Contents

 Introduction
 Literature Review
 Objectives
 Methodology
 Validity and Reliability
 Procedure
 Results
 Discussion
 Recommendations
 References

Introduction

Learning and teaching is the concern of the trained teacher. But learning is a complex
process. It can however be defined as a change in disposition; a relatively permanent
change in behaviour overtime and this is brought about by experience. Learning can
occur as a result of newly acquired skill, knowledge, perception, facts, principles, new
information at hand etc. Adeyanju, (1997). Learning can be reinforced with learning
aids of different variety because they stimulate, motivate as well as arrest learner's
attention for a while during the instructional process.

Learning aids are instructional materials and devices through which teaching and
learning are done in schools. Examples of learning aids include visual aids, audio-
visual aids, real objects and many others. The visual aids are designed materials that
may be locally made or commercially produced. They come in form of wall-charts
illustrated pictures, pictorial materials and other two dimensional objects. There are
also audio-visual aids. These are teaching machines like radio, television, and all sorts
of projectors with sound attributes.

It is interesting to note that a large percentage of trained teachers and those

undergoing professional training courses can teach with some of the learning aids.
They do so consciously because they know that the use have positive effect on
learning outcomes as their cognate experiences during teaching practice supervision
reveals. In an on-going action research by investigators in Winneba District, a survey
sample of teachers with several years of teaching experience of between (03) and
twenty-five (25) years, claim that learning aids improve methodology. They also
claim that learning aids reduce their talk and chalk method.
In the University of Winneba, Ghana, students normally go on teaching practice
exercise. They are engaged in the on-campus teaching practice (OCTP) and in the
School Attachment Programme (SAP). The objective of the various teaching practices
is to involve students in as many teaching programmes that will sufficiently help them
develop required teaching skill, expose them to the problems of learners and lead
them to qualify as professionals. The programme often last between four (4) weeks to
a semester. There is also an element of mini teaching exercises which students
experience during their three - and four - year dipoloma - and B.Ed. programmes. One
would like to ask some questions. Is the programme schedule for teaching practice
adequate to prepare students for professionalism in teaching? Will students-teachers
perception of the use of educational technology devices improve significantly their
teaching during their teaching practice programmes? It is perceived that teaching
teachers imply the equipping of teachers with all the skills, knowledge pedagogy and
rudiments about how instructional materials can help the teacher to make the delivery
of the instruction successful with learners.

The operational definition of perception as reflected in this paper pulls on the

transaction theory of perception by television. The theory focused on variables and
contextual factors as having effects on how perception takes place. The individual
perceives as a result of variables surrounding the interpretation. This is why the
teacher organizes his methods of teachings around the aims and objectives he/she
intends to achieve. In order to attain the objectives, instructional materials are
perceived as very important in the teaching. back

Literature Review

Studies on teacher education and use of instructional materials have been carried out
and reported by several investigators including those of Lynne (1982) Agun and
Okunrotifa (1977), Agun (1986) Akanbi and Imogie (1988), Adeyanju (1986; 1988
and 1999) Agun (1986) pointed out the need for development of skills by teachers
undergoing their training so that they could be able to use a wide variety of
instructional materials sufficiently well. Akinola (1988) on use of Modern Teaching
Aids/new technologies to aid teaching.

The various researchers found that teachers who are trained and untrained, sue some
form of materials to teach their lessons. However, the relevance of the choice of
instructional material types that were used and the quality of the instructional material
types that teachers use have not been investigated. This is what the present survey
hopes to investigate.

Some investigators claim that whenever they taught with some of the learning aids,
their students get more stimulated because the learning aids help them (students) to
become more attentive. In addition, students positive attitude generate more interest
for the lesson they teach. As a result, students participate better in class activity. 

Objective

The study through a set of questionnaire that were distributed among trained teachers
who have taught for between three (03) and fifteen (15) years and above was
investigated. The purpose was to find out the level of agreement or disagreement to a
fourteen item questionnaire on the relevance, the quality and types of teaching aids
that teachers used in teaching their lessons. back

Methodology

The population comprised trained teachers that were teaching in both urban and rural
areas of Winneba. Eighty (80) teachers, male and females that were teaching in basic
primary and secondary schools between March and April 1999 in Winneba District
were subjects of study. They were teaching in twenty different basic primary and
secondary schools. The eighty (80) selected subjects that responded to the
questionnaire items correctly have taught their subject disciplines which comprise
Arts, Social Sciences and Physical Sciences for between one and fifteen years and
above. Each of the selected teachers teach as many as ten students to between fifty-
one to seventy in a class at a time. An on the spot evaluation of types of instructional
materials they used, the quality and relevance to the topic taught were assessed by the
investigators. back

Validity and Reliability

Experts who are senior colleagues in the field of educational technology, in

educational resource centre and department of psychology and education made
content and construct as well as face validity of a questionnaire. Earlier on a sample of
fifteen (15) non-participating teachers responses were analysed to test for the
reliability of the questionnaire yielded was found to be high enough to make the
questionnaire items reliable. back 

Procedure

The questionnaire items were distributed to selected teachers, who gave prompt
attention to the task of completing the questionnaire. While the subjects of study were
busy completing the questionnaire, an on the spot-checking of types, quality and
relevance of (IM) were assessed.back

Results
On class enrolments, seventeen (17) teachers taught between ten (10) and thirty (30)
students. Forty-nine (49) teachers taught between thirty-one (31) and fifty (50) pupils
while fourteen (14) other teachers taught between fifty-one (51) and seventy (70)
students in a single basic/primary and secondary school classes.

The overall population of the school as the study revealed is between hundred and two
hundred and ninety-nine (100-299) as reported by twenty seven (27) teachers in basic
schools. Three hundred and four hundred and ninety-nine (300-499) was reported as
the population of students by twelve (12) teachers in the primary schools. The
population of secondary in the rural area is between five hundred (500) to six hundred
and ninety-nine (699) as reported by thirty-two (32) teachers. A population of
between seven hundred and eight hundred and ninety-nine (700-399) were reported by
nine other teachers for their secondary schools in the urban centre.

Subject Discipline: Twenty-seven (27) participants taught in the discipline of Arts,

nineteen in discipline of social sciences while twelve of the participants taught in the
discipline of physical sciences. Results show that fifty three (53) participating teachers
taught in the basic schools while twenty-seven (27) taught in primary and secondary
schools.

Qualification of Teachers:  All participating teachers except six (6) have grade two
teacher training certificate. Three of the six (06) teachers have advanced teacher
education qualification. On (01) has secondary education while two (02) others have
University education.

The questionnaire items 12, 13, 14 and 15 were analysed. Results showed that all
teachers except twelve (12) had no training in the production and teaching with
learning aids. Concerning the source of the learning aids, fifty aids from the Ghana
Education service while thirty five (35) others were funded by the school.

The quality of twenty percent (20%) of the learning aid materials that teachers
claimed they have used could not be determined, as teachers could not produce them
on the spot for evaluation; judgment was as a result based on what was seen.
However, the relevance of eighty (80) percent of teaching aids that were used in
teaching were assessed and found adequate. Since audio-visual materials are available
in some schools, the types of audio-visual aids were also analysed. The common types
are radios of portable sizes. Teacher also claimed they allow students to listen to
important news.

Teachers specifically were asked to indicate the types of teaching materials they
would eventually want to use in their teaching. Results show that, six (6) teachers will
like to use projectors to teach their lessons. Thirty-four (34) other teachers will prefer
to use non-projected materials to teach their lessons. Nineteen (19) teachers will
prefer to use other methods, the rest numbering twenty one (21) will prefer to use
locally made (self made) charts and other visual materials.
Table 1: Response of Teachers to Questionnaire on Perception of the Effects and Use of Learning Aids in
Teaching

N = 80

Variable Numbers Level of Agreement %

  Agree% Disagree % Neutral %
1 74 92.50 05 6.26 01 01.25
2 13 16.25 61 76.25 06 07.50
3 62 77.05 16 20.00 02 02.50
4 08 10.00 70 87.50 02 02.50
5 78 97.50 01 1.25 01 1.25
6 26 32.50 53 66.25 01 1.25
7 31 38.75 46 57.50 03 3.75
8 78 97.50 Nil 0.00 02 2.50
9 65 81.25 15 18.75 Nil 0.00
10 57 71.25 19 23.75 04 5.00
11 50 62.50 26 32.50 04 5.00

X = 6.8 X = ………… 3.9 X = …………… 0.33

EX = Agree EX = Disagree = 312 EX = Undecided = 26

Teachers' preferences for the use of visual and audio-visual materials were
investigated. The quality and relevance and types of the materials that could assist
learners have been confirmed through the investigation that was carried out among
long serving teachers. Eighty percent (80) of teachers used relevant materials to teach
their lessons. The quality of the available teaching materials were assessed to be of
high standard while others that were not seen could not be determined. It is worthy to
state that a large percentage of the two dimensional instructional materials were found
hanging in the wall of over ninety percent (90%) of the classrooms. Whether all or
few of the materials are constantly used as reference point by teachers was not certain.
The positive effect of teaching with various learning aids were approved as acceptable
to over ninety (90) percent of the teachers in that:

 they claimed that learners understand better what they teach them when they
used them to teach.
 the teacher also improvised for the teaching aids when needed.
 teachers claim that they used teaching aids to explain the various concepts that
required explanation.

Since teachers go to the extent of borrowing teaching aids from Ghana Education
Services and from some of the schools that have them, and since teachers claim that
they do not need further training on how to prepare and use teaching aids to teach
their lessons, the inference that can be made from the analysed observations is that
teachers use some teaching aids to teach their lessons.

Discussion

Result from the Table 1 shows the pattern of responses of teachers to the issue of
learning aids. There is a high frequency of positive response to the use of educational
materials for teaching. A mean of 6.8 is recorded for agreement while a mean score of
0.33 is recorded for the responses of teachers that were undecided about the issues of
the importance of learning aids. (See Table 1).

Findings of this study with regard to the use of learning aids to teach, support the
earlier observations made. Agun (1986), Imogie (1988), Agun & Okunrotifa (1977),
Adeyanju (1988), Akanbi (1988) and Akinola (1977).

From the result obtained from the analysed questionnaire, the issue to whether
teachers on training benefits from the organised practice teaching sessions of the
(OCTP), (OFFCTP) and (SAP) and whether they always use relevant and quality
learning aids to carry out their teaching effectively is a subject of debate. Form field
studies, teachers in the Arts discipline were found to use other methods like
dramatization, the play-way method as well as demonstration methods to teach
English. The Fine Arts and Music lessons that were observed were judged to be
successful lessons. Those in the sciences made use of educational board; textbooks,
materials and scanty chart to teach their lessons. Students in the Social Sciences
however used a significant variety of two-dimensional materials and real objects to
teach their lessons. The sum of it all is that it appears the student teachers use learning
aids in their teaching in order to score marks during supervision. It appears also that
after they have qualified professionally, the interest in the use of the learning aids
often diminish. back
Conclusion

Conclusions drawn from this survey are as follows:

1. Teachers whether those on training or those that have qualified perceives the
use of learning aids in teaching as advantageous to the teacher and to the
students. Their use reduces the talk and chalk method of teaching.
2. The effect which organised practice teaching sessions have on teacher like the
On-Campus Teaching Practice (OCTP), Off-Campus Teaching Practice
(OFFCTP), School Attachment Programme (SAP) and mini-teaching exercises
are yet to be determined as they remain a subject of debate.
3. Teachers improvised teaching aids for their teaching: they also borrowed some
learning aids from the Ghana Education Services and from other schools.
4. Teachers used relevant and quality instructional materials to teach their lessons.
5. The most frequently used instructional materials are educational boards,
textbooks materials, real objects and the charts.
6. Audiovisual materials like radio are available in some schools.
7. Interest in the use of learning aids to teach often diminishes when student
teachers have qualified. back

Recommendations

The media unit of the University should mount periodic training sessions for teachers
on the use of learning aids to teach. It is also suggested that devices like audio and
visual materials should be used by all teachers, in order to add the practice of
technology to the training of teachers, physically. Teachers who are already in the
field should be retrained on the recent findings on the use of learning aids. In addition,
the University should appeal to the non-governmental organisations, the private
sectors, individuals and industries to assist in supplementing and in substituting
obsolete educational materials and learning aids like audio and visual materials and
software packages. Student teachers should be involved in curriculum development.
They should be familiar with the teaching content of the higher and lower school
syllabus. Both teachers on training and those in the field should be sensitized on the
need to updated their knowledge on effective teaching. teachers on training and those
in the field should also have a forum for meeting periodically to assess the
effectiveness of their teaching using the methods of instructional and educational
technology as applicable to the organisation of the content of the school syllabuses at
both basic and junior secondary schools. Teachers should design packages (software)
materials that could be used in teaching their various subjects. This forum should be
supported by the government. back

References
Adeyanju, G.A. (1977); Creativity Learning and Learning Styles. Zaria: Nigeria. Isola
Ola & Sons.

Adeyanju, J.L. (1986); The role of education technology in pre-primary education.

Education technology and the 6-3-3-4 education system. Nigeria Association for
Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT) 30-38.

Adeyanju, J.L. (1988); The application of educational technology in pre-primary

education. Journal of Educational Media and Technology (JEMT), 2(1), 73-79.

Adeyanju, J.L. (1991); Production of cheap instructional materials for the 6-3-3-4
system of education with emphasis on the first six years. Trends and Research in
Educational Technology, 45-53.

Agun, I. (1986); Institutional Support for Educational Technology, The case of

College of Education: A paper presentation at the National Symposium on Status and
Trends in Education Technology. Nigeria Educational Technology Centre Kaduna.
16-21 November.

Agun, I. & Okunrotifa P.O.A. (1977); Educational technology in Nigeria teacher

education. Education for Development: International Perspective on Expanding Role
of Teachers Education. (ICET) p. 75.

Akanbi, K. (1988); Selection, utilization and evaluation of instruction. In I. Agun & I.

Imogie (eds) Fundamental of Educational Technology. Ibadan: Y-Books, 91-92.

Akinola J.A. (1988); Improving teaching and learning: An examination of the lecture
approach in teaching at Obafemi Awolowo University. Ife Journal of Theory and
Research in Education, 1, (1), 112. back

About the authors

Dr. Lade Adeyanju

Faculty of Education
Institute of Education
Obafemi Awolowo University
Nigeria

Importance of audio – visual aids in teaching methodology.

                                           Prof. Vinayak Gopal patil                                                              

 Introduction:  The audio visual aids educational learning resources or instructional or educational
Medias.  These all the terms meant the same thing. 

History of Audio -   Visual Aids : A Dutch Humanist theologist & writer desretrious Erasmus (1466-
1536) disclosed memorization as a technique of learning and advocated that the children should learn
through the aids of pictures or other visuals. While John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) prepared a
book known as Orbis Sensilium Pictus (the word of sense objects) which contained near about 150
pictures on aspects of every day life.  This is the is considered as a illustrated book for the children
education. The term visual education was use by Nelson Greence in 1926.  Aric identified four
revolutions in education :

1. Education from home to school.

2. Written word as a tool of education.

3. Invention of printing & use of books

4. Use of electronic media i.e Radio, T.V, tape reorder & Computer in education.

Features of good Teaching Aids.

1. They should meaningful & purposeful.

2. They should be accurate in all respects.
3. They should be simple.
4. They should be cheap.
5. As far as they should be update.
6. They should motivate the learner as well as to the teacher also.

Principles of Audio Visual Aids ; For effective teaching to take place a a good method must be adopted
by the teacher .  The teacher is always free to choose effective audio visual aids in the class room. Of
courses there are also certain principles of Audio – Visual Aids in teaching methodology.  They are as
follows:

1. Principle of Selection : 1. The age level 2. Other personality angles.3. They should have
specific educational values 4. They should help in the realization of learning desired objectives.
2. Principle of Preparation : 1. As far as possible, the local material should be used in the
preparation of aids. 2. The teacher also must receive training in the preparation of aids. 3. The
teacher him/herself can prepare some aids or can take help of students also.
3. Principle of Physical Control : This is concerned with  the arrangement of keeping aids safely
and also to facilitate to their lending to the teachers for se.
4. Principle of Proper Presentation : 1. Teacher should carefully visualize the use of teaching aids
before their actual presentation.2. They should be well acquainted themselves with the use &
manipulation of the aids to be shown in the class room. 3. The aids should be displayed properly. So
that, all the students can see it, observe it, and can derive maximum benefits from it.
5. Principle of Response : This is the important principle.  This tells the teacher guide the
students to respond actively to the audio visual stimulus so that they derive the maximum benefits
in learning.
6. Principle of Evaluation : This Principle stipulates that there should be continuous evaluation of
Audio Visual Aids materials & accompanying techniques in the light of desired objectives

Audio Visual aids or Devices or technical devices or technological Medias or learning devices that helps
the teacher to clarify, establish, co-relate & co-ordinate accurate concepts, interpretations,
appreciation and enable him to make learning more concentrate, effective, interesting, inspirational,
meaningful, vivid etc. The Audio –Visual Aids always helps in competing the triangular process i.e
Motivation, Clarification, stimulation.  He aims of teaching with technological medias is clearing the
channel between the learner and the things that worth learner. The teacher must "show" as well as
"tell".  The Audio –Visual Aids provides significant gains in informal learning, retention and recall,
rethinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, personal growth & development. Here are the
most important values of the proper use of Audio Visual Aids ;

1.Best Motivator : They are the best motivator.  The students works with more zeal & interest.

2.Clear Image : Clear image takes place when we, touch, handle, experience it.

3. Variety : "mere Chalk & Talk" do not help.  Audio –Visual Aids gives variety & provides different
tools in ht hand of teacher.

4. Freedom : When Audio –Visual Aids are employed, there is a great scope for children to move about
talk, laugh & comment upon.  Under such atmosphere the students work because they want to work,
& not because the teacher wants tem to wotk.

5. Opportunities to Handle : many students always get a chance to handle the aids.

6. Helpful in Attracting the Attention : Attention is the true factor in any process of learning & teaching
Audio – Video Aids helps the teacher in providing proper environment for capturing as well as
sustaining the attention and interest of the students in class room.

7. Savings in Energy & Time : Due to effective implementation of "principle of Presentation", a good
deal of energy & time of both the teacher & students can be saved.

8. Realism : The Audio –Visual Aids gives the real touch to the learning situation.

9. Encouragement to healthy class room interaction : Audio-visual aids through variety of stimuli,
motivational, provisional of active participation of students, a good experience always encourage
healthy class interaction between teacher and the learners.

10.Scope of education as a  mass scale : The audio-Visual aids like radio, tape, television etc always
plays role in spreading mass education.

11. Positive environment for creative discipline : A balanced, rational, scientific use of Audio – Visual
Aids develops , motivate, experience, attract the attention of the students and provides a variety of
creative outlets for the utilization of their tremendous energy & keeps them busy in class room work. 
This overall classroom environment becomes conductive to creative discipline.Grossly, we can say that
there are various types of Audio – Visual Aids i.e traditional as well as modern aids of audio-visual
aids.  But at the same time it is important to  take into a/c that the Audio-Visual Aids do not play role
up to disseminate the information, data, facts, clues but also they influences the mentality,
psychology, grasping level of the students in the class room. On the other hand they greatly motivate,
inspire the teachers to adopt the latest, creative, innovative aids. The scope of audio-visual aids is not
only up to procure & make presentation. Of, course it is technically part of teaching.  But other side
also it conveys us that it is a tool to know through effective communication in triangular process i.e
Motivation, Stimulation, Clarification. Apart from this it is also important that to think about difficulties
& problems in the use of aids.  There are certain problems like lack of enthusing for the use of
teaching aids teacher, non availability of aids in school, lack of facilities for the use of aids- electricity,
room, furniture etc, lack of training on the part of teacher in the use of aids, costly nature of aids, lack
of storage facility & non Availability of suitable teaching aids in the regional languages.

  

    

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Under Creative Commons License: AttribEFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS ON TEACHING LEARNING
PROCESS

RAFIQULLAH KHAN, RAZIA SULTANA, UMAR ALI AND ABDUR REHMAN

Institute of Education and Research,Gomal University,DeraIsmail Khan(NWFP)Pakistan

ABSTRACT

This study attempts to investigate what makes a good teaching and learning, for this purpose a sample

consisted of seventy students of 9th class was taken. The sample was further divided randomly into two

equal groups. One group was called experimental and the other control group. Before starting the

experiment pre-test was administered to the students of both the experimental and control group After it
the

students of the two selected groups were taught by their respective teachers. Both the groups were exposed

to essentially the same experience, except for the method of instruction. The experimental group was taught

through use of instructional aids. At the end of the treatment period, the post-test was administered to the
students of both the experimental and control group. Research on the effectiveness of learning through

instructional aids, indicates that learning is improved when pictures supplement verbal materials, when

learners draw their own meaning while studying, `and when learners are asked to generate mental pictures

while reading or studying.

INTRODUCTION

Although almost all of us went to schools

and were "educated" very few of us have

any systematic conception of teaching.

Teaching has come through poor usage to

mean the thing a teacher does while he is in

a classroom. Thus it is a misleadingly term.

Most of difficulties arise owing to this

misleading notion. Teaching is not

understood in a proper perspective. For a

long time it was believed that teaching and

instruction were one and the same, and that

teacher is giving instruction imparts

knowledge. This conception is not only

faulty but also does a lot of damage to the

conception and process of teaching.

In the same manner very limited meaning is

attached with term learning. Modification of

behaviour is called learning. It is generally

stated that all learning is modification of

behaviour but all modification of behaviour

is not learning. For instance, consumption of

alcohol may bring about modification in

behaviour as well as experience.

Modification of behaviour may also be

caused by fatigue, exhaustion etc. All

modification of behaviour of the nature

described above, are not called learning. To

put it in a different way, modification of

behaviour and experience caused by

maturational factors is not learning.

In relation to modification of behavior

within classroom the role of instructional

aids is considered very limited and that

instructional aids enhance the memory level

of the students. In bookish examination the

memory is increased through rote learning.

While all these are outdated misconception.

The present paper is an academic attempt to

investigate that teaching is not the name of

instruction and to impart knowledge by the

teacher and the learning is more than

modification of individual behaviuor. It will

also disclose that for effective teaching

learning process the use of instructional aids

is the demand of student psychology.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Problem under investigation was to discuss

teaching learning process and to investigate

the effects of instructional aids.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1- To discuss the term teaching and learning.

2- To explore the effects of instructional

aids on teaching learning process.

SIGNIFICANCE

Teachers play most important part in any

system of education. They are considered

the most crucial input to the whole learning

process and the function of teaching is the

key toward critical process of learning. Yet

examining the situation to-day and of the

past we find that teachers are also among the

neglected public servants in Pakistani

society. Teachers are among the least

motivated and trained professionals. Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-108 103

Therefore, there is a need to revitalize

teacher education on sound research

findings and judgment basis. Exploring the

best methodology of teaching leading

toward effective learning based upon use of

instructional aids will provide guidelines to

bring improvement in quality of teaching. In

this connection the paper will be helpful:

• To revitalize the teacher training

program in the light of the study.

• To improve and to make effective

the process of learning. Because the

student future depends largely upon

proper education of teachers.

• The findings will provide useful

information for curriculum reforms.

• The study will help the decisionmakers to understand the causes of

low quality of teacher's instructional

competence. To increase

instructional competence, workable

strategies could be developed.

• It will help teacher to share his

experiences with others, especially

with students through two way

communications.

• It will provide classroom teacher

valid base to seek means for

extending his student's horizon of

real experiences and first hand

knowledge.

• It will facilitate the role of teacher

by offering a performance blueprint

and consistent criteria for evaluating

teaching outcomes.

• It will enable the teacher to judge

appropriateness of instructional aids.

• As prediction of teacher

performance has increasingly

become a concern of psychology,

sociology and education, those who

define themselves as educational

psychologists, educational

sociologists, program planners or

policy developers can broaden their

horizon of thinking.

HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant difference in mean

scores of the students taught through

instructional aids and through traditional

way.

RELATED LITERATURE
WHAT IS TEACHING

The term teaching is used in various ways,

and definitions often lead to controversial

discussions in pedagogical circles. The

unpacking of various definitions of teaching

would be an interesting undertaking. Uses of

the word teaching are found in ordinary

discourse. It is refer to that which is taught,

as a doctrine or body of knowledge. In this

expression "The teaching of Pakistan

Studies" reference is made to the contents

included in the Text book of Pakistan

Studies. Teaching is used to refer to an

occupation or a profession teaching is used

to refer to ways of making something known

to others usually in routine work of the

classroom. The modern conception of

teaching includes all those things a teacher

does to facilitate the learning process.

Teaching has grown from stage of imparting

knowledge to strategies for promoting

public growth (Fontana,1981 ; Allport

1946)Teachers are not to be understood as a

more custodians of knowledge. There is a

task of stimulating, facilitating pupil's

learning to ensure his attainment of

objectives. The new concept of teaching has

made the work of the teacher more

challenging and difficult. The teacher's task

concerns:-
• Orienting the pupil toward desirable

goals both immediate and long

range.

• Facilitating the attainment of the

goals through suitable learning

experiences and guiding the pupil

toward his total growth.

According to (Cronbac, 1986) teaching must

be considered as a professional service, it

should be analyzed into its component

process or elements. First, it can be analyzed

in terms of the types of teacher activity (1)

information giving (2) disciplining (3)

guiding and advising (4) Motivating. There

are other activities that teachers commonly

carry out such as (1) Explaining (2)

demonstrating (3) curriculum planning (4) 104 Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-
108

implementing and evaluating. Another way

of analyzing teaching could be based on the

types of educational objectives. This may be

in terms of Bloom Taxonomy of educational

objectives-cognitive, affective and

psychomotor domains.(Tolman,1932 ;

Siddiqui, 2005) classifies teaching activities

as things to be learnt (1) Equivalencies (2)

beliefs (3) field expectations (4) field

cognition modes (5) drive discrimination (6)

motor patterns.

According to (Gagne, 1974) that teaching

should answer three questions (1) How do

teachers behave and what do they do (2)

why do they behave in the manner they do

(3) what are the effects of the above on

pupil? Answer to these questions will yield a

general conception of teaching, if they apply

to all teaching to all students, to all subject

matter and to all situations-both classroom

and outside classroom in which learning

may take place. This approach conceives

teacher's actions as the cause and the

learning of students as the effect. Teaching

may be characterized as an activity aimed at

achievement of learning and practiced in

such manner as to respect the student's

intellectual integrity and capacity for

independent judgment. Such as

characterization is important for at least two

reasons, first it brings out the intentional

nature of teaching- the fact that teaching is a

distinctive goal-oriented activity. Second, it

differentiates the activity of teaching from

such other activities as propagandizing,

conditioning, suggesting and indoctrinating,

which are aimed at modifying the person but

strive at all coasts to avoid a genuine

engagement of his judgment on underlying

issues (Scheffler,1971 ; Collins,1991)

In Islamic thought, teaching is the main

component of education system. There is no

knowledge without teaching and no Islam

without knowledge. Knowledge is

prerequisite for being a Muslim. This makes

teaching sacred duty on the part of those

who know. A teacher is bearer of

knowledge. It was to emphasis this point

that the prophet (Peace be upon him) said,

verily! I was not sent but as a teacher.

WHAT IS LEARNING

Learning is relatively persistent change in an

individual's possible behaviour due to

experience, (Fontana,1981 ; Adams,

1968)This definition draws attention to three

things:- First, that learning must change the

individual in some way, second, that this

change comes as a result of experience; and

third, that it is a change in his possible

behaviour. The first of these points of

emphasis is obvious enough. Unless we are

changed in some way, learning cannot be

said to have taken place. This change can, of

course, be at relatively simple level. The

second point of emphasis stresses that the

change must come about as a result of

experience. This therefore excludes the

kinds of change that accrue form maturation

and physical development. The third point

stress that although a change has taken

place, it is change in potential rather than in

actual behaviour.
(Davis,1973 ; Hunter,1964) defines learning

as "the change in performance associated

with practice. (Spence,1956) defines

learning as " inference" and recognizes that

learning is, in some way different from

performance. Performance is observable,

empirical, and learning is not.

When learning is taken as the change of

performance as a result of practice, the

question arises about the nature, amount,

and direction of change. Performance is also

a wide term and also needs connection with

learning. Behaviour change with practice

has to be related with one trial learning.

Some performance can be manipulated in

tangible manner, as the specific changes of

behaviour through learning. Some aspects of

learning as attitudes, ideals, and fears are

quite intangible both in acquisition and

manifestation.

We can look at the psychologist; attempt to

develop a convincing theory of how learning

comes about. The behaviorist sees learning

in terms of connections between stimulus

and response or between response and

reinforcement, and places great stress upon

the role-played by the environment.

Structure the environment correctly, and

learning will follow, irrespective of the Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-108 105

particular volition of the learner. The

cognitive approach, on the other hand, holds

that if we are to under stand learning we

cannot confine ourselves to observable

behavior, but also concern over selves with

the learner, ability mentally to reorganize his

inner world of concepts, memories in

response to experience. The latter approach,

therefore lays stress not only upon the

environment, but upon the way in which

individual interprets and tries to make sense

of his environment. It sees the individual not

as the somewhat mechanical product of his

environment, but as an active agent in the

learning process, deliberately trying to

process and categorize the stream of

information fed into him by the outside

world.

For teacher the main difference between

two theories is that, while not denying the

potential importance of the stimulus and the

reinforcement, cognitive theory considers

that behaviorist pays in sufficient attention

to the element that comes in between,

namely the learner own cognitive behaviour

is not simply some thing elicited by a

stimulus and strengthened or otherwise by

the nature of the reinforcement that follows,

it is in fact a highly complex activity which

involves (1) acquisition of information (2)

transformation of information and (3) testing

the adequacy of this information.

ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

According to (Nicholls, 2000; Raw , 2003)

in this age, education has become wide

spread and exclusively oral teaching cannot

be the key to successful pedagogy. To make

the teaching learning interesting the teacher

has to use instructional aids. Learning

process can be enhanced if aids are used

(Cronbac, 1989) describes seven elements in

behaviour and asserts. These elements

provide base for theory of learning.

Situations, the situation consists of all the

objects, persons and symbols in learner

environments experience in situation prepare

a person to respond to similar situation in

the future. Situation must be created in

which learner may feel satisfaction.

Personal characterizes under this heading we

include all the abilities and all the typical

responses that the person brings to the

situation. Use of instructional material can

appeal to the individual attention by creating

interest.

Goal: the goal of the learner is that he

wishes to attain. Since goals direct efforts,

the teacher problem of motivation is

essentially one of arranging situation with

instructional aids in which the learner will

see goals he wants to attain.

Interpretation: Person interprets situation in

order to take action If relevant aids are made

available it will be easy for a teacher and

student to predict that what can be expected

to happen if various actions are taken.

Action: A person chooses whatever action

he expects to give him the greatest

satisfaction. The use of aids can facilitate the

decision of a person toward taking right

action.

Consequence: Actions following by their

results are called consequences. If

instructional aids are used the prediction

made by a person would be rewarding and

consequences will justify the work done by

person, he will feel full satisfaction.

METHOD AND PROCEDURE

SAMPLE

The sample consisted of seventy students of

9th class of Govt: girls high school no I

Dera Ismail Khan.The sample was further

divided into two equal groups by using

random sampling technique. Each group

having 35 students.

MATERIAL

Textbook teaching to experimental group

was supported by using charts, objects and

other instructional aids.

PROCEDURE

In this experimental study, the pretestposttest Equivalent group design discussed

by (Best, 1990,) was used. The relevant pretest was administered to the students of both

the experimental and control group. Data

obtained from pre-test is presented in table

no 1.Both the groups were equivalent at the

time of starting the experiment. Equal

conditions for both the groups were

established i.e. all factors of the time of the 106 Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-
108

day and treatment length in time were

equaled. The students of the two selected

groups were taught by their respective

teachers. Both the groups were exposed to

essentially the same experience, except for

the method of instruction. The experimental

group was taught Chemistry through use of

instructional aids. At the end of the

treatment period, the relevant post-test was

administered to the students of both the

experimental and control group. Data

obtained from post-test is presented in table

no 2.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Table-1 showing mean scores of control and

experimental group on pre-test

Category

number of

students

Mean SD t-value

Level of

significance
Control group 35 58.48 13.87

Experimental

group

35 57.99 14.10

0.84 .05

The above table shows that mean score of

control group is 58.48 and standard

deviation is 13.87 while mean score of

experimental group is 57.99 and standard

deviation is 5.4. The computed t- value 0.84

is less than table value .So the difference

between the mean scores of two groups is

not significant at 0.05 level of significance.

Table-2 showing mean scores of control and

experimental group on post-test

Category

number of

students

Mean SD t-value

Level of

significance

Control group 35 57.98 9.3

Experimental

group

35 67.65 5.4

2.63 .05

The above table shows that mean score of

control group is 57.98 and standard

deviation is 9.3 while mean score of

experimental group is 67.65 and standard

deviation is 5.4. The computed t- value 2.63

is greater than table value .So the difference

between the mean scores of two groups is

significant at 0.05 level of significance.

RESULT

There is significance difference in mean

scores of student on post-test. The students

in experimental group performed better then

control group. Research on the effectiveness

of learning through instructional aids,

indicates that learning is improved when

pictures supplement verbal materials, when

learners draw their own their meaning while

studying, and when learners are asked to

generate mental pictures while reading.

DISCUSSION

Teaching is conceptualized in terms of what

the teacher does. When students do not learn

we are inclined to conclude that the failure

to learn is their fault.The students are dull,

they are not motivated, they are less

intelligent, etc. while this may be true to

some extent, we should consider the reasons

why the students are not learning. Perhaps,

their fault may be teachers' fault.

Appropriate instructional procedures make

learning easier for the pupils. It is thus

necessary for teachers to have a sound

understanding of the principles of the

process of learning based on concrete

experiences. This view clearly indicates

purpose of modern schooling is to facilitate

learning, such that pupils may learn and are

able to use what they learn.

Effective teaching-learning process assigns Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-108
107

an important place to student-activity. It

calls for a child-centered approach. The

most distinctive feature of today society is

its science-based technology which has been

making a profound impact not only on the

economic and political life of a country but

also on its educational system. The changes

that occur are broadly described as

modernization. This modernization has

affected the teaching learning process in

many ways. The recent changes in the

concept of teaching-learning process have

led to the development of newer areas of

educational endeavor. In a traditional society

the aim of teaching learning was the

preservation of the accumulated stock of

knowledge. But in the modern society, the

main aim of teaching learning is not

acquisition of knowledge alone. It is the

awakening of curiosity, the stimulation of

creativity, the development of proper

interests, attitudes and values and the

building of essential skills such as

independent study. Teaching learning

process has to serve as a powerful

instrument of social, economic and cultural

transformation of the society. Teaching

learning process is conditioned by the nature

and demands of society to which the learner

should get adapted and attuned. One of the

main aims of child education is to keep pace

with the advancement of knowledge and

skills.

For a pretty long period, the system was

dominated by the institution of professional

teachers. Now, the process is to be replaced

to a great extent by a process in which the

individual learner is expected to take up

challenges through an inevitable intellectual

revolution. The intellectual revolution has

been set in by forces of hardware

technologies at low cost, socialization

process due to interdependence, educational

projects, markets, excursions and

playgrounds become classrooms in the new

era.

Consideration of the practical aspects of the

learning process brings us to the question of

teaching methods and techniques. Many of

these are related to the particular subject or

subjects being taught, and therefore lie

outside the scope of a general education.

However, there are a number of common for

discussion. Points to to be reviewed. Gagne

(1974), who draws upon both Skinner's

operant conditioning model and (though to a

lesser extent) the kind of conceptual model

by Bruner, suggests that the learning act

typically consists of a chain of events, some

internal to the learner and others external.

Events based on instructional material

become more effective. These are, in their

usual order of occurrence:

• Motivation (or expectancy);

• Apprehending (the subject perceives

the material and distinguishes it

from the other)

• Acquisition (the subject codes the

knowledge);

• Retention (the subject stores the

knowledge in short-or long-term

memory);

• Recall (the subject retrieves the

material from memory);

• Generalization (the material is

transferred to new situations, thus

allowing the subject to develop

strategies for dealing with situation)

• Performance (these strategies are

put into practice);

• Feedback (the subject obtains

knowledge of results).

Where there is a failure in the learning

process, Gagne' argues, it will take place at

one of these levels, and it is the task of the

teacher to ascertain which, Gagne' considers

that the teacher can help failure through use

of instructional aids at all levels by bearing

in mind following steps:

Step 1: the learner is informed about what is

expected of him at the end of the learning

experience. This is best done by presenting

him with a list of the teacher's objectives.

Neglect of this basic step, suggests Gagne, is

a frequent cause of learning failure. The

learner is unsure of teacher expectations and

thus unable to monitor his own progress

adequately;

Step 2: the learner is questioned in a way

that requires a re-statement of earlier

concepts upon which the current learning 108 Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-
108

depends;

Step 3: the teacher provides cues that help

the learner put together the current learning

as a chain of concepts in the correct order;

Step 4: the learner is questioned in a way

that allows him to demonstrate concrete

applications of his learning;

Step 5: the learner is questioned in a way

that allows him to make statements of the

rule or rules that he has learned.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In order to make teaching learning process

more effective following recommendations

may be followed.

• Every activity teacher does

undertake need to be carefully

planned.

• Familiarize himself with the

textbook and the instructional

materials used in the class.

• Illustrate your teaching by examples

from the daily routine experiences

of the students.

• Use correct and definite language

while putting questions to the

students.

• Use audiovisual aids properly.

• Teacher should demonstrate before

the whole class and not a few

students sitting on the front benches.

• In case of non-availability of A.V.

aids teacher must develop the

blackboard summary along with

relevant pictures and diagrams.

• Use the pointer to show some place

on the map or on the chart.

• Every new concept may be

explained with help of instructional

aids

• A separate fund may be created as

to make available needed

instructional material.
• Some institutions are using low cost

and no cast material for facilitating

teaching learning process; it must be

followed by all the schools of the

country.

REFERENCES

Adams JA (1968). Response Feed Back And

Learning, Psychological Bull; vol: 6.pp.135-137

Allport GW (1946). A Secondary Principle

of Learning, Psychological preview,

vol:6.pp. 53.316-318

Collins A (1991). The role of technology in

destructing schools, Phi Dalta Kappan.

P.133

Cronbac L J (1986). How Can Instructions

Be Adapted To Individuals Differences?

Public Education, New York basic books.

P.121

Davis I K (1973). Competency Based

Learning, New York Macgraw Hill. P.497

Fontona D (1981). Psychology for Teachers,

British Psychological Society.P.147.

Gagne, R.M. (1974) Essential of Learning

For Instructions, Ninsdole, 2nd, Drygen

Press.PP 408-412

Nicholls Gill (2000). Learning to teach, Bell

and Bain LTD Glasgow.pp.356-360

Raw V K (2003). Quality teaching. APH

publishing corporation,5 , Ansari road New

Dehli.pp.36-39
Siddiqui M H (2005).Techniques of

Teaching, APH publishing corporation New

Delhi. P.97

Scheffler I (1971). Philosophical Models For

Teaching, Harward Education review, vol:

35.P.173

Tolman E C (1932). There Is More Than

One Kind Of Learning, Psychological

review, vol: 56. P.272

Hunter I M L (1964). Memory, Facts And

Fallacies, Baltimre, Penguin Book INC.p.57

Spence K W (1956). Behavior Theory And

Conditioning, New Heaven, Yale University

Press.P.690.

Best J W (1990). Research in Education,

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