is
blocked and brain tissue dies
 Loss of some functions or death may result
 Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
 Aphasia—damage to speech center in left hemisphere
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
 Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
 Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

Spinal Cord
 Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to

the first or second lumbar vertebra
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at
the inferior end
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
from the brain
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
cord

Figure 7.19 Anatomy of the spinal cord, posterior view.
Cervical
Cervical spinal nerves
enlargement C8
Dura and
arachnoid Thoracic
mater spinal nerves
Lumbar
enlargement T12
End of spinal cord
Lumbar
Cauda spinal nerves
equina L5
End of S1
meningeal Sacral
coverings spinal nerves
S5

Figure 7.20 Spinal cord with meninges (three-dimensional, anterior view).
White matter Dorsal (posterior)

Dorsal root Central canal horn of gray matter
ganglion Lateral horn of
gray matter
Spinal nerve
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal root of horn of gray matter
spinal nerve
Ventral root Pia mater

of spinal nerve
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater

Figure 7.21 Schematic of ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) pathways between the brain and the spinal cord.
Interneuron carrying sensory
information to cerebral cortex
Integration (processing and

interpretation of sensory input)
Cerebral cortex occurs
(gray matter) Interneuron carrying
White matter response to
motor neurons
Thalamus
Cerebrum
Interneuron
carrying response Brain stem
to motor neuron
Cell body of sensory
neuron in sensory
ganglion
Interneuron carrying
Nerve
sensory information to
Skin cerebral cortex
Sensory
receptors
Cervical spinal cord
Muscle
White matter
Motor output Gray matter
Interneuron
Motor neuron
cell body
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the
CNS
Structure of a Nerve
 Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the
CNS
 Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber
 Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a
fascicle
 Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

Figure 7.22 Structure of a nerve.
Axon
Myelin sheath
Endoneurium
Perineurium
Epineurium
Fascicle
Blood
vessels

Structure of a Nerve
 Mixed nerves
 Contain both sensory and motor fibers
 Sensory (afferent) nerves
 Carry impulses toward the CNS
 Motor (efferent) nerves
 Carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerves
 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and

neck
 Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
and abdominal cavities
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear

Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
 Oh – Olfactory
 Oh – Optic
 Oh – Oculomotor
 To – Trochlear
 Touch – Trigeminal
 And – Abducens
 Feel – Facial
 Very – Vestibulocochlear
 Green – Glossopharyngeal
 Vegetables – Vagus
 A – Accessory
 H – Hypoglossal

Figure 7.23 Distribution of cranial nerves.
III Oculomotor
IV Trochlear
VI Abducens
I Olfactory II Optic
V Trigeminal V Trigeminal
VII Facial
Vestibular
branch
Cochlear
branch
VIII Vestibulocochlear
X Vagus
IX Glossopharyngeal
XII Hypoglossal XI Accessory

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (1 of 6)






Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves
 31 pairs
 Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal
roots of the spinal cord
 Named for the region of the spinal cord from which
they arise

Figure 7.24a Spinal nerves.
C1
2
3 Ventral rami form
Cervical 4
5 cervical plexus
nerves (C1 – C5)
6
7 Ventral rami form
8*
T1 brachial plexus
2 (C5 – C8; T1)
3
4
Thoracic 5
nerves 6
7
8 No plexus
9 formed
(intercostal
10 nerves)
Lumbar 11 (T2 – T12)
nerves 12
Sacral L1
nerves 2
3 Ventral rami form
lumbar plexus
4 (L1 – L4)
5
S1 Ventral rami form

2 sacral plexus
3 (L4 – L5; S1 – S4)
4
(a)
*Note that the cervical nerve C8 emerges inferior to the C7 vertebra, while the other seven cervical nerves
emerge superior to the vertebrae for which they are named.
Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal

cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus
 Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor
and sensory fibers
 Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
 Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal nerves that
supply muscles and skin of the ribs and trunk
 Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a complex of
networks (plexus) for the anterior

Figure 7.24b Spinal nerves.
Dorsal root Dorsal

Dorsal root ramus
ganglion
Spinal
cord
Ventral
Ventral ramus
root
Spinal nerve
(b)
Spinal Nerves
 Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and

sensory needs of the limbs
 Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
 Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral

Table 7.3 Spinal Nerve Plexuses (1 of 3)

Figure 7.25a Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the upper and lower limbs.
Axillary nerve
Humerus
Radial
nerve
Musculo-
cutaneous
nerve
Ulna
Radius
Ulnar nerve
Median
nerve
(a) Brachial plexus,

anterior view

Figure 7.25b Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the upper and lower limbs.
Femoral nerve
Lateral femoral
cutaneous nerve
Obturator nerve
Femur
Anterior femoral
cutaneous nerve
Saphenous nerve
(b) Lumbar plexus,

anterior view

Figure 7.25c Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the upper and lower limbs.
Superior gluteal
nerve
Inferior gluteal
nerve
Sciatic nerve
Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve
Common fibular
nerve
Tibial nerve
Sural (cut) nerve
Deep fibular
nerve
Superficial fibular
nerve
Plantar branches
(c) Sacral plexus, posterior view

Autonomic Nervous System
 Motor subdivision of the PNS

 Consists only of motor nerves
 Controls the body automatically (and is also known as
the involuntary nervous system)
 Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
Compared
 Somatic nervous system
 Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS
 Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served
 Autonomic nervous system
 Chain of two motor neurons
 Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord
 Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
 Has two arms
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division

Figure 7.26 Comparison of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Central
nervous system Peripheral nervous system Effector organs
Acetylcholine
Somatic nervous system Skeletal muscle
Acetylcholine Norepinephrine Smooth muscle

(e.g., in stomach)
Sympathetic Ganglion
division Acetylcholine Epinephrine and
Autonomic norepinephrine
nervous Blood Glands
system vessel
Adrenal medulla
Acetylcholine
Parasympathetic Cardiac
division muscle
Ganglion
KEY:
Preganglionic Postganglionic Myelination Preganglionic Postganglionic
axons axons axons axons
(sympathetic) (sympathetic) (parasympathetic) (parasympathetic)

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
 Parasympathetic division is also known as the

craniosacral division
 Preganglionic neurons originate in:
 Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
 S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
 Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend
to organs that are served

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
 Sympathetic division is also known as the

thoracolumbar division
 Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through
L2
 Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a
sympathetic trunk ganglion
 Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
 After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may

synapse with a second neuron at the same or
different level
 Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through
the ganglion without synapsing and form part of
the splanchnic nerves
 Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion
 Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic
organs

Figure 7.27 Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system.
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Eye Eye
Brain stem
Salivary Skin
glands Cranial
Sympathetic Salivary
ganglia glands
Heart Cervical
Lungs Lungs
T1 Heart
Stomach
Thoracic
Stomach Pancreas
Liver
Pancreas and gall-
L1 bladder
Liver and Adrenal
gall- Lumbar
gland
bladder
Bladder Bladder
Sacral
Genitals nerves Genitals
(S2–S4)
Figure 7.28 Sympathetic pathways.
Lateral horn of Dorsal ramus

gray matter of spinal nerve
Dorsal root
Ventral ramus
of spinal nerve
Sympathetic
trunk
(a) To effector:
blood vessels,
Spinal (c) (b) arrector pili
nerve muscles, and
sweat glands
of the skin
Ventral root Gray ramus

communicans
Sympathetic Splanchnic White ramus
trunk ganglion nerve communicans
Collateral ganglion
(such as the celiac)
Visceral effector organ

(such as small intestine)

Autonomic Functioning
 Body organs served by the autonomic nervous

system receive fibers from both divisions
 Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin, some
glands, and the adrenal medulla
 These exceptions receive only sympathetic fibers

 When body divisions serve the same organ, they

cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters
 Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
acetylcholine
 Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers release
norepinephrine
 Preganglionic axons of both divisions release
acetycholine

 Sympathetic—―fight or flight‖ division

 Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally or
physically stressed or threatened
 Takes over to increase activities
 Remember as the ―E‖ division
 Exercise
 Excitement
 Emergency
 Embarrassment

 Parasympathetic—―housekeeping‖ activites
 ―Rest-and-digest‖ system
 Conserves energy
 Maintains daily necessary body functions
 Remember as the ―D‖ division
 Digestion
 Defecation
 Diuresis

Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (1 of 2)

Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (2 of 2)

Developmental Aspects of the Nervous
System
 The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
 Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
 Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop

System
 Severe congenital brain diseases include:
 Cerebral palsy
 Anencephaly
 Hydrocephalus
 Spina bifida

System
 Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of
the last brain areas to mature prenatally
 Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system

System
 Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die
throughout life and are not replaced; thus, brain
mass declines with age
 Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due
to changes in body position
 Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
intellectual function
 Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is
the major cause of declining mental function with
age
 Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels

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Chapter 7

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Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

• Nervous system (cranial and spinal nerves)

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 Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as

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 Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell

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 CNS glial cells:

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 CNS glial cells: microglia

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 CNS glial cells: ependymal cells

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 CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes

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 Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron

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(a) Free nerve endings (pain

(b) Meissner’s corpuscle

(c) Lamellar corpuscle (deep

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(d) Golgi tendon organ (proprioceptor)

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(e) Muscle spindle (proprioceptor)

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(1) Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body

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(2) Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite

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 Propagation of the action potential

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 Transmission of the signal

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 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary

 Two types of reflexes

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 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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