Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Effect of Al2O3 nanoparticles in biodiesel-diesel-ethanol blends at

various injection strategies: Performance, combustion and emission
characteristics
Harish Venu ⇑, Venkataramanan Madhavan
Institute for Energy Studies, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Novel study of behavior of nano additives at various injection strategies.

At advanced injection timing, ignition delay and CO2 reduces and there is an increase in combustion duration, HC, CO and NOx emissions.

At retarded injection timing, cylinder pressure and heat release occurs away from TDC.

Reductions in emissions of HC, CO, NOx and smoke were observed.

Nanoparticle combustion was effective in retarded injection timing as it reduces almost all the harmful pollutants.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The current experimental work focusses on influence of Alumina (Al2O3) nanoparticle on various injec-
Received 15 May 2016 tion strategies. Experiments were conducted with three different injection timings (IT) namely, original
Received in revised form 8 August 2016 timing (ORG IT) of 23 deg bTDC, advanced timing (ADV IT) of 27 deg bTDC and retarded timing (RET IT) of
Accepted 11 August 2016
19 deg bTDC. The base fuel used is a blend of biodiesel (20%), diesel (70%), and ethanol (10%) (known as
Available online 24 August 2016
BDE). Alumina nanoparticles were synthesized, characterized by SEM and XRD analysis and blended with
BDE blend at a fraction of 25 ppm using ultrasonicator. The effect of 25 ppm Al2O3 in BDE blend at ORG IT,
Keywords:
ADV IT and RET IT were experimented in a single cylinder diesel engine and the following results were
Diesel engine
Injection timing
obtained. Al2O3 addition at ADV IT resulted in higher peak pressure and heat release rate occurring nearer
Nanoparticle to TDC, higher hydrocarbon (HC), higher carbon monoxide (CO), lower carbon dioxide (CO2), higher nitro-
Engine performance gen oxides (NOx), higher exhaust gas oxygen (EGO), higher combustion duration (CD) and lower ignition
Emission delay (ID). Whereas, Al2O3 addition in RET IT causes lower cylinder pressure and heat release away from
TDC, followed by simultaneous reductions of HC, CO, NOx and smoke opacity. In addition, higher levels of
EGO and ID along with lowered brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and CD were observed with Al2O3
addition in RET IT. Overall, the influence of 25 ppm Al2O3 in RET IT of 19 deg bTDC resulted in better
engine performance, combustion and emission characteristics.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Abbreviations: Al2O3, Aluminium oxide nanoparticle; IT, Injection timing; BDE,
Biodiesel-diesel-ethanol blends; BP, Brake power; ORG IT, Original injection timing;
ADV IT, Advanced injection timing; RET IT, Retarded injection timing; SOI, Start of
injection; SOC, Start of combustion; SEM, Scanning Electron Microscope; XRD, X-ray
Diffraction; EDS, Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy; HC, Hydrocarbon; CO,
Carbon monoxide; NOx, Oxides of nitrogen; CO2, carbon dioxide; ID, Ignition delay;
CD, Combustion duration; BSFC, Brake specific fuel consumption; HSU, Hartridge
smoke unit; EGT, Exhaust gas temperature; EGO, Exhaust gas oxygen; LTC, Low
temperature combustion; IMEP, Indicated mean effective pressure.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Institute for Energy Studies, Department of Mechan-
ical Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India.
E-mail addresses: harishvenuresearch@gmail.com (H. Venu), venkat@annauniv.
edu (V. Madhavan).
With increasing emission concerns, the search of cost effective
and efficient alternative fuel is a major research. While biodiesel
from various sources in CI engines as an alternative fuel was a
major research [1–10], usage of alcohol in biodiesel blends too
found promising [11–20] in reducing the engine emissions. Several
works focused on using biodiesel-diesel-ethanol blends (BDE) as
an alternative fuel in an unmodified CI engine [21,11,15,22–30].
It is reported that the addition of biodiesel reduces the phase strat-
ification effect in diesel-ethanol blends. Further, to improve the
characteristics of BDE blend, influence of nano additives too were
studied by Selvan et al. [31]. Several nano additives like alumina

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.08.046
0016-2361/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189
[32–34], cerium [35–37], carbon nanotube [38], manganese [39],
and magnesium [40] and its effects in improving the engine perfor-
mance were briefed by several researchers. Addition of particle
oxidation catalysts in fuel blend reduced the oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) significantly [41–43]. Optimization of engine parameters
such as compression ratio (CR), injection timing (IT), and load
was found to have significance in improving the combustion, per-
formance and emission characteristics when run with biodiesel
blends [44–46]. Among various process parameters, results proved
better in optimization of injection pressure (IP) and IT. IP variation
could also improve the fuel atomization and combustion duration
(CD), especially in minimizing the unburned hydrocarbon (UBHC)
[47–49]. Works were even carried out using combined strategies
of IP and IT in methanol blended fuel and found to reduce hydro-
carbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke with higher NOx.
Injection strategies play a vital role in reducing the engine exhaust
emissions significantly. Works with various injection pressure [50–
61], injection rate shaping [62–66] and multiple/split injection
[67–72] and were found to be promising in reducing the exhaust
emissions with higher engine performance. IT affects the ignition
delay significantly [73,74].
Advancing the IT causes earlier start of combustion (SOC) in rel-
ative to TDC, thereby resulting in higher in-cylinder temperature
and lowered HC emissions [75,76]. Also, with advanced IT, volu-
metric efficiency reduces [77], CO reduces [78], carbon dioxide
reduces [79] and EGT reduces [46]. Advancing the IT not only
reduces the exhaust emissions, but also improves the brake ther-
mal efficiency (BTE) when run on biodiesel [79,46,80–82], diesel
[83], dual fuelling of diesel and alcohol [84], diesel with oxy-
genated additives [85] and natural gas [77]. This could be due to
increased intake air temperature, in-cylinder pressure and heat
release rate [86]. This increased in-cylinder temperature raises
the NOx emissions significantly [82,83,87] when fuelled with bio-
diesel blends. Whereas, reduced NOx were observed in case of
alcohol fuel blends [88,89] at advanced IT, due to improved cooling
effect of oxygenated fuels.
Retardation of IT causes the fuel injection to begin lately and as
a result it lowers the combustion duration and cylinder pressure
causing lower BTE [82,85]. Drop in BTE were reported especially
when fuelled with algae oil methyl ester (AOME) [90], ethanol-
diesel blends [89], methanol-diesel blends [88], honge oil methyl
ester (HOME) [91]. At higher injection pressures when fuelled with
biodiesel, IT retard improves the engine performance significantly
[92]. Emission wise, IT retardation reduces the NOx emissions sig-
nificantly with higher HC and CO emissions when fuelled with nat-
ural gas [77], AOME [90], HOME [91], soybean biodiesel [93],
diesel-ethanol blends [94] and Dimethyl ether [95]. Works with
lower load IT advancement and higher load IT retardation was
found to improve the performance with minimal exhaust emis-
sions in biodiesel-CNG dual fuelled engine [96].
Kim et al. [97] presented a novel approach of combined effect of
different fuel spray angles (60° and 156°) and injection timings
(20 deg bTDC, 30 deg bTDC and 40 deg bTDC) fuelled with diesel
in a high speed diesel engine. The authors achieved the fuel spray
modifications through fuel spray visualization techniques. Results
were interesting as the 60° spray angle (narrow) showed higher
levels of combustion pressure, high HRR and lowered delay period,
while for 156° (conventional) the combustion pressure was lower.
Emission wise, at advanced IT’s, narrow spray angles has higher
NOx and soot emissions while conventional spray angles had
higher HC and CO emissions. Indicated mean effective pressure
(IMEP) of 60° fuel spray angle is higher than 156° fuel spray angle
which is found to increase with retarded IT.
Bora and Saha [75] investigated the optimization of biogas run
single cylinder dual fuel engine through various injection timings
(IT) and compression ratio (CR) for better efficiency and emission
177
reduction. The dual fuel engine is run through various IT’s
(26 deg bTDC, 29 deg bTDC, 32 deg bTDC) and various CR’s (16,
17, 17.5, 18). Among various combinations experimented, 29 deg
bTDC with 18 CR resulted in better engine performance, in terms
of brake thermal efficiency (25.4%), fuel replacement quantity
(82.67%) and BMEP (4.24 bar). For the same optimized parameters,
HC and CO emissions were reduced significantly while surge in
NOx and CO2 were reported.
Yilmaz et al. [98] investigated in a CI engine fuelled with
biodiesel-ethanol-diesel (BED) blends with increasing ethanol con-
centrations namely, 3% (BDE3), 5% (BDE5), 15% (BDE15) and 25%
(BDE25) while biodiesel and diesel shares equal proportions from
97%, 95%, 85% and 75%. From results, they observed that the pollu-
tant formation strongly depended on ethanol dosing ratio. For
higher ethanol content blend (BDE25), higher HC and lower NOx
were obtained at lower/part engine loads, while at higher engine
loads it is vice versa. CO emissions of BDE25 were higher through-
out the engine loads.
Avulapati et al. [99] investigated the phenomenon of puffing
(vapor-blow from droplet surface) and micro-explosion (fine dro-
plets disintegration) in binary blends and ternary blends. The bin-
ary blends included biodiesel-ethanol (BE) and diesel-ethanol (DE)
blends, while the ternary blend included diesel-rapeseed methyl
ester-diesel (BDE) blend. Even though previous studies dealt with
micro-explosion in water-diesel emulsion blends [100–106] with
water droplets in diesel (parent droplet) causing explosion, the
extended study carried out in BDE [99] proved beneficial. The
authors observed that, the ethanol dosing ratio in ternary blends
played a major role in inhibiting the micro-explosion, especially
at 10–40% concentration. Micro-explosion was not observed in
case of BE blend, while DE blend reported certain micro-
explosion. Also, the ternary blend (BDE) exhibited smoother burn-
ing puffing and micro-explosion of parental droplets in comparison
with binary blends.
Hu et al. [107] investigated the volatile organic compound
(VOC) emissions in a diesel engine fuelled with EBD and diesel fuel.
They analyzed 9 kinds of VOC emissions (toluene, n-butyl acetate,
n-undecane, styrene, o-xylene, m-xylene, ethyl benzene, benzene
and p-xylene). The EBD mixture was in the ratio (vol%) of
10/30/55 with 2.5% iso-octanol for stability. Results indicated that,
VOC and ozone specific reactivity (SR) emissions were compara-
tively lower for EBD with respect to diesel fuel. They also observed
that, VOC’s like benzene and toluene were predominant in medium
and high loads while other VOC components were increased at
lower engine loads. They concluded that, using the diesel engine
at lower engine loads could possibly reduce the VOC emissions,
especially at low and medium load condition.
Mofijur et al. [108] performed a review on influence of binary
blend (biodiesel-diesel) (BD) and ternary blend (ethanol-
biodiesel-diesel) (EBD) fuelled in diesel engines. Based on various
proportions of EBD and BD with diverse sources of biodiesel from
literatures, the results were summarized based on different regu-
lated and unregulated emissions as follows. (1) HC and CO emis-
sions were lower for both BD and EBD blends in comparison
with diesel due to higher O2 content of the mixture. (2) For both
the binary and ternary blends, NOx is found to surge while there
is a dip in PM emissions which are attributed to higher cetane
number, O2 content and lowered aromatics in the mixtures. (3)
CO2 emissions seemed to be inconsistent between the literatures.
(4) Carbonyl compound (CC) emissions in ternary blends increased
with increasing ethanol concentration. Majority of the works
showed higher CO2 as a result of higher O2 content followed by
quality combustion. They also proposed that, adding ethanol up
to 10% and biodiesel up to 25% with petroleum diesel can be an
efficient mixture in terms of lowered exhaust and better engine
performance.
178 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189

Khoobbakht et al. [109] optimized the operating factors and
blending proportions between EBD (ethanol-biodiesel-diesel)
blend for minimized emissions using response surface methodol-
ogy (RSM). Amidst various optimization techniques, RSM based
desirability approach was employed in the experiment which eval-
uated CO, HC, NOx, CO2 and smoke emissions using multi-
regression analysis. Based on the optimum operating conditions,
prediction traces were developed using SAS software and were
plotted between variables. The authors concluded that, with oper-
ating conditions of 2800 rpm engine speed, engine load of 80% and
EBD blending of 11/26/63, a maximum desirability of 74% can be
achieved along with lowered emission levels. The minimized emis-
sion levels includes HC (41 ppm), CO (0.015%), CO2 (7.3%), NOx
(643 ppm) and smoke opacity (12%), respectively.
In this present experimental work, the combined effect of Al2O3
nano additives and injection timing in biodiesel (20%)-diesel (70%)-
ethanol (10%) blends were investigated in a single cylinder diesel
engine. The catalytic combustion activity of nanoparticles at
advanced and retarded IT’s analyzed in terms of cylinder pressure,
heat release rate, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), exhaust
gas oxygen (EGO) and EGT. Emissions like HC, CO, NOx, CO2 and
smoke opacity were discussed with respect to engine brake power.
as per ASTM standards. Obtained Jatropha biodiesel has high
cetane number, density, viscosity and flash point and with lower
sulphur content compared to diesel and a comparative analysis
of diesel and Jatropha biodiesel were given in Table 1. The ethanol
used for the experiments is analysis-grade anhydrous ethanol
(99.7% purity). BDE blend composed of diesel (70% v/v), biodiesel
(20% v/v) and ethanol (10% v/v) is subjected to magnetic stirring
for 2 h and ultrasonication for 15 min for avoiding phase separa-
tion. BDE + AL blend was prepared by blending 25 ppm Al2O3
nanoparticle with BDE blend using magnetic stirrer for 30 min
followed by ultrasonication for 10 min. Main property of blending
stocks were given in Table 2 and it is clear that the fuel properties
of BDE and BDE + AL were comparable with diesel fuel and were
will within the ASTM standards.
2.2. Nanoparticle preparation
Alumina nanoparticles were prepared using sol-gel method. In
this method, initially aluminium nitrate solution (0.5 M) is

2. Experimental material & methods

2.1. Fuel preparation

Diesel fuel employed in the tests was obtained locally from

commercial petroleum reserve. The Jatropha biodiesel was pro-
cessed and obtained from Jatropha seeds. Jatropha biodiesel is pre-
pared by a chemical process named transesterification where the
glycerin is separated from the Jatropha oil. As a result, Jatropha
oil methyl ester and glycerine is obtained. The basic thermo phys-
ical fuel properties like density, calorific value, viscosity, flash
point, cetane number along with carbon residue content, iodine
value, oxidation stability, acid value, sulphur content and sul-
phated ash content were measured by standard test procedures

Table 1
Comparison of fuel properties of diesel and Jatropha biodiesel.

Property ASTM Diesel Jatropha

standard biodiesel
Density @ 20 °C, kg/m3 ASTM D1298 840 874.3
Kinematic viscosity @ 40 °C, mm2/s ASTM D445 2.84 4.34
Lower calorific value, kJ/kg ASTM D240 42,700 42,673
Cetane index ASTM D976 48 52.7
Flash point, °C ASTM D93 68 130
Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg ASTM E2071 250 200
Molecular weight ASTM D6474 170 290
Acid value, mg KOH/g ASTM D664 0.12 0.46
Carbon residue, mass% ASTM D4530 0.11 0.0034
Iodine value, g I2/100 g ASTM D5554 37.4 87.6
Oxidation stability @ 110 °C, h ASTM D7545 – 11.2
Sulphur value, mg/kg ASTM D4294 27 0.006
Sulphated ash, mass% ASTM D874 0.001 0.003 Fig. 1. Flowchart illustrating the alumina nanoparticle synthesis using sol-gel
method.

Table 2
Property of blending stocks.

Properties ASTM Diesel Biodiesel Ethanol BDE BDE + AL

standard
Density at 20 °C, kg/m3 ASTM D1298 840 874.3 785 840.2 837.2
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C, mm2/s ASTM D445 2.84 4.34 0.79 2.86 2.57
Calorific value, kJ/kg ASTM D240 42,700 42,673 27,000 39,982 39,137
Cetane index ASTM D976 48 52.7 6 53 54
Flash point, °C ASTM D93 68 130 13.5 20 22
 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189
Table 3
Properties of Al2O3 nanoparticle.
Crystal structure with type
Bulk/true density, g/cm3
Appearance (colour)
Average particle size, nm
Surface area, m2/g
Purity, %
Dislocation density (d), line2/m2
Micro strain (n)
dissolved in 50 ml deionized water (H2O) at 22 °C and stirred mag-
netically. Secondly, urea (0.05 M) is dissolved with prepared alu-
minium nitrate solution and reacted for 30 min until the solution
attains a pH level of 2. This is the base solution which is to be
titrated with a mixture of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide and 25 ml of
H2O till pH level 6 is attained. Further addition of sodium hydrox-
ide to the base solution forms a clady gel (pH = 8), which is dried
and calcined at 150 °C for 12 h. Finally, alumina nanoparticles were
collected after the dried sample is subjected to 300 °C and 2 h in
furnace. The flowchart for preparation of alumina nanoparticles
is clearly illustrated in Fig. 1. The physical properties of synthe-
sized Al2O3 nanoparticles were detailed in Table 3.
2.3. Characterization of synthesized alumina nanoparticle
Prepared aluminium nanoparticles were characterized for grain
size using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (Make: VEGA-3-
TESCAN) (Fig. 2(a)). TEM morphology of Al2O3 nanoparticle were
done using JEM-3010 ultrahigh resolution analytical electron
Fig. 2. (a) SEM and (b) TEM morphology of synthesized alumina nanoparticle.
Fig. 3. (a) X-ray diffraction image (XRD) pattern and (b) EDS spectrum for synthesized alumina nanoparticle.
179
microscope and the result is illustrated in Fig. 2(b). TEM morphol-
ogy of Al2O3 nanoparticle confined to the crystalline nature with
c minimal agglomeration and aggregate formation. The average
0.18 grain structure was about 20 nm. XRD (X-ray Diffraction) of syn-
White thesized c-Al2O3 nanoparticle is shown in Fig. 3(a). The diffraction
28–30
224.55
peaks of c-Al2O3 with planes (1 1 0), (2 0 0), (2 1 1), (3 1 0), (4 1 1),
94.99 (5 2 1) and (5 4 1) confirms to the crystalline structure of
0.4 ⁄ 1014 synthesized nanoparticle. Strong peaks were observed in plane of
0.086 (2 1 1) from which the grain size is calculated using Debye-
Scherer’s method, D = k⁄k/(b⁄cos h) where D- average grain size
of the nanoparticle, k- Shape factor (0.89), k- X-ray wavelength
of Al2O3 (1.54 Å), b-Full width at half maximum (FWHM)
(5.128 ⁄ 103), 2h- Bragg angle (37.46°), h = 18.73° and hence, D
is calculated to be 28.22 nm. EDS (Energy Dispersive X-ray Spec-
troscopy) spectrum is analyzed by INCA Energy 250 Microanalysis
System and the results were shown in Fig. 3(b). EDS results con-
firms to the presence of aluminium and O2 elements in the compo-
sition. Also, there were no impure atoms in report.
2.4. Experimental setup and procedure
Agricultural applications and mobile generators use Kirloskar
make, single cylinder, air cooled, direct injection diesel engine.
Hence, a stationary diesel powered Kirloskar engine (Model: TAF-
1 Make: Kirloskar) was employed for experimentation. The specifi-
cations of test engine are given in Table 4. The engine was coupled
to eddy current dynamometer with electrical resistance followed
by a dynamometer controller. The concentrations of exhaust emis-
sions (HC, CO2, CO, NOx and O2) were measured with the help of
180 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189

Table 4 Table 5
Specification of test engine. List of devices and its range, accuracy and percentage uncertainties.

Type Kirloskar, four stroke, air cooled, Device specification Range Accuracy Uncertainties
single cylinder DI diesel engine
GAS ANALYZER QRO-402
Bore  Stroke 87.5 mm  110 mm
Carbon monoxide (CO) (0–9.99) vol% ±0.02% ±0.2
Compression ratio 17.5:1
Carbon dioxide (CO2) (0–19.99) vol% ±0.03% ±0.15
Injection timing 23 deg before TDC (static)
Hydrocarbon (HC) (0–10,000) ppm ±20 ppm ±0.2
Nozzle spray hole diameter 0.3 mm
Oxides of nitrogen (NO) (0–5000) ppm ±10 ppm ±0.2
Number of nozzles 3
SMOKE METER AVL 437C (0100) HSU ±0.1 HSU ±1
Angle of fuel spray (cone angle) 120°
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) (0–900 °C) ±1 °C ±0.15
Piston geometry Hemispherical
Fuel flow meter 1–30 cc ±0.1 cc ±1
Swept volume 661 cc
Pressure transducer 0–10 MPa ±0.1 MPa ±0.1
Rated Power 4.4 kW
Crank angle encoder 0–720°CA 0.2°CA bTDC ±0.2
Rated Speed 1500 rpm
Digital tachometer (for 0–15,000 rpm ±10 rpm ±0.1
Inlet valve open (IVO) bTDC 4.5°
speed measurement)
Inlet valve close (IVC) aBDC 35.5°
Eddy current dynamometer 200–8000 W 15 W ±0.3
Exhaust valve open (EVO) bBDC 35.5°
Exhaust valve close (EVC) aTDC 4.5°

errors and uncertainties. In order to prove the accuracy of obtained

Five gas analyzer (Model: QRO-402 Make: QROTECH Co Ltd.,
results, uncertainty analysis is needed. Uncertainty of various
Korea). Smoke was measured by a part-flow smoke opacimeter
instruments along with its range and resolution were given in
(AVL 437C). A high precision flow meter was installed to measure
Table 5. The overall uncertainty of the current experiment is calcu-
the fuel flow every 20 s. A piezoelectric transducer (Model: 7063-A
lated as below.
Make: Kistler) was installed for monitoring cylinder pressure
which is connected with charge amplifier (Kistler instruments
Overall uncertainty of the experiment
AG, Switzerland). Schematic of the experimental setup is shown
2
in Fig. 4. Experiments were conducted in three different injection ¼ Square root of fðuncertainty of TFCÞ
timings namely, 23 deg bTDC (standard timing), 19 deg bTDC 2
þ ðuncertainty of loadÞ
(retarded injection timing) and 27 deg bTDC (advanced injection
2
timing). Variation of injection timing was done by altering the þ ðuncertainty of brake thermal efficiencyÞ
shims present in between the injector and fuel pump. Each shim 2
þ ðuncertainty of COÞ
is added/removed for advancing/retarding 2°CA. Removing of two
2
shims from original timing was used to advance the injection to þ ðuncertainty of unburned hydrocarbonÞ
27 deg bTDC and addition of shims used to retard the injection tim- 2 2
þ ðuncertainty of NOxÞ þ ðuncertainty of smoke numberÞ
ing by 19 deg bTDC.
2
þ ðuncertainty of exhaust gas temperatureÞ
2.5. Error and uncertainty analysis 2
þ ðuncertainty of pressure pickupÞ g
During experimental measurements and calculation of various ¼ square root of fð1Þ þ ð0:2Þ þ ð1Þ þ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð0:2Þ2 þ ð0:2Þ2
2 2 2

performance parameters, errors are significant. Several factors like þ ð1Þ2 þ ð0:15Þ2 þ ð1Þ2 g
device selection, calibration, relative condition, environment, read-
ing, observation and test planning influences the occurrence of ¼ 2:045%:

Fig. 4. Schematic of the experimental setup.

 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189 181

3. Results and discussion 90 19deg bTDC-BDE

(a) 23deg bTDC-BDE

3.1. Cylinder-pressure variation 60

27deg bTDC-BDE

Fig. 5(a) represents the variation of cylinder pressure for BDE at

30
various injection timings without nano addition. It is observed

HEAT RELEASE RATE

that, 27 deg bTDC exhibits highest cylinder pressure of 7.96 MPa

(kJ/m3deg)
followed by 7.24 MPa for 23 deg bTDC and 7.08 MPa for 19 deg 0
bTDC. The main reason for 27 deg bTDC to possess highest cylinder
pressure is that, at advanced IT, more fuel gets accumulated and 90
results in faster burning rate in premixed combustion phase 19deg bTDC-BDE+AL

[114]. When IT is retarded to 19 deg bTDC, cylinder pressure was (b) 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
60 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
lowest due to delayed burning of fuel which continues even after
the piston reaches TDC later in the expansion stroke [113].
30
Fig. 5(b) represents the variation of cylinder pressure for BDE
with various injection timings with nanoparticle addition. Test
results revealed that, influence of nanoparticles in advanced IT 0
does not make any significance. However, at ORG IT and RET IT,
nanoparticle addition resulted in deviation of maximum pressure -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
from away from TDC. This shift could be attributed to delayed CRANK ANGLE (degree)
burning of fuel after the TDC during the expansion stroke where
the nanoparticles stays intact and its catalytic activity is merely Fig. 6. Heat release variation at various injection timing at (a) without nano
additives and (b) with nano additives.
absent at delayed combustion.

3.2. Heat release variation
Fig. 6(a) portrays the variation of heat release rate (HRR) for
BDE at various IT’s without nanoparticle addition. Highest HRR
was observed for 27 deg bTDC (74.82 kJ/m3 deg), followed by
70.46 kJ/m3 deg for ORG IT and 62.23 kJ/m3 deg for RET IT. The
main reason for 27 deg bTDC to exhibit highest HRR could be pos-
sibly due to improved fuel spray characteristics (spray angle and
spray penetration distance) followed by better fuel-air mixing
and loner premixed combustion period resulting in higher resi-
dence rate. Retardation of IT to 19 deg bTDC resulted in low HRR
due to more fuel fraction burnt after TDC thereby reducing the
overall heat released by the fuel mixture followed by lower HRR.
Addition of nanoparticles in BDE at various IT’s represented in
Fig. 6(b). At ADV IT, the presence of nanoparticles does not enhance
9
(a)
6 marginal gap between the test fuels is high. Presence of nano addi-
3 19deg bTDC-BDE
23deg bTDC-BDE
CYLINDER PRESSURE (MPa)
the HRR. Whereas, in case of 19 deg bTDC 8.14% increase and for
23 deg bTDC 18.30% decrease in HRR were reported. Even though
the peak HRR is lower for RET IT, the overall heat release area
accounted is higher (area with respect to crank angle) in compar-
ison with other IT’s. This could be solely attributed to lowered
combustion duration (Fig. 16(b)), longer ignition delay (Fig. 14
(b)) and faster fuel burning rate followed by the combustion of
the entire fuel fraction in premixed combustion phase and higher
HRR area.
3.3. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on BSFC
Throughout the engine load condition, ORG IT without nano
additives exhibits highest BSFC. Addition of nanoparticles resulted
in 9.37% reduction in BSFC at part load condition. When the IT is
retarded, BSFC were reduced for both with and without nano addi-
tives. Presence of nano additives in RET IT does not enhance the
BSFC as 19 deg bTDC without nano additives possess lowest BSFC
the engine load conditions (Fig. 7(a)). At lower engine loads, the
tives in ORG IT helps in improving the combustion of BDE. In other
words, catalytic activity of nanoparticles was significant at ORG IT
(12.5% decrease in BSFC at maximum BP. Effect of alumina
nanoparticles in RET IT resulted in higher BDFC than RET IT with-

27deg bTDC-BDE
0 out nanoparticles. At 19 deg bTDC, the BSFC is lowest throughout
the engine load. Influence of nanoparticle in RET IT resulted in
slightly higher BSFC (5.49% increase in 100% load). The possible
9 reason for such high BSFC could be the reduced turbulence effect
(b) at main injection where it is phased later in the cycle and thereby
6 all the nanoparticles could not be taken part in combustion. Also,
addition of nanoparticles resulted in slightly higher density with
reduced calorific value. Higher density of blends causes higher
3 amount of fuel injected for the same engine parameters resulting
19deg bTDC-BDE+AL in higher BSFC (at 19 deg bTDC, especially at maximum BP).
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
3.4. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 BSFC
CRANK ANGLE (degree)
The presence of nano additives in ORG IT resulted in reduced
Fig. 5. Cylinder pressure variation atvarious injection timing at (a) without nano BSFC throughout the engine load. At ORG IT, BSFC is reduced by
additives and (b) with nano additives. 12%, 1%, 9.37% and 12.5% for engine loads of 25%, 50%, 75% and
182 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189
0.6 ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
(a) 19deg bTDC-BDE
0.5 19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
23deg bTDC-BDE
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.4
0.3
BSFC (kg/kWh)
0.2
0.6
23deg bTDC-BDE
(b) 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.5 27deg bTDC-BDE
27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Fig. 7. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption at (a) retarded injection timing
and (b) advanced injection timing.
100% respectively. At ADV IT, BSFC is reduced by 4.5%, 8.82%,
19.35% and 4.2% for engine loads of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
respectively. When IT is advanced, ignition delay reduces and
early fuel injection ensures complete combustion of BDE, thereby
improving the combustion duration, thereby reducing the BSFC.
Presence of nanoadditives does not make an impact in ADV IT
on BSFC (Fig. 7(b)). On advancing from 23 deg bTDC to 27 deg
bTDC, there is a significant drop in BSFC. When nano additives
dispersed in BDE at ADV IT, BSFC were higher by 4.65%, 6.99%,
19.35% and 4% for 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% engine loads respec-
tively. As the IT is advanced, combustion starts earlier in relation
to TDC resulting in higher in-cylinder temperature as the piston
moves towards TDC. Eventhough the higher in-cylinder tempera-
ture favors the combustion of nanoparticles, early fuel injection
makes combustion duration to be lesser which makes it difficult
for the combustion of all the nanoparticles present in BDE,
thereby reduced catalytic activity of nanoparticles with high fuel
density and less calorific value of the mixture and by overall,
resulting in increased BSFC for nanoparticle addition in ADV IT
of BDE blend.
3.5. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on EGT
At retarded IT of 19 deg bTDC, EGT reduces. Further, addition of
nanoparticles fluctuates over the engine loads (Fig. 8(a)). At lower
engine loads (0% and 25%), EGT increases and at higher engine
loads (50%, 75% and 100%), EGT reduces. The main reason for
19 deg bTDC with Al2O3 to possess higher EGT especially at lower
engine loads could be attributed to reduced CD (Fig. 16(a)) and
longer ID (Fig. 14(a)) which results in rapid rise in cylinder pres-
sure and temperature followed by higher EGT. As the engine load
increases ID reduces, therefore the gradual rise in cylinder pressure
and temperature resulted in lowered EGT, especially for 19 deg
bTDC-BDE. Addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles in ORG IT improves
EGT at 100% engine load, whereas at RET IT, EGT is improved at
0% and 25% engine loads where the combustion of nanoparticles
in premixed combustion phase prevails.
ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
450
400 19deg bTDC-BDE
19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
350 23deg bTDC-BDE
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE ( oC)
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
300
250
200
(a)
150
450 23deg bTDC-BDE
400
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
27deg bTDC-BDE
350 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
300
250
200
(b)
150
4.5 0 1 2 3 4 5
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Fig. 8. Variation of exhaust gas temperature at (a) retarded injection timing and (b)
advanced injection timing.
3.6. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on EGT
Advancing to 27 deg bTDC resulted in increase in EGT through-
out the engine load condition. Further, addition of nanoparticles in
ADV IT resulted in lowered EGT by 18.71%, 5.88%, 3.12% and 2.14%
at engine loads of 0%, 25%, 50% and 75% engine loads respectively
(Fig. 8(b)). This could be due to the main heat release occurring clo-
ser to TDC (Fig. 6(b)) lately during the expansion stroke, thereby
providing enough time for gases to expand and cool before vented
through exhaust [115], followed by better heat utilization and
higher level cooling of combustion products and finally lowered
EGT. At 100% load condition, highest EGT (433 °C) was observed
for ADV IT with Al2O3 nanoparticles. The main reason for such a
drastic hike could be possibly due to longer ID and lesser CD result-
ing in faster burning rate of fuel and sudden rise of cylinder pres-
sure and temperature favoring the nanoparticle combustion
followed by higher EGT.
3.7. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on HC
When the IT is retarded, the spray angle and penetration dis-
tance of the fuel mixture is high, resulting in higher possibility of
fuel accumulation on cylinder walls, piston surfaces and crevice
areas thereby raising the HC emissions [45]. These are in good
agreement with the previous research findings [77,90,94,95]. But,
the marginal differences between the blends are lower for 19 deg
bTDC and 23 deg bTDC without the presence of nano additives
(Fig. 9(a)). Whereas, the subjection of nanoparticles in BDE oper-
ated at ORG IT resulted in increased HC emissions by 26.9%,
12.9%, 37.93% and 8.8% at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% load respec-
tively. This could be attributed to optimum engine operating con-
ditions at ORG IT and the presence of nanoparticles in the fuel
blend reducing the engine temperature thereby reduces the com-
bustion efficiency followed by higher HC emissions. Subjection of
nanoparticles in RET IT reduces the HC emission by 29.62%,
12.9%, 40%, 31.03% and 6.06% throughout the engine load condi-
tion. However, addition of nanoparticles in ORG IT increases the
HC emission. The main reason that could be attributed to this is,
 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189
100 ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
(a) 19deg bTDC-BDE
80 19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
23deg bTDC-BDE
60 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
40
20
HYDROCARBON (ppm)
0
100
(b) 23deg bTDC-BDE
80 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
27deg bTDC-BDE
60 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Fig. 9. Variation of hydrocarbon emission at (a) retarded injection timing and (b)
advanced injection timing.
at RET IT there is higher possibility of fuel accumulation in the
combustion chamber and its peripheries. The presence of nano
additives acts as a binder and avoids the unwanted fuel accumula-
tion and crevice area penetration thereby reducing the HC emis-
sions significantly.
3.8. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on HC
Highest and lowest HC emissions were observed for ORG IT
with and without nano additives. At ORG IT, HC were found to be
19 ppm, 27 ppm, 18 ppm and 31 ppm for 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
engine loads respectively, which are lowest among the other test
fuel blends. The main reason for HC reduction could be accounted
for optimum injection timing, injection pressure and presence of
pure ethanol in BDE blend which favors better combustion fol-
lowed by lowest HC emissions. When the IT is advanced to
27 deg bTDC HC emissions increases. Further, addition of nanopar-
ticles increases the HC emissions by 8.57%, 7.6%, 5.78% and 6.8% at
engine loads of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% compared to neat 27 deg
bTDC blend (Fig. 9(b)). This is not in accordance with previous find-
ings where HC emissions decreased with advanced IT [82,83]. The
main reason accounted for such increase is, longer ignition delay
with less flame propagation speed causing lesser power output.
Also, more fuel is injected for maintaining constant speed. As more
fuel accumulates in the combustion chamber, not all the fuel mole-
cules taking place in combustion. Hence, the catalytic activity of
nanoparticles were limited since the sufficient combustion tem-
perature is not advanced, thereby causing incomplete combustion
followed by higher HC emissions.
3.9. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on CO
Throughout the engine condition, ORG IT in BDE with and with-
out nanoparticles exhibits higher CO emissions. Maximum CO was
observed for BDE with ORG IT at 100% engine load (0.04%). Addi-
tion of alumina nanoparticle in BDE at ORG IT reduced the CO
emissions by 25% at maximum BP. The main reason for this is, at
183
optimum IT, the presence of alumina nanoparticles were utilized
only at higher engine loads where the engine cylinder temperature
is higher which favors the combustion of nanoparticles thereby
improving the oxidation rate of BDE and thereby reducing the CO
formation.
At RET IT, the presence of alumina nanoparticles resulted in
reduction of CO emissions throughout the engine load (Fig. 10(a))
whereas at ORG IT, CO reduction is observed only at lower loads
and 100% engine load with the presence of nanoparticle. At
19 deg bTDC with Al2O3, reduction of CO by 33.33%, 50% and
33.33% at engine loads of 25%, 75% and 100% indicates the catalytic
combustion activity of Al2O3 nanoparticles. Eventhough, retarda-
tion of IT does not favor the improvement of engine temperatures
and cylinder pressure, the presence of pure ethanol in BDE
enhances low temperature combustion (LTC). The presence of
nanoparticles in BDE acts as a fuel-mixer binder and vaporizes at
LTC itself, thereby improving the oxidation rate followed by
reduced CO emissions at almost all the loads compared to BDE at
19 deg bTDC without Al2O3.
3.10. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on CO
As the injection timing is advanced to 27 deg bTDC, CO emis-
sions reduced by 25%, 33.3% and 25% for engine loads of 25%, 75%
and 100% respectively. This is due to the fact that, advanced IT
exhibits higher cylinder temperature and also favors the oxida-
tion process between the carbon and oxygen molecules, thereby
reducing the CO emissions [111–113]. Addition of Al2O3 in ADV
IT at lower engine loads raises the CO emissions by 25%, whereas
at 50% load, CO emissions were reduced by 33.33% and at 75%
and 100% loads, the values remains the same (Fig. 10(b)). The
main reason accounted for this is, at ADV IT, the faster burning
rate in premixed combustion phase reduces the combustion
duration very less than that of ORG IT, which sheers the combus-
tion of Al2O3 nanoparticle and therefore the catalytic activity of
nanoparticles were limited in oxidation of CO molecules to CO2,
thereby no significant CO reduction observed, especially at higher
loads.
ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
0.08
(a) 19deg bTDC-BDE
19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.06
23deg bTDC-BDE
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.04
CARBON MONOXIDE (%)
0.02
0.00
0.08
23deg bTDC-BDE
(b) 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.06 27deg bTDC-BDE
27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Fig. 10. Variation of carbon monoxide emission at (a) retarded injection timing and
(b) advanced injection timing.
184 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189
3.11. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on CO2
Throughout the engine load condition, retarded IT in BDE
resulted in reduced CO2 emissions. Some marginal fluctuations of
CO2 were observed at BDE with ORG IT. However, in RET IT, the
trend of 19 deg bTDC without nanoparticles is similar to that of
19 deg bTDC with nanoparticle except 100% engine load. At 100%
engine load condition, 2.35% increase in CO2 is observed. This could
be attributed to enhanced catalytic activity of Al2O3 nanoparticles
at higher engine loads. Overall, at RET IT, nanoparticles addition
does not make an impact in CO2 emission (Fig. 11(a)).
3.12. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on
CO2
Advancing the IT to 27 deg bTDC in BDE resulted in reduced CO2
emissions throughout the load in comparison with ORG IT. The
addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles in ADV IT raises the CO2 emissions
by 6.25%, 3.27% and 3.65% at engine loads of 25%, 75% and 100%
respectively (Fig. 11(b)). But these results were lower than that
of CO2 emissions of BDE at ORG IT. Advancing to 27 deg bTDC
resulted in increased in-cylinder temperature, reduced combustion
duration and rapid rise and thereby causing the higher oxidation
rate during the premixed combustion phase and resulting in better
atomization and combustion followed by higher CO2 emissions
than BDE at 19 deg bTDC.
3.13. Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO)
EGO level indicates the concentration of the exhaust oxygen in
percent of the total sample. Free O2 subsists in the exhaust when
there is surplus air in the mixture. EGO increases sharply as soon
as Lambda (equivalent air/fuel ratio) rises above 1. Taken with
the CO2 maximum, EGO is a clear indicator of the transition from
rich to lean mixture range, or leaks in the manifold or exhaust sys-
tems or combustion failures. During rich mixtures, most of the
oxygen is burned during combustion. While at very lean mixture,
ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
8 (a)
6 16
19deg bTDC-BDE
4 19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
23deg bTDC-BDE
CARBON DIOXIDE(%)
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
2
8
(b)
6
4 23deg bTDC-BDE
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
27deg bTDC-BDE
2 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
0 1 2 3 4 5
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Fig. 11. Variation of carbon dioxide emission at (a) retarded injection timing and
(b) advanced injection timing.
more O2 escapes ‘‘un-combusted” so there is a surge in EGR level.
Lambda (k), on the other hand is based on the HC, CO, CO2 and
O2 concentrations. k represents the excess air factor with respect
to the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio (approximately 14.5 in diesel
engines). The ideal k value is one, below that the A/F mixture is rich
and above of which corresponds to lean mixture.
3.13.1. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on
EGO
For ORG IT, at all the engine loads except 50% condition, EGO is
lowest for BDE with 23 deg bTDC (Fig. 12(a)). The addition of Al2O3
nanoparticles in ORG IT resulted in higher EGO for all the loads
except 50% load condition. It is observed that, only at 50% load con-
dition the exhaust oxygen is lowest, which means that better uti-
lization of fuel oxygen occurs only at 50% load where the
optimum engine combustion parameters (spray penetration, com-
bustion duration, burning temperature of additives) coexists.
When IT is retarded to 19 deg bTDC, increase in EGO is observed.
More the exhaust oxygen is, poor the oxygen utilization is. With
IT retardation, reduced burning rate and gradual pressure and tem-
perature rise of cylinder occurs, causing more fuel mixture to be
burnt in diffusion phase itself instead of premixed combustion
phase. This affects the combustion of nano-fuel droplets and low-
ers the vaporization rate followed by poor oxygen utilization and
higher EGO.
3.13.2. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on
EGO
When the IT is advanced to 27 deg bTDC, there is no noticeable
difference between the test blends (Fig. 12(b)). Addition of Al2O3 at
ADV IT makes slight improvement in combustion at higher engine
loads. At lower engine loads, BDE wit 23 deg bTDC exhibits lowest
EGO of 17.24% and 15.92% at engine loads of 0% and 25% respec-
tively. This could be solely attributed to the presence of pure etha-
nol in BDE favoring LTC and higher oxidation rate of the fuel blend
thereby resulting in reduced EGO. Whereas at higher engine loads
with IT advancement, where the engine cylinder temperature is
very high and sufficient for combustion of Al2O3 nanoparticles,
20 ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
18
(a)
14
19deg bTDC-BDE
EXHAUST GAS OXYGEN (%)
12 19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
23deg bTDC-BDE
10 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
8
18
(b)
16
14
23deg bTDC-BDE
12
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
27deg bTDC-BDE
10
27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
8
0 1 2 3 4 5
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Fig. 12. Variation of exhaust gas oxygen at (a) retarded injection timing and (b)
advanced injection timing.
 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189 185

nano-fuel mixture gets easily vaporized and since Al2O3 nanoparti- maximum heat released with reduced combustion duration. Since
cles acting as an oxygen buffer thereby better utilization of O2 NOx is directly dependent on maximum temperature of burning
molecules in BDE blend resulting in reduced EGO, especially at gases, O2 content and available residence time for reactions to take
higher engine loads. place [89,110,111] therefore RET IT favors the reduction of NOx
significantly. RET IT resulted in reduction of NOx by 25.89%,
3.14. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on NOx 22.86%, 15.98%, 8.55% and 1.31% at engine loads of 0%, 25%, 75%
emission and 100% respectively. Whereas, addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles
in RET IT resulted in NOx reduction throughout the engine load
When the SOI is retarded to 19 deg bTDC, NOx is reduced conditions. Significant reductions were observed at 50% and 75%
throughout the engine load conditions (Fig. 13(a)). This may be engine loads by 91.11% and 5.92%. This is because, at 50% engine
due to reduced combustion duration (Fig. 16(a)). Also, higher igni- load condition the ID of the blend is highest (19°CA), which causes
tion delay (Fig. 14(a)) at RET IT results in faster burning rate of fuel more fuel to get accumulated and burnt lately during the expan-
and rapid pressure and temperature rise inside the cylinder. Nearly sion stroke followed by reduced local temperatures near the reac-
all the fuel is burnt during the premixed combustion phase causing tion zone causing abruption of NOx formation. Also, higher levels
of EGO and lowered combustion duration could presumably sup-
press NOx and promote simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke
2000 ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC emissions.
19deg bTDC-BDE
1600 19deg bTDC-BDE+AL 3.15. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on
23deg bTDC-BDE NOx emission
1200 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (ppm)

800 Advancing the SOI from 23 deg bTDC to 27 deg bTDC resulted in
higher NOx throughout the engine load for both with and without
400 nanoparticle addition (Fig. 13(b)). At ORG IT, the NOx emissions
(a) were lower by 36%, 35.7%, 35.02%, 36.61% and 36.72% at engine
0
loads of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively. Lower NOx at
3000 ORG IT could be attributed to optimum engine running conditions
23deg bTDC-BDE
with optimum IT, injection fuel spray, combustion duration and
2400 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
27deg bTDC-BDE
reaction time. The presence of nanoparticles in BDE increases the
1800 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL NOx emissions in both ORG IT as well as ADV IT. But, only marginal
variations were observed in case of ORG IT. At ADV IT, with the
1200 addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles, increase in NOx by 5.44% and
5.13% at 75% and 100% engine loads were illustrated. At lower
600
engine loads, nano additives do not alter the trend. The main rea-
(b) son for higher NOx at higher engine loads for ADV IT could be pos-
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 sibly due to lowered ID (Fig. 14(b)) leading to lowered burning rate
BRAKE POWER(kW) with gradual pressure and temperature rise in cylinder. Moreover,
ADV IT resulted in more fuel air mixture to be burnt in diffusion
Fig. 13. Variation of nitrogen oxide emission at (a) retarded injection timing and (b) phase rather than premixed combustion phase and hence, causing
advanced injection timing. higher combustion duration (Fig. 16(b)) which favors the NOx
chemistry to take place. Also, nanoparticles were well utilized only
at higher engine loads where the engine in-cylinder temperature is
25 sufficient for burning down almost all the nanoparticles in the dif-
ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
fusion phase itself thereby liberating higher thermal NOx.
(a)
20 3.16. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on
ignition delay
19deg bTDC-BDE
15 Throughout the engine load conditions, RET IT resulted in
IGNITION DELAY (deg CA)

19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
23deg bTDC-BDE higher ignition delay in comparison with ORG IT (Fig. 14(a)). At
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL ORG IT, the addition of nanoparticles increases the ID by 1.7%,
10 2.61%, 0.29%, 0.89% and 5.57% throughout the engine load condi-
25 tions. As the SOI is retarded to 19 deg bTDC, ID increases. Further,

20
(b) addition of Al2O3 nanoparticle results in increase of 7.75%, 4.45%
and 3.5% at engine loads of 50%, 75% and 100% respectively. Unlike
ORG IT, where nanoparticle addition resulted in high ID through-
15
out the loads, for RET IT addition of nanoparticle at lower engine
10 23deg bTDC-BDE loads resulted in lowered ID by 2.08% and 1.24% in comparison
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL with 19 deg bTDC without nano additives.
5 27deg bTDC-BDE
27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
3.17. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
ignition delay
BRAKE POWER (kW)
Advancing the IT to 27 deg bTDC resulted in lowered ignition
Fig. 14. Variation of ignition delay at (a) retarded injection timing and (b) advanced delay in both with and without nano additives (Fig. 14(b)). This
injection timing. could be due to the earlier start of combustion in relative to TDC
186 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189

followed by higher in-cylinder temperature favoring the quick

ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC
response for initiating the combustion of injected fuel mass, fol- 100
19deg bTDC-BDE
lowed by shortened ID with respect to ORG IT. Further, addition
of nanoparticles resulted in reduction of 4.18%, 8.52% and 3.04% 80
19deg bTDC-BDE+AL
23deg bTDC-BDE
(a)
at engine loads of 50%, 75% and 100% respectively. At lower loads, 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL
the engine cylinder temperature is lower; the ID is not altered by 60
the presence of nanoparticles. The catalytic combustion activity
40

COMBUSTION DURATION (deg)

of nanoparticles is well utilized at part and higher engine loads.
20
3.18. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in retarded injection timing on
smoke emissions 0
100
When IT is retarded from 23 deg bTDC to 19 deg bTDC, smoke 23deg bTDC-BDE

emissions were reduced significantly (Fig. 15(a)). Addition of 80

23deg bTDC-BDE+AL (b)
27deg bTDC-BDE
nanoparticles in ORG IT as well as RET IT reduces smoke emissions 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL
indicating better combustion of nanoparticles. At ORIG IT, the pres- 60
ence of nanoparticles reduces smoke by 54.36%, 40.622%, 31.09%
40
and 30.4% at engine loads of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively.
Whereas, at RET IT nano additives presence reduces smoke by 20
43.24%, 14.28%, 45.45%, 18.6% and 7.3% throughout the engine
loads. The main reason for such a drastic smoke reduction at RET 0
IT could be due to the longer ID (Fig. 14(a)), lower CD (Fig. 16(a)) 0 1 2 3 4 5
which enhances the vaporization of ethanol in BDE blend thereby BRAKE POWER (kW)
promoting complete combustion followed by lowered smoke
Fig. 16. Variation of combustion duration at (a) retarded injection timing and (b)
emissions. Moreover, an Al2O3 nanoparticle acts as an oxygen buf-
advanced injection timing.
fer in oxidizing the fuel mixtures which are unburnt during the
premixed combustion phase.
the engine loads (Fig. 16(b)). Also, ignition delay is shortened
3.19. Effect of Al2O3 nano additives in advanced injection timing on (Fig. 14(b)) due to less fuel accumulation leading to shorter burn-
smoke emissions ing rate and gradual rise in cylinder pressure and temperature does
not favor the catalytic activity of Al2O3 nanoparticles. Thus, slightly
ORG IT without nano additives exhibits highest smoke emission higher smoke is observed at lower and part engine loads. At 100%
(25.2 HSU at 100% load) throughout the engine load condition. engine load, the same condition as explained above prevails, but
Advancing the IT to 27 deg bTDC reduces the smoke emissions by higher cylinder temperature at maximum load favors the combus-
54.36%, 45.31%, 46.34% and 18.8% at engine loads of 25%, 50%, tion of nanoparticles resulting in complete combustion and
75% and 100% respectively (Fig. 15(b)). When nanoparticles were thereby reduced smoke.
dispersed, significant smoke reduction as in case of RET IT was
not observed. At ADV IT, combustion duration is higher throughout
4. Conclusion

ORIGINAL INJECTION TIMING- 23deg bTDC The current experimental work focusses on a novel approach of
30
influence of Al2O3 nanoparticles in biodiesel (20%)-diesel (70%)-
19deg bTDC-BDE
25 ethanol (10%) blends at various injection strategies. Experiments
19deg bTDC-BDE+AL

20 23deg bTDC-BDE were conducted on a single cylinder 4 stroke diesel engine with
23deg bTDC-BDE+AL 23 deg bTDC (standard timing), 19 deg bTDC (retarded timing)
15 and 27 deg bTDC (advanced timing). Based on experimental
10
results, the following conclusions were drawn.
SMOKE OPACITY (HSU)

5 1. Advancing the injection timing with Al2O3 addition resulted in

(a) higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate nearer to TDC.
0
Higher combustion duration, lower ignition delay and lowest
30 BSFC were also observed. Emission wise, Al2O3 addition at
23deg bTDC-BDE
25 23deg bTDC-BDE+AL ADV IT resulted in higher HC, CO and NOx with lowered smoke
27deg bTDC-BDE and CO2 emissions.
20 27deg bTDC-BDE+AL 2. Retarding the injection timing with Al2O3 addition resulted in
15 lowered cylinder pressure and heat release rate occurs away
from TDC. Lower combustion duration, BSFC and higher ignition
10 delay were also observed. Emission wise, Al2O3 addition at RET
5 IT resulted in lowered HC, CO, CO2, NOx and smoke emissions
(b) with higher EGO.
0 3. Thus, RET IT with Al2O3 nanoparticle addition improves the
0 1 2 3 4 5 engine performance with significant emission including HC,
BRAKE POWER (kW) CO, NOx and CO2. Thus, optimizing a fuel blend to retarded
injection timing with 25 ppm nanoparticle addition helps in
Fig. 15. Variation of smoke emission at (a) retarded injection timing and (b)
advanced injection timing.
meeting emission norms.
 H. Venu, V. Madhavan / Fuel 186 (2016) 176–189 187

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