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Huang Bottom Ash
Huang Bottom Ash
Huang Bottom Ash
INDIANA
DEPARTMENT OF HI
t999®999999H
FHWA/IN/JHRP-90/4 - /
Wei-Hsing Huang
UNIVERSITY
JOINT HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROJECT
Final Report
FHWA/IN/JHRP-90/4 - f
Wei-Hsing Huang
FINAL REPORT
Respectfully submitted,
UO L-C' .Ul
C. Lovell
W. VJ^J. Lovell
Research Engineer Professional Research Assistant
http://www.archive.org/details/useofbottomashinOOhuan
,
FHWA/IN/JHRP-90/4
4. Till* ond SubtitU S. Raport Dal*
THE USE OF BOTTOM ASH IN HIGHWAY EMBANKMENTS, Feb. 15, 1990
SUBGRADES, AND SUBBASES 6. Parlerming Orgonizalien Cod*
This research assessed those properties of power plant bottom ash likely to affect
its use as highway fill or pavement material, based on laboratory investigation con-
ducted on eleven Indiana bottom ashes. Laboratory tests included: chemical analysis,
mineralogical study, microscopic examination of ash particles, specific gravity, grain
size distribution, sulfate soundness, Los Angeles abrasion, permeability, shear
strength, moisture-density relations, degradation under compaction, compressibility,
and California bearing ratio.
The various test values and properties were compared to those of representative
granular soils or appropriate specifications. These comparisons provide information
necessary for judging the suitability of bottom ash in Indiana highway construction.
The potential environmental effects of bottom ash utilization were evaluated by
performing leaching tests outlined in the EP toxicity test and an Indiana leaching
method. Chemical analysis of the leachates showed that bottom ash is nonhaz'ardous
and its effects on the quality of ground water are minimal.
bottom ash, boiler slag, waste materials, No restrictions. This document is available
highway materials, embankment, pavement, to the public through the National Technica .
19. Sacunty Cicitll. (cl rnit r*porll 20. Sacurlty Clattll. (ol thi I poga) 21. No. of Pogat 22. Prlea
by
Wei-Hsing Huang
Graduate Research Assistant
Conducted by the
and the
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mr. Bob Rahn of INDOT for his assistance and advice in this
Indiana.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES xi
ABSTRACT xvi
INTRODUCTION 1
Problem Statement 1
Research Objectives 4
Research Approach 5
Literature Review 5
Experimental Program 6
Environmental Evaluation 7
Economic Evaluation 8
LITERATURE REVIEW 9
Stabilization 74
Mechanical Stabilization ........ 74
Admixture Stabilization 81
Environmental Aspects of Ash Utilization 86
Environmental Legislation . . . . » 86
Environmental Impacts of Ash Utilization 89
............
. .
Waste Classification 91
Characteristics of Corrosivity 93
Extraction Procedure Toxicity
Characteristics (EPTC) 93
Toxicity Characteristics Leaching
Procedure (TCLP) 96
Indiana Leaching Method 99
Leaching Properties of Ash . 99
Leaching Mechanism 10 2
Attenuation Mechanisms . 104
Leachate Content 105
Radioactivity ..... . . 108
Introduction 125
Ash Characterization Tests 12 6
Chemical Analysis 12 6
Loss on Ignition 128
Microscopic Examination 129
X-Ray Diffraction 129
Grain Size Distribution 129
Specific Gravity 120
Aggregate Tests . 131
Los Angeles Abrasion 131
Sulfate Soundness 131
VI
Page
ECONOMIC EVALUATION 2 56
Page
BIBLIOGRAPHY 284
APPENDICES 299
VITA 316
Vlll
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Appendix
Table
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figxire Page
Appendix
Figure
of coal ash not only solves a waste disposal problem but also
Problem Statement
applications.
falls through the furnace bottom to the ash hopper below. Fly
bottom ash.
Research Objectives
Literature Review
on publications concerning:
utilization.
along with some on blast furnace slag and coal mine refuse,
Experimental Program
pavements
Environmental Evaluation
Economic Evaluation
the United States comes from the burning of coal [19]. During
increase considerably.
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Collection of Ash
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bottom ash refers to the molten state of the ash which leaves
boiler slag.
At present, there are three categories of coal burning
boiler.
to the furnace bottom to foirm dry bottom ash. The ash hopper
Cyclone Furnaces
Stoker-Fired Furnaces
feed the coal into the furnace, to provide the air for
fuel bed serve to keep the ash more or less porous, and the
ash.
quality. Although fly ash and bottom ash or boiler slag are
Disposal of Ash
Total 100
Bottom ash
hopper
Landfill
produced in 1986, 13.4 and 4.1 million tons were dry bottom
dry bottom ash was used, whereas 51.9 percent of the boiler
indicates that the percent of bottom ash and boiler slag uses
have remained unchanged in the 1980s, while the use of fly ash
the quantity of ash that has been accumulated over the years
in storage.
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of bottom ash (dry bottom ash and boiler slag) were produced.
Due to changes in the FERC Form 67, the state by state ash
2.8 million tons of fly ash and 1.3 million tons of bottom ash
in Indiana.
roof granules, and snow and ice control. Bottom ash is used
mainly as fill material, antiskid and ice-control material,
and road base material.
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the same, because of the basic variations in: a) the type and
handling practices.
al. [36], Moulton [37], Anderson, et. al. [33], Usmen [38],
characteristics of bottom ash can vary not only from one plant
absolutes.
bottom ash: dry bottom ash and wet bottom boiler slag. In
within the same plant [33], because dry bottom ash is the
direct product of burning while boiler slag is solidified from
the molten slag.
Physical Characteristics
Physical Appearance
coals [40] .
Gradation
gradation ranging from 1 inch (25.4 mm) to the No. 200 sieve
(75 Min) • The portion of bottom ash passing the No. 200 sieve,
(4.75 mm) and the No. 30 (600 jj-m) sieves. Except for the
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Sieve Size Percentages Tolerances
(Square Passing
Openings) (Master
Ranges) Bases Subbases
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along with the average gradation curves for dry bottom ash and
that most dry bottom ashes would meet some of the gradation
materials.
materials.
Chemical Properties
Chemical Composition
by the source of the coal and not by the type of the furnace.
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(CaO) ,
potassium oxide (KjO) , sodium oxide (NajO) , magnesium
oxide (MgO) , titanium oxide (Ti02) , phosphorous pentoxide
(PjO^) , and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are also present in coal ash.
coal ash for the three main constituents SiOj, AljOj, and FejOj
as SO3 [55]
45
tend to produce higher carbon ash than the new, more efficient
Trace Elements
Percent by weight
Constituents 686 coal W,. Virginia Kentucky
ashes^ beittom ash^ bottom ash"^
]
SO3 0.1-12
46
Mineralogy
phases that make up the ash and the matrix into which it is
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1
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P <-\ r-> OJ H rHmCN rH V CO CN <-{ CN -^
a) 5 •H
o CQ
(0
g J
-p 0)
P
o •H
u> (0 O rH o UD <Ti r-\ •^ in CN o CN o O rH r-\ CN r- CO VO CO 1 CO
fO ^i (0 V (Ti MD CO o O T CN T r~ (>J CO VO VO r^ rr o 1 CO
v^c u CO n T V r-{ CM CN (Ji rH CN r-\ VO
o ra x:
> M p
< c
w <
D
o •
e 0) E E
CD •H e e 3 g 3 E 3 3
V^ p H3 3 e 3 c OJ 3 3 E •H
-H •H
<u (0 c 5-1 e rH P H U -H3 -H rO c rH -H p -H 3 X! c
rH > q; 0) c 3 <-\ rH e OJ C x: 03 0) Ti c T3 •H Sh
XI e > o •rH >1 (T3 Q^r-\ p !T>^
(t3 n C o 03 ^ 0) o u
(C 4-1 rH u U X! ;h ClirH c c O
S-i 03 03 C U C P P c u
E-i o
Q)
1— •H
>H
(U rt! 03 H QJ •H P 03 P P •H H
w en CQ CQ CQ U u u a O C/3 CQ > >• CSl CSl
.
48
[60,61]
Soundness
thawing.
[41] . It has been suggested that the sulfate test may be used
was reported that many of the pores in dry bottom ash are so
large that the sulfate solution readily drains from the ash
most bottom ashes (dry and wet) would meet the specifications
52
another [ 64 ]
[4,67]. Los Angeles abrasion data for wet bottom ash range
bottom ash.
Visual inspection of the fines produced by the Los
Angeles abrasion test from bottom ash (dry and wet) reveals
that the fines are intermediate in size and appear as small
bottom ash has also been questioned on the grounds that the
amount of the sample may fall within the gradation limit and
for dry bottom ash and boiler slag would seem to satisfy most
paving mixtures.
Deleterious Materials
aggregate.
traffic.
slag and found that dry bottom ash and boiler slag have high
58
reaction [71]
The grain strength of a cohesionless soil is usually
such a soil requires that the grains slide over one another.
[73].
shearing resistance.
60
(W
O C TD
•H 0)
0) (0 T3
-P U (0 ^ O MD
to CP >-i n -"T -^ (Ti cH in
P I I I CO ^ ^
(fl U fNJ V£) -^
(0 ^ r^ (T) ^
>i en
ja 0) 3 0)
T3
73 C
a) <
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(U 4-1
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<u
(0 en
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to (0 I—
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w c > 03 g O
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w cn T3 CO cN in
(0 (N n n
u 4-1 U
to Cn
.—
3 >1
C +J
to •H
^4 M tu 0)
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o (0 a) o 1—1 (0 TJ
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c p g J-l T3 ^ O T3 C O
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rH •H u > S > h^l S Q k5
(0 -P
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e
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X 0)
N
u •H
a w m
c
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< >. -H (0 M
c (0 T! ^ o\o o\o o\o o\o w
• u C tj>in in o o P
rH -H en (0 n n CM (N ^^ c
.H +J tn T3 1 1 1 1 OJ
o 4-1 C (J O C5 C5 T! g
0) (0 o g to Q) CP
.— a 3 o\o o\o o\o o\o P (0
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(0 N T3 c ^ MD CO CO 03 4-1
£-• o •H 0) (T3 rH
CO S C/1 m
61
are slightly higher than those for dry bottom ash. Comparing
these values with those derived from natural granular
materials, it is found that bottom ashes have friction angles
sands.
Permeability
considerable importance.
62
No. 200 sieve) with D^q size between 0.1 and 3.0 mm, the
coefficient of permeability k is
k = c D^/
for sand. The values of Hazen 's C for bottom ashes vary from
,
'
63
^
.70
O O rH
4-) -P
C -H rH O O iH X.
O n
...O r^l^OX XX O
in rr rH rH '^
0) i-l
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o ^ OOOXXr-l 10 oLOrHOrH
o o
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4-1
^ e
o u
<U
tt 0000
o <u
u a
ID CO
^ C<i r^ O'xC
Hi
4J '^(NiHOOOOO
c e
^iJniHOOOOOOO"^
-H
o
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QJ
e
I I
I 10000000000
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(U -H
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0) N
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•
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w
c
•H W\
(N CO rH
rH tH rH
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(d UD tn Z -p 0) U
—1
8§U rH
, ,
(U T3 < rH 'T
CD e (T3 CO •H o\o
r--
u W ;3 U U] >H
-p e Jh -rH CP 0) in^
5h ^ (d 73 1 c ^ E-i
x;
(U 0) 0) rH •H T3 hJ u tp
C 4H U] U e rH 4-1 0) Q M >^ >t -p
U
•H -H ^ CD TJ 2 CO < '^ f-i
4H C (H ^ ^ ^ ^ ra < tJ h4
m T!
(d
a e e e u cn g u —
^ ^ CP >H -H
>H Sh
g
c - c 1 >i >i >!
fO 0) >lUH HH (0 4-1 -H 4J 4h n -p > rH
QJ C >H H •H <u H •-i n-\ -H c rH
^0 Ph
S-i
High
Medium 10'^ to 10"^
Low 10'^ to 10'^
Very low 10'^ to 10'^
10"''
Practically impermeable less than
^ From Terzaghi and Peck [76]
permeability.
Compaction Characteristics
the soil, and c) the type and level of the compactive effort.
[79].
1 15 1
i 1 1
110
95 1 1 1
10 15 20 25 30
soils.
the dry density obtained is high when the soil is dry and high
Complete saturation
SI
o>
'5
5
Water contnt
70
[83,84]
moisture content and maximum density. Seals et. al. [3] and
maximum densities were between 91 and 102 pcf, and the optimum
those for boiler slag vary between 6 and 3 percent, which are
Compressibility
[89], Hendron [90], and Lee and Farhoomand [91]. The results
soils and found that coarse soils compressed more and showed
74
relative density.
Stabilization
Mechanical Stabilization
components
as in Figure 15.
75
'/yy'i /^
^
' •
'^^^^K
d
^f
l:,|'^
of aggregate particles.
80
(finer than No. 200 sieve) are needed to achieve the maximum
[21, 36]
projects [3,21,36]
Admixture Stabilization
[38].
32
making the soil more easily handled in the field. Fly ash
83
[101,105]
7-day unconfined
Agency compression strength
(psi)
Texas 650
California, Class A, up to 5% cement 750
California, Class B, up to 4% cement 400
British, light traffic 250
British, heavy traffic 400
85
dry weight of the boiler slag from one power plant and 54
86
[108].
Environmental Legislation
activities
87
otherwise managed.
future.
caused by solid waste has been common to all state and federal
89
material .
water
Waste Classification
92
Q)
x:
c
(t:
e
3
J—
c . .
:
1
'T
-p rH
r^ r-l
U] 1
a u
Q) OJ
T3 X3
C
x: 03
Ul .—
fO W
C T3
(13 c
(C
4-1
c
OJ
U) u
u en
o TJ
QJ C
(4-1
3
IM hJ
0)
OJ 0)
i-H
X! ;-!
•H 3
w
w CO
— -
a 4J .
0) c
x: 0)
e^ g
c
•
VD ^
H H
>
OJ c
V4 0)
D
Hu^nc
Dh (0
93
reviewed.
Characteristics of Corrosivity
EP toxicity
Primary Maximum
Drinking Water acce ptable
Contaminant Standard^ amount'^
(mg/litre) (mg/ litre)
^
EPA Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards [118]
^ Extract concentrations equal to or exceeding
one or more of the levels given will classify
the solid waste as hazardous from EPA [115]
96
test. The new test was first presented to the public in April
final version as the replacement for the EPTC. The new test
is not necessary.
equal to or less than the EPTC. However, the cost for the
98
Regulatory
Contaminants Levels (rag/L)
Acrylonitrile 5.0
Benzene 0.07
Bis (2-chloroethyl) ether (0.05)"^
Carbon Disulfide 14.4
Carbon tetrachloride 0.07
Chlordane 0.03
Chlorobenzene 1.4
Chloroform 0.07
o-Cresol 10.0
m-Cresol 10.0
p-Cresol 10.0
1, 2-Dichlorobenzene 4.3
,4-Dichlorobenzene 10.8
1, 2-Dichloroethane 0.40
1, 1-Dichloroethylene 0.1
2,4-Dinitrotoluene (0.13)''
Heptachlor (and its hydroxide) 0.001
Hexachlorobenzene 0.13
Hexachlorobutadiene 0.72
Hexachloroethane 4.3
Isobutanol 36
Methylene chloride 8.6
Methyl ethyl ketone 7 . 2
Nickel ^
Nitrobenzene (0.13)'^
Pentachlorophenol 3.6
Phenol 14,4
Pyridine 5.0
1, 1, 1, 2-Tetrachloroethane 10.0
1, 1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 1.3
Tetrachloroethylene 0.1
2, 3 4 6-Tetrachlorophenol
, , 1.5
Thallium ^
Toluene 14 .
1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane 30
1, 1, 2-Trichloroethane 1.2
Trichloroethylene 0.07
2 4 5-Trichlorophenol
, , 5.8
2 4 6-Trichlorophenol
, , 0.30
Vinyl Chloride (0.05)^^
waste site types II, III, or IV, these wastes are required to
Concentrations
Parameter (milligrams per liter)
Concentra tions
Parameter (milligrams p er liter)
Acceptable range
Parameter (standard units)
Leaching Mechanism
deposit.
103
production.
the leachate, but at the same time it means that leaching will
concentrations
Attenuation Mechanisms
and/or rock
- dispersion and dilution of leachate in groundwater and
surface water.
Leachate Content
the site on the Superfund List and the Chisman Creek Superfund
at the site and the remedial action cost $8.6 million [129].
of fly ash taken from the site did not contain hazardous
toxicity test. Virginia Power also contended that fly ash has
standards, and all of these excesses were less than ten times
that not only is bottom ash not hazardous, but that the
Radioactivity
[130,131, 132] :
—* Rn-222 —
Po-218 — Pb-214 Bi-214 * Po-214 — —
1600y 3.82d 3.11m 26.8m 19.8m
The lines with arrows specify the nuclei in the chain, and the
(Ci) . The original curie unit was based on the decay rate of
but, unlike radon, they are atoms of heavy metals and readily
its daughters can pass into the blood and settle in bone
tissue [136] .
the mean radium-226 activity was 3.7 pCi/g for ash produced
from eastern coal and 2.6 pCi/g for ash from western coal.
TESTING MATERIALS
ash, and a source which was a combination of both wet and dry
fly ash had been studied. For example, if bottom ash and fly
properties of the fly ash may save the time and effort of
repeated testing.
113
MICHIGAN
Mitchell
• Schahfer (2)
OHIO
ILLINOIS
Richmond
Perry
Stout
Wabash
k
V.
\ 3
/ r
/• Gibson Gallegher /
/ Brown , Culley r ••
r
,/
>
KENTUCKY
Sampling of Ash
plants where bottom and fly ashes are co-disposed, the ash
116
power station.
sampled from bottom ash silos, four were from ash lagoons
storing bottom ash only, and five were from ash lagoons or
Schahfer Unit 17, and Perry ashes. Fly ash was also sampled
Bottom Ash
of each ash.
Schahfer
Unit 14 Western lignite wet
Unit 17 Illinois bituminous dry
Mitchell Western lignite^ dry
Gibson Illinois bituminous dry
Gallagher Indiana bituminous dry
Wabash Indiana bituminous dry
Brown Indiana bituminous dry
Culley Indiana bituminous dry
Richmond Indiana bituminous dry
Perry Indiana bituminous dry
Stout Indiana bituminous wet & dry
From Wyoming
118
Gibson Ash
the ash pond and the station is producing bottom ash at a rate
of 200,000 tons per year. Bottom ash and fly ash are stored
separately at the station. The bottom ash lagoon is easily
accessible by trucks and other construction equipment. This
ash exhibited a dull appearance and some particles showed a
Gallagher Ash
burned. This dry bottom ash was sluiced to the ash lagoon and
mixed with the fly ash. The appearance of this ash was of a
dull nature, with a light gray color. There are filled and
Station is good, but bottom ash was not being markered at the
time of sampling.
Wabash Ash
condition.
Brown Ash
the Old Ben I mine in southern Indiana. The station has been
1978, and the plan is to continue the use of that coal for the
of shiny luster. The ash was not being marketed at the time
of sampling.
Culley Ash
landfill, where the bottom and fly ashes are mixed randomly.
Bottom ash sample was obtained from the bottom ash lagoon.
This material has high specific gravity and unit weight, with
sampling.
Schahfer Unit 17
pond. This bottom ash was composed of clean sand and gravel
121
dark gray color. Fly and bottom ashes were stored separately.
Schahfer Unit 14
cyclone furnace and produced wet bottom ash. This was the
ash. Bottom ash was stored separately from fly ash, and was
different from those of dry bottom ashes. The ash was hard,
Mitchell Ash
through pipes to ash pits which stored both fly and bottom
ashes. Access to the ash pits was very poor. The station
the ash, and then reconstruct the dike. The ash was not being
Richmond Ash
directly from trucks while being loaded from the bottom ash
bin. This ash was predominantly sand in size, with very few
Perry Ash
was the only ash sampled that had never been washed by water.
Bottom ash and fly ash were stored separately in silos at the
different from the other dry bottom ashes. This ash had so
Stout Ash
was stockpiled with fly ash in the lagoon. Two wet bottom and
three dry bottom furnaces contributed ash to the ash pond.
gray color. The ash sample was obtained near the outlet where
access to the ash lagoon is fairly good. The ash was not
Fly Ash
Gibson, Schahfer Unit 14, Schahfer Unit 17, and Perry, when
the third bottom ash sample was taken from each of the four
Class C material.
Fly ashes were sampled from the fly ash transfer line at
Gibson and Schahfer stations. Perry fly ash was obtained from
Appendix C.
Percent retained on
No. 200 sieve 9.4 14.9 21.6
Introduction
procedures is presented.
of the leachates.
bottom ashes.
Chemical Analysis
solution. The solution was then diluted to 250 ml, and the
128
Loss on Ignition
furnace firing temperatures higher than 1000 °C, all carbon and
However, not all power plant boilers are operated with such
dried weight.
test
129
Microscopic Examination
Polaroid type 107 film (black and white) . All bottom ashes
X-Ray Diffraction
crystalline substances.
The dry sieve analysis was carried out using a Ro-Tap Testing
all bottom ashes have less than 12 percent fines, the washing
Specific Gravity
the Boyle's Law P^V^ = PjVj, the initial volume of the gas in
the sample chamber can be calculated, from which the volume of
methods.
Aqgrecrate Tests
drying.
Sulfate Soundness
were determined.
132
and the testing material was placed in the tube with a scoop.
Permeability
specimens were about 8 in. (20 cm) high and were saturated for
24 hours before the test was performed. Ash materials were
compacted at standard effort (ASTM D 698) and then placed in
133
diameter of 2.5 in. (64 mm) and a height of 1.5 in. (38 mm).
Only materials finer than 3/8 in. (3.6 mm) were used in the
states. The normal stress used in the test ranged from about
Compaction
passing the 3/4 in. sieve, was adopted throughout the study.
compaction test.
134
Degradation
One-Dimensional Compression
specimens were 1.5 in. (38 mm) high. Initially, dry materials
Franco and Lee [145]. In this test, the ash materials were
dried and pretreated for compaction per ASTM D 698. Water was
level with the top surface and the specimen was weighed to
The CBR of each ash tested was obtained for the as-
of ASTM D 1883 was followed. After the percent swell had been
ash. The surcharges used during the soaking period and the
Stabilization
and fly ashes from the same source. The bottom ash-fly ash
soil portion (cement -r fly ash) in the mixture was the same as
moisture content and moist cured for 7 days and then subjected
Compressive Strength
CAP) were placed on the top and bottom faces of the specimens
138
Leaching Tests
size of 100 gm was used for all the ashes tested. Coarse
particles were broken down so that they would pass the 3/8 in.
Leachate Analysis
EPA SW-34 6.
Radioactivity
was set to count gamma rays between 270 to 720 keV. This
range covered the Pb-214 peaks and the Bi-214 peak, both are
index of 21.2%.
1^ *
Jit
Wlfi^'^'-^ -^^^
1mm
*f%«t
'%
m^
t-#^'
fractured faces, which made wet bottom ash much like crushed
pyrite particles.
Mineraloqical Analysis
T3
C
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e
x:
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153
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154
quartz (SiOj) and hematite {Fe^O-^) are found in almost all dry
Appendix A.
Chemical Analysis
155
0)
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I I X 1 XIII
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156
Schahfer
Unit 14 very high 27 silica
Unit 17 low 24 silica
Mitchell low 24 silica
Gibson high 24 silica
Gallagher low 31 calcium aluminate
Wabash low 23 silica
Brown low 25 silica
Culley trace 31 calcium aluminate
Richmond high 24 silica
Perry low 23 silica
Stout*" #1 - - (little or no glass)
#2 high 24 silica
fly ashes from the same sources were well over 30 percent
= o
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CO CO O Ci r^ n 'S'
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(0
was found for the first sample of Stout ash, due to the
seen in these figures, dry bottom ash and wet bottom boiler
70r
60 Average
Range i
- 50
5
n 40
c
a
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03
Q. 30
20
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I
MgO Na^O SO3 loss on
SiO. Fe 0„ A1907 CaO
2 3 igntion
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170
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ten (10) are classified as sand and the other one as gravel.
The fine portions passing the No. 200 sieve for dry
the fines passing the No. 200 sieve. However, it was not
separately from fly ash. For power plants where bottom and
17.
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175
Pe:rcent passing
Ash AASHTO
source No. lO'' No. 40= No. 200^ Classification
Schahfer
Unit 14 90 7 A-l-b
Unit 17 56 20 3 A-l-b
Mitchell 19 8 1 A-l-a
Gibson 62 25 4 A-l-b
Gallagher 49 23 8 A-l-a
Wabash 45 17 6 A-l-a
Brown 48 19 5 A-l-a
Culley 41 17 5 A-l-a
Richmond 63 38 13 A-l-b
Perry 46 12 4 A-l-a
Stout 31 12 5 A-l-a
in. or 1/2 in. top size materials. The wet bottom ash, being
Specific Gravity
wider than that for most soils (ranges from 2.5 to 2.8 [74] ) .
in
(0
£
O
P
— LU
-P
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1-1
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4-1
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Schahfer
Unit 14 2.81 2.81 2.82 2.81
Unit 17 2.47 2.49 2.57 2.57
Mitchell 2.35 2.44 2.44 2.47
Gibson 2.50 2.50 2.55 2.54
Gallagher 3.05 2.57 3.07 2.64
Wabash 2.45 2.41 2.56 2.48
Brown 2.70 2.95 2.74 2.97
Culley 3.20 3.20 3.21 3.23
Richmond 2.79 2.25 2.90 2.40
Perry 1.84 1.60 2.12 1.94
Stout 3.43 2.40 3.46 2.45
test method for aggregates (ASTM C 128) . The two test methods
were carried out in the same pycnometer apparatus, but
differed only in the techniques used in removing the entrapped
Schahfer
Unit 14 2.81 2.82 2.83
Unit 17 2.47 2.57 2.61
Mitchell 2.35 2.44 2.57
Gibson 2.50 2.55 2.74
Gallagher 3.05 3.07 3.10
Wabash 2.45 2.56 2.56
Brown 2.70 2.74 2.7 5
Culley 3.20 3.21 3.19
Richmond 2.79 2.90 2.89
Perry 1.84 2.12 2.32
Stout 3.43 3.46 3.50
Soundness
than the 3/8-in. sieve is assumed to have the same loss as the
next smaller size for which test data are available. The
132
Schahfer
Unit 14 1.3
Unit 17 2.3
Mitchell 5.5
Gibson 2.3
Gallagher 2.2
Wabash 3.0
Brown 6.7
Culley 3.9
Richmond 2.2
Perry- 10.8
Stout 6.3
INDOT specifications
Class C subbase 16.0
Class A subbase 12.0
Table, all ashes, but one, have Los Angeles abrasion values
except one, would meet the ASTM D 1241 and AASHTO M 147
Schahfer
Unit 14 _b - -
Unit 17 D 38 0.35
Mitchell C 36 0.30
Gibson D 34 0.39
Gallagher D 37 0.31
Wabash D 41 0.32
Brown D 45 0.33
Culley C 40 0.38
Richmond _b - -
Perry D 48 0.42
Stout C 43 0.30
Crushed 1 imestone'^ B 16
Indiana carbonate
aggregat e^ 24-39
Class C subbase 45
Class A subbase 40
INDOT for class C subbase, and some ashes are able to meet the
be noted from Table 31 that none of the bottom ashes show the
abrasion test.
like many bottom ashes, having high percent fines (finer than
the No. 8 sieve) , only a small portion of the sample may fall
entire sample.
Standard
Ottawa sand'^ 0.80 0.50 110.0 92.0
Fine to coarse
sand*^ 0.95 0.20 138.0 85.0
Silty sand
and gravel"^ 0.85 0.14 146.0 89.0
ashes. The wet bottom ash (Schahfer Unit 14) has the highest
pcf . Due to a highly porous nature, Perry ash has the lowest
bottom ashes also show a wide range, varying from 0.4 8 to 1.31
Permeability
190
Coefficient of
Void Percent pe:rmeability Hazen '
Schahfer
Unit 14= 0.51 0.3 0.101 0.57
Unit 17 0.73 3.5 0.034 0.85
Gibson 0.55 6.5 0.009 0.45
Perry"^ 1.44 5.9 0.014 0.12
Gallagher 0.59 10.1 0.003 0.53
k = C D^o^
0.1 to 0.9 for bottom ash samples. Considering the wide range
Perry
10 20 30 40 50
Normal Stress, psi
Gallagher
10 20 30 40 50
Normal Stress, psi
Gibson
ft
CD
U
^->
CO
;-.
(d
a;
00
10 20 30 40 50
Normal Stress, psi
Schahfer 17
40
30
^
-t->
tfl
rt
(V
20
-IJ
CO
J^
03
CD
^ 10
CO
10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, psi
Schahfer 14
40^
O Dr=16%
Dr-88%
30
d
-fj
bfl
d
CD
20
-(-)
CO
;-4
cd
CD
x^ 10
in
10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, psi
did not exhibit this peak during shear, the values of 0' for
resistance for the wet bottom ash falls within the same range
Loose Dense
Strength Strength
intercept Values of intercept Values of
Material (psi) 0', deg (psi) •deg,
Schahfer
Unit 14^ 0.48 35.1 1.49 46.3
Unit 17 0.14 39.2 3.12 47.7
Gibson 0.20 44.8 1.66 55.0
Gallagher 0.49 41.3 2.00 51.6
Perry 0.49 41.5 3.00 50.6
Medium sand.
angular*^ 32-34 44-46
Sand and
gravel'' 34 45
Well graded,
angular sand' 39 45
Well graded
rounded sand' 34 40
Moisture-Densitv Relations
5 12 15 24
Water Content (?0
115
o 11?
o.
>\
m
c
u
a
^ 108
Q
1044
4 8 12 15 20
Water Content Prior to Compaction (?£)
100
10 15 20 30
Water Content {%)
100
5 10 15 20 25
Water Content Prior to Compoction (?o)
10 15 20 30
Water Content (%)
104
o 100
Q.
>,
-*j
m
c
<a
Q
^ 96
Q
92
5 10 15 20
Water Content Prior to Compaction (%]
10 15 20
Water Content (%)
112
o 108
Q.
>>
^ 104
Q
100
5 10 15 20
ash
Figure 53. Moisture-density relations for Gallagher
204
water contents.
where y^
= normalized density
Yjj
= compacted dry density
V = density of water
V s = volume of solids
V = total volume, and
V = volume of voids.
Schahfer
Unit 14= 12.9 112.2 2.81 0.639
Unit 17 21.5 95.4 2.57 0.594
Gibson 19.5 101.3 2.55 0.637
Gallagher 16.1 108.7 2.64 0.660
Perry'^ 40.8 63.0 2.12 0.476
Brown 20.8 102.1 2.74 0.597
Crushed LS
aggregate® 8.9 130.6 2.72 0.769
Natural river
aggregate® 10.5 123.2 2.66 0.742
Degradation
through 58. It can be seen from Figure 54 that the wet bottom
compaction, due to the hard and dense nature of wet bottom ash
o
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213
Appendix B.
Percent fines
Index of
Before After crushing
Material compaction 1 compaction I] acrease
Schahfer
Unit 14^ 0.3 0.4 0.1 4.8
Unit 17 2.5 3,5 1.0 11.5
Gibson 6.1 6o5 0.4 10.0
Gallagher 9.4 10.1 0.7 5.1
Perry'' 2.6 6.1 3.5 32.6
Crushed limes-tone
aggregate'^ 3.0 6.0 3.0 4.9
Natural river
aggregate'^ 1.0 3.0 2.0 6.5
Carbonate
aggregate"^ 0.0 1.0-2.2 1 .0-2. 2 8-15
One-Dimensional Compression
deformations.
1000
0.0 ' ' ' i r
'
I I
a;"
-1.0-
5 -2.0^ •°Schahfer 14
- Schahfer 17
•^ Gibson
-^ Sand
-3.0 T r T" r
100 1000
0.0
^ -1.0-
o -2.0-
Perry
o • • Gallagher
> -3.0-
^ ^ Sand
-4.0 t I I I I I
D =
e ,-,
= vertical strain at a stress level of a -,.
made between the constrained moduli for bottom ash and those
for a uniform medium sand [89], and the results are shown in
Table 37. It is found that the moduli for one ash (Schahfer
Unit 14) are comparable to those of the well graded sand. The
values for the other two ashes are somewhat lower than those
each moisture content and density condition and the CBR values
O Gibson
• Gallagher
A Schahfer 14
^ Medium sand
221
(N iH O y3 VD en
0)
CN) VD rH r- (N O >H \n
x: CN eH r-l CM
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£
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223
yield erratic results from the CBR tesz. The CBR values in
29 percent.
As can be seen from Table 38, soaking does not affect the
that, in all cases, the 0,1-in CBR value is less than the 0.2-
A-l-a and the remaining 4 as A-l-b. The CBR values for bottom
curve. Although the CBR curves have their peaks to the dry
side of optimum moisture content, the CBR values at the wet
side of the peak are higher than those at the dry side. As
flushed condition.
— '
224
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CX3 (O -^ Cvl oo
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Mechanical Stabilization
increases until the voids are filled with fly ash, and then
than that of either the bottom ash or the fly ash, and it is
228
Gibson
125
Schahfer 17
Schahfer 14
140^
Q.
O
their average.
ash, and voids in the mixtures were computed for a typical ash
curves ADE and FE and those between curves ABC and ADE
respectively.
Based on the assumption that both bottom ash and fly ash
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234
'jiDson asn
100
90
80
70
O
> 60
o
o 50
o 40-
c 30
U
20
10
bortOKi ash and fly ash in various mixtures; and the absolute
Load-Deformation Characteristics
fly ash mixtures were investigated using CBR test. Two tests
236
ash and fly ash is similar to that between maximum density and
1CC
O As— ccmpccted
Scckad
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Z Bocron Ash 100 80 60
Z FI7 Ash 20 40 60 80 100
that there are voids between bottom ash particles not readily
compacted fly ash and both strength and density of the mixture
start to decrease.
side of the optimum are only slightly smaller than the maximum
Cement Stabilization
Figures 73 and 74. For the two bottom ashes tested, the
Schahfer 14
140
o 130
£= 120
Q
? 110
t
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^
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200
percent. And these contents agree wirh the oprimum fly ash
contents determined by compacrion tesrs. This indicares thar
which are well above the minimums often specified for cement
stabilized base courses. Further increase in fly ash content
Gibson ash
75% BA° + 25% FA= 35
90% BA + 10% PC'' 752
75% BA + 15% FA + 10% PC 1823
75% BA + 17.5% FA + 7.5 % PC 1297
75% BA + 20% FA + 5% PC 837
94% BA + 6% PC 265
75% BA + 19 % FA + 6% PC 1106
75% BA + 22 % FA + 3% PC 817
94% BA + 6% PC 221
70% BA + 24% FA + 6% PC 861
70% BA + 27% FA + 3% PC 361
^ Strengths are the average of two tests
^ Denotes Bottom Ash
^ Denotes Fly Ash
Denotes Portland Cement, Type I
245
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particle strength of this ash and the high air voids in the
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252
bottom ash leachates are far below the type IV criteria which
and salts than the leachates from dry bottom ashes. However,
exist.
react with oxygen and water ro form ferrous iron and sulfuric
environmental concerns.
Radioactivity
Global average
of soil" 0.8
Average of fly ash
from western coal^ 2 . 6
Average of fly ash
from eastern coal"^ 3 . 7
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
[168]:
shortages
- Location in areas with growing demand for aggregates
can be seen from this figure, coal burning power plants are
259
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261
gravel that are competitive with power plant bottom ash exist
available.
Disposal Costs
264
Processing Costs
from bottom ash, it seems that sizing for dry bottom ash may
amount of material involved, the lower the unit price for the
material. For example, the unit price for less than 2,000
Note: The number of bids and other factors may bias the
average prices shown.
267
Transportation Costs
first ten miles and $0.08 to $0.10 per ton for every mile
268
conventional materials.
material
269
ash.
from one power plant to another, but also from day to day
Source Selection
transportation agencies.
satisfactorily.
service.
274
Acceptance Criteria
2.5 is recommended.
the limit.
276
Environmental Concerns
engineering properties.
product.
materials.
significantly.
stabilized bases.
highway applications.
this purpose.
be examined.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
24. Bobcock & Wilcox Company, Steam: Its Generation and Use,
Bobcock & Wilcox, New York, 1978.
26. GAI Consultants, Inc., Fly Ash Design Manual for Road and
Site Applications, Vol. 1, Dry or Conditioned Placement,
Electric Power Research Institute, Report CS-4419, Palo
Alto, Ca., February 1986.
287
Rockwood, N. "Distribution,
C. , Production, and
Engineering Characteristics of Aggregates," in Highway
Engineering Handbook, Section 16, Woods, K. B. editor,
,
244.
289
56. GAI Consultants, Inc., Fly Ash Design Manual for Road and
Site Applications, Volume 1: Dry or Conditioned
Placement, Report No. CS-4419, Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA, February 1986.
291
115. Federal Register, Vol. 45, No. 93, May 19, 1930, pp.
33063-33285.
1984.
295
132. Walker, F. W.
, Miller, D. G., and Porstendorf er J.,
"Measurements of the Unattached Fraction of Radon
Daughters in Houses," The Science of the Total
Environment, Vol. 45, p. 261.
296
140. Diamond, S., Selection and Use of Fly Ash for Highway
Concrete, Joint Highway Research Project, Report 35-8,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 1985.
141. American Society for testing anf Materials, "Standard
Specification for Fly Ash and Raw Calcined Natural
Pozzalan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete," ASTM Designation C 613.
142. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard
Methods of Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural
Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete," ASTM Designation C 311.
y
Bearing Ratio Test Procedure," Transportation Research
Record 1119, 1987, pp. 91-97.
14 6. Environmental Protection Agency, Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Water and Wastes, EPA-600/4-79-020
147. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard
/ Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-
Cement Mixtures," ASTM Designation D 558.
Appendix A
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310
Appendix B
Initial Final
Mean Weighted Weighted
Standard diameter Initial % Final %
sieve of sieves % (columns) % (columns)
sizes (in.) retained AxB retained AxD
3/4-1/2 0.625
1/2-3/8 0.438
3/8-#4 0.281
#4-#12 0.127
#12-#40 0.041
#40-#100 0.011
#100-Pan 0.003
SC SE
Appendix C
Moisture-Density Curves for Various Ash Mixtures
—
313
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