Steel

Haseeb Ullah Khan Jatoi

Department of Chemical
Engineering
UET Lahore
 Recap

• Eutectic phase diagram

 Eutectic phase diagram

• Eutectic isotherm
• Invariant point
• Eutectic Reaction
• Compositions of components at invariant
point
• Effect of solutes additions on phases
Microstructure development of Sn-Pb system
Iron and Steel

• After iron extraction

– Pig Iron
– Wrought Iron
– Cast Iron
Pig Iron
• Very high carbon content (3.5–4.5%)
• This makes it very brittle with low melting
points and not useful directly as a material
except for limited applications
• Pig iron is used to make steel where
molten pig iron (hot melt) is charged into
BOF or Electric Arc Furnace to make steel
 Cast Iron
• It contains carbon contents above 2.14%. Most
contains between 3 – 4.5%
• It is brittle, wear and tear resistant, cannot be
welded, neither malleable nor ductile, does not
rust, lack plasticity and has high compressive
strength, excellent machineability and M.P is
1150 – 1300 ˚C
• Used for manufacturing of parts of cars, man
hole covers, and railings, etc
 Types of Cast Iron

Gray Cast Ductile Cast White Cast

Iron Iron Iron

Compacted
Malleable
Graphite
Cast Iron
Iron
 Gray Cast Iron
• The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary
between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%,
respectively
• Factors that promote the formation of gray cast iron are:
– slow rate of cooling
– slow rate of solidification
• Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle
in tension as a consequence of its microstructure
• the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed, and
may serve as points of stress concentration when an
external tensile stress is applied
 Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
• Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to
the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly
different microstructure and set of mechanical properties
• Graphite still forms, but as nodules or sphere-like
particles instead of flakes. The resulting alloy is called
nodular or ductile iron
• Typical applications for this material include valves,
pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other automotive
and machine components
a) Gray iron b)Nodular (ductile) iron
the dark graphite flakes the dark graphite nodules
 White Cast Iron
• When pig iron converts to cast iron, if cooling is
done rapidly then pig iron is changed in to white
cast iron
• It is hard and brittle. Its use is limited to
applications that necessitate a very hard and
wear-resistant surface, without a high degree of
ductility—for example, as rollers in rolling mills
 Malleable Cast Iron
• Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 to
900˚C for a prolonged time period and in a neutral
atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a
decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which
exists in the form of clusters
• Representative applications include connecting rods,
transmission gears, and differential cases for the
automotive industry, and also flanges, pipe fittings, and
valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty
services
(c) White iron (d) Malleable iron
Pearlite dark graphite rosettes
 Compacted Graphite Cast Iron
• Silicon content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%,
whereas carbon concentration is normally
between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%
• Important applications are in diesel engine
blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings,
brake discs for high-speed trains, and flywheels
 Wrought Iron
• It is tough, can bear shocks and impact,
can be welded, M.P is 1500˚C
• Corroded easily
• Purest form of Iron in which impurities
does not exceed from 0.5%
• Used for making sheets, for rod making,
making of gas pipelines, boiler tubes and
frames of windows
Steel

• When carbon in small quantities is added to iron,

‘Steel’ is obtained

• The atomic diameter of carbon is less than the

interstices between iron atoms and the carbon
goes into solid solution of iron

• As carbon dissolves in the interstices, it distorts

the original crystal lattice of iron
Steel
• This mechanical distortion of crystal lattice interferes with
the external applied strain to the crystal lattice, by
mechanically blocking the dislocation of the crystal
lattices (In other words, they provide mechanical
strength)

• Adding more and more carbon to iron (upto solubility of

iron) results in more and more distortion of the crystal
lattices and hence provides increased mechanical
strength
Steel
• However, solubility of more carbon influences
negatively with another important property of
iron called the ductility’

• Carbon contents may vary between 0.2 – 2.1%

by wt, depending on the grade. Purest form of
iron and the impurities present in it are less than
0.5%
Steel
• Hence we see that when more carbon is added,
enhanced mechanical strength is obtained, but ductility
is reduced

• Increase in carbon content isnot the only way, and

certainly not the desirable way to get increased strength
of steels. More amount of carbon causes problems
during the welding process

• Phase diagram for different steel types

 Next Lecture

• Stainless steel
 Steel Making Routes

• Alloy and Special steels made by route 2

Steel
Carbon
Steel

Alloy
Steel
Carbon steel. When a steel consists of iron
and carbon only, it is known as carbon
steel.
Alloy Steel. When steel contains iron,
carbon and other alloying elements such
as copper, vanadium, nickel, and
molybdenum in combined concentrations
as high as 10 wt%, and possess higher
strengths than the plain low-carbon steels
 Carbon Steel
Mild or
Medium High
Low
Carbon Carbon
Carbon
 Mild or Low Carbon Steel
• Mild or Low Carbon Steel. Carbon contents are
in the range of 0.15 – 0.25%
• Its structure is fibrous, color is blue, more tough
and elastic than cast and wrought iron, corrodes
easily, can be welded and magnetized,
withstand shocks and impacts.
• Used in manufacturing of various tools, machine
parts, rail tracks, industrial buildings, etc.
 Medium Carbon Steel

• Carbon contents are in the range of 0.25 –

0.6%. It is not very tough, cannot
withstand shocks, and it is easier to weld.
• Used for making number of tools, such as
files. Used in roof covering and also in rain
water pipes.
 High Carbon Steel
• Carbon contents are in the range of 0.6 – 1.4%.
High % of carbon in it renders its hardness and
toughness. Its structure is granular and it is
tougher than mild steel. More difficult to weld
and it can withstand shocks and vibrations
better.
• Used for making tools e.g. drilling, fine quality of
cutlery is made from it. Used to make those
parts of machine, which needs hard, tough and
durable materials
 Stainless Steel
• Stainless steels are iron-based alloys containing a
minimum of about 10.5% chromium
• This forms a protective self-healing oxide film, which is
the reason why this group of steels has their
characteristic "stainlessness" or corrosion resistance
• The ability of the oxide layer to heal itself means that the
steel is corrosion resistant, no matter how much of the
surface is removed. (This is not the case when carbon or
low alloy steels are protected from corrosion by metallic
coatings such as zinc or cadmium or by organic coatings
such as paint)
• Although all stainless steels depend on the
presence of chromium, other alloying
elements are often added to enhance their
properties
• The categorization of stainless steels is
unusual amongst metals in that it is based
upon the nature of their metallurgical
structure
Role of important alloying elements

• Chromium: Corrosion resistance

• Nickel: Increases ductility, toughness,
corrosion resistance
• Molybdenum: Increases mechanical
strength, increases localized corrosion
resistance
• Copper: Increases corrosion resistance in
acid environments
• Manganese: Increases hot ductility,
ferrite/austenite balance
• Silicon: Increases resistance to oxidation
• Carbon: Increases mechanical strength,
reduces intergranular corrosion
• Titanium: Increases mechanical strength
and corrosion resistance
Corrosion Resistance
Stainless Steel

Austenitic Stainless
Steel

Ferritic Stainless
Steel

Martensitic Stainless
Steel
 Austenitic stainless steel (300 Family)
• It is a face-centered cubic crystal structure.
• Austenite steels make up over 70% of total
stainless steel production.
• They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon,
a minimum of 16% chromium and 6%
nickel and/or manganese (Grade
304=18/8)
• Used for high temperature and corrosive
environments
Ferritic Stainless Steel (400 Family)

• Generally have better engineering properties

than austenitic grades, but have reduced
corrosion resistance, because of the lower
chromium and nickel content.
• They are also usually less expensive and
contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium
and very little nickel, if any, but some types can
contain lead.
• Most compositions include molybdenum; some,
aluminum or titanium
 Martensitic
• Martensitic stainless steels are not as
corrosion-resistant but are extremely strong and
tough, as well as highly machinable, and can be
hardened by heat treatment.
• It contains chromium (12–14%), molybdenum
(0.2–1%), nickel (less than 2%), and carbon
(about 0.1–1%) (giving it more hardness but
making the material a bit more brittle).
• It is quenched and magnetic.
• For different grading standards of iron and
steel, consult the notes uploaded online
 Assignment

• Difference between cast iron and steel

• Composition, properties and applications
of nickel steel, vanadium steel, chromium-
vanadium steel, manganese steel, silicon
steel, molybdenum steel, tungsten steel

– Submission in next class

Mechanical Properties
 Next Lecture

• Fabrication and heat treatment methods