IL

+
+ Linear
VS - circuit
RL
-
 + V2 - R4
R2 = 2 kΩ 8 kΩ IO

R3 4 kΩ R5 4 kΩ

R1 6 kΩ
+ -
VS -
VO + 3V2
 + V2 - + R4 -
R2 = 2 kΩ 8 kΩ IO
+
+ -
R3 4 kΩ R5 4 kΩ
- -
- +
R1 6 kΩ IA IB
+ + -
VS -
VO + 3V2
 RS VB R2 VA R4
6 kΩ 2 kΩ 3 kΩ IO

IS 15 mA R1 7 kΩ R3 4 kΩ R5 5 kΩ
 + RS - IS VB I2 + R2 - I2 VA IO + R4 -
6 kΩ I1 2 kΩ I3 3 kΩ IO
+ +
IS 15 mA R1 7 kΩ R3 4 kΩ R5 5 kΩ
- -
 R2
12 kΩ
+
IS R1 4 kΩ V3 R3 = 8 kΩ
-

R2
12 kΩ
+
+
VS -
30 V R1 5 kΩ V3 R3 = 8 kΩ
-
 R1
8 kΩ
+
+
VS -
6V V2 R2 = 4 kΩ IS 3 mA
-
 R1 + R1 -
8 kΩ 8 kΩ
+ +
+ +
VS -
6V V2A R2 = 4 kΩ IS = 0 VS -
6V IA V2A R2 = 4 kΩ
- -

R1
8 kΩ I1 I2B
+ + +
VS = 0 V2B R2 = 4 kΩ IS 3 mA R1 8 kΩ V2B R2 = 4 kΩ IS 3 mA
- - -
 VQ
R2
+ -
8 kΩ
24 V
R1 R3
4 kΩ I4 4 kΩ

+
VP -
12 V R4 3 kΩ IP 3 mA

VQ = 0 R2
8 kΩ

R1 R3
4 kΩ I4A 4 kΩ

+
VP -
12 V R4 3 kΩ IP = 0

+ R23 -

+ R1 - + R123 -
4 kΩ I4A I4A
+ +
+ +
VP -
12 V R4 3 kΩ VP -
12 V R4 3 kΩ
- -
 VQ VQ
R2 + R2 -
+ - + -
8 kΩ 8 kΩ
24 V 24 V +
IA
R1 R3 R3 4 kΩ
-
4 kΩ 4 kΩ - R1 +
I4B
+ -
4 kΩ I4B
VP = 0 R4 3 kΩ IS = 0 +
IB R4 3 kΩ
-
 VQ = 0 R2 - R2 +
8 kΩ 8 kΩ
I2
I2
R1 R3 I1 R1 + I1 VB I3 R3 + I3
- -
VA VC
4 kΩ I4C 4 kΩ 4 kΩ I4C 4 kΩ
+
VP = 0 R4 3 kΩ IP 3 mA VP = 0 R4 3 kΩ IP 3 mA
-
 R2 R3
3 kΩ 5 kΩ
+
+
V1 R1 = 2 kΩ IS 4 mA VS -
10 V
-

R2
2 kΩ
R1 I3 R3
6 kΩ IP 8 kΩ

+ +
VP -
16 V VQ -
12 V
4 mA

RS
a a

+
VS -
IS RS

b b
 RS
a a

VS + IS RS
-

b b
 R2 R4
2 kΩ 3 kΩ
+
+
IS 3 mA R1 4 kΩ V3 R3 = 8 kΩ VS -
12 V
-
 RA R2
2 kΩ
+
-
VA + V3 R3 = 8 kΩ RB IB
-

RA2

+
-
VA + V3 R3 = 8 kΩ RB IB
-
 RA 2
6 kΩ
+
-
VA + 12 V V3 R3 = 8 kΩ RB 3 kΩ IB 4 mA
-

+
IC RC V3 R3 = 8 kΩ RB 3 kΩ IB 4 mA
-

+
IC 2 mA RC 6 kΩ V3 R3 = 8 kΩ RB 3 kΩ IB 4 mA
-

+
IBC RBC V3 R3 = 8 kΩ
-
 I3
+
IBC 2 mA RBC 2 kΩ V3 R3 = 8 kΩ
-

R3
4 kΩ
IP
R1
2 kΩ
7.5 mA
+
+ +
VP -
6V V2 R2 = 2 kΩ VQ -
18 V
-
 VB
RB - +

+
+
IA RA V2 R2 = 2 kΩ VQ -
18 V
-

RB

+
+
IA V2 RA2 VBQ -
-
 RB
4 kΩ
+
+
IA 3 mA V2 RA2 = 1 kΩ VBQ -
48 V
-

+
IA 3 mA V2 RA2 = 1 kΩ RC IC
-

+
IAC V2 RA2C
-
 VP
+ - R4

I3 2 kΩ
5V
+
R1 6 kΩ IP 5 mA R2 3 kΩ R3 6 kΩ IQ 3 mA R5 4 kΩ
-

R2

I1 5 kΩ
+
+
IS 24 mA R1 15 kΩ VS -
20 V
-
 IL RTh - IL
a + a
+ +

Linear
+
two-terminal VL Load VTh -
VL Load
circuit

- -
b b

a
+

Linear
two-terminal VTh = Voc
circuit

-
b
 Linear
a
two-terminal
circuit with
all RTh =Rin
independent
sources set
equal to zero
b

a + RTh - a
+ +
IL IL
Linear + +
+
two-terminal VL RL VTh -
VL RL
circuit - -
- -
b b
 R1 R3 a
4 kΩ 1 kΩ IL
+
VS -
32 V R2 12 kΩ IS 2 mA RL

R1 R3
a
4 kΩ 1 kΩ

VS = 0 R2 12 kΩ IS = 0 RTh

R3
a
1 kΩ

R1 4 kΩ R2 12 kΩ RTh

b
 R1 I3 = 0 R3
a
4 kΩ 1 kΩ +

+
VS -
32 V R2 12 kΩ IS 2 mA VTh

-
b

+ R1 - I1 VTh IS VTh
a
4 kΩ +
I2
+
+
VS -
32 V R2 12 kΩ IS 2 mA VTh
-
-
b
 + RTh - a
4 kΩ IL
+
VTh -
30 V RL

b
 a a
+ +

Linear
two-terminal IN RN
circuit

- -
b b
 a
+

Linear
two-terminal IN = Isc
circuit

-
b
 R2
a
8 kΩ

R1 4 kΩ
IS 2 mA R4 5 kΩ
+
VS -
12 V

R3
b
8 kΩ

R2
a
8 kΩ R2
a
8 kΩ
R1 4 kΩ
IS = 0 R4 5 kΩ RN R1 4 kΩ R4 5 kΩ RN
VS = 0
R3
b
R3 8 kΩ
b
8 kΩ
 R2 a
8 kΩ
I4 = 0
R1 4 kΩ
IS 2 mA R4 5 kΩ IN = Isc
+
VS -
12 V

R3
8 kΩ b

R2 a
8 kΩ

IS 2 mA IA RA IN

R3
8 kΩ b

R2 a
8 kΩ

ISA RA 4 kΩ IN

R3
8 kΩ b
 RB R2 a
8 kΩ

+
VB -
20 V IN

R3
8 kΩ b

+ RB23 - a

+ IN
VB -
20 V

b
 a

IN 1 mA RN 4 kΩ

R1 R2 a
6 kΩ 6 kΩ IL
+
+
VS -
18 V IS 3 mA R3 4 kΩ RL 1 kΩ
-

R1 R2
a
3 kΩ 3 kΩ

+
VS -
15 V IS 4 mA R3 6 kΩ

b
 RTh - a
+ a
= RN IL IL
+ +
+ V
+ IN = Th RN =RTh VL RL
VTh -
= I N RN VL RL RTh
- -
-

b
 P

Pmax

RL
RTh /RN
 R1 R3 R4 a
6 kΩ 3 kΩ 1 kΩ

+
VS -
12 V R2 12 kΩ IS 2 mA RL

R1 R3 R4
a
6 kΩ 3 kΩ 1 kΩ

VS = 0 R2 12 kΩ IS = 0 RTh /RN

R3 R4
a
3 kΩ 1 kΩ

R1 6 kΩ R2 12 kΩ RTh /RN

b
 R3 R4 a
3 kΩ 1 kΩ

IA RA R2 12 kΩ IS 2 mA RL

b
 R3 R4 a
3 kΩ 1 kΩ

IA R A2 IS 2 mA RL

RB R3 R4 a
3 kΩ 1 kΩ

+
VB -
IS 2 mA RL

b
 RB3 R4 a
1 kΩ

+
VB -
8V IS 2 mA RL

R4 a
1 kΩ

IC RC IS 2 mA RL

b
 R4 a
1 kΩ

ICS RC 7 kΩ RL

I4 = 0 R4
a
1 kΩ +
+
22
ICS A RC 7 kΩ VTh
7
-
-
b
 + RTh - a
8 kΩ IL
+
+
VTh -
22 V RL
-

+ R4 -
a
1 kΩ
+
22 IN
ICS A RC 7 kΩ
7
-

b
 a
IL
+ +
IN 2.75 mA RN 8 kΩ RL
- -

IQ

R2 2 mA a
8 kΩ
R3
IP 4 mA R1 2 kΩ 6 kΩ RL
VP
- +
b
20 V