Vavylpy] 2 Adyl-pyp] oth Cz) = f cot Cizbinh@z) = arccom(2)= 4/2 In NEO Coe 1)) oe N= errr O) CPE ECON Wa % oe Z oa | ‘Pathfinder for ees) (0 Pre-Regional in a Mathematical Fe Cos [> ol NinaTolr-Ke! on Ten) x vt ALSO USEFULFOR Sec Ciz) “AN Lae [inter satel iliac” fe - ay ~AxL poo Ne ie ere I sone el Coe al ea i ie b Nesey ie BD a a CCU acy i rte hes Ys eye on ay+(n-Dd ee On CS-axn) [60 iro f Lace A LED) RPT attain *: Lael eye) a ad bee leSto)el CD) Roc ry cn Piero meme 68) @ Tr iid Pe” Ae Se Nee eee acAbout Pearson Pearson is the world’s learning company, with presence across 70 countries worldwide. Our unique insights and world-class expertise comes from along history of working closely with renowned teachers, authors and thought leaders, as a result of which, we have emerged as the preferred choice tor millions of teachers and learners across the world. We believe learning opens up opportunities, creates fulfilling careers and hence better lives. We hence collaborate with the best of minds to deliver you class-leading products, spread across the Higher Education and K12 spectrum. Superior learning experience and improved outcomes arc at the heart of everything we do. This product is the result of one such effort. Your feedback plays a critical role in the evolution of our products and you can contact us - reachus@pearson.com. We look forward to it.Pathfinder for _——— » "TT a \ o Pre-Regional NY Fevaatcrante leer Olympiad @ Pearson eT aeeT ia)Copyright © 2021 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC0S7128. 'No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher's prior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. ‘The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 978-93-539-4814-6 eISBN: 978-93-903-2589-4 Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade ‘Tower, Plot No, 1, Block-C, Sector 16, ‘Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India Registered Office: The HIVE, 3rd Floor, Pillaiyar Koil Street, Jawaharlal Nehru Road, ‘Anna Nagar, Chennai 600 040, Tamil Nadu, India. Phone: 044-66540100 website: in pearson com, Email: companysectetary india@pearson.comCONTENT: CHAPTER 1 Re ee ee tm tw tie 11 Ratio and Proportion . Seer eet ape cetteree teeter cetera Theses Faluied To Pounamas cette tae eee Algebraic Identities and Expressions 6. 1 6 6 ee eee ee TAD Linear Equations! (e+ itittesrsereiarereeesssieeeee egeee ceeded AG: Practical Mathematios 6 we ee Practice Exercise. 6 6. ee 189 Exercise-T. 5 Berea deere ees ee Seeee eee er ees eee eee a9) Part = [ NSEJS Level Poblens UI naa Part ~ II KVPY Level Problems ELE ates fae oeeee eee eee Part ~ III PRMO Level Problems Ee eee ae aeEeee dee ea Exercise-I ss PEE teed ete Pas iT Betis Neg Bene SS eS TTS Part ~ 11 Previous Years’ KVPY Problems : 1.47 art ~ III Previous Years’ PRMO Problems Beane ees) CHAPTER 2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS .......-. +--+. 24 Inequations andModulus . 2 2... ee ee ed Quadratic Equation... sees eee reece ee eee O. Relation Botwoon Roots and Goeffcionts . . . sss se eM Nature of Roots 2... oe Maximum and Minimum Value of Quadratic Expression. 5s. ss 222 Miscellaneous Equations 2. 2 2. ee ROE Functional Equations. ©. 288 Practioe Exercise © ee BR Exercise-1.. PEE Eee ae eee EEE HEEL Part I NSEJS Love! Prtiens ce 2H Part — IL KVPY Level Problems Eee gee eee een EEO Part ~ ILI PRMO Level Problems Se BBESETA Conens Exercise- oo... Part ~ I Previous Yoars' NSE} Part ~ I Previous Years’ KVPY Problems. Part ~ II Previous Years’ PRMO Problems. AnswerKeys . . - - . 1 CHAPTER 3 SEQUENCE AND SERIES . . Introduction. © 6. ee ee Arithmetic Progression (AP)... Geometric Progression (G.P) . . HPandAGP. 2... 1. SumofSeres . . . 2... DifferentMeans . 2. 2... Practice Exercise iBieencise = Mette eee Part ~ I NSEJS Level Problems. Part — IU KVPY Level Problems Part — Ill PRMO Level Problems iBceeclse ML Heese etter eter Part ~ 1 Previous Yeas’ NSEJS Problems. Part ~ Il Previous Years’ KVPY Problems Payt — II Previous Years' PRMO Problems AnswerKeys . . . . CHAPTER 4 NUMBER SYSTEM. . . . . Factors and Multiples . . . . . HCFandLCM. 2... Divisibility, Cyclicity, Factorial, "G,NOTATION.. © 2 ee Modulus, GIF,FPF. 2. 2... BaseSystem . . 2. 1 1 1 ee ‘Some Miscellaneous Concepts... Practice Exercise. . 2 2. 1. eS nee Part ~ I NSEJS Level Problems jomial Theorem, and Remainders . 2.38 2.35 2.37 2.39 241 3.41 34 34 34 36 38 3.11 314 3.4 34 3.16 3.19 3.22 5.22 3.24 3.26 3.27 44 4a 46 47 4.10 412 4.20 4.23 4.24 4.29 4.29 4.29Part — IU KVPY Level Problems Part I PRMO Level Problems meeeloe SMM ace eere eldest seers Part ~ I Previous Years’ NSEJS Problems Part It Previous Years’ KVPY Problems. Part ~ Ill Previous Yeas’ PRMO Problems : AnswerKeys 2. 2 6 ee cuapter D COMBINATORICS. ......... pate eel eee a aaa Permutation and Combination. . . . 2... Formation of Groups. 6 6 6 ee ee Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion. . . . . . « Permutations of Alike Objects. 6. 2 6 1. ee Circular Permutation. © 2 2. 2 2. ee Total Number of Combinations. . 2 2... Total Distribution. 2 2 Re-arrangement Miscellaneous Examples... 6. 1 1. wes Praction exorolee e:e.iec)sifeec ee ioedert cre cristata Pmereise ee Meee tered tj eaeeettteerteeee etre reeset Part— NSEJS Level Problems Part ~ 1 KVPY Level Problems Port = I PRMO Level Problems iBorelee OMe eras a ieee eencc Part—1 Previous Yeas' NSEJS Problems Part — II Previous Years’ KVPY Problems Part ~ II Previous Years’ PRMO Problems CHAPTER 6 PLANE GEOMETRY-|. ........- Introduction to Euclid Geometry and Lines and Angles . 431 433 4.40 4.40 442 445 4.48 5.1 5A 56 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.15 5.16 BAR 5.18 5.20 5.27 5.27 5.27 533 536 5.41 sat 5.42 5.43 5.45 6.1 61 67 6.15 6.26SEMA, Coens Area of Parallelograms and Triangles... . | Practice Exercise. . 2. 2 2 ee coccinea ieeerjetteec vegeta edive Heeec Part ~ NSEJS Level Problems Part — IU KVPY Level Problems Part — III PRMO Level Problems Baereloe Meier iets eerste eect Part~ I Previous Years’ NSEJS Problems Part It Previous Years’ KVPY Problems Part — Ill Previous Yeas’ PRMO Problems : Airmen Keys feet c ite eee te teeter) cHapter 7 PLANE GEOMETRY-Il. .. . . 2. - irl eee deere eee ee eee a SecantandTangent . . - . . . ee ee AreaRelatedtoCircles . . . 2... 1 Surface AreaandVolume . . . 1. ee ee Practice Exercise. 2 6 6 1 ee Recercleg NaH sea Sc Part — I NSEJS Level Problems. Part — IU KVPY Level Problems Part — II PRMO Level Problems Berets SMM eee ie tee seer Part ~ I Previous Years’ NSEJS Problems. Part Previous Year’ KVPY Problems Part — Ill Previous Yous’ PRMO Problems : AnswerKeys 2. 2 6 cuapter & TRIGONOMETRY .......... Introduction to Trigonometry and Measurement of Angle TRatios (or Trigonometric Functions)... . . Basic Trigonometric Identities . ©... 1 1 se New Definition of TRatios . 2... ee Signs of Trigonometric Functions in Different Quadrants Trigonometric Functions of Allied Angles... . Values of T-Ratios of Some Standard Angles... Trigonometric Ratios of the Sum and Difference of Two Angles 6.32 6.44 6.44 644 647 651 657 657 6.60 6.64 6.66 7A 7 7.10 7.20 7.27 7.35 7.38 7.35 7.39 7.42 748 748 751 7.55 7.58 8.1 84 a4 82 82 83 83 83 83ine Formulae... . CosineFormulae . . 2... Radius of the Circumeircle ‘A’... Radius of the Incircle‘r’. =... Angle ofElevation. . 2 2... Angle of Depression... . . . Practice Exercise... 2. 1. fEaorcioe Nee eee eee Part ~ I NSEJS Level Problems Part ~ IU KVPY Level Problems Part — IMI PRMO Level Problems Exercise. Part ~ I Previous Years’ NSEJS Problems Part — Il Previous Years’ KVPY Problems. art — II Previous Years’ PRMO Problems AnswerKeys . . - - . 1 0 we cHapTeR 9 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .... . Introduction and Application of Coordinate Geometry ‘Area of Triangle and Quadrilaterals . Equation of Straight Line... . Equation of Circle... 2... Practice Exercise... . . . Exercise -1 Part ~ I NSEJS Level Problems Part ~ IU KVPY Level Problems Exercse-. 2 2 ee ee Part — I Previous Years’ NSEJS Problems Part It Previous Years" KVPY Problems Part ~ Ill Previous Yeas’ PRMO Problems AnswerKeys . . - . 1. cuapter 10 INEQUALITIES ..... . Inequalities Involving Modulus Function . Logarithmic Inequalities. . . . . . Exponential Inequations. . . . . 8.10 8.10 8.10 8.10 8.13 8.13 8.16 8.16 8.16 8.18 8.22 8.23 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 9.4 ot 95 96 9.12 9.12 9.18 9.18 9.18 9.19 9.22 9.22 9.22 9.22 9.23 10.1 10.4 10.1 10.4SEMA Conens Inequalities Based on RMS, AM,GMandHM. . 2 2 2 2) 1 1. 10.2 Cauchy Schwartz Inequality. © 6. TOR Practice Exer eee tt eee eee atta eels ret tere eae eee OL PBamencdg Me eee ere rere tra tiae i er erie ee eereSe eee HO Part - LKVPY Level Protlems. 5. : i Heese ecg Part ~ I PRMO Level Problems 10.9 Pebcecle UU Suet eeee ee seg genc eee EL ECU EESESE EES ee ag A Part ~ I Previous Years’ PRMO Problems. . . oe 10.12 Aavonnen Meet tte te tte tetrad set tected aettetttetd ests ote ot OTSPREFACE In 2017, PreK MO (Pre-Regional Mathematics Olympiad) was introduced as a region-wise examination to select 300+ students in 30+ regions across India to reduce subjective cosy checking work at the stage of RMO. PRMO was held in states such as Maharashtra and West Bengal earlier but in 2017 it became a compulsory exercise across the nation. In this scenario, a need arose to construct good study material for this examination as some of the books were too tough while others were too easy for this examination. To cater to this need, I decided to produce this book with a very simple yet intuitive architecture—the architecture of non-routine mathematics. In this book, I have tried to build the problem level from NSEJS to KVPY to PRMO level so that students can sequen tially develop their thinking for PRMO. Please note that this book can be used as a prerequisite for studying for RMO, ‘which is considered as one of the toughest examinations for mathematics at the school level ‘The theory has been included with solved examples to ensure that students are able to understand the topies properly. For problems, I have included two exercise sets, divided into three sections each, as per the difficulty level: 1. NSLJS Level 2. KVPY Level 3. PRMO Level In exercise 2, previous years’ problems have been included to ensure that the students are always aware of their progress. ‘The success and final outcome of this project required a lor of assistance from many people. I would like to express special gratitude to Ashish Chawla for his insights on the chapters on Geometry and to Himanshu Nagar for his insights on the chapters on Algebra. Their constructive suggestions have contributed immensely in the pursuit of this project. [ must thank Srijon Sarkar, one of my students, for his tireless work checking the relevance of questions. I sincerely convey my thanks to Aditi Vyas for completing the final proof-reading and Iqbal Ansari and Hariom Gautam for their extraordinary efforts in typesetting, Every care has been taken to ensure that the book is error free, but since it is a one-of-a-kind book, there may be some errors, and we are very happy to listen to them so that we may review and remove them in subsequent editions. To better understand this book, you are welcome to attend my lectures on YouTube. All the best for PRMO! Prashant JainABOUT THE AUTHOR Prashant Jain is 2 B.Tech geaduate in Computer Science from IIT Powai. He secured All India Rank 42 in JEE 2008, Prashant Jain is an author, trader, analyst, teacher, educationalist, dancer and also a motivational speaker. He was former Intern at BMC Software, former Trader at Optiver and former academic coordinator, PCCP (Pre-Foundation Career Care Program) Division at Resonance Eduventures. From 2018 to 2019, he was the Program Head of PCCP Division at Nucleus Education. In 2019, he started his own venture Talking Textbooks for Grades VI to X. Prashant Jain isa passionate mathematics teacher of PRMO, and his course based on PRMO on YouTube, with more than 500K views, is very popular among students.Basics of Algebra Learning Outcomes Aer reading this chapter, you wil be able fo understand = Comparison of Ratios and Types of Ratios + Practical Mathematics %, Time and Work, etc Variation Direct, Indirect, Joint + Polynomials Value of a Polynomial, Remainder ‘Theorem, Factor Theorem + Factorization of Polynomials ‘= Algebraic Identities and their Value Forms + Understating Symmetric and Homogeneous Expressions + Solving Linear Equation in Two Variable and Condition of Solvability ‘+ Integer Solutions to Linear Equation Rati Ratio and Proportion ‘A ratio is a comparison of two numbers (quantities) by divi- sion, ‘The ratio of a bis written asa: bor 7. In the ratio a:b aand bare called terms of the ratio. ‘a’ is the anteced- ent and ‘6’ is the consequent. Properties of Ratio (2) In a ratio, two quantities are compared. So, the quantities must be of the same kind i.e., they must ‘be expressed in the same units, (b) The order of the terms in a ratio a : bis very im= portant, since 2 : 3 is not same as 3: 2 (©) The value of a ratio remains unaltered: if the given ratio is multiplied or divided by the same non-zero quantity. If a, # and m are non-zero real numbers, then a: b= ma: mband a: b= a/m: b/m. (@) Ifthe ratio of any two quantities can be expressed exactly by the ratio of two integers, the quantities are said to be commensurable otherwise incom= mensurable. To Divide a Number into Parts in a Given Ratio Let ‘X’be the given number, the given ratio is xy: 33. Xi to be divided into two parts such that the Value of first part: Value of second part = x; 1) Therefore, 4 Jaxx fe t=( ats Second a= [ 2 Jax Compare the ratio 3 : 4 and 3 3 4 4 ae 2 aa 4 3 3>25>= ie 3:4>1:2 474 Comparison of Ratio Let a:b and ¢: dare ewo given ratios, then (0) a:b>¢:difad> be (b) a: bee: difad < be (©) a:b=e:difad= be(@) Ratios can ako be compared by expressing the ra- | 3. In a proportional a:b: ¢: d ie, product of tios s factions and then converting them to deci- extremes = product of means smal numbers 4. In a proportion, fourth term is called fourth (©) They can ako be compared by converting them to proportional of the other three terms their equivalent fraction of common denominator. nica 8. Wa:bue:dthen bias d:cor t Ratio of Greater Inequality or Lesser ‘This is known as Invertendo. ae Inequality ‘ (a) A mito a: bis called a ratio of greater inequality eee ee een oa Ifa> beg. 5 : 2 isa ratio of greater inequality This result is known as Alternendo, A ratio of greater inequality i decreased if a same positive number is added to both the terms of the | 7. Wazbse:d 2415 cad ratio and increased if a same positive number is sub- 6 tracted from both of is terms arbnerdeat Orbe (+ Oid sm (l) (b) A ratio a: bis called ratio of less inequality ifa< b ‘This result is known as Componendo. A ratio of less inequality i decreased if same pos itive number is subtracted from both the terms of | 8, Ifa: bse the ratio and increased ifa same positive quantity is auided to both of is terms. arbnede(a-Bib26-O:d sm Q This results known as Dividendo. More Terms Related to Ratios 9. Dividing equation (1) and @), we get (a) Compounded Ratio: The compounded ratio of a naan band e: dis a3 bi. tl 646) Mabe: (e4d) 2d) oF (b) Duplicate, Ratio: The duplicate ratio.of a:b is, at aoe bod (c) Triplicate Ratio: The triplicate ratio of a: bisa: 6 a:bsscsd€ Thisresltisknown as Componendo (@) Sub-duplicate Ratio: The sub-duplicate ratio of and Dividendo, as 10. a,b, & date sad to be in continued proportion if (©) Sub-triplicate Ratio: The sub-tipliate ratio of arbis Va:¥o (0) Inverse Ratio: The inverse ratio or reciprocal rio | 14. IF , &, ¢ are in continued proportion then hae pee be gee =P =ac=9b=4Vac,b is called mean ab . cates eis teres et proportional of ‘2° and ‘c’ and its value is Jac (> 0) The frst sto the third isthe duplicate ratio Proportion of fist to the second. Equality of pwo ratios is called proportion Wa: b=: d, then a, b, ¢ and d are in proportion, 4: b=e: dis aso represented as a:b ex 1, Bach quantity 4, ¢ and d of 4 proportion a:b dis called a term or proportional. a,b cand dare, | 12. Wa: b=c: dande:f= ph, then ae: i respectively, called first, second, third, and fourth Warb=e:d,bix=d:y, term or proportional of the proportion a:b: ¢ d. then a: x=? y 2. The first and the fourth (ast) terms are called | 13. a: b= c:d (ka + ke + me / (kb + Md + extremes and the second and third terms are called imp. 1c follows ehat if all the ratios are finite and riddle terms or means denominator kb + 1d + nf'= 0, then it implies ka + + me=0em Ifa: b=5:9 and b: c= 4:7, find a: bc (Combining Ratios) Solution esha s:dandbsen47=(2).(r2) 9:48 4 4 4 Sarhien5:9: =20:36:63. 4 Example 2 Find out: (the fourth proportional to 4, 9, 12. ) the third proportional to 16 and 36. ii) the mean proportional between 0.08 and 0.18. Solution (Let the fourth proportional to 4, 9, 12 be x: Then, 4:9: 12:23 4xx=9x 12 9x12 7 4 <. Fourth proportional to 4, 9, 12 is 27. (i) Let the thitd proportional to 16 and 36 is = Then, 16 = 36 ::36:x = 16X x= 36 X36 36X36 _ 5 16 <. Third proportional to 16 and 36 is 81 (ii) Mean proportional between 0.08 and 0.18 818 rz} =Vo08x0.18 = | 18 = | 1 _ 100 * 100 ~ Vi00% 100 2 100 ‘The monthly incomes of two persons are in the ratio 4: 5. ‘The monthly expenditure of them are in the ratio 7 : 9. Ifeach saves £1000 per month find their income. Solution ‘The incomes are in the ratio 4: 5. Their incomes are 4K and 5K (say) ‘Their expenditures are 4K — 1000 and 5K ~ 1000, 4K 1000 7 10009 = 36K — 9000 = 35K — 7000 => K = 2000. ‘Their incomes are 88,000 and €10,000. Basics of Alger: J iH @b+ 27e —3ae? 2h fay if then a= bi, « P+ 20300 f _ Whe +24 pe — ee Oh + 2d? f —30f? 8 +20? f —36f° “ +¢ 7 +e prove that 2 poi ate wea pth xe (ety tz) +(atb+o? xtptetathte soution 4, so that x= ak, y= bk, 2 = ck; (+e k+l See PER Pee Waa Web, kel eet P+ Nat b+) ket ket (atb+0) [Malipty and Divide by (Fy fat bse? +(atb-+ 0? katbtatatbee ha + kb the? +(atb+e? (kat kt key a+bee (vty ta? Hlatbbo xtytetatbhtewe that beena cha-b atb—e he sh yte_s(yts)4 pets) + e604) athe lax + by +c2) Solution Each of the given fractions = U™ofnumerators_ sum of denomimtors _xtyte : athte 0 ‘Agtin, if we muliply both mumerator and denominator of the three given factions by y +2, 2 +, x + , respectively, tech faction ay +2) wets) oxy) (y+2)bte—a) (z+a)(e+a-1) (ey) (at b—0) __sumof numeratons ~ sum of denominators _syta)4 eta)estety) ase Dhy +2cz ; °. from (i) and (i), wtyts_alyta)tylets)+2le+y) Gtbte tart yt Ynzi+Vna1 i If Yeti tert Solve that x3 — 3mx? + 3x —m = 0. Solution We have £2 Mati + Yai 1 Mine t= Yin 1 By componedo and dividendo, we get +1 _ Wnt ntl +1) sol m1 (1m d Again by componendo and dividendo, we get m+ttm=1 G+ +(e" ne 1=(m=1) (ert -(e-P XV43x7 + 3et Lx 3x7 43x10 A 43x? + 3x #1 (x9 — 3x7 +3, 2x3 + 6x eee or +2 sta? $3)_ (+1) 38 +305 32 + m=9 8 ~ Sm +38 m0 "ae From the given, we get, ay PL e+ p+? xy 2p By componendo and dividendo vita =2p9 sy day = oy L*4 (One of the possibilities out of positive P74 and negative) ‘Azan by componendo and dividendo etyexny _ ptatpng Ptq-(p-4) 4-men and 3 women finish a job in 6 days and 5 men and 7 women can do the same job in 4 days, How long will 1 man and | women take to-do the work? a 22(2) as @) 25( 3) s 3{2 faye © (3) days ©) vB) e»Solution Let men complete m part in a day and women complete w part in a day. Then, @ (i) After simplifying, we get xin t5e= 8 20m + 28W= 1 So 130= : wae Gi) + 156" 78 156 Basics Alga 156 2 So, it requtes 2 days = 22° {A person distributes his pens among four friends A, B, C, and Din the rio 1:44", Whaeis the minimam nam 34°36 ber of pens thatthe person should have? ‘Ans. (A) Solution 20:15:12 Let number of pens given to A, B, C, Dare 20x, 15x, 12x, 10x So, minimum number of pens (for x= 1) = 20415 +12 + 10=57 CMake at ee ed 1. Two numbers are, respectively, 20% and 50% more than a third number. Find the ratio of the ewo numbers 2, The ratio ofthe number of boys and gies in a college is, 7:8. Ifthe percentage increase in the number of boys and girls be 20 % and 10 %, respectively, then find the new ratio. 3. The prices of a scooter and a TV are in the ratio 7 5. If the scooter costs €8000 more than a TV set, then find the price of a TV vec 4, Find the ratio whose terms differ by 40 and the mea~ sure oF whichis 2 7 5. ‘The ages ofa man and his son isin the ratio of 7 : 2 fier 15 years, they would be in the ratio of 2: 1. Find the father age when son was born. 6. What quantity must be added to each term of the du- plicate ratio of a: bto make it equal to a; b2 aya be < é a Ba EO shove that 7 Ie 8. Ifa:b ef show that 27(4 + #) (c+ dye +) . show that (ax + by + cz) is the mean proportional between (¢ +H + 2) and (<2 + 2 + 2). 10. Ify varies as the sum of two quantities, of which one varies directly as x and the other inversely as x; and if y= 6 when x= and y= 34 when x= 3, then find the equation between and y. 11, A diamond falls and breaks into pieces whose weights are in the ratio 2: 3: 5. The value of the diamond is directly proportional to the square of its weights. Find the loss incurred, if the actual cost of the diamond is 6000 (in).Theorems Related To Polynomi: General expression for the polynomial in one variable can be as follows: Fs) = by Hye tn? tat where b, are real numbers (or complex numbers as the case given in problems) and 6, is not equal to 0. by is constant term and wis whole number. Some Definitions Degree of a Polynomial Ina polynomial, degree is the largest power of x having non-zero coefficient. In above expression, itis ‘n’, Degree ofa polynomial is unique and can only be greater or equal t0 0. Thus, Ps) = 6 is also a polynomial with degree 0. It is called a constant polynomial. Degree of a polynomial is a whole number. ‘Number of Terms in a Polynomial As the name suggest, itis the number of distinct terms in polynomial in irreducible form, Irreducible form means that it cannot be reduced farther eg, P(x) =»? #4546498 has 3 terms and not 4 terms in the reduced form i.e. Plx)ax? +1346 Zero Polynomial and Constant Polynomial P(x) =a for some constant value a is called constant poly nomial, When the value of constant is 0, P(x) is called zero polynomial. Degree of zero polynomial is not defined while degree of other constant polynomials is 0. Coefficients They are real numbers which or constant term by €-&. coefficient of x* is by in general representation of polynomials ame in front of a power af Condition of Whole Number Power Al the powers ofthe variable in different terms of any poly= nomial should be whole number, otherwise it will not be called as a polynonial Eg, 2° +x? +3, it will be a polynomial asthe power of variable in the 3 terms are 3, 2, and 0, respectively, but in expression x? + —4 will not be called a polynomial 3 as the power of x are >, 1, and 0 out of which 5 is not a whole number. Different Types of Polynomials Generally, we divide the polynomials in the following categories. Based on Degrees ‘There are four types of polynomials based on degrees. These 1. Zero degree polynomial: Any non-zero number (constant) is regarded as a polynomial of degree zero or zero degree polynomial ic, (x) = 4, where 4 #0 is a zero degree polynomial, since we can write fix) = a as fx) = ax? 2. Linear Polynomial: A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial. The general form of linear polynomial is ax 1b, whore a and b are any real constant and a #0. 3. Quadratic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree ‘hwo is called a quadratic polynomial. The general form of a quadratic polynomial is ax? +he + where « #0. 4. Cubic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree three is called-a cubic polynomial.,The general form of a abit polynomial iva? Ths? rua ta, where #0. 5. Biquadratic (er " quartic) Polynomial: A polynomial of degree four is called a biquadratic (quartic) polynomial, The general form of a biqua- dratic polynomial isax* + lx? + ox? + dy + 6, where 20. Note 1. A polynomial of degree five or more than five does not have any particular name. Such a poly- nomial is usually called polynomial of degree five oF six, ete. 2. If.a=1 in above clasification, the polynomials are said t© be monic polynomials. “a” is also called the leading coefficient ie., coefficient of x” Based on Number of Terms ‘There are three types of polynomials based on number of terms. These ate as follows: 1, Menomial: A polynomial is sid co be a monomi- al if it has only one term. Eg, ,9x7,5x° all are manamials 2. Binomial: A polynomial is said to be a binomial ifit contains two terms, E.g., 207 + 3y,x+5x"\809 +3 all ae binomials3. Trinomial: A polynomial is said tbe a trinomial if it contains three terms, Eg, Stxthattdrelattxt3 are all ‘rinomials, Note ‘A polynomial having four or more than four terms does not have particular name. These are simply called poly- nomials, Zeroes of Polynomials Let’ consider a polynomial P(x) = x + 4 to see what the solution of polynomial means. If we put x = —4 in this polynomial, we get P (4) = 0. The values of x for which Px) = 0 are called zeros of the polynomial or solutions of the polynomial, Remainder Theorem When 30 is divided by 4, you have 2 as remainder. 30 can be written as follows, B024x742 Note that the remaindcr is always ess than. thé divisor(ob= vious). Can such an expresion be written for polynomials? Yes, it can be written for polynomials too. Before doing that, lets discuss multiplication of poly- nomial first. Multiplication of polynomial is done term by term as shown in the example below. Lee’ multiply P(x) =x-+2 and Q( Sok Se aE R(x) = P(x) Q(x) = (x +2) (x? +4) = x(x? +4)+2(x? +4) ax ede 4207 48 ‘This is like algebraic muldiplication that you have done in. your earlier classes (a + #) (¢ + d) = ale +d) +(e +d) Basics Alga Find R (x) and also write degree of R (x) in the follow- ing ca sStoxd 41 * k+l 6x? +6 ° xf tax? 420427 Can you observe any relation between the degrees of R(x), P(x), and Q(x), when R(x) = P()Q(s)_ the relation will be, degree of R(x) = degree of P(x) + degree of Q(x) Having done multiplication, what about if we do some division with polynomials. Ler’ see the following example: Divide x? +4x +4 by x, Solution The dividend palynortial can be writen in the form Dividend = (DivisorX Quotient) + Remainder (The famous division algorithm for polynomials) B(x) = Q(x) Ala) + R(s) As x7 +4x¢4ea(xt4)+4 If you compare this expression with the expres- sion used when 30 was divided by 4, you can see a very interesting comparison. In above expression, x? + 4+ 4 is Bix)(dividend), x is A(x) (divisor), x +-4is (Q(x) (quotient,) and 4 is (R(x)) (remainder). In number case, remainder cannot be greater than divisor. Ia polynomial division, dhere is a small Quist, Here, degree of remain- der cannot be greater than that of divisor. The interesting pare is that we can indeed write polynomi- al division in our very own long division method as shown below with A(x) =x" — 2x? —4,Blx) = 3. Here Q(x) = a7 + w+ 3. RIX)= 5‘At this point, parallels between numeric division and polynomial division ends, In numeric division, you cannot find remainder directly without actually dividing the dividend, In polynomial division, however, there isa method (0 find remainders when the divisor is linear ie., polynomial of degree 1. We will illustrate by using above polynomials Here, A(x} 2x? =4,B(x)=x=3.3 is a ze of B(x). Put this value in A(x). You will get A (3) to be 5, which is the same remainder as found by long division method. This method can be formalized using the very fi ‘mous Remainder Theorem, a Let P(x) to be any polynomial of degree greater than. or equal to 1 and lee érbe any real nuinber 1fP(x) isivided by, linear polynomial x = a, then the remainder isa). Proof Let Q(x) be the quotient and R(x) be the remainder ob- tained when the polynomial M(x) is divided by x ~ a, Then, Plx) = (= a)QGx) + RO) or some constant. ;, where cis some constant, Then. Px) = (xa) Q(x) +e Parting =a, in P(x) = (sa) glx) +6, we get P(a) =(a—a)Q(a)+¢ Pla) =0 x Qa) +e Pla) =e ‘This shows that the remainder is P(a) when P(x) is divided by xa. Cea IF PQ) isa polynomial of d ber, then »~ a isa factor of Pt ¢ #21 and ais any real num- Proof Before starting the proof, lets understand what “i Its fall form is “ifand only if”. This here means chat (a) IF Pla) = 0, x= asa factor of Pox) (b) If = aisa factor of Pix), PCa) = 0 Thus, the statement is true in both directions. This occurs more often in higher classes. We will prove both direc- tions now: By remainder theorem, P{x) can be written as Pls) == 2)(s)+P(2) (a) Pa) =0,P(x)=(x~ a) Q(x), which means x ais factor of Pts), (b) Texas afactor of P(x), P(x) =(x a) Q(x) for some Q{s). Putting x= 4 in this equation we get Pia) =0. If = 2 and x= 0 are zeros of the polynomials flx) = 2x° — 5x? + ax +B, then find the values of a and b. Solution 2) #22) 5@)? +42) += 0 16-20-4204 b=0 20 tha4 = 0) = 200) — 50072 +a(0) + 6=0 Sb=0 Saad 0=2, b=0. Find th am ofl che cocficiens info) = Ge 2x +3) ene ae tO, Sotition aE easy a AY = (1-21 +30 — NUL = 51 +6) = - 336 if so of fa) sobition io Find the remainder, when fs) =°— 6x2 + 2— 4s divided bye(a) = 12s,Sok fs) = 38-632 + 28-4 1-2x20 32x=1 > tenants (4) Find the remainder, when f(x)=2° 3x7 -2x+6 is divided by g(x) = 37-1 Sol Fes) = ahadqes) +) ae + 3x2 28 +6= 02= 1) gle) + (ar +b) ince divisor is quadratic, remainder should be linear or constant) SS $322 +62 IF DGG) + oe HD Potting x= 1 in (i), we gota +9=8 Putting x =—1 in @), we get—a + b= 10 Upon solving, «= =1, b= 9 Hence remainder is (“x +9) Example 18 Show that x + 1 and 2x — 3 are factors of 2x3 ~ 937 + x12. Solution ‘To prove that (x + 1) and (2y 3) are factors of 23° = 9x? + x +12 itis sufficient to show that p (1) and 3 3) podh are equal wo 20 13) bora oa pH =2C1-9 C12 +) +12 =-2-9-14 122-124 12=0. (3) G) Gee aie 0. Hence, ( + 1) and 2x — 3) are the factors 2v3— 9 x? + xt 12. Basics of Algebr Find the values of a and 6 so that the polynomials 3° = ay? — 13x45 has (x1) and (x +3) as factors. Solution Let f(x) = x9 -ax? -130+b Because (x ~ 1) and (x + 3) are the factors of f(x), fl) =0 and f-3) =0 F()=0=> (1) ~a(1)? -13¢1) + Saath 12 @ i(-3)=0 = (3) -al-3 - 13(-3) +6 = 0 327-4394 b=0 = -9a+h = -12 Ai) = 1-a-13+b=0 Subtracting equation (ji) from equation (i) Pur a=3in equation () SepaiD = 5215, Hence, a= 3 and b= 15. Example 20 ‘What must be subtracted from x° — 6x? — 159-480 so that the result is exactly divisible by x? +412. Solution Let ay + bbe subtracted ffom p(x) = 2° — 6x? — 15x +80s0 that itis exactly divisible by x° + —12. se) = 6x2 = 15x +80-(av +b) = = (15+ a)x + (80-6) Dividend = Divisor x quotient + remainder But remainder will be zero, =. Dividend = Divisor x quotient (? 4.512) x quotient 6x7 =(13+ a)x + (80D)x-7 x +x-12] 2 (15 +a)+ 80-6 Fide Tx? +126 = (15 4a)x 480-6 3 + 0(-3-a)+80-b Fix? F 7x +84 xa-a)+(4-) Hence, x(4—4)+ (4) +0 S45 =&(4-W)=0 = a=4andb=-4 Hence, if in, p(x) we subtract 4-4 then it is exactly di- visible by x? +3—12, lex? | then find the value of x° =2x-+1 Solution Det Leas? ya? ==) +2 2 Putting x? =x -1=0, we get x? = 20+ Find all the | eros) ot | the_ « polyiidmial f(x) = 2s = 20 =F. 43x46, iF tw OF its zeros are ~fow E Solution rind («+ or 2x? —3 is a factor of (x) ah? £6 0 2xt 20 79? + 3x46 = (2x? —3) (x? x2) = (2x? -3) (v-2) +1) (Bh Boaee So, the zeros are -£ ec Example 23, Tes? 44-1 is a ctor of x4 + px? + qx? —1, then find the values of p and g Solution at tps? + qx? 12 (0? +41) (9? thw +0) moat + px egy? —tast 44s? + Geter? +(e- bec Upon compating coefficients, we get beta pybte— bp=2 senb Upon solving, ¢ Emr Thy to find the zeros of plx) =x +6x7 + 11x46 by hit and trial meihod (choose:the value and then put that value Of x in the polynomial to check). Solution Choose 2 or 3, will get P(x)=0. This mean that {-1,—2,~3} is the set of all values of x, which are zeios of the given polynomials. Hit and trial method is of- ten used to find the solutions of polynomials when these solutions are simple. “Try tofind the solution of P(x) = x?+208+91 using hit and trial method. You will see that this polynomial can- not be solved easily by hit and eial method. Example 25, Find the value of a? + 6° +0 ~3abe Ia=500 b=502 = 504 Solution [lo HO-gt (eof [A 2 eter) 2 2% 1506 = 18072Find remainder when P(x) =x? +3n7 + 3x-+1 is divided beet Solution Here, P(x) 38 43x? 43x41 Putting » = —I for remainder, we get P(-1) = (-1)' +3(-1)° #3(-1) +1 PEI) =0 Factorize x? +193? +71y—91 into linear fctors Solution By the look of this polynomial, i is not very easy to solve directly. However, we can see that 1 is a solution of this polynomial and hence x ~ 1 is a fictor of this polynomial By long division method, the given polynomial can be written as 419s? +719=9= (esis? F20e491) In earlier example, we solved x7 + 20x +91, Thus, writing, in linear factors, 241997 + Thx 91 = (= 1)(x+7) (0413) Given a cubic polynomial, its not very easy to find its factors. Below mentioned table summarizes some cases t0 find simple factors ofa cubic polynomial ax® + hx” + 0° +d. Bais of Aiea atbtced= anbtend x72 Bath 20+ x42 Ab + 2e— Factorize 6x — 19x? — 237 + 108 +8. Solution Let f(x) = 6x! ~ 19x97 — 23x? +10x +8. on hit and trial basis, we find that f(-1)=Oand /(4)= 0 (+1) aswellas (w= 4) isa factor f(x). on dividing Flo) = 6x4 ~19x9 = 23x? + 10x-+8 by (x? = 3x=4), we get (6x7 -2-2) 6xt — 19x° - 23x? +10 +8 = (8° —3x 4) (6x7 == 2) = (x1) (4) (6x? 4x + 38-2) = (w+ Ife =A) [2638 ~2) + 13x 2)] =(x+1)(s—4)(3x- 2)(28+1) (Munnar ee 1. Using remainder theorem, find the remainder when fl) s divided by g(a) and verify the result by actual division. Given 6x? +2e—4 and (x) =1-28. 2. (1) If the polynomials ax? + 3x7-13 and 2x! — Sx-+4, when divided by (x2) leave the same remainder, find the value of 3. Determine whether x — 3 is a factor of polynomial Wa) = 9° 3x? +d 12, 4. Using factor theorem, prove that p(x)is divisible by ols) if P(x) = dat +5e° — 128? — a +5, g(x) =A +5, = nox $2 4is Find the remainder, when f(s) divided by g(x) = 1 + 2x. 6. The polynomials ax3 + 3:2 — 3 and 2x3 ~ Sx +a when divided by (— 4) leaves remainder R, and Ry, respec- tively then find the value of "if 2R, — R, = 0. 7. Wasd + bx? + x —6 has x +2 asa factor and leaves a remainder 4 when divided by (x — 2), find the values of aand b? 8. ‘The remainder when x5 + kx? is divided by (w ~ 1) (2) (v~3) contains no terms in x2, Find ‘K'without performing division, _—— eeeAlgebraic Identities and Expressions In previous sections, we discussed about polynomials in one variable @.c., 3). Polynomials of 2 variables are just extension, of earlier learnt concepts and we will use these concepts «0 discuss them and their algebraic properties. Examples of polynomials in two variables are 1. P(xy)=s? 420y4 7? 2. Psy)ex! +3x2y 4 2a? 3. P(s,y) =x (Coefficient of powers of y is 0) 4. P(s,p) =6 (Coefficients of powers of sand y is 0) Factorization of Polynomials in Two Variables. In our discussions here, we will discuss polynomials in which sum of powers of x and y in a particular term is constant for all the terms. For example, each term in. x? + 2xy + y* has his suum 2, Hkewise, x) 3x2y-+2xy? as this sum to be 3 in each of its torm, These polynomials are called homogeneous polynomials or uniform polynomials as this sum is same for each term, Such a choice is necessary to apply concepis learnt in previous sections here. For example, (a) x2 + 2xy-+y? = (v4 y)(a+y) (By spliting middle term) (b) 29 +3x7y + 2ay? = x(x + y)(x-+2y) (By splitting middle term) Algebraic Identities Following identities are handy to solve common guestions in polynomial algebra, Proofs of these identities by simple mathematics, (a) (a6)? (b) (a-b) =a? —2ab +P (©) @-# =(a+b)(a-b) (A) (at b+ cf =a? +b? 2 + 2ab-+ 2be+ 2oa (e) a +0) = (446) (a? ab +0") aH = (ab) (a? +ab+6) () (a+b) =a +b +3ab (a+6) @ (a-b) =a -# ~30b (a—5) ty (# © ~ab~be~ ae) = alee #0) +(--«)| bbe done P+ Dab OF Special ome: if (0248 42 ab bear tf ye 2 ale + (6-0 +(e-a (P4040 —3abe=(a+b+0)(a? +6? +2 —ab—be—ac) 1 2 [(e-tf (0-0) +(-a)"| Special case Lif @ +B +0 = Babe, Special case Th: if a? +6° +e —3ale=0, then cither a+h+¢=0 ora=b=¢ P+ +8 —abe=L@ th +9 atb+e=0, then Value Form (a) P+ = (a+b) —2ab, ifa + band ab are given. (b) a? +6? =(a— By? + 2ab, if ~ band ab are given. (eo) a +b = Yla—b) + ab, if — band ab are given. (a) a b= Yla+bP —4ab , fa + band ab ate given. (rt}nahas fs gven, -(tfe2 ita Hien (g) @+ P= (a+ WP ~3ab (a+b), if (a+ 8) and ab are = (a= 6) + 3ab (a~ b), if (a 8) and ab are (044) -3 (242) tree sien (2-2) +3(0-t) ita Sag (k) af <= (P+) =) =[(a + HP ~2ab](a +) (eb ah 4 4b = (a? +2ah + 26?)(a? —2ab-+ 28") (Sophie Germain identity) (an) (x" — p") is always divisible by (x-y) (nm) (x" + y")is divisible by (x + y) when ‘n’ is odd, (0) (x"—p")is divisible by (x+y) when ‘n’is even. (0) 46! a2 (a2 4 ab 482 — ab 48) Da Pampa dora ptat@np? @) Py tay toby toyAlgebraic Expressions Homogeneous Expressions [An expression is sid to be homogeneous when all is terms are of the same degree. For example, ax | by is homoge- neous expression of the frst degree in x and y, ax? + by + @P is a homogencous expression of the second degree in x and y, and ax? + by? + cz! — xyz is homogeneous expression of the third degree Ifa homogeneous expression of the first degree, say x + y + 5, is muliplied by a homogeneous expression of the second degree, say ax? + by? +c, then the product ax* + bp + ca + any + ants + bya + bps + cat + ey isa homogencous expression of the thitd degree (., 1 + 2=3) Hence, we have the following law: ‘The product of two homogeneous expressions of degrees m and n, respectively, is a homogeneous expression of degrees m+ 1. ‘Symmetric Expressions ‘An integral function is said to be symmetric with respect to a pair of variables if the expression remains unaltered when the variables are inferchangeds i.e an) expression fing) is said co be symmetric if fs,/) = Ay.) Thus, 32 + xy + ys symmetric With: ospeet xand y, since when x and y are interchanged, the resulting function, y? + 2yx + 24, isthe same asthe original fonction. Further, xy + pz + 24 isa symmetric expression, since by interchanging x and y, it becomes yx + az + zy, which is the same as ay + yz + zx. Similarly, xy + px + ev is syme metric with respect to the pair (y, 2) and (3, x), and hence ay + yz + avis symmetric in x, y, and 2. Similarly, x + y + 3,2 +P + Fay M+ p+ 2 Bayz.a¢ythand s+ P—x—yare sym metric expressions. Note that x — y + 1 is not symmetric in x and y and ab + be~ eais not symmetric in a, b, and c. A symmetric expression is not necessarily a homoge- nous, nor a homogeneous necessarily symmetrical For example, x + y— 1 isa symmetric function but not a homogenous function. Again, x2 + xy is a homogeneous function but not a symmetric function, Properties of Symmetrical Expressions 1. Ina symmetric fiction, all terms of the same type must occur and their coefficients must be equal. ‘Terms which can be obtained from one another by successively interchanging the variables are known as same type terms. Bais of leh ‘Thus, if x, y, and > are the variables, then y2z and xy are terms of the same type, since the former is changed to the latter by interchanging the pair yy &. Similarly, 2x, x22, yPx, and x2y are all terms belonging to the same type as y? and 22y, but «3, ‘and = are not terms of the same yr ype, since the interchanging of the leters x, y, and = will not transform ys into 3°, oF = 2. The sum, difference, product, or quotient of two symmetric expressions is a symmetric expression. If we consider two letters x and y, then, in general, the symmetric homogeneous expressions of the first and second degrees, respectively are the following: (@) key) (b) Ko? + 7?) + my, where k and m are conseants If we consider three letters x, y, and =, then, in general, the symmetric homogenous expressions of the first and second degrees, respectively; are the following: @ Mery te) (b) Kod + yP + 23 + (xy + ys + 2x), where kand ‘mare any constants “The values of these constanits can be found out by: comparing the coefficients. Cyclic Symmetric Expressions ‘An expression jx .y, 2) is said to be a cyclic expression if fs ¥.2) = flys 2 8) =fl2s%: For the sake of brevity, we use the symbols Zand TT to ‘write the cyclic expressio is used for sum of terms and [Tis used for product of terms. ‘The addition, multiplication, and/or division of two cyclic polynomials always results in a cyclic polynomial Here are some common factors and their cyclic repre- sentatives for a cyclic polynomial with 3 variables: subtraction, Expression ya x Lo e4P ae b+ bebe b+ (eta) + 2(a+b) 1Qe (Continued)Exp! +H b+Qe+a) HCF and LOM of Polynomials A polynomial Ds) isa divisor of the polynomial Pfs) if ie is a factor of P(a), Where Qi) is another polynomial such that P(x) = Dis) x Qs) 1, HGF/GCD_ Greatest Common Divisor): [A polynomial f(s) is called the HCF or GCD of {wo oF more given polynomials iF is) i a polyno amial of highest degree dividing each of one of the given polynomials, 2 LCM, (Least. Common Multiple): A polynomial P(x) is called the LCM of two or more given polynomials, if i€ i a polynomial of smallest degree which is divided by each one of the given polynomial. For any two polynomials P(x) and Qs), we have PQs) X Qs) = [HCF of Pls) and Qj] x [LCM of P(x) and QUI Expand: © Cu) Gi) (3x? + y)? (ii) (2 x3) (V2 x + 3y) oy (2e-does) Solution, en “ zy) Os -209 Gray Gi) (Bx? + Sy? = BP + 2GAGN) + GY? ‘Ox4 + 30x2y + 25)? Gay (Fs~3y)( Vs +39) =(VEs)~ Gy) mleedesf eT “(eea(a)o-mli ‘Simpl Gi) Qx+ YQx=) A+?) Solution “ (= -t (s+ : ( Gi) Ges Rx- Ne + A) = 100)? OPI + 2) = Us? = Pa? + 9) = se? GP = Find the value:of x= ywhen x-+y=9and xy = 14: Solution xty=9 ‘On squaring both sides x? + y? + 2xy=81 Putting value of xy = 14 s+ P+ 28281 et ~@) (- pPest + p29 Putting xy = 14 and (i) (w— yh =53-2 (14) = 53-28 S@-yt=2 ae-y tea? + $= 23, find che values of(s+4), (s- i) Solution ~@) ae442=35 [Adding 2 on both sides of ()]Find the value, «if arab a = 6ah+ 56> Soluti Sab & —60b+50 Estab (e-byla-3b) alah) X7.98-2.02 x2 Find the value of 728% 7-98=2.00%2.02 5.96 Solution 7.98% 7,98 —2.,02%2.02 _ 596 Simplify: () Bx+4>-Bx-4) of) (i) (Bx + 4) - Gx - 4° = [Gx + 4) + 3 Bx) @) Gx +9] 1G9)°- ) 3 Bs) @) Ge 4] = [27° + 64 + 36x Gx + 4)) — [27x — 64 - 36x Ge-4] Sok Basics of Algebra [2733 + 64 + 1082 + L4dy] ~ [2739 — 64 — 10832 + 144] 733 + 64 + 108s? + 144 — 2799 + 64 + 108%? THe = 128 + 21602 ay + ( ) + 340) «iy («+2) +(s-2) ae (2e+3}+°- ey =x (2)(s-2) 12 8 12 eae ye rirgan appa) 2x 4 24 Evaluate: 1005) ) 97) Solution G-005)°= (TOO #5)" = (E000)? + (5) + 311000) &) (1000 +5) 100000000 + 125 £45000 (L000 + 5) (000000000 + 128 + 15000000 + 75000, = 1015075125. Gi) 978 = (1000 ~ 3)8 = (1000)? ~ (3)8 — 3 x 1000 x 3% (1000-3) }0000000010 27 = 9000 x (1000 ~ 3) 27 — 9000000 + 27000 tex ~ 125, find the value of x Solution We have, x- + @ [Cubing both sides of @))