CO L LE G E AL G E B R A

HE N RY BURCHA RD F I E
PR OFESSO R OF MAT HEM A T ICS IN P
N
RINCE T O N NI V RSI T Y
U E

GI NN AND COMPANY
N W YO R K
E CHI C A G O LO ND O N

D A LL AS C O L U M B US S AN F R A N C I S CO
 EN T ERE D AT S TAT I O N E RS H ALL ’

C O PYRI G H T , 190 1 , 1904 , B Y

H E NR Y B F I NE .

ALL RI G H T S RESER V ED
P R IN T ED I N T H E U NI T ED S T A T ES O F A M E R IC A

th t e cn zu m B u ss
G INN AN C O MPA NY
D PR O
BOS T O N
0

PR I E T O R S o
USA. . .
 PR E FACE

In t
hi b s o ok I h av e e n d e av o r e d td o e v e l op t
h th e e or y o f t
h e

b r ai c p r o c e sse s i n a s e l e m e ntary an d i n f or m al a m an n e r
al g e

as p o s s i b l e t t
b u c o n n e c e dl y an d r i g o r ou sly an d o p re se nt t
t t t t tt
, ,

h e p r o c e s s e s t h e m se l ve s i n h e f or m b e s adap ed o h e

p ur
p os e s p of c k on in g
ra ct
i c al re

Th e b o o k i s m e a n t to cont a i n e v e ry t h i n g r el at i n g t
.

o al g e b r a

t h at a st u d e n t i s lik e ly t o n ee d d u r i n g hi s s c h o o l a n d c o ll e g e

c ou r se an d t h e e ffo rt h as b e e n m a de t o a r r an g e t h i s v a ri ed
m at i l l p r op e r l y e x h i b i tt
,

e r i al i n an o rd e r wh i c h w h e l o g i c al
s rel a t
i nt e r de p e n d e n c e o f i t e d p ar t s

t tm b t tdi v id t h b k i t t w p t
.

I h as se e m e d o e es o e e oo n o o ar s,

a p l i
re i n m y p t dar t d t t har n m b evo e
y t m f l g b o e u er s s e o a e ra

an d p i cip l p t
a r n d td t l g b i tl f
a ar evo e o a e ra se

t
.

I h b d y di c
av e as e i n f m mb h n ti
s u ss o f o nu er on e o on o

c di l
ar na b num d t h ti e r an f d h i b it
e no d i t h on o or e r a s ex e n e

fi t rs i tc i t
n s an h n t l c l 1 2 3
e n e Th
a u ra s a e e r e a r e c on

t t tic l n t i f t
, , ,

sid erai f
on s o h a fe o re hi p c d
a a u re n a vo r o s ro e u re

i twh i ch I
n o d t th n ee B tp i c h no en er e re u ex er en e as c o n

t h t t t
.

i
v n ce d me f m p d
a g g i c l ro
p i n f a i w l
e h
a io a o o v e a so s

m t eh d i to h b t Th
s e i g ft
es h d i l d fi i ti
e m e an n f o e or na e n on o

t t
.

an i rr a i l on a b f num
p l b
e r, m d or c l e x amv e , c an e a e e ar e en o

a y ou ng t d t wh
s u en
y t h l d fi n i ti
e r e a s an f c h o er rea e on o su a

n b i t b tc t tb l w y c ct
,

um er s oo a s ra ly d o t d by
e a a s o rr e un e r s oo

ad nc d t
va e d t s u en s

t
.

My di c i n f
s u ss o b y b o h g h
nut m n c er i lyma e ou un e essa r

l b
e a t
ora e B t i d li g w i t u h q t
ni f t
ea hi f
n d tl u es on s o s un am e n a

ch ct w it c twit it t
.

ar a er a r h erg d c ci n c
an n o p i a oo on s e e om o n s

whi ch p p ly b l n g th i d i c
ro er ie o f i l tg i v p
o s f s u s s o n , or a o e r oo s
iv P R E F A CE

o f s a em et t nt s whi ch r e qu i r e d e m o n s tr a t i o n I h op e h e de ai l s t t
t w il l i t t t t
.

of h di c e i s u ss o n h n er e s e m ore h o u g h tf u l cl a ss o f
t d nt
s u ; b tll t
e s h t t uh g a l t d t a n d b e k d t e n er a s u en ee e as e o

l e arn f m it ro i t h d i l ch s ct e f t h or l n mb na ar a er o e r ea u e rs

an d f t ho l t i f q li t
e re a y d i q l i ty m
on s o e g t
ua h m an ne ua a on e

d t h t t nt
,

an f a ll mb or a l d c
nu
p l h f
e r s, r e a d l an om ex , e un am e a

o p ti
e ra dm i tf d fi i t i
on s a wh i c h c
o f e tt hn on s on o rm o e c om m u

tt a i ve , associ t i d di t a ib t iv l w
v e , an s r u e a s

t p tf t
.

I hn c nd e se o m i h b k I b g i n by b
or a n ar o e oo e o se r v

i g th t
n i a lg b wh
n a n mbe r a,
p nt
e re d by l t t
u e r s ar e re r e se e e ers ,

t h l w j t
e a m nt
s i us d ent i l ly t h d fin i t
on e i f t h
a r e e ss e a e e on s o e

f d un tl p t i
a m en a Th
o lg b i c d fi i t
era on s i ttd
e se a e ra e n o n s a re s a e

d t t t nt t t
.

in il e a d f han h i
ro m h y f h
em l g b i
e c e re eo r o e a e ra

d t h p ct b q nt
,

p c r o e s se s an ic l l e f ck i g
ra a ru es oly re on n a re s u se ue

d i v d d d ct
er e i ly e u ve

tt t p ttd c i b t hi p t f t
.

I h ll s a no a em h b k mi
o es r e s ar o e oo

nu tly I te w ill b f d td i ff ei t
o un i l f t o f m er n e s se n a e a u r es ro

t h t t
.

e b k i g
ex oo l s I h
n c f l ly f i d f m
en er a u se av e ar e u r e ra n e ro

t
-

d p t cc pt t
.

e i g f
ar n d
ro m h d a ly f
e h
e k me f o s m e re or e sa e o n ov

e lt y B t I h vu t h i tat d t d
e no p t f m t
es h t
a e h d o e ar ro ese m e o s

t d tm n c t c l gic l
.

wh en hi s see m e y i o d e e e ssa r n or er o s e u re o a

c n i tcy
o s s en wh I w
or O pp t en n ity t i p li fy
sa an t
t or u o s m a ma er

f t li t t p c t p ci l
,

o h y e or p c ti c or I h gi
ra el a ve ve n e s a e o s e a

it i t h tt i t O t t
.

d vic
e es eh er n h ci
e ex h or h n e e x er se s n e o er

c tt gh t t it t td tt l ly
.

h nd I h
a ly
av e o n s an h so u o ass s e s u en o re a

tt t ft
,

m as e r h g l e h de n e ra h ci c me o s o e s en e

i td f l g t i g tt h l t tp t f t
.

Th u s, n s ea o re e ah b kn o e a er ar o e oo

t h m t e h d f n d tm i
e o o d c ffi ci tt
u e er h p i c ip l m tne h d oe e n s, e r n a e o

o f i nv t ig tes i i a ly i I h
on n i td c d i t
an a v y s s, ly av e n ro u e er e ar

an d h aveb q t lysu pl y d i t
se u en wh t h i c ld b
em o e e r e ve r s ou e

d on e t d tg Th i h o a v an a t l ly ff c td t
e h s as g n a u ra a e e e a r r an e

tf tpi c I p t c id d p t
.

m en o o ic ls I h n ar i l f c
u ar a ve on s e re ar a ra

t i t h ch pt f t g t
.

i on s n e i a Th y b l
er on h l g i c lly
ra c on s e e on e re o a

tly t td pply t h b t p ct
,
.

an d wh d q en a e ua e rea e ic i l su e es ra e n e e

m nt ck i g t h tl g b
,

e y ar re on n ff d a a e ra a or s.
 P R E FACE v

Ag ai n I h av e l aid g r e at st re ss u p o n h e di vi si o n r an s for t t
t tt
,

m a t i o n a n d i s c o n s e q u e n c e s an d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i h i h av e
t
,

i n tr o du c ed h e p o we r fu l m e th o d o f s y nth e t i c d i vi si o n
Th e e ar l i er c h ap t e r s on e q u at t
.

i o n s wi ll b e f o u n d o c o n t ai n a

p r e tt
y f t
u ll d i s c u ss i o n o f h e r e a s o n i n g o n w h i c h h e sol u t
i o t
n of

e
q t i
ua d p d
on s e en y t t s, a ic t t t
m ore s t hs em ai c t m rea m en an s us o

ar y f o
y t m s fs e q ti s o w hi c he ua b lon s d b y id f t hc an e s o ve a o e

q uad t i c
ra d m an w h t l b
a so t c e i d a t i n
e a f t ho ra e
g p h on s er a o o e ra s

f q t ft h fi td i t
,

o e iua on s o c dd g
e rs an w se o n i bl e rees n o var a e s.

Th b i e i l t h
n om m f a p i t iv
e o re i nt g l or
p n t i os e e ra ex o en s s

t t re a ed p c i
as a s l c f
e c t i a d l
ase o t i p l i c ti on nu e
p i c m u a on , e x er en e

h i g c
av n vi c d m t
on h t
n e t h m t
e h d a no o w ll ter e o se r ve s so e o

c y tt
o n ve h td t
o t h m
e s u ing f t en h i i m p tt e ean t h o s o r an e o re m

i n td c d p c t t f t
.

I h av e ro ic i
u e h ra h g e n l bi i l
e u se o e e n e ra n om a

th e o re m i t h ch p t
n e f ct i a l er
p on t b rat h v on a ex on e n s, u a e

d f e e rre d t h p f f te h t
hro o oi tl f t g t
e h wi t h ll
e or e m se o e er a

th tl t t t bj c tf i fi i t i nt t
,

a re a es h o e su e oil n n h n d
e se r e s, u ear e en

o ft h b k e oo

I t h ch p t t h t t dd t i
.

n e a h y f q
er s on i e eor o et ua o n s an e erm n an s

th wi ll b f
e re d p e f ft
ou n h f nd roo s o tl t h e g d
u am e n a e o r e m s re ar

i g ym
n s ti c f ct
me i r f t hun tf on s o q ti e d
r oo s o an e ua on an a

di c i
s u s s on f t h m o i p tt e
p p o re t i m f l
o r an t t ro er es o r e su an s

bj c td tb l g i ty c
.

Th e se su e s o no l e on n i an e em en ar ou r s e n

a lg b e b t t
r a, h c ll g u td t
e wh c
o e t
e i s u hi en th t o on n u es s m a em a

ic l t a dis u w ill es d t h Th l ik i t
n ee b
em id f t h ch p
e e s o e sa o e a

t i fi it f t h ch p t p p t
.

ers on n i n de se r e s an o i e f a er on ro er es o

c t on i f ct
n u ou s i wi t
un h wh i c h t on s h b k nd e oo e s

n d li t fi t t t
.

Th i d e wh i c h
ea s h u p er f e h b ek rs ar o e oo are

t h f R w
o se o H o il t Gan am H l h l tD d k i n d
on , r ass m an n , e m o z, e e

t t t t t
,

an d G g C e ort B an I d or k w tuh y o no h i h no a an on e er o

l p d t j t t
.

h as d e ve o h d ct in e f e di l n o r b f e o or h na um er r om us e

p i t f i w I h
o n o v e tk d i t
av e h a m d t il
e n , an n e sa e e a

t t
.

I n
p p i re
g h ar n l g b i t l f I
e h a p
e fi
ra d by se gg ave ro e su es

ti f
on s ro m
y b k m an t
h bjoo c t I w
s on i h i p e t i
su c l e s n ar u ar

t ck wl dg m y i d btd tt
.

o a no e e h tn e ti e f Ch y t l
n ess o e re a se s o r s a .
 PREF ACE

Th e b ook h as b ee n se v er al y e ar s i n p r e p ar a ti o n E very
t t tt
.

e a r s i n c e 1 8 98 h e p u b li sh e r s h a v e d o n e m e h e co u r e s
y o
y
i ssu e for t h e u se o f t t
h e fr e s h m e n a Pr i n c e o n a p am p h l e t t
t t tt
c on ai n i n g wh a ath e i m e se e m e d o m e tt t
h e m o s t sa i sfa c
t o ry t t
r e a m en t t tt t
o f h e m o r e i m p o r an p a r s o f al g e b r a W i th
t i tc h t d M G ill p i
.

h e a s s s an f y c ll g e o M Ei
m o ea u e s, r sen ar an r es e,

d f t ch w t i l t l ct wh t
. .

I end eav o r e a er e a h d p
ne d r a o se e a a rov e

g d
oo dant di c do w h th d
s ar p d ti f c ty A
a a r o ve u n sa s a or s a

t w it t n b
.

c o n se
q cu en c he, f h
m b u k h b o e oo as een re r en a um er

o ft i m esN d bt b q o ou t p i c wi ll b i g tl i gh t
su se u en ex e r en e r n o

y f t i b il i t t; b t
.

m an h ur
p er i fi p
os s I h
es o h p m r o v e m en u av e o es

t h t t
a h b k td i t
as e oo w il l s an th w t sh tl g b i se r ve o s o a a e ra s

no t ly on i t l li g i bl tt
m o re n h td tb tl m i t
e e o e s u en u a so or e n er

t d t l t c id t tt
,

es i g n ani i g wh
s m ud a n i i gi en h ue on s era on s ve n o e

w hi c h i t
,

i g
re aso n n on p c d p d s r o e s ses e en .

HEN R Y B F I NE
P RINCE T ON UN I V E SI T Y .

J un e , 1 905
 C O NTE NT S

PAR T F I R ST NU M BE R S
PAGE
TH E N A TU R A L NU M BE RS — CO U N T IN G ADDI T I O N A ND
, ,
M UL
T I P L I C AT I O N

S U B T A C T I N A N D T H E NE G AT I V E
R O

D I V IS I O N A ND F R A C T I O N S
I RR AT I O N A L NU M BE RS
I M A G IN A RY A ND CO M P L E NU M BE RS
X

PAR T SE CO N D AL G E BR A

PRE L IM IN A RY CO NS IDE R AT I O NS
TH EFU ND A ME N TA L O PE R AT I O NS ‘ .

S IM L E E Q UAT I O NS I N O NE UN KN O W N L E TT E
P R

S YST EM S O F S IM U LTA NE O US S IM P L E E Q UAT I O NS

TH ED I V IS I O N T R A NSF R M AT I O N
O

FA C T O RS O F R AT I O N A L I N T E G R A L E PRE SSI O NS
X

II
‘
H
IG C O M M O N FA C T O R A N D L O W ES T CO M M O N M ULT IP L E
E ST

R AT I O N A L F R A C T I O NS
SYM M E T RI C FU N C T I O NS
TH EB IN O M I A L T HE O REM
E VO LUT I O N
I RR AT I O N AL FU N C T I O NS R A D IC A L S A ND F R A C T I O N AL
.

E P O NE N T S
X

Q UA DR A T I C E Q UAT I O NS
D ISC U SSI O N O F T HE Q UA DR AT I C E Q UAT I O N M A IM A A ND
. X

M INI M A
viii C O NT E NT S
PAGE
X VI . S IM ULT A NE O U S E Q U A T I O NS W H I C H C A N BE S O L V E D BY
M E A NS O F Q UA DR AT ICS
I NEQ UAL I T IE S
I NDE T E R M IN A T E E Q U A T I O NS O F T HE F IRS T D E G REE
R AT I O A ND P R O P O R T I O N
. VA RI AT I O N
ARI T HME T I C A L PR OG RE SSI O N
G E O M E T R I C A L PR OG RE SSI O N
HA RM O N IC AL PR OG RESSI O N
M E T H O D O F D IFFE RENC ES ARI T HM E T IC A L PR OG R E S
.

SI O NS O F H I G HE R O RDERS I N T ERP O LAT I O N

. 3 64
L OG A RI T HMS 37 4
P E RM UTAT I O NS A ND C O MB IN A T I O NS 3 93
TH E M ULT IN O M I AL T HE O RE M 408
PR O B A B I L I T Y 409
M AT HEM AT IC A L I ND U C T I O N 424
T HE O RY O F E Q U AT I O NS 42 5
C U B I C A N D B IQ U A DR AT IC E Q UAT I O NS 48 3
D E T ERM IN A N T S A ND E L IM IN AT I O N 492
C O N V ER G E NCE O F I NF IN I T E S E RIE S 52 0

O PER AT I O NS W I T H I NF IN I T E S E R IES 53 9
T H E B IN O M I A L E X P O NEN T I A L A ND L OGA RI T HM IC S E R IE S 5 53
, ,

R E C U RR IN G S E RIE S 560

I NF INI T E PR O D U C T S 56 4

CO N T IN U E D F R A C T I O NS 56 6

P R O PER T IE S O F CO N T IN U O U S FU N C T I O NS 577

I ND E X
 A COLLE GE ALGE BRA

PART FIRST NUMBERS

I . THE N A T UR A L N UM BE R S — CO UN TI N G ,

A D D I TI O N AND M ULTI PLI CA TI O N

,

GROUP S OF THI NG S AND THE I R CAR DI NAL NUMBE RS

Grou p s of t
h ing s In ou r d a i ly ex p e r i e n c e th i n g s p r e sent
t t nt
t tn ly s i n g ly b u t
.

th em sel ve s o ou r a i n
e o no o as s o c i at e d i n

g r o u p s o r a s s em b l ag e s
t
.

Th e fi n g e r s o f a h an d, h a ng l h er d of c attle e a u ar
p o i nts
ch g p f t
,

of a o
p yl g o n a r e e x am pl f es o hi g su r ou s o n s

ti th i n g c t itt
.

W e th in k of ce r a n i g g s as on s u n a r o up wh e n
t t ti di i d t
,

we d i s t i n g u i s h th e m f m h hi g
ro o er n s no n v u al l y bu
as a wh o l e , an d so m k th m c ll ct
a i v ly
e i gl e o e e a s n e j
ob e c to f
ou r a t ntt i
en o

t t t
.

F o r c o nv e n i e n ce l e u s c all h e t h i n g s whi c h c on s i t u t e a
t s of t
l em en t
,

g r ou p h e E h e g r ou p
E qu i valent On e t t
.

grou p s o on e c or res pon dence Th e wo g rou ps

- -

tt tt
. .

of l e e r s AB C an d D E F a r e so r el a e d h at we c an c o m b i n e
a ll t t t t
h e i r e l em en s i n p a i r s by m a chi n g e l e m ent s of h e on e
t t tt
wi t h e l e m en t s of h e o h e r o n e el em e n wi h o n e el em e nt
t t t
.
,

Th u s, we m ay m a t c h A w i h D B w i h E an d C wi h F
t t t t t
.
, ,

Wh e n e v er i i s p os si b l e o m a ch al l h e e l em e nt s o f wo
tt
g r ou p s i n t hi s m ann e r w e sh all s ay t ha h e g r ou p s a r e
t t t tw h l l
,

e
q i
u l ; d h
va e n p c fanc hi g l m e ro e ss o m a n e e en s e s a

c ll b i ngi n g t
a h g
r p i n t t e l ti
ro u l t
i s o a on e -
o on e r e a
-
on , o r a r e a on

Of ton e -

p d
o on e c o r r es
-
on en c e .
 ‘
AECOLI EG E
‘

2 Z; 5 a A LG E B R A

T heorem} {if t
w :
g o
‘ ‘
r ou
p s C“
K e
q u i va l en ttt
h o e sa m e t
hi d r

g r oup t ui va l e n tt t
, .

hey a r e
,
eq o on e a no h er .

th t
F or , by h y p o th e si s, w e c an b r i n g
w g p ea ch of e o r ou s

t -
tt -
t
in t o o n e o on e c or re sp on de n c e w i h
h hi d g p B t e r rou u

t t t t c p d c
.

h w g
e p wi ll
o h b i r ou s en e n on e -
o on e
-
orre s on en e

w it
h ch th eaif w g d t yt o w f t
h i
e r, e re ar as m a es eve r o o e r

l twhi ch w h
e e m en t
sch d w i t
h th l tf e a ve ma e e sam e e e m en o

th t hi d g
e p r rou .

Cardi nal nu m ber We m ay t h in k o f all p ossi b l e g r o u p s o f

t t td i tcl t
.

hi g n s as d i s r i bu e n o asse s o f e q u i v al e n g r ou p s , an y
t
w gi o ve n g rou p b l g i gst t
h e on n o e sa m e c l as s tdiff t
or o er en

cl ass es a cco r di g n iti i tpas s, or s no os s i b le tb i g t

o h m r n e

t t c p d c
, ,

in o on e o on e o rr es on en e

t AB C D d E F GH b l g tt
- -

t fl t
.

Th h gu s, p e r ou s o h e ers an e on o e

sam cl e th g as s,p AB C D d E F G tdiff

e rou t cl s an o e re n ass e s

Th p p t t
.

e y w h i c h
ro i c mer ll g p f c l s om on o a r ou s o on e a ss,

and w hi c h d i ti g i h t
h g s
p f cl
n f m t
u s h es f e r ou s o on e as s ro ose o

t
an oh cl er i t h mbass, f th i g i s g p i
e nut c d i l er o n s n a r ou or s ar na

t
,

numb I er h . w d n o er or s,

Th b
e nu ft hi g i m g p
er o i tc d i l b
n is n a r ou or s ar na nu m er , s

t
,

th t a
p p ty w
roh i c h i c
er m t
h g p i t f
l d s y om on o e r ou se an e ve r

g p wh i c h
ro u
y b b ght i t m t c p d
a e rou n o on e o on e or r es on en c e
- -

tt
wi h i .

Or we m ay c ar d i n al n u m b e r o f a g r o u p o f t
s ay “
h i ng s
Th e
t
h at t t
tt
is r
p po e r
y o f h e g r o u
p w h i c h r e m a i n s u n ch a n g e d i f w e

r ear r a n g e he h in g s wi h in t t
h g e r ou
p or r ep l ac e t
h em on e

t
ti tt h t p p t
,

by on e by o h hi g
er
y f n s or a g ai n , i s a ro er o

th g e p w h i ch i i d p
rou d tf t h ch ct f t h t hi gs n e en en o e a ra er o e n s

th m l
e d ft h i
se ve s an g t w i th i th g o
p e r arra n em e n n e r ou
”

gi g t h t pl ci g t
.

F o r r e a rr a nhi g h m n by e n s or re a n e on e on e ,

by t t f m t t
,

h o h i g wi l l m
er ly t h g
n s
p i q i e re r an s o r e ro u n o an e u va

l t
en g p § 2 A d
r ou
p p t y wh i c h m i ch g d n a ro er re a ns un an e

ch ch g i t tb i d p d tf
, .

d i g ll
ur n a h g su p m an es n e r ou us e n e en en o

th che ct f t h t
ar a hi g d f th i
er o g m nt e n s an o e r a rr a n e e .
 THE N A T U R AL N U MB E R S 3

Par tW e say t
h t a a fir s t g r o u p i s a p a r o f t a se o c nd gr ou p
t t t tll t
.

wh en h e el em e nt s of h e fi rs t ar e so m e, b u no a of h e

t
,

el em en ts of h e se o c nd
t t
.

Th u s, h g p AB C i
e r ou s a p a r t o f h e g r o u p AB CD
t
h i d fi it it t
.

F r om i s i e n on m m e d i a e l y f ol l o w s t h a t

t h fi t
If f t
h g e p b p tf th rs o r ee ro u s e a ar o e c
s e o n d, a n d t
h e

c d
s e on p tf th t
hi d t
a h th fi ti ar o e r en e rs s a ls o a
p ar tf o

t
,

h thi d
e r .

b l ag e i s fi n i t
e wh en i i s e q u i v al en to t t no on e of i tp t; s ar s

i nfi n i t
e wh e n i i s e q u i val e n t
o c e r ai n tt t of i tp s ar s t .
*

Thu s t h e g r o up AB C i s fi n i t e for i t Can n o t b e b r o u gh t in t

o on e t o -

o n e c o r r e sp o n d e n c e w i th B C or wi t h an y o t h er o f i ts part
,

Bu t a n y n e ver e n d i n g se q u en c e o f m ar k s or sy m b ol s t
.
,

h e n e ve r en d i n g
for e x am p le i s a n i nfi n i t
- -

s e qu en c e o f n u m e r al s 1 2 3 4 e asse m b l age

an c e set u p a on e t i on b et we en t h e en t
.

W e c an fo r i n st
, , , , ,

o o n e r el a t ire - -

an d t h atp ar t of i twhich b egin s at

,

a sse m b l a g e 1 2 3 4 , , , ,
2 n a m e ly , ,

1 , 2 , 3 , 4, (a)
2 , 3 , 4 , 5, 6 , (b )
by m a t
chi n g 1 in (a ) w i t
h2 i n (b ) , 2 i n ( a) wi t
h 3 i (b ) n an d so o n , t
h er e

h t
t t m i
,

b e in g for e ver y n u m era l w a e m ay ch o os e o na e n

(a) a c orr es p on d i n g
n u m er al in (b )
t q u i valen tt
o it
s p ar t
.

Hen c e h e a sse m b l ag e (a ) is e
(b ) Th erefo r e (a)
it
.

is i n fin e .

Leass an d g rea t er c ar di nal nu m bers Le t

M an d N d en o t e an y

t
w fi i tg t t
b t
.

o n e r ou
ps . I h c
m us e e a se t h at

1 . M an d N ar e e q u i t v al e n ,

2 . M is e qu i v al e nt t p tf N o a ar o ,

3 . N is e qu i v al e n t t p tf M o a ar o .

Of c ou rse we c a ot a ct a ll y ta k e a cc o n t h e el em e n t
of al l t s on e b y o n e
o f a n in fi it a sse m b l a g e a s i t i s m o e o ft
nn u u

e g ro u p — o
, ,

e n c a ll e d W e r e ga rd
a l a w h a s b ee n s t at
n r ,
r .

s u ch a n a ss e m b l a ge a s d fi n e d w h e e d w hich e n a b l e s u s
t o s a y o f e ve y g i ve n t hi n g whet her i t b e l o n gs t o th e asse m bl age o r n o t
e n
r .
 A C O LL EGE AL G EB R A

In t
t c ase we say th at M an d N h a ve h e sam e c ardi n al
h fi e rs t
n u m b e r 4 o r e qu a l c ar d in al n u m be r s ; i n h e se c o n d ca se t
h at t
t tt
, ,

h e car di n al n u m b e r of M i s l ess t
,

h a n th at o f N ; i n h e hi r d ,
t
th at h e c ar din al n u m b er o f M i s g r e a t er th a n th at o f N .

Th u s if M i s t h e gr o u p of l et ter s a bc a n d N t h e gr o u p d efy t h en M
i s e q u iva le n tt o a part of N t o t
, ,

h e p ar t
,

d ef for e x am p l e
Hen c e t h e c ar d i n al n u m b er o f M i s l e ss th an t
h at o f N an d t
, , .

h e c ar d i n al
nu m b e r o f N i s grea t er t h an t h at
,

of M .

No t I tf ll
e o o ws t
h d fi it
fr om i e e n on o f fini tg
e ro u p tt
t
7, h ah ere is
tb tt l t gr eat
.
,

n o am b ig u i y a ou h i q
e re a on s e u al ,
” “
er
”
,
an d
“
less ”
as

h ere d e fin e d
t ib l e for t t t
.

Thu s h d e efi n it
i on does h e c ard i n al n u m b er
no m ak e i p oss

of M t o b e at th e sam e t i m e e qu al t han t h at of N sin c e t

,

o a n d l ess t hi s
wo u l d m e a n t h at M i s e q u i val en tt o N a n d al so t o a p ar t of N t
,

h er efo re
t h at N i s e q u i va l e n t
to on e o f i t s p ar t 3 an d t h e refo re fin ally t h at
,

s N
i s i n fin i t
, , , ,

e 7 ,
.

Coroll ary t tf t
. h If h e fi r s
c di l m b b l th o r ee ar na nu er s e es s an

t
h e s e on c d d t
h c d l
an t
h t
h thi d t
h t
h fi t i
e s e on ess an e r en e rs s

t th t
, ,

a ls o l ess h anhi d e r .

F o r if M N P d en o e an hi g f which t
t y g p ft h thr ou s o n s o ese ar e e

t
t p tf N d N t p tf P ; t
, ,

c ar d in als M i s e qu i val en o a h f
ar o an o a ar o e r e or e

t
t tf P
, ,

M i s e qu i vale n o a p ar o ,
3, 6 .

Th e t
s y s em t t g p of c ar di nal n u m ber s By s t ar i n g w i h a r ou

wh i ch c t b t i gl t t ddi g
.

i l
on a n s u a s n e e e m en a n d r ep e a e dl y
“
a n

on e n ew t
hi g w l d tt h f ll w i g l i tf t
n h c di l
, e ar e e o e o o n s o e ar na

nu m be r s
1 Th e c a rd in al n u m b e r o f a “
g ro u p
”
li ke I, whi c h c on t
ai n s

ti t
.

bu a S n g l e el e m e n

ti
.

2 Th e c ar d i n al n u m be r o f a g r o u p l i k e II, o b a n ed b y add i n g
t t t
.

a s in g l e e l e m e n t
g r ou p of h e fi r s ki n do a .

c
3 Th e ar d i n al n u m b er o f a g r ou p l ik e III, o bt ai n e d b y add i ng
t t
.

a s i n gl e e l e m e n t o a g ro u p o f h e s e o n d k i n d c
wit td
.

4 An d so o n , h ou en

W e n am e t t
. .

h e s e su c c e s s i ve c a r di n al s one ,
” “
w o,
” “
th r ee ,
an d r e p r e s e n t
th em by t
h e sign s 1 , 2, 3 ,
 THE N A T U R AL N U M BE R S

Obs erva i on s t on t
hi s s y s emt Calli n g n al n u m b er t
h c e ar di

tg i tc t
.

fin i a r d i n a l w e m ak e
o f an y e p a fin e
ro u h e f oll o wi n g
b s er v at t
,

o i on s r eg ar d i n g he li s t o f c ar di n al s wh i ch h as j u st
b ee n d es c ri bed .

F i r st . E v e ry c ar d i n al c o n t a i n e d in t hi s l i st i s fi n i t e .

F or t
h g p I i s fin i t
e e s in c e i t
ro u h a s n o p ar t to w hich t o b e e q u i va

le n t 7 ; a n d each su b se qu e n t gr ou p i s fin i te b e c a u se a gro u p o b t
,

ain ed

b y add i n g a s i n gle t hi n g t o a fin i t se lf fin i t Th u s II i s fin i t
, ,

e g r ou p i s i t e * e

b e c au s e I is ; III i s fin i t
.
,

e b e c au s e l!i s an d so on .

Se c o n d . E ve ry fin i t e c ar d in al is c ont ai n ed in t
h li
e s t .

F or , b y d e fin i t
i on ever y fin i tc
e i
a r d n al tc
is h e i
ar d n al n u m b er o f s om e

tg c on stru c t t
,

fin i e ro u p as M a g r o u p o f m ar k s Ill
Bu w e c an l e qu i va
tt rou p M b y m ak i n g o n e m a r k for e a ch o b j e c t
i tg
.
,

l en o an y gi ve n fin e in
An d t hi s gr ou p of m ark s m u st h ave a l ast m a r k an d t
,

M h erefore b e
i n c l u de d i n t h e l is t 1 1 sin c e o th er wi se i t
.
,

of wou l d b e n e ve r e n d i n g an d -

t he refor e i t s e lf an d w i t
h it M b e i n fin i t
,

,
e 7 , , .

Th i r d . No wo o f h ese t t c ar d i n al s ar e e q u al .

This foll o ws fr om t h e d e fin i t
i on i n 8 F or , as j t
s h own
us t
h al l o f e

an d i t is t y t h m t
ft h t
.
,

gr ou p s I ll III are fin i t
e ru e o f e ve r w o o e a on e

is e qu i vale n tto a p artof th e ot

, , ,

h er .

We m ay pr o ve t
hi s as foll ows ( G Ca n . tM t
or , h A a . nn. Vo l 46 ,
. p . 490)

t t
If M d en o e a fi n i e g rou p , a n d e a s i n e t n , e r oup M e , o b a i n ed hi g t
gl t h g
t t
by a dd i n g e o M , i s a lso fi n i e
t tth t tg p t
.

F o r l e G E H d en o e h e r o u s G a n d H a r e e u v al e n
q i
t it t t i t t tp t
a .

I f M e i s n o fi n e , i m u s b e e q u v al e n o so m e o n e o f i s ar s, 7
t tt hi p t t h t
.

Le P d e n o e a M e 5 P
tc ti
ar , s o
pp t h t
s .

t
P d oe s n o
t it
( 1) Su o s e on a n e

t tt t
a .

ich
Le f d e n o e h e e l e m e n o f P w hch h p
is m a ed w e i n M e , a n d r e r es e n

t t
h e r e s of P b y P I .

Th i c h
e n s n e M e 5 P i f a n d e E f, w e av e M E P I
t t it p t
.

Bu hi i p i i c
s i s m o ss b l e , S n e M i s fi n e an d P I i s a ar o f M, 7
pp t h t c ti
.

a P does
( 2 ) Su o se
tt t it th t t
on a n e
t h t
.

Ic ann o b e c h
e in P is m a h ed w e i n M e , fo r en h e r es o f P ,
p t t t
a
which q i
i s a ar o f M , w o u ld b e e u v a l e n o M
t pp t h t th i t t t
.

B u su h h
a e i n P i s m a c ed w so m e o e r el e m e n , a s g i n M e , a n d
t
h t t t
o se
ch
a e i n M e is m a e d wi h f i n P
t t h h t h i t t t
.

If M e E P b e ru e on c i
i s y p o es s i m u s a l s o b e r u e i f w e r e o m b n e
t t t t it t
,

ch
h e el e m en s ( f g s o a s o m a h 0 in P w h e i n M e, an d f in P wi
p t t
g
t th t t
3
, .

in M e h h h
B u , a s ju s s o w n w e s o u ld i a r o f P e q u va l e n o M
c t
en ave a
t
. .
,

He n e hi i i
s h y p o h e s I s a l s o i s m p o ss bl e
 A C O LL EGE AL G EB RA

THE NATURAL S CALE . E QUAT I ON S AND I NE QUALI TIE S

Th e n a u ralt n u m b er s W e c al l t
h e si g ns 1 , 2 , 3, m — or

t
.

” “ ” “
th e i r n am es “
on e, w o, th re e p os i t i v e i n t e ge r s or

t
,

n a u ra l n u m bers . H en c e
A nat
u ra l nu m ber i s a s ig n or s m bo l
y f or a c a r d i n a l n u m ber .

Th e nat
u ral s cale . Arr an g i n g t
h e se n u m b ers in an o rd e r

corr esp o n d i n g h tl
tt o a a r e ad y gi ven t
h c e ar d i n al s wh i ch t
h y e

re p r e sen t 5 11
, ,
w e h av e t
h e ne v er -
e n di ng se q u e n ce of s i g ns
1 ) 2 7 3 ) 4) 5)

or “
on e,
” “
t
w o,
” “
t
h r ee ,
” “
f ou r ,
” “
five, m , whi c h we c al l
t
h tl e n a u ra c
s a l e, o r th c
e s al e o f t
h n tl e a u ra n u m ber s .

E a ch sign in t
h e c
s a le tth mb
i n di c a es e nu er of t
h e sign s in
h t
t p tf t
a h ar o e s a le c tm i t
wh i c h i t er n a es .

Thu s 4 i n d ic at
es th e n u m b er of th e S ig n s 1 2 3 4 For he t nu m b er
o f s igns 1 2 3 4 i s th e sa m e as t t
.
, , , ,

h e n u m b e r o f g ro u p s I II, III, ”II, an d hi s,

t t t t
h l t
, , , ,

in urn , is h e sa m e as h e nu m b er of m arks i n g e as r ou p ,
Illl, §8 .

An d so in g en er al .

Th e ordi nal c h arac er of t t

h e s cal e Th e n atu ral s c al e by i t se l f
tig
.
,

c on side r ed i s m e r e ly an a sse m b l ag e of d ifie r en

'

s ns i n wh i ch
t tt d fi it
,

h er e is a fir s t
hi si g
t f ll w n, n am e l
y 1 ; o s a e n e n ex o o

i g ig
n ns ly 2 ; tt hi
n, tn d fi it t f ll wing
am e o s, in ur a e n e n ex o o

wi t h t d
,

Sig m ly 3 ;
n, n a d e an s o on ou en

t w d t
.

I nh o h t er l c l i m ly or bl g s, e n a u ra s a e s ere an as se m a e

of d i ff tig whi ch f l l w
er en t
hs i d fi it d
ns o o on e an o er n a e n e an

k w no d n d h i g
or fi t b t l t ign
e r, an av n a rs u no as s .

R eg ar d e d his p o i n t
fro m t o f vi e w th tl mb t h m
e n a u ra nu er s e sel ves a re

f t i which t — wi t
,

m er e ly m a r ks o f or d er , n a m el y o h d e or h y cc er n e o ur h
res t
p ec to t
im e wh e n h e t c
s ale i
s reci td e .

I t
i s e v i d en t
th t
th a c
e s al e , in co m m on w i th al l o t
h e r a ss e m

b l ag e s w h o s e el e m e n s a s t g i ve n u s a re arr an ge d i n a d e fin i t e

an d kn o wn o r d er, h as t
h e f o l l ow i n g p r op e r t i e s
 THE N A T UR AL N U M BE R S 7

1 We m ay s ay o f an
y t
w o of i tl
s e em e nt s t
h t t
ha e on e

t t
.

“
p re c ede s ”
an d he o her “
fol l o ws, ”
an d t h e se wo r d s “
p r e

c ed e an d
“
foll o w ”
h av e t
h e sam e m ea n i n g w h e n app l i e d t o

an y o n e p ai r o f t
h l e e e m en t s as wh e n app l i e d t o an y o t h er
p ai r
t t tb
.

2 . If an y w f h o o e el e m e n g iv e n , wes e c an al wa s d e t e r
y
m i n e w h i c h p r e ed e s c an d w h i c h f oll o w s

t t
.

3 . I f a , b, an d 0 d en o e an y t h r e e o f h e e l em e n t s su ch th at
a
p r e ce de s b, b p r e c e de s
an d c, t h e n a p r e c ed e s c
t
.

An a ss e m b lage m ay al r eady p o s sess h e s e p r o p e r tie s wh e n

g i ve n u s, o r we m ay h a v e i m p o se d th e m o n i b y s o m e ru l e o f t
a r r a n g e m en t
o f ou r o w n ch o o s i n g I n e i h er c as e w e c all h e t t
t
.

a s s em bl ag e an ordi nal s
y s em .

In s tc f t
an h fi t
es o ki d (1) t
e h t l c l itlf ; (2) q c
rs n ar e e n a u ra s a e se a se u en e

o f e ve n s ti t i m ; (3)
n w f p i t
e g d f m l ft t ightl g
a ro o o n s r an e ro e o r a on

a i t
h o r zo n l li a A i tc n e. f th c d ki d i
n g p fm
n s an e o e s e on n s a r ou o en

a r ra n g d cc d i g tt
e a orh l ph b t
n ic d of t
h i m e a a e or er o e r na es .

An a s se m b l ag e m ay al so h av e “
c o i n c i de n t el em e nts Th u s,
tt
.

in g r o u p o f e ve n
a w s o or m or e m ay b e si m u l t an eo u s

t
.

W e c all su c h an b l ag e or di n a l wh e n h e re l at i o n s 1 2 3
ass em

h old g ood a m on g i s n on c oi n ci d en t t t t
, ,

el em e nt s — i b e i ng r u e o f

t
-

t
h e c oin c i de n el em en t s t h a t
4 I f a c o i n c i d e s wi th b, an d b wi th c
. h en a c o i n c i d es ,
t
w i th c .

5 I f a c o i n c i d e s wi th b, an d b p r e ce des c t h en a p r e c ed es o
.
,
.

I ti s by t
h ie r r el a t
i ve o r d er in t
h e c
s a le th a tt
h n e a u r al
t
n u m b er s i n d i ca t e r el a t i on s of g r ea t e r an d l ess am o ng t
h e

c ar d i n al n um b er s
t
.

F or o f an y w o g i v en c ar di n al s t h at on e i s g r eate r wh o se
n at u r al nu m b er o ccu r s l a t er i n t h e s c al e
t lt : if th fi tf th
.

An d i he re a c di n l b l
on
“
e rs o re e ar a s e es s

th th
an c d d t
e h c nd l
se on t
h n t h thi d t h an e se o ess a e r en

t t t
h t t d i t
, ,

h fi t i l
e rs h hi d
s i p ess h c l an e r
”
s re r e s en e n e s a e

by t t
,

h l ti n : i f
e re a
p c d b d bo
p d c h n “
a re e e , an rec e e , e a

p re c e de s c.
”
 A C O LL E G E AL G EB R A

In fac twe p l o y an y o t
s el do m h e r m et
em h od t h an t hi s for c om p ar i n g
c ar din als W e d o n ot c o m p ar e t h e c ar d i n al n u m b er s o f gr ou p s o f t
,

h i n gs
d i re c tly b y t h e m et h o d o f 8 On t h e c on t ra ry we r e p rese n t t he m b y t
.

he
app r o p r i at u r a l n u mb e r s a n d i n fer which a r e g r eat
.
, ,

e n at e r a n d which l ess

fro m t h e r e l at i ve o r d er i n which t h ese n at u r al n u m b er s o cc u r i n t

,

h e sc al e
Th e p r o c ess c aus es us n o c o n s ci o u s e ffort of t h ou gh tfor t
.

h e s c al e i s s o
vi vi dly i m p r ess e d on ou r m i n d s t h atwh en an y t h e n at
,

wo o f t u r al n u m b e rs

a re m e n t i o n ed w e i n st an t
,

ly r e c o gn i ze which p r e c e d e s an d which fo ll o ws
Thu s if we ar e t old of t wo ci t i es A an d B t h at th e p op u l at
, .

ion o f A is
an d t h at we i m m ed i at h at B h as t
, ,

e l y c on c l u d e t
,

of B he
er n u m b er o f i n h a b i t an t s b e c a use we kn o w t h at o cc u rs l at
,

g rea t er

in t h e s c al e t
,

h an d oes .

Nu m eri c al eq u a t
i n o s an d i nequ al i i es t I n wh a t f oll ows t
h e

tl t
.
,
”
wor d “
num ber wil l m e an n u m b er § 1 3 ; an d
na u ra e h
t t
,

let ers a , b, c will d en o e a n y su c h n u m b e r s

t t
o i n d i c at tt
.

W hen w e w i sh e h a t a an d 6 d e n o e h e sam e n u m

b er , or
“
c oi n c i d e in t
h tl e n a u ra c
s al e , we em pl y t
h o e equ a t
i
on

”
6, re a d e q u al s b
“
a a .

Butwh w en e w i sh ti
o n di c at
e t h at
a
p r e c ed e s an d6 f oll ows
in t
h n tl e a ur a c
s al e , we em pl oy on e o f th in q lit
ie e ua es

a b, re a d a i s l es s t
h 6 an
”

6 a , rea d “
b i s g r ea t th n
er a a .

Of c ou rs e s ritct
ly s p e a ki n g , t
h e se w o r d s, “
e qu al ,
” “
l e ss,
t t
tt t t
,
”
an d
“
g r e a e r, r e f e r n o o h e s i g n s a an d b h e m s e l v e s , b u
tt c
o h e ard i n al s wh i h h ey r e p r e sen t c t
Th u s , h e ph r ase, “ a t
t t tc
.

is l es s h a n i s m er ely an ab br ev i a i o n for , “ h e ar d i n al
wh i ch p t i l
a reth t
h c d i r e s en s s es s an e ar n al wh i c h 6 r e r e sen
p t
s
”

B tll t h t t
h i q l it t
.

u a y b a e ne ua a m e an s fo r h e sig n s a a n d

b t
h l i th t p c d
e m s e ves b i th s a a re e es n e s al e c
t
.

R u l es of eq u al i y an d i n eq u ali y t F rom 1 7, 18 an d t h ese

t t t t
h t
.

d e fi n i i o n s, 2 1 , 22 , i i m m e di a e ly f o l l o ws a

1 . If a =b an d b = c, t
h en a c .

2 .

3 .
 A CO LL E G E A LGEB R A

Th e g r ou p w h i h o n s i s c c tf t
h fi t
s o 97 e rs o ti t
bj e ch d s n e or er

t
P wou ld h e n b e e q u i val en ttth ti og e en re
p i t
r ou h d Qn e or er

t t d with t
h fi t
,

fo r , by h y p o h e s i s, b o h h av e b e en m a t ch e 97 e rs

t t
n u m b e r s o f h e n a u r al s c al e , 3
tt tw t
.

Bu hi s i s i m p o ssi bl e , si n ce i o u ld m ak e a
p ar of

t
h g e r ou
p e q u i v al e n o ttt
h e wh ol e ; wh e r e as t
h e gr ou p i s, by
h yp o t h e s i s, a fin i e g r ou p ; 7 t
An t t
.

h o er defini i on t of c ar di n al nu m ber W e m ay m ak e h e

t tt t t t
.

t h e or e m j u s d e m o n s r a e d h e b a si s o f a d e fin i i on o f h e

c ar d in al n u m be r o f a fi n i t e g r ou p ,
n am el
y
Th ec a r di n a l n u m ber of a fi n i t e g r oup of t hin gs is t ha t
p r op
er t
y of t h e g r oup be c a u s e of w h i c h w e s h a ll a r r i ve a tt
he s am e
n atu r a l n u m ber i n w h a t ever or d er w e c ou n t th e g r oup .

Thi s is t
h d e e fin it
i on of c ard i n al nu m b er twhi ch
o we a r e n a u ral ly t
ch o ose t
l ed i f we o m ak e t h e n at u r al s c al e d efin ed as i n 16 , ou r s a r tti g n

p oi n t
in t
,

h e d i s c us s i on o f n u m b e r .

ADDI TION

Defini i on t of addi t5 i tfi d wh t n b
t
i n o To a dd 3 o s o n a um er

t h t ft5 i t tl c l
.

o ccu p i es hi d pl c
e r h a e a er n
“

e n a u ra s a e

t ti g t
.

We ma y fi d h i n b 8 by c s numh n b er, ou n n r ee um er s

t c l b gi i g t 6 t
,

f o r w ar d i n h e s a e, h :6 7 8 e nn n a us

d i c tt t
.
, , ,

We in h a ep t i b y h e ig o d pl
er a on e s n r ea “
u s,

wr i t i n g 5 3 8
t dd b t i tfi d wh t
.

An d i n g e n e r al , n mb cc p i o a o a s o n a u er o u es

th t
e t i t h n tl c l
b h pl a c e af er a n e a u ra s a e

Si c t l ti g t
.

h n i e i h c l th i n m b m y
er e s no as S n n e s a e, s u er a

alw y b fa d s t
W c ll i th e f d b
ou n d p nt e a e su m o a an an re r es e

it i t d b by t
.

n f e rm s oh p i b a an e ex r e ss o n a .

No t Th
e pr o c ess o f fin d i n g a b b y c ou n t
e i n g forward i n t h e sc al e
c orr esp on d s s t e p fo r s t ep t o t h at o f ad d i n g t o a gr o u p o f a t hi n gs t
.

he
ele m e n ts o f a g r ou p o f b t hi n gs on e a t a t i m e Hen c e ( I ) t h e re su l tof

th e l att b t hi n gs 8 an d (2 ) i f a an d b d en ot
.
,

e r p r o c ess i s a g r ou p o f a e

fin i t Se e fo o t n ot
, ,

e c ar d i n als s o a lso d o e s a
, b e p 5 . .
, . .
 THE N A T U R AL N U MBE R S

Si n c e a 1, a 2, an d so on , d en o tt
h l t
e 2d e s an d so

t t t
, ,

on , n u m h q c
b e r s af 1 er a , e se u en e a a 2, de n o e s all

th t t t
,

pa i f h c l
orwhi c h f l l
on ow e s a e o o s a

ft t
.

H nc y gi
e b e an y b ve n nu m er a er a m a e e x p r esse d in h e

f m
or d wh d d
a t d fi it t er e en o e s a e n e n a u r al n u m ber
cou n t
,
.

Th e p roc es s To a dd l ar g e num be r s by in g w o u ld b e
t t
.

v e ry l a b o r i o u s W e h ere f o r e m em or i ze su m s o f h e sm al l er
tt
n u m b e r s ( a d d i i o n a b l e s ) an d f r o m t t
.

h e se d e ri v e su m s o f h e
l ar g e r n u m b e r s by app l y i n g t h e so c all e d l aw s o f ad d i i on
” “
t
t
-

ex p l a i n e d i n h e f oll o wi n g s e c i on s t
t tt
.

Th e l aw s of addi t i on Addi i o n i s a c om m u a i ve an d an
t t t tt
.

ass o c i iv e op e ra t i o n ; h at i s, i c on f o rm s o h e f ol l ow i n g
a
t
w l o aw s

Th e com tt
m u a i ve l aw . a b b a,

Th e r es u ltf d di o a ng b to a is t
h e sa m e a s t
h tfa o a dd i n
g
a tb o .

Th e t
iv l w as s oc i a e a . a
( b c) ( a -
b) c,

Th ltf fi td d i
e r es u o rs a ng 0 tb d t h
o ddi g t
h man en a n e su so

bt
o i d t i t
a ne h m o a, s e sa e as t
h t f fi tddi g b t
a o rs a n o a a nd

t
h dd i g
en a tt h m n 0 o e su so o bti da ne .

N t I p ct ic w
o e pl t
h p n ra e, e re a e c e ex r ess o n i (a b) c by a b c
td i g b i g th tt p r esen t
. ,

d
ou r u n h p
e rs an n e n a e ex r es s on i a b c re s

t
h l tf d d i g b t c tt
e resu h m o a n o a, o e su ti
s o o b a n e d , a n d so o n .

Proof s of t
h es e l aws . We m ay p r o v e t
h es e l a ws as f oll ows .

Fir s t Th. e c om m u t
at
i ve l a w :a b b a.

Th u s t
h e su m s 3 2 an d 2 3 a re e qu a l
p r es en t h e n u m b e r fou n d b y fir st
s t c ou n t i n g o ff t
.
,

F or 3 2 re hr ee
nu m b er s , an d a fter t h at t
wo n u m b e rs o n t h e n at
u r al s c al e Th u s ,
.
,

Th e gr ou p c o u n t
ed 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5 , ( a)
t
h c e t
ou n ers , l , 2, 3, 1, 2 .
(b )
Bu tthas ere is a on et— l t i b tw t
h g
o on e r e a p on e ee n e rou s of s ign s (a) an d
t— l t
-

(b ) , a n d e very on e i i
o on e re a ip l § 2 w m on s rec roc a e ay i n te r ch an ge

t
-

d (b ) t i if w m k (b ) t
h t ou n t
, ,

h mi l
e es o f
(a ) an h g apc s, e a e e r ou ed ( a ) wi ll

p r esen t
t t
,

re h e gr ou p fc o o u n e rs .
12 A CO LL E G E AL G E BR A

Hen c e fin d i n g 3 2 is q i
e u val en tc
t o ou n t
i gt
n h g e r ou p of s i gn s
1 , 2 , 3, 1, 2 .
(b )
I n l i k e m an n er , fin d i n g 2 3 is e t
qu i val en to c ou n t
in g t
h e gr ou p

1, 2, 1, 2, 3 .
(0 )
Bu t as (b ) an d ( c ) c on sis tof t
h e s am e s ign s an d d i ffer o n ly in t
h e

m an n er in w hich t
hese s ig n s ar e arran ge d t
h e r esu l s o f t in g t
c ou n t he m
t 27 th at
,

are h e sam e is , ,
3 2 2 3 .

Si m i larly fo r an y t
w tl o n a ura nu m b ers , a an d b .

Se c o n d . Th e a ss o ci a t
i ve l a w :a ( b c) ( a b) c .

F or i n c ou n t in g t o th e bth s i g n aft e r a n a m e ly to a b an d t
h en t o

the c t
h S ig n aft er thi s n a m ely t c we c ou n t
,

tld
,

o (a b) b c s ign s a ll o

an d h e n c e a rr i ve a t t c) th S ig n aft er a n a m e ly a t
, , ,

h e (b a (b c ) , .

Th e n o ti on of c a r d i n al nu m b e r i s i nv ol v e d i n t
h p e f ju s
ro o s t
g i v e n Bu tddit i a
y b on ma e de fin e d an d tl w t
i s a s es ab l i s h e d

hi n t
ntly f t h f tt
t
.

i n d ep e n d e i n o s o o , as i s Sh o wn i n b l e oo n o e e o w fi“

ti t
h tici
Th e I al an m a e m a an Pe a n o h as d e fi n e d h e sys e m o f n a u r al n u m t t t
b h ti g t t
it W i h e n o on o f a r d n a l n u m b e r , b y a s e o f os u la e s c i t p tt
tt t
er s ou us n
which w e m a y s a e a s fo ll o ws w e r e n u m b e r m e a n s n a u ral n u m b er ”
h .

1 ig Th e s n 1 i s a n u m b e r
t fo l l o w n n u m b e r — all i a t c t
. .

2 ch h
To ea n u m b er a e r e i s a n ex i g
t
.

3 Thi s n u m b e r a + i s n ev e r 1 4 If a b en a = b h
tt
. . . .

5 E ve r y gi v en n u m b e r a i s re s e n i n h e s e q u e n e 1 , 1 (1 p c
t
.

Th e n u m e r al s 2, 3 , ar e d efi n ed h us :
Th e su m t
h mb ad tm i d (b c
b is f 5) b y t
tm
o h ea n e nu er e er ne e au se o e
i ff m l 1= 2= ( 1)
tt
u as a + a +, a + a +
i ff m l j t w itti q i l t
se r e s o or
Th e se r e s o hor i gl f m l
u as us r en s e u v a en o e s n e or u a
6 a +
m th m tic l i d ct t f dd i t
.

F m 6 by
ro ,
i w m yd i h l w
a e i a a n u on ,
”
e a e r ve e a s o a on
7 8
F i t I f 7 i t wh
+ 0
= I it t wh
. . .

rs . i l s k 1 F
ru e by 6 d7 en c s, s a so ru e en c = . or , an ,

+ 1=
Bu tb y 6 t wh = 1 7 is
H c 7 i t wh
, , ru e en c
=2 wh = 3 wh = an y n u m b e r, b y 5
W fi t h p t
en c en c
t
en e s ru e en c , ,
.

S c d p 8 f ic l c : 1= 1 a
If 8 i t f = Itt
e on . e rs ro v e or e ar u ar ase a .

'

h (l 1) 1 = o+ by 6
H c if 8 i t f I it t f
s ru e or a ,
en .
'

i l k 1
i c 8 i t f = 1 it i t f
en e s ru e or a s, s a so ru e or a .

H c = 3
'
2 f o r a a:
F i ll y i f 8 b t f b = k it i t f
en e, S n e s ru e or a , s ru e , or a ,

na ,
b=k 1 e ru e or , s ru e or + . F o r, b y 7 an d

Hen c e i ce 8 i s t
ru e ( b y 1 , i i s ru e fo r b 2, fo r b 3, wh e n b tt
t t t t
S n
t
,

See S o l z a n d G m e i n e r , Th eo r e i s c h e Ar i h m e i k , p p 1 3 if a n d h e r e fe r
t t i gt
t t t
.

h i
o Pe a n o e re g v e n ; a l so Hu n o n i n B u lle i n of h e Am e ri c a n
t t t t
en c es n
c
Ma h em a i a l So c i e y , Vo l I X , 40 H G ra ssm a n n ( Leh r b u c h d er Ar i h p
t t tt i
. . . .

m e i k) was h e fi rs o d er ve 7 a n d 8 fro m 6 .
 THE N AT U R AL N U MBE RS 13

General h eorem t reg ardi ng su m s . By m ak i n g r ep eate d app l i

c at i o n of th ese l aw s, 34, 35, i t c an b e sh o w n th a t

Th e su m o
f an
y fin it
e n u m ber of num t m
ber s wi l l be h e sa e,

wh a t t
h
eve r e o r d er i n wh i c h w e a rr a n ge t
h m wh t t
e h ,
or a ever e

m a n n er i n w h i c h w e g r ou p t
h m e ,
wh en a ddi g t
h m n e .

Th u s ,

F or § 35
§ 34

a +c +b+d

R u l es of equ ali t
y an d i n equ al i y for t su m s F i r st F rom t
h e

t t t t
. .

d e fin i i o n of su m ,
29, an d h e ru l es o f 2 4, i f ll o o ws h t
a

1 .

2 .

3 .

Her e 1 i s o b vi ou s , i ce i f a b t
s n h en a an d b d e n ot
, e t
h e sam e n u m b er .

We m ay p ro ve 3 as fo ll o ws an d 2 s i m il a r ly

t
.
,

I f a > b, l e a b { d, § 3 1 .

35, >b +c .

Se c on d . F r o m 1 , 2, 3 i t
f ll
o ows c onver se ly th a t
4 . If a c s, th en ( a ti .

5 . If a c , < b+
‘
c ,
t
h n e a b .

6 .

Th u s th en a z b
t th it t
.
,

Fo r o h wi er se we m us a ve e h er a <b an d h f
e r e or e a c <b c

by o r e l se a >b an d t
h f er e o re a c >b c (by
Th i rd . I tl a so f oll o ws fr om 1 , 2, 3 t h at
7 .

8 .

9 .

Th u s , i f .
a : b, t
h en an d if c = d, t
h en
 A CO LL E G E AL G EB R A

MULTI PLI CATI ON

Defini i on t of t t
m u l i p l i c a i on To m u l ip ly . t a by b i s tfi d t
o h n e

su m of 6 num b er s ea c h o f wh i h i s a c
t t ct ti
.
,

W e c al l hi s su m h p e r o du of a by b a n d e x p r es s i n

t e r m s o f a a n d b by a x b, or a b, o r si m l
p y ab

t
.

H e n c e by d e fi n i i o n
, ,

ab = a + a ~ -
tb t o e rm s .

We al s o c all a t
h e mu t
l ip li c a n d bth m lt
ip li e u er , an d a an d b
t
,

h f ct
e a o r s o f a b.

Th e p roces s To fin d p r od u c s b y r ep ea ed addi i on wo u l d t t t
t t t
.

b e v e r y l a b o r i ou s W e h er e fo r e m em o r i ze p r o du c s o f h e
t t t
.

s m all e r n u m b e r s ( m u l i p li c at i o n ab l e s ) , a n d f r o m h e se d e r i v e

p r o du ct
s of t
h l e a r g er n u m b er s by aid of th l w
e a s o f a dd i

ti on an d t
h l e aw s o f m u l t
ipl i c t
i a on e x p l a i n e d i t
h f
n e oll ow i ng
se c ti on s
t t t t dd i t
.

Th e l aws of m u l i pli c a i on i M u l i p li c a i on , l i k e
i a on , s

c om m u t at ci t t t
.

a ive an d a n i i
a s so
p d i i d ia ve o era on , an s “
s

tib t
r i uwi t
h ve
”
r e sp e ct h t i it
t ddi ti n ; t o c f m t a o a s, on or s o

h f ll wi g t
t e h
o o n r ee l a ws

Th e c om m u a tt i l w ve a . ab ba ,

Th e r esu ltf m ltip ly i

o u n
g a by b is t
h e sa m e a s t
h tfm a o u l
t
ip ly i ng b by a .

Thu s ,
2 -
3 z 6 an d 3 -
2 z 6 .

Th e a s s oc i a ti l w ve
( ) ( )
b b
a c . a e a
,

Th e r es u lt f o ltip ly i g
m by t
uh p n a e r odu ct
be is t
h e sa m e a s

h t
t fma o u ltip ly i g th p d ct n b by e ro u a 0 .

Thu s -
1 2 : 24 ; an d
(2
I n p ra c t t td
,

ic e we wr i e a bc n s i ea of ( a b) c . Co m p are 36 .

Th e di s tib ti l w
r
( b c
u
) b ve a . a a a c,

Th e l tf fi t ddi g b
r es u d c o rs a n an and t
h m lt
ip ly
en u

by t bt i d i t h tf fi t
t
,

ing a h m e h su so o a ne , s e sa m e as a o rs
 T HE N A T U RA L N UM B E RS

m u t
l ip ly i n g a by b and a by c ,
an d t
h en a dd i n g t
h p e r odu ct
s

so t
o b a i n ed .

an d 3

Proofs of t
h es e l aw s . We m ay p r o v e t
h e se l aw s as f o l l o ws :
F ir s t Th
. e di s ti b t
r i l u ve a w :a b ac a
(b c) ( 1 )
.

§ 41

(b + c ) tm er s

He n c e a
( +
b c +

We al so h ave ac be = ( a b) c .

-
t tm
o c er s )

Se c o n d . Th e at
com m u ti ve l a w :a b ba .

t tm ) b
-
o a er s

—l o
b+1 -
b+ t tm - o -
o a er s

—b + b + t tm = b
-
o a er s a.

Th i rd . Th e a s so c i a t
i ve l a w :( a b) 0 a
( )
bc .

( a b) c § 41
—a
(b b + t tm
o c er s ) a
( bc ) . by (2 ) an d § 41

Gen eral t
h eorem r eg ar di n g p rodu c t s Th e se l aw s c an be
t tp t f a ct
.

e x e n de d o r od u c ts of a n y fin i e num be r of o rs . Th u s,

Th e p r o d u c tf o t an
y fi n i e n u m ber of a c o r s i s i n d ep en d en tf tf o

t
h e or d e r in whi ch tf t h e a c o r s a r e m u l ip l i ed og e h er t tt .

R u l es of e u a q lit y d i n q li t
y f
an e ua or p d t Th
ro u c s . e se a r e

1 . If a b, th en ac bc . 4 . If ac be, t
h en a b .

2 . If a b, t
h en a c bc . 5 . If ac 60 , t
h en a b .

3 . If a b .
t
h en a c be . 6 . If ac be, t
h n e a b .
16 A C O LL E G E AL GEB R A
He re 1 is ob vi ous , s ni ce if a b, t
h en a an d b den o tt
h
e e sa m e n u m b er .

We m ay p ro ve 3 as follo ws an d 2 s i m ila r ly
t
, .

If a > b, l e a b d Th en a c (b d) c be dc , > bc
6 ar e t
. .

Th e ru l es 4, 5, h e c o n verses o f 1 2 3 an d follo w fr o m t
hem by
t
, ,

h e r e as on n i g u sed in 39 .

F r o m 1 , 2 , 3, b y t
h e r e a so nin g em p l oy e d i n 3 9, i tf ll o ow s

that
If a = b an d c = d, t
h en a c = bd .

If a < b an d c < d, t
h en a c < bd .

II . SUB T R A C TI O N AND THE N E G A TI VE

THE COMPLE TE S CALE
Su b tt
i T
rac on o su btra c t 3 f r om tfi d wh
5 is o n a t nu m b er
t t
h n tl c l
.

o ccu pi h 3d p l
es e a c e befor e 5 in e a u ra s a e

nti g t
.

W e fi n d thi s n u m b er 2 , by c o u nh b ree n u m er s ba c k wa r d
t t
,

in h e s c al e , b e g i n n i n g a 4 , t h u s :4 3, 2
t t t
.
,

We i n d i c at e h e o pe r a i o n b y h e Si g n , r e ad “
m in u s,

t
wr i i n g 5 3 2
t t tf tfi
.

An d, i n g e n er al , o s u b r a c b r om a is o nd wh at n u m b er
o cc u p i e t t
s h e b h p l ac e b e f o re a

ll t t tct
.

We ca hi n m b h
s i d
u er e r em a n er o bta i n e d i g by su b ra n

b f ro m a , an d p n ti
reti tm r es e n er s o f d b by t
a anh p e ex res

s i on a b W l c ll t h i
e a so a a e m n u en d d bt h an bth d e su ra en

t ly t h t
.

t
.

Addi i on an d su b rac tt
i n in o vers e Op era i Cl
on s hi d e ar e r

t
.

n u m be r b e fo r e 5 i s al so h n e um b e r f r om wh i ch 5 c an be
t
O b ai n e d by a ddi n g 3
t t
.

An d, i n we m ay d e s c r i b e h e r em a i n d e r a
g e n e r al , b e i h er
as t
h t e b h n u m b e r b e f o r e a , o r a s h e n u m b e r fr o m wh i c h a t
c an b bti d by d d i
e o a ne a ng 6, th a t
i t
h
s, a s e num b er wh i ch is
de fi d by t
ne h q t i e e ua on

(a
18 A C O LL E G E AL G EB R A

be e n r em o ve d, an d we m ay c al l t
0 h e Si g n o f h e tc ar d i n al nu m

b er of t
h e r e su l t
i g n
“
g r ou p
”
o f n o el e m e nt s w h ere f or e
t g rd 0 t t l mb
.

o f en re a as on e of h e n a u ra nu er s

B t 1
.

u 2 3 h c di l ni g wh t ave n o ar na m ea n a s oe v e r .

O t t d ll t h v t
, , ,

h n h h e o h w ig
er an h di
a l e se n e s ns a e e s am e o r na

ch c t t h n tl ft
,

ar a e r as b Ev y
e a u ra h cc p i nu m er s er on e o em o u es

d fi i tp i t t t
.

a e ni ie di los y w h
oni c h i cnl d h
an or na s s em n u es e

n tla u ra b l num A dw m y c id
e r s a so it d fi d by t hi n e a on s er e ne s

t t
.

p i
os i p c i only w rem y c id
se c h as l n b e a on s er ea n a u ra um er

d fi d b y i tp i t
e ne i i t h c l
s W os g d t hi
on n e s a e e re ar s as a

ffi c i t c ll i g t
.

su enf h
r e a so n ig 1 2
or 3 a b n e s ns num er s

T di t i g i h t
, , .

P it ios d n g t i
v e an h
e a w vemb 1 o s n u s e ne nu ers

f m t
.

g t
,

2 3 cl h l d w c ll th m
as a ass i ro e o e a e ne a ve,

t ld p i t
, , ,

h e O i os ve

c ll d i t t
.

Th b e f b th ki d
n um d 0
ers o o
g n s, a n ar e a e n e ers o

di t i g i h t t tb c id d l t
,

s n h f
u s h mb em r om o er n u er s o e on s er e a er

L tb t y m
.

Al g b i q li t e ra c e u a
y d in q lit y d an e ua e a, c e n o e an nu

ft p l tc l
.
,

b ers o h c e Acc d i g
om p c d
e e s a e c i c i d or n as a re e es, o n es

wi t f ll w b w w i t
.

h or o o b s b b e r e a a or a

Si c by d fi i t i n t
, , ,
.
,

n e h c m pl t e c l in o di n l y t m e o e e s a e s an o r a s s e

17 t f 2 4 p p ly ti t
,

h l e r u es o l ; th a o a so u s,

Wh en a < b, ti wh th a s, en a p r e c e d e s b i n h e c o m pl e e t t
c
s al e , i t
i c s t y t y th
u s om ar o sa t a a i s a lg ebr a i c a l ly l es s h an b, t
or t h at b is a lg ebr a i c a lly g r ea t
er t h an a .

Ob ser ve h tt
t h w a e ords
“
l es s ”
an d
“
g
r ea e r , t ”
as t
h u s u se d , m e an
p re c e d e an d follow ”
in t
h c e om p let
e s c al e t
hi s an d n o t
hi g m n o re .

20 i s less t
,

Th u s ,
h an 18 m ean s m e r e ly 20 p re c ed es
Ab s ol u t e or n u m er cal i val u es W e c all 3 t
h e n u m er i c a l va lu e o f
tb l t t tp t
.

3 or i s a so u e v a lu e, a n d u s e h e sy m b ol 3] o re r e se n
itw it
i g 3| 3 r n Si m il ar ly fo r an y n e g a ti ve num be r
t
. .
,

Th e n u m er i c al v al u e o f a p o si ti ve n u m be r or 0, i s h e n u m b er
tl f
,

i se . Th u s | 3 | 3 .
 SU B T RA C T IO N AND THE NEG A T I V E 19

Nu m eri cal equ ali t

y an d i nequ al i y t F u r th er m or e we say of

t t tc l h ti
t
.

an y w n u m b er s of
o h c e om l
p e e s a e , a s a an d b, a a s

n u m er i c a l l y l e s s th an ,
e q u al t g t th
o, or r ea e r a n D, a cc ordin g
as
[]a or

Thu s w hi l e 3 is a lg ebra i a lly c l ess t

h an 2, i t
i s n u m er i a lly c great er

t t ti
,

h an 2, an d whi l e 7 is al g eb raic ally less h an 3, i s n u m er ic ally

er t
g reat h an 3 .

OPE RAT I ONS W I TH NE GATI V E NUMBE RS

New opera t
i n o s We al so i nv e n tOp t
i er a on s b y wh i c h t
h e

t mb bi d wit
.

n eg a i ve nu d 0 m y b c er s an h th a e om ne on e an o er

an d wi t h t h n t l n e b a u ra t h l tt u th m lv
m er s, a s e a er ar e e se es

c m b i d by d d i t
o ne i m l t i p li c t
a i n on ,d b tc ti n
u a o an su ra o

W c ll t by t
.
,

e h a p ti e se o h er an d i ndi c t
on s e sa m e a m e s, an a e

th em i t h n m w ye sa t h pe ti na w i t
h n t
as ln mb e o er a o s a u ra u er s

twh i ch t
,

o h y c ep nd o rr e s o

6 0 td f t
.

E pl y i g
m o i n a, a s t n
y n mb h m o en o e an u er o e co

t b t d b td
,

p l e e c l s a e, u t n t
a an l n mb n ly w
o en o e a u ra u er s o e

t
,

ma y d fin th e e w p i n
e se n e f ll w o er a o s as o o s

D fin it
e i n f ddi t i n
o s o d bt t
a i n oTh an su r ac o . e s e ar e

1 . b i t
a m nt h bt
s h n mb
o eaft e u er a er a .

2 . b i tm
a th bt
s h o . mb b f
ea n e nu er e o re a .

3 . 0
a d 0 an tm t a h mb
ar e o e an e sa m e n u er as a.

4 . a b) i t m n t h m s n mb
o ea b e sa e u er as a .

5 . a b) i tm nt h s o b ea b e s am e n u m e r as a .

I n th w do er dd i g or p it i
s, a n b b t y n mbn a os ve u m er o an u er

a i t
s o n h
m ea tf c t i n g b pl c f w d i
as e r e o or e , ou n a es or ar n

t c l ; b tct i g it c t
,

h e s a e su i n g 6 pl c
ra n b ck w d :wh il ou n a es a ar e

b tc t i g tb q i
,

a dd i g n d an su g t i ra b n a ne a ve nu m er ar e o e e u va

l t p ct
en res i l y t bt c t
e ve i g d ddi n g t
o su h c rap d i g n an a e o rr es on n

p osi t
i v n b
e um er .
20 A C O LL EGE ALG EB RA

Thu s , by 1 , 3 2 i ce 1, s n l i s h e 2d t mb nu er af er t 3 .

by 2, 2 5 3 sin c e , 3 is h 5t
t h emb nu er b efore 2 .

b y 4, —5 —2
b y 5, —6
Defini i on t of t t
m u l i p l i ca i on . Th i s i s

1 . O -
a an d a o ar e t o m ean 0 .

2 . a
( b) an d a
) b a re t o m e an ab .

3 . a
) b) i s t n b o m ea a .

In o t
h er t
wo r d s,h f whi ch i a p r od u w f ct
ct f t o o a or s, n ei er o s

O i tb p i t
s i o g t
i ecc d i g h f ct h v
t os ve or n e a ve a or n as e a or s a e

t pp i t i g t
,

h e s a m e or o A d i y c h osi c l e s ns n n e v er a se e n u m er a

f th p d ct i tb t h p d ctf t
.

v l
a ue o e h n ro ic l u s o e e ro u o e u m er a

v l f th f ct
a u es o e a or s .

Thu s , by 2, 3 x —2 —6 , an d —3 x 2

by 3, —3 X

Th e or i g i n an d s i g n ifi c an ce of t
h es e defin i i on s t Ob se r v e t h at
t tt t f 66 d 6 7 n ei t t
.

h e s a em e n s o an ar e her as su m p i o n s n or

t
h q i i g d
e or e m s tt
i re u r n e m on s r a on , bu tW h tw a e h ave c alle d
t
h d fi it
emi f w p t i e n on s o ne o er a on s .

Th u s t
i wou ld b e tt tm pttp t h t
ab su r d2 3) —2 3 wi t
h
o a e o r ove a

n ot t ttf c pt h d fi it
t ip l ic t tl
,

hi n g o s ar m ro i f m lt
ex ei f e e n on o u a on o n a u ra

nu m b e rs , § 40 f t h b i or h t3i
t e o t t l mb
v o u s r e aso n a s no a n a u ra nu er .

2 t 3 t
,

Th e phr ase “
k im a i men i gl es s e an n ess .

t Bu w hy sh ou l d su ch op e r a t
i on s he i n v e n td e ? To m ak e
t
h g t
i e ne a ve n u m b ers a s s e r v i c ea b l e a s p os s i bl e in ou r t
s u dy

o f re l a t
i o n s a m on g n um b e rs t
h e m se l ves an d a m o n g t
hi gs i n n

t
h w e to rld a bo u us

t t t d b i t i ly ;
.

Th w p e nei h o b ni er a on s a ve n o ee n v en e ar rar on

t h c ty t
e h y
on th
r ar tl ti ft h e ld p ar e e n a u ra e x e n s on s o e o o er a

t i n tt
,

o hs w n o b e ne u m ers

h t
I d li g w i t tl
.

n eah n b w fi t d fi d ddi e n a u ra nu m er s, e rs e ne a

ti n
o p c —
as a c ti n g f w d
ro es s— d th h w d th t ou n or ar an en s o e a
 SU B T R A CTI O N AND THE NEG A T I V E 21

t
h e r e su l s o f t t hi p s ro cess t
h av e w o p r ope r ti es wh i c h a re i n da

p en d en tf t
ho l e va u es o f t
h e nu m ber s a dd ed, n am ely
1 . 2 .

Si m il ar ly we p r ov ed th at p r o du c t s p o sse ss h e th r ee g en e r al t
p r op er i es t
3 ab 4 c = 5
. ba . . a
( )
b ( ab
) c . . a
( b c) ab a c.

Wh en we em p l oy l e t td
t
b e r s th e s e p r o p e r t i e s
er s o en o e n u m t
t tt
s an d p u r p o s es o u r wo r ki n g d efi n i t
,

1 —5 b e c o m e o al l i n e n i on s
o f ad di t t
i o n an d m u l ti p l ic a i o n ; for o f c o u r se w e c an n o t h e n t
t
t
, ,

a c t u al l y c a r r y o u h e p r o c e ss e s o f c ou n t i n g f o r wa r d an d s o o n
t t
.
,

Cle arly i f c o r r e s p on d i n g o p e r a i o n s w i th h e n e w n u m b er s
t
ar e o b e s e r v i c e a bl e he se d e fin i i o n s ”
t
1 —5 m u s t app ly “
t
tt ttt
,

o h e m al so An d 6 6 , 6 7 m er e l y s a e h e s o l u t i o n o f
t
.

h e p r o bl e m

To m a ke t ft h m i g f dd i t i m lti
s u c h a n ex ens i on o e ea n n s o a on , u

p li c ti a d btc t
i h tm
t
on , a n d p d tf su y m
ra on a su s an ro uc s o an nu

be rs of t
h c m p l t l m ey h t
h o
p p t
i 1 —5 h t
d t
e e sca e a a ve e ro er es an a

bt t t tb t t
,

su i
racm y i on h i fad d i i c on nu e o e e n ver s e o a on .

Thu s ( 1 ) i g a p osi t
w h en we d e fi n e i ve n u m b e r b t
ad d n o a as c o u n tin g
for war d an d s u b t rac tin g it as c ou n t i n g b ac k ward we are m erely r ep e at
,

in g
th e o ld d e fin i t i o n an d su b t r ac t
, ,

i o n s o f ad d i t i on
(2 ) F r o m t hi s d e fin i t i on o f a dd i t i on i t fo l lows t h at b b 0
.

Bu t if th e c om m u t at ive l aw a b b a i s t o h o ld g o o d we m u s t
.

h ave
— b) an d t
,

b+b: b h er efor e b b) : 0 ; or s i n c e b b =0
we m u st
, , ,

h a ve b b) b b
Thi s su ggest s t h e d e fin i t
.

i on a b) a b
(3) If o u r n e w a dd i t i o n a n d su b t ra c ti on are l i k e t h e ol d t
.

o b e i n ver se

Op e r ati on s we m u st
, ,

al sb h a ve as i n 66 5 a b) a b

(4) Agai n t o re t ain t h e o ld c o n n e c t i on b et we e n a dd i ti on an d m u lt

.
, , , ,

ipli
c at
e

i on § 41 we m u st
,

, , h ave a s i n § 6 7 2 , , ,

—a ) b — a + ( t o b ter m s -

—a — a ot I DS —a b
{
o - n .

( 5) If he tc om mu a tt
i ve la w ab ba i s t
ah dld g oo d , we m u s tl a so h ave
a ( —b) a —ba z — a b, as in § 67, 2 .
v
22 A C O LL E GE AL G E B R A

(6 ) Si m il arly , 0 0 t tm
o 0. er s 0, hi f c t
t
an d tg t
h wi t
h s a o e er

ou r wi sh tc o o n fo r m tt
h l
o e aw a b ba lea d s tt
h d fi it
o i f 67 1
e e n on s o , ,

n a m e ly , O a =0 an d a -
O -

0
t
o

t (6 ) t
.

( 7 ) F i n ally , i follo ws
f ro m ha a ) b b) a 0 0
tif t di tib t th tl
.

Bu h i e s r u ve la w i s o ol d g o od , we m u s a so h ave
—a >< — a >< — a ><
— b>— ab. b y
We t h e r efo r e h a ve a) b) ab 0 An d s n i ce also a b ab 0,
we ar e t
h u s le d t
.

o d efi n e a ) b) as a b, as in 67, 3 .

Th e opera ti j td fi
on s us e n ed co nform tt
oh e com m u a tt
i ve, asso

ci a t
i ve, a n d di tib t
i l w
s r u ve a s I t r e m ai n s tp th t
o th w
r o ve a e ne

wi t
h t
.

op e ra t i on s a re in c o m pl e t e a g re e m e nt h l w wh i ch e a s

su g g e s e d t th em

t
.

To begi n wi h , w e h ave

(1 )
— b — c,
a a
( )
2

b — b =
a + a
( 3)
as t
f o ll ow s fr om h e d efin i i on s o f addi t ti n o an d s u btr ac t i on as

c o u n t i n g f o r w a r d an d b a c k w a r d b y h e ,
t r e a so n i ng in 3 7 , 52 .

I . Th e c om m u a tt
i ve l aw, a b b a.

—a
F ir st, ) .

F or if a > b ,
le t a =d +b .

Then —a +bz
— d —b + b

b+( —a ) = b
b —b — d
Pr o c eed i n a s i m i lar m an n er w h en b a .

Se c on d, a b) b a
) .

F or a i — b) —(a + b) —( b + a ) = b +(

II . Th e as s oc i a t
i l ve aw, a
(b c
) ( a b) 0 .

F i r s t, a
[ b b c) .

F or if b > c , le t b d c . 3 1 , 34
 SU B T R A CT I O N AND THE NE G A TI V E 23

Th en
an d +b+ — c)
a (
Pro c e e d i n a s i m il ar m an n er wh en c >b .

Se c on d, a c] a b) c.

Thi s foll o ws fr o m I an d t
h c e ase j t
co id
us ns er ed .

Th i r d, a b a b) + ( -
f
c
) .

Thi s fol lo ws fro m (2) an d § 6 6 , 4, i ce

s n b c) (b
III . Th e com mu tt
aiv e l aw, ab ba .

F i rs t,
a
) b b a
) .

F or —a ) b —a b — ba = b —a
( ) .

Se c on d, a
) b) b) a
) .

F or — a) ( —b —
) ( a) .

IV . Th e a s s oc i a t
iv e l aw, a
( )
b e
( )
ab c .

F i rs t .
a
) 5) c
)l a
) O] C
)
b) ) be a bc , § 46 § 6 7,
F or a ) ( a -

an d b) ] c) = ab o — c) —a bc
a
)( .

Se c on d , t
h e o t h er c a se s m ay b e p r o v ed in t
h e sam e way .

V . Th e di s tib t
ri u ve l aw, a
( b c
) ab ac .

F ir s t [b
,
a a
( c) .

F o r [b + ( c )] [b + —
( c) ] n -
t tmo a er s

-
t tm
o a er s +( — c ) - ~ t tm
oa er s

ba + —
( c) a .

Hen c e [b )] ab c) b y II I
'

a c z a (
Se c on d, fr o m t
hi s c a se t
h e o th e r s r ea d i ly f oll o w .

Th us .
—c >
l — a lb + ( — c >
l
 A CO LL E GE AL G EB R A

Th e g eneral resu l tA s h as al r e a d y b een o b ser v ed § 68 , in

tl t t t
.
,

li er ah ic ar i lg b me h l w b
or a b d
e r a, e a s a a, an so

o n , ar e e
q i l t t d fi i
u v a ent
i f dd i t
i o d m l t ie
p l i
n c ti on s o a on an u a on ,

ev n wh t
e h l t t b c d tn t l b
en e e er s a , A dw en o e a u ra num er s n e

w h w t h t t d fi it t
, .

h v a e no h
S o i n
pp yla l l b
e se e n on s a o a num e rs

oft h c pl t c l
e om e e s a e

ft t
.

By h
m ean s l w w o y c h n gese h f m f li t l
a s e ma a e e or o a e ra

exp i w i th
r e s s on t ff c t
i g i t l ou w h ta e b f n s va u e, a e ve r nu m ers o

th c e p l t om c l th l tt i
e e s a env l d i t h p e i n m y
e er s o ve n e ex re ss o a

d n t
e o e .

Thu s , wh e t
h er a , b, c , d d en o tp it
e ios ve or n e i ve i n t
g at e g er s , we h ave

R u l es of equ al i t
y an d i n equ al i y for t su m s We m ay p r o v e by

tt
h t tt
.

r e a so n i n g s i m i l ar i
o a n 39 h a

Acc o r d i n g as a <, or > b,

so is a + o <,

an d c o n v e r s e ly
Hen c e i t is t t
.

ru e fo r
p os i ti v e an d n eg at i ve nu m b er s ali k e h at
An e qu a t
i o n r em a i n s a n e qu a t
i on a n d t
h e s en s e o i n equ a l i y
f an t
r em a i n s u n c h a n g ed wh en t
h e sa m e n u m ber is tt
a dd ed o bo h s i d es ,

or is s u bt ed fr om bo t
ra c t h .

R u l es of equ al i t
y an d i nequ al i y for produ ct t s Ob se r ve t
h t
a

t t t
.

c h a n g in g h e sign s o f an y w o num be r s a an d b r ev e r se s h e

o r de r i n wh i h c t
h y e o cc u r i th c
n e om ple tc e s al e , 57 .

Th u s ,
we h ave 3< 2, bu t bu t
5> 2 .

F r om t
hi s fac t an d t
h e r e as o n i n g of 50 i tf l l o o ws th at
Accor d i n g as a or b,

so is ac or be,

bu t ( a
) — c ,
or < b( -
c
);
an d c on v er sely . He n ce
 A CO LL EGE AL G E BR A

THE USE OF I NTE GRAL NUMBER S I N MEAS URE ME NT

Measu rem en tW be r s n o o n ly o r e c or d h e
e u se num t t t
t t t
.

r e su l ts o f c ou n r ou s o f di s t i n c t t h i n g s b u
i g g al so o in di
n
p
t
ca e t t
,

h e r esu l s of m ea s u r in g m a g n i t u des su ch as p or ti o n s of
t t
,

t i m e s r ai g h l i n e s s u r fa c e s an d so on
t tt t
.
, , ,

W e m ea s u r e a m a g n i u de by c om p a r in g i wi h som e p ar i c u
t
l a r m ag n i u d e o f h e t s am e ki n d, ch o s e n as a u n i tf m o e as u r e

t t c t t c e rt
.

I f h e m a g n i u de on t ai n s h e uni a ai n num ber of

ti m e s ct
exa l y w e c all th i s n u m ber s m ea s u r e it
i c u l ar we c all t
p ar t t
.
,

In h e m easu re o f a l i n e se g m e nt h e

tft
,

len g h h o e s egm e nt .

Thu s we m ay m e asu r e gm en t b y fin d i n g h o w m an y t
a l in e i m es we
se

c an l ay so m e ch os e n u n i t se g m en t say a fo ot r u l e al o n g i t
,

If we fi n d t it c on t ain s th e foo t r u l e ex a c tly t h ree t i m es we say t h at

.
, ,

h at
it is three feet lo n g o r t h at it h t
s l en g t h at is i t
,

,
s m easu r e — is 3 , .

Th e t h
u se u tf l n l n e ss
b i of e n a u ra u m ers n m easu r e m en ti s

du e tth f ct
o th t by t
h i
e l t
a i p iti n a e r re a ve os o s in t
h t e n a u ra l

h y i di c tt
t f t it
,

c
s a e,l h
e l t i ni h a e e re a ve s zes o e m agn d wh
u es os e

m ea su r es th y e a re

t
i n ft nt W e o fte n
.

Appli c a oh o e n eg a t
i nve u m b er s tm o eas u rem e

t t di ct
.

h av e o cc as i o n o m ak e m e a su r e m en ts in o pp os i e i“
re on s

f r om so m e fix e d “
p o i n tf o f
r e er e n ce .
”

Th u s we m easu re t i m e i n y ea r s befor e an d aft h e b i rt

er t h o f Chr ist
l on gi t u d e i n d e g r e es west a n d ea st o f G re en wich or W a shi n gton t
, ,

e m p era

t
,

u r e i n d e g r e es below an d a bove ze r o .

We m ay th e n t t
di s i n g u i sh m easu r em e n s m ade i n h e on e t
t
di r e c i o n from t t t t
h o se m a d e i n h e o h er by h e s i m p l e de v i c e
o f repr esen t
i g t
hn e on e by p os i i ve t num b e r s, t
h t
h e o er by
n eg a t
i ve num be r s
c o n si d e r t
.

Th u s, h e foll o wi n g fi g u re

—4 —3 —2 —1 o
P_, P_ 3 P_ , P_ , 0
 D I V I SI O N AND FR A C T I ONS 27

t
He r e h e fix ed p o i nt of r e e r e f n ce or or i g i n , is 0, t
h e u ni t
t
h p i tP
,

i s OP ] , an d e o n s 2, P 3, P __ P_ 2, ar e su ch th a t
OP , P_ , 0

t
Ab ov e h e s e p oin t s w e h a ve wr i t e n t i th n ei r p ro
p e r o r der t
h e

n u m b er s ft
o h c e om p l e t e c
s al e , s o t
h t0 c
a o m es o v er 0
t th t i t t
.

Th e d i s tc an e of e a ch p o in P f r om h l 0, — a s, e en g h
of t
h e se g m e n t OP , i s t h en i d i c t d by t
n h a e ic l e n u m er a va l u e

o ft
h e num b er wr i tten b o ve
a an ite
; d th di ti fP f r ec on o r om 0
i s i n di c a t ed b y t
h e s i g n o f t h at n u m b e r .

Thu s , 3 over P_ 3 i n d ic at
es t
h at
P _ 3 is d is tt
3
an ittt
h l ftf0 un s o e e o .

t
M or e ove r , h e o r d er i n wh i c h th p i n t cc t
eh li o s o u r on e ne is
i n di c a t d by t
e h e or d e r in wh i c h th c p n di g eb or r es o n num er s

o ccu r i t h
n c l e s a e

tpi t n m b
.

Poi n t s u s ed o I m ch
c u re th u ers n as u as ere is a on e

t w nt
2 b t y t fp i t
.

o o n e r el a
-
t i on , h m e ee e s s e o o n s P __2, P _
t
, 1,

0, P 1, P 2, an d h e sy s e m t of n u m b er s 2, 1 , O,
1 , 2, m ei t
h er sy s e m t m ay b e u se d t p
o re r es e nt t
h th
e o er .

t tp i c t
,

I n wh a t f o l l o ws we sh all fre qu e ntly u se h p e o i nt s o u re

t
h e n u m b er s .

I II . D I VI SI O N AND F R A CTI O N S

DI V I S ION RE PEATE D S UBTRACTION

t
The wo ki nds of div i s i on Th er e ar e t
w o o era
p t
t i o n s o wh i ch
t t
.

h e n am e d i vi si on i s ap p li e d th m e i c an d
in ar i al g e b r a Th e
r ep ea t
ed s u bt
r a ct t t t
.

on e m ay b e de s cr i b ed as i on h e h h o er as e

t t h t
i wh i c h t
,

i n ver s e of m l ip li c a i on
u Th e r e i s a a se n c w e o

t tc t
.

c o i n c i de W e all h i s h e ase o f ex a c d i vi s i on
c
t
h fi t
. .

Di vi s i on t
repea ed s u b rac tt
i n o To d i v i d e 7 b y 3 i n e rs

t tt t
.

of th e se se n se s i s o an s we r h e wo q u es i o n s :
1 W h at m u l i p l e o f 3 m u s w e t t b tct
f su ra rom 7 t bti n
o o a a

t
.

r e m al n d e r wh i ch i s l e ss h a n 3
2 . What is th i s re m ai n d e r
 A CO LL E G E A LG EB R A

We m ay fin d t
h e an sw e r tb t
h q
o o u es ti on s by re
p ea e dlty
su tt
b ra c in g 3 Th u s si n c e 7 3 4 an d 4 3 1 , w e m u st
su bt t 3 t wi c e o r wh at c o m es o t t t t
.
,

ra c h e s am e hi g n we m us

r act An d t
, ,

su bt
,

3 x 2 h e r em ai n d e r i s 1
t t t
.

t
.

Th i s ki n d q i l p d of bt d i vi si o n , h en , i s e u va e n o re ea e su ra c

t
i It l t
on . i t btcti i lik th t f
s re a ip l i c t
lt i n on o su ra on s e a o m u a o

t ddi t
o a i on

th t t
.

Ob h f
s er v eb 7 3 2 1 c c t d by
a e ou r n u m er s ar e on n e e

t q tn
, , ,

h e e ua io
7 3 2 1 .

An d so i n g e n e r al , i f a a n d b ar e a n y wo n a tu ral n u m b e r s , o t t
d i vi d e a b
y b in h t
e s e n se n o w u n d e r c o n s i d e r a i o n , i s o fin d t t
t
w n tl ch t
h t
,

o a u ra num be r s , g an d r , o n e o f whi c h m ay b e 0, su a

a z bg + r an d r < b .

W e c all a t
h di e vi d en d, b t
h di e vi s or , g t
h q t
i t e uo en , an d r

t
h e r em a i n d er .

No tWh en a an d b are gi ven t

e . wo n u m b ers q an d r sa t i sfy i n g 8 8 ,

m ay al way s b e fou n d .

Thu s i f a < b we h ave q O an d r a

I f a g b it 3 1 35 t h at we c an c o n t in u e t
.
, ,

fo llo ws fro m h e su m
unt il i t h e r e q u als a o r wi ll b e c o m e grea t
ei t er t
, ,

b b h an a if we a d d
an ot h er b An d i f q d en o t e t h e n u m b er of t er m s i n thi s s u m we s h all
h ave 4 1 e i t
.
,

h e r a bq o r a bq r wh ere r < b
Aga i n wh e n a a n d b ar e gi ve n b u t
.
, , , ,

on e p a i r o f n u m b e r s q a n d r

sa t
i sfy i n g § 8 8 ex i st
, ,

F or were t
.

h er e a se c on d su ch p ai r say q r we sh ou ld h ave ,
’
,
’
,

bq r bq
’
r
’
,
an d t
h f
er e o r e b (q q
’

) r
’
r.

Butt hi i i m p ib l s s o ss e, s n e r i c ’
r w o u ld b e nu m er ic ally le ss t
h an b,
bu t
b (q q) t m ic ’
no nu er all y l e ss t
h an b .

E x ac t
di vi s i o n t
I f h e di v i d e n d a is
‘
a m u l t i pl e o f h e div i s o r t
t t
.

b, as wh e n a 12 an d b 3, h e r e m a in d e r r is 0 We h n e

ct t t t
.

s ay th a t a is ex a ly d i vi si bl e by b In hi s c ase h e equ a i on

ce s t
.

of 88 re d u o a bg, or

g b = a.
 DI V I SI O N AND F R A C T I O N S 29

H en c e wh en a is ex a ct
l y d i v i s i bl e by b we m ay al so d e fin e t
he
t
,

qu o i t g
en as t
h e nu m ber w h i h , m c u t
l ip li ed by b wi ll p r odu ce a

t c at
e t
.
,

In th i s c a s e f u r h e r m o r e, we m ay i n d i he di v i s i on
t t t
i nt g i tm
,

h u s, a b, an d e x p r e ss h q e uo e n er s o f a an d b by

o n e of t
h e sy m b ol s
a

b
or a b, wr i t in g g
Cb

b
as well as gb a .

THE ORE M S AND F ORM ULAS RE S PE CTI NG E XACT DI V I S I ON

T h eorem 1 E xa c tdi vi s i on and m u t t
l ip l i c a i on a re i n ver s e 95
t h t
.

o
p er a i on s ; t i a s,

b x b = a, and a x b + b = a .

Th es e e qu at
i o n s fo llo w fr o m t
h d e efin it
i on s i n 93 an d 87 r es p e ct
i vely .

Th eorem 2 . Wh en d i vi s i o n i s ex a ct m u ltip ly i n g d i vi d e n d a n d
t t i en t
,

d i vi s o r by h e sa m e n u m be r l ea ves h e q u ot u n c h a n ed
g .

F or if a q b, t
h en am q bm . 50, 46

Tha t t am
is ,
if 3 , h en q
— - o
94
b bm

T h eorem 3 t E x a c d i vi s i o n , li ke m t t u l ip li c a i on i s d i s tib t
r i u ve

ct btc t tt
.

wi ht r es
p e t ddi t
i o a on a n d su ra i on h a is,

a b a + a b a —b
+ b’ an d
c c c c c
an d b
’
a qc , q c,

a +b
Hen c e
c c 6

An d s i m il arly fo r s u b ratc t
i on .

18 9 27
6 ” i nd
3 3

Form u l as for a ddi n g an d s u b rac tt

i g q t
i t n uo en s . Th e s e

CL 0 ad + bo _ a 0 ad
’
bd b d
 A CO LL E G E AL G E BRA

a c
_
ad bc ad + bo
+ + _
i b bd bd bd

An d s i m i larly for su b r a tc t
i on .

18 -
3 1 20
6 + 2 z 8 ; an d
3 5 3 5 15

t
Form u l a for m u l i pl y i n g qu o i en tt s . Th i s i s

a 0 ac

b d bd

F or if a qb, an d c q d , we
’
h ave ac qq
’
bd . 50, 45 , 46

C
Hen c e E .

bd

15 — 5 — 90
3 2 3 2 6

Form u l a for di vidi ng on e qu o i en t tby an o t

h er, t
wh en hi s di vi s i on
is exac t Thi
. s is
a c a d ad

b d b c bc

F or i f a qb, c q d,
’
an d al so q ”
q q
’

a c—
we h ave Q
A
Q -
q a
b d

ad qbd q _
’
bq d
’
bc q

1 20
6 5 6 -
10 60

t
E x ac di vi s i on for n eg a t
i n ve u m b ers E v ide n tly t
h de e fin i t
i n
o

t
.

of i t gi ven in 93 h as a m e an i n g for n eg a t i ve num b er s

qu o en

al so , th
wh en e ve r ic e n u m er al v al u e of t
h di e v ide n d is ex a ct
ly
d i vi s i bl b y t
e h tf th di a o e v i so r E x p r es s i n g t
h e se tt
qu o i e n s

94 w h v t t
.

as in ,
h f ll
e a e e o o wi n g h e or em

Th eorem 4 . If a is ex a ct
ly d i vi s i bl e by b ,
t
h en

—a a a -
a a

b -
b b ’
—b b
 D I V I SI O N AND F R A CT I O N S

F or i f a qb, we h ave
Hen c e
b

An d s i m i l arly t
h t
h c
in e o er ases .

Z ero in rel a i n t
t o tdi o ex ac vi s i o n 1 On t
h e o th e r h an d , h e t
i t
t t
. .

d e fin i t i on of qu o gi
en ve n i n § 93 i s m ea n i n g l ess wh en h e

di vi s or i s O .

F or q x 0 : 0, n o m a er wh a n u m b e r t
t
m a y d en o t q t H e en c e ( 1) ever y

t t
.

n u m b er i s o n e which m u l ip l i e d b y 0 gi ves_0 an d ( 2 ) h i er e s no nu m b er
which m u l t
ipl i ed b y 0 wi ll give a
t a cc or d i n g t h e d e fin i t
o t t
,

In o h er wo r d s , ion of 93 an d 94, h e Sy m b ol
wou l d d en o te ever y n u m b er , an d a 0 no nu m b er wh a tso ever .

2 t wh But
h di i d d i 0 d t
h di
en e v en s an e v i so r so m e n u m

0 t
.

t
,
,

berb wh i c h i h d fi i ti f 93 h
s no e e n on o as a m ean i n g In
f ctth q t i ntd n t
.
,

a , e d by 0 b i 0
uo e e o e s .

F or , a cc ord i n g t
o 94, 0 b s h ou ld d en o tt
h e e nu m b er which m u l t
ipl i ed

by b gi ves 0 ; an d tt m b
‘
0 is h a nu er ( an d t
h ly e on on e ) ,
s n i ce 0 b 0 .

FRACT I ON S . DI V I S I ON THE I NV E R S E OF M ULTI PLI CAT I ON

Th e c
se o n d k in d of d i v i s i o n m e n i on e d i n t t
8 6 i s h e g e n er
a l i za t
i on o f e x a ct di v i s i on d e fin ed a s i n 93 t
I r e q u i r e s h at t
i n tr o d u c e d i n t o t
.

fra c t
i on s be h e n u m be r sy s e m t We s eek an

tg i n t
.

or di n a l de fin i t i o n of th e se n ew n u m b er s lik e h th a ve e

t td by t
,

n eg a i v e num bers in 56 On e i s s u gg es e h f ll wi g e o o n

tn t l n
.

th e or e m , i n wh i ch a, b, c, d de no e a u ra um b er s .

T h eorem 5 Wh en a is ex a ct
ly d i v is i bl e by b and c by d, t he
cc u r i n the n a t s c a le i n t
,

t
.

q i
u o t en s a b and c
/ d o u ra l h e sa m e
l t
re a i d ve o r er a s t
h e p r o du c ts ad a n d b e ha t
t i s,

a s ad > bc
a
/ h or > c
/ ,
d a cc or di n g or .

1 . F or i f
a

b
_
c
d
, t
h en
% bd
C

b = a, an d
g d z c. 93 , 94

ad = bc .
 A CO LL E G E AL GE B R A
An d we c an sh o w in a s i m i lar m an n er t
h t a

If t h d <b ;
en a o an d if th en ad > bo .

2 . Bu t
f ro m a ll thi i tf ll w
s o o s, c on versely ,
h t
t a

If ad be, t
h en a /b c /d .

F or o t
h wi er se h o u ld h ave e i t
we s h er ( 1 ) a /b c / d, an d t
h f
er e or e

ad be , or (2 ) a b c d an d t h e refor e a d be
c an s h o w i n th e sam e way t h at
, .

An d we

If ad < bc , t
h en an d if ad > bo, t
h en

E nl arg i n g t
h e ordi n al n u m ber s y s em t tth Bu e rela t
i ve o rd e r

t t t
.

o f a d an d be i n h e sc a le i s k n ow n , w h e h h er e v a l u e s a ss i g n e d

a, b, c d be su ch as m ak e a d i v i s i b l e by b, an d c by d, or n o t
t t tk
,
.

Th e r e f o r e , w a e anyd b f w h i ch o n a u r al n u m b e r s , a an ,
o

b i t
s no 0 d wi t h t h ,
f
an th p i
b / b em or m e ex r e ss o n
(L
’
or a .

If i ct
a ly d i i i bl b y b l t b d
s exa t h tf v s e e a e n o e , as e r e o o r e,

t tl b wh i c h i t t i tf by b ; b t
,

h e n a u ra h q
num er if s e uo en o a u

no tg d bf t re ar h at ly orw y b l e d
m om e n m e re as a n e s m o r ea

l t tdi i i i y t tb g i
, ,
”
a o ve r b wh i o se r e a 1 22 on o v s on s e o e ve n ,

t ll ch y b l b c d d t
, .

Th gi en ve o a su h s m o s a an so on , e

t t t
, ,

p p roe y f r d l d
o y p or d b y h
er w h i c h
a r ead osse ss e o se en o e

tl
n a u ra b by num pp i g t her s , g d i cc d su os n em a r ra n e n a or an c e

wi t h t h l : b h l l p c d c i c i d wi t
e ru e a h f ll w /d
s a re e e, o n e or o o c

c i c id wi t
, ,

acc d i gor d p c dn as a h f ll w b
re e e s, o n es or o o s c

pl y i g t tf t n
, .

O r, e m h ig o n h e s ns as e r e o or e , o m ea
“
p cred c i ec id w
e, i t
” “
h f l l wo n e ,
” “
o o ,
”

Le t/ h a or c
/ ,
d a cc or di n g a s ad or be .

Thu s tp c d
is o re e e t
h ti a s, s n i ce 4 -
5
tl i b t
, .

Ag a i n ,
is o w e e e en 0 an d 1, or F or
si n c e 0 -
1 ; an d s n i ce 2 -
l <l -
3 .

To su ch of t
h e sy m b ol s a b as de n o t tl b
e n a u ra num er s

t
hi l ig t h i
s ru e a s s ns e r p ro
p e r
pl a c e s i n t
h c l i tl f ; whi l
e s a e se e

tt ho ti t i ge res a ss ns p l a c e s b et we e n c c ti
o n se b fu ve n u m er s o

t
h c le s a e .
 A C O L LE G E AL G E B R A

Neg a t
i ve t
frac i on s We al so f o rm f ra c t
i on s wh o s e n u m er

t t t
.

a o r s, d en o m i n a o r s, or bo h , ar e ne
g a i ve t i n t eg e r s, as
—a —
b
Cb

— b
Cl
d e fin i n g t
h em o r d i n all y as f oll ows

(L Cl a -
(b a

b b b b b b

2 . E ver y t
i
n eg a f ct
i h ll p c d O
ve ra on s a re e e .

3 Neg a t
i f ct
ve i h ll b
ra
g d wi t
on s s h p tt a e a rra n e r es ec o on e

t t t h t
t
.

ano h er
( and g ine i g a
) i cc
ve d c w i
n e h l er s n a or an e e ru e

a C
<, or a cc or di n g as or -
bc .

b d

Th e t
s y s em of ra t
i on al n u m b ers To di s t i n g u i s h i n tg e e r s an d

fr a ct t tt
.

i on s al ik e fr om o h b e r s w h i c h w e h ave y e
er n u m o c on

si d e r , th t
we c all em ra i o n a l n u m ber s An d we c all h e t y tm s s e

wh i ch c n i t f ll t t
.

h o b h t
i
s s s o l y t a e se n u m e rs e ra on a s s em

t t t t
.

Th i y p s s i p s em
p p y w h i c h
o s se s se s an m o r an ro er does
not b l g ti tp t
e on h i t
t g l y t o ly :s ar ,
e n e ra s s em ,
n am e

Th e ra t
i l y t
on am s s e i s den se ; t
h t i a s, be we ent e ve r y t
w o

u n e qu a l ra t
i l mb
on a nu er s t
h er e a re t
h o er ra t
i on a l nu m be r s .

t5 t
w f ct ch t
h at
F o r le an d
g be an y i
o ra on s , s u W e c an p r ove

h at
follo ws t th e fra c t
i on
b“
2 bd
“ d
l i e s b e we en t 3
b
an d

Si n c e we h ave ad < bc .
§ 106

1 . I f we a dd a d tb t
o h id o s es cf ad < bc , we h a ve ,
by 3 9, 50, 106 ,

a be ad
2 ad bc + ad, a (2 bd b ( bc + ad ) <
b 2 bd

2 . I f we ad d bc tb t
h id
o o s es o f a d < be , we h ave s i m i la rly
b6 ad
bc + ad < 2 bc ,
2 2
2 1
<

Thu s , b e ween t an d
5
6
we h ave
4 5
2 4 6
0 -
3 6 38
48
19
24
 D I V I SI O N AND F R A C T I O N S

Hen c e, wh e n sp eak i n g o f ra i o n al s, t
t c ar efu lly a v o i d on e m us

s u c h e x p r e s s i o n s as h e n ex t t ”
nu m b er g r ea e r or l es s th an a
“
t
i v e n n u m b e r fo r n o s u c h n u m ber ex i s ts T o e a ch i n t e er
g ; g
t bu t t t t
.

h e r e i s su ch a n ex i n t eg er b e ween an y r a i on al an d a
t t t
,

ra t i on a l a s s i g n e d a s h e n ex t h e r e are al w ay s o h er r a t i o n al s
Operat i on s w i t h frac t t t
, .

i on s I n wh a f ol l o ws l e a b c d d e n o t e
t t
.
, , ,

an y g i v en i n e g e r s p o s i i v e o r n e g at i v e

t
, .

In 98 —1 02 w e p r o v ed h at wh e n a b an d c / d d e n o te ,

i nteg er s w e h a ve
,

a c ad + bo a c ad — bc
1‘ + _

b d bd b d

b d
c ac

bc
q
b
q
d
_ q
bc
d
) W h en
ad
_

be
.

1 s an 1 n
'

tg e er .

Bu tt
h c
b e r o f e a ch of h e e q u a i o n s 1 2 3 4
e se o n d m e m t t
t
, , ,

h as a m e a n i n g e v e n wh e n a b an d c / d ar e n o i n te g er s E ac h
t t t t
.

o f h e m i s a d e fin i e f r a c i o n o f h e k i n d d e fin e d i n 1 10 1 1 1
t t t t
.
,

H en c e 1 2 3 4 a on c e s u gg es an e x e n s i on of h e m ean
t
i n g s o f add i i o n su bt ra c t i o n m u l t t
, , ,

i p li c a i o n an d di v i si on wh i ch
t t
, , ,

will m ak e th e s e o p er a t i on s app li c a bl e o f r a c i o n s n am el y :
t t t t
,

Th e su m o f wo fr a c t i o n s a b an d c d i s o m ean h e f r ac i o n

( ad bc ) / bd
t
.

Th e d ifi er en c e btr a c t i n g h e fr a c ti on c d fr om
bt ai n ed by
'

o su

t t t
h e f r a c i on a b i s o m e a n h e f r a c t i o n ( a d bc ) / bd t
T h e p r o du c t t t t
.

of w o f r a c t i on s a b an d c d i s o m e an h e
t
fr a c i on a c bd
ien tre su l t t
.

T h e qu o t in g f r om d i v i di n g h e f r ac t i on a b by t he
t
f r ac t i on c d i s o m e an h e fr ac i o n a d bc t t .

Ob s erve h t
t th a es e t
d efin i i on s ar e e q u iva le n t
to t
h e ru les fo r re ck on i n g
wi t
h f ct
i ra on s gi ven in ele m ty
en a r ar i t
h m et ic .

Th e com m u a tt
i ve, a s s oc i a t
i ve, an d di s ti b t
ri u ve l aws c o n tr ol
t
h e se g e n e r al i zed op e r a t
i on s .

a c ac ca c a

b d bd db d b
 A CO L L E G E AL G E BR A

Th e ru l es of equ ali t
y an d i n equ al i y , t 7 1 , 7 3, al s o h o ld g ood
for t
h e se Op e r at
i on s .

Th u s ,
if

F or if t
h en ae d f: cc bf . 1 1 8 , 1 00, 1 1 1

Hen c e an d t
h f
er e or e 5
;
3
61
7 3 , 1 06 , 1 1 1

Defin i i on t of a frac t
i on as a t t Th
qu o i en e fr a c t
i on a b m ay
t
.

n ow b e d e s c r i b ed as t
h e num ber w h i c h m u l ip li ed by b wi l l p r o
du c e a, th a t
i s , as t
h e c
n u m b e r wh i h i s d e fin e d b y h e e q u a i o n t t

2 106 , 1 11 , 1 1 8

D i vi s i on t
h i e n v ers e of t t
m u l i p l i c a i on F r om 1 1 8 , 1 1 9, i t
t
.

f ol l o w s h t a

a c f a a c c a
X an d x ’
b d d b b d d b

in o t
h er w or d s , t
h t lt
i pl i c t
a i m u a on an d d i v i s i on , as de fin ed i n
1 1 8 , 1 1 9, ar e i n ver s e op er a i o n s t . Co m p ar e 55 .

F or , b y 1 18, 119 an d 1 1 1 , we h ave

ad a dc a dc a a c ac c ac d cd
xq
a c c c a a
x
.

'
'
’
b a d bc d bc d b cd b b d a bd d bda b dc b

H e n c e we m ay d e s crib e t
h ki e n d of d i v i s i on n ow b e fo r e us

as t
h i e n v er s e o f m ut tl ip l i c a i on a n d say

To d i vi d e a
/ b by c d i tfi s o nd a nu m ber w h i c h m u t
l ip li ed
by c
/ d wi ll p r o du ce a
/h .

By i n td ci n g f ct
ro i
u i t ra on s n o ou r nu m b e r sy s em w e h ave t
it t n u m b e r ex c ep t
,

m ad e p i b l l w
os s
y fi d e a a s o n su ch a w h en t
he
,

di vi s or c/d is 0 .
 D I V I SI O N AND F R A CT I O N S 37

Th i s i s t
h l e u su a th m eti c an d
m ean i n g of d i v i si o n i n ar i

al g e b r a s e Iti t
e n e r a li za i o n o f e x a c t d i v i s i o n ,
h g 93 t .

R edu ci ng a f ra cti on t s l owes t t I rredu c i bl e frac t

.

o it erm s i on s
t t t
. .

I f h e n u m e r a o r an d d en om i n a o r o f a f r a c t i o n h av e a c o m m on
t
f a c or we c an r em ov e i fr om b o h wi th ou t c h an g i n g h e v al u e t t t
t
,

o f h e f r a c t i on .

am
2 , s n i ce am b a bm , 106 .

bm b

Wh e n all su c h c om m o n f a c to r s h a ve be e n re m o v e d h e fr a c t
t tb tl w t
tm tb
,

i n i o s said o e in i s o es er s, o r o e i r r edu c ible .

T h eorem If a b be a n i r r edu c i bl e fr a c t
i on a nd a
'
/b
'
any

ot
.

i on wh i c h i s e qu a l t
h er fr a c t o itt
,
' '
h en a a n d b a re e u
q im u l
tip les of a a n d b r esp ec t
,

i ve ly .

i c e a / b a / b an d t
F or s n
’
h er efo re a b a b a is a fa c t
’
or o f a b
’ ’ ’

Bu t hesi s a h as n o fac t h b Hen c e a m u st

.
, ,

b y h y p ot or i n c o m m on w i t

b e a fa c t
.
, ,

or o f a
’
4 92 1
We t m a wh e r e m i s s o m e i n t
, , .

h erefor e h ave a e g er
’

Bu t su b stit ut i n g m a for a i n a b a b we h a ve m a b a b an d t
.
,

h erefor e
’ ’ ’
,
’

i
f
m b, 50 .

Coroll ary t
If w o i r r ed u c i bl e fr a c i on s t a r e e qu a , l t
h i
e r n u m er

tm t t t
.

a ors b us e equ a l, a n d a ls o h i e r d en om i n a or s .

THE USE OF FRACT I ONS IN M E A S URE ME NT

t
Frac i onal l en g h s t Th e d e fin i ti o n of l en g th g i v e n i n § 8 1
t t t
.

o n ly ap p li e s o su ch li ne s e gm e n s S as c on t ain he u n it
segm t c t i
en mb
s f t
im a ct ly er a n nu er o es ex a

B tv tc nti c t ly i t
.

if S d
u e en m y t ill b oes n o o a n 3 ex a a s e

bl wi t h ; th t i it y c t i t h h lf th t
,

c om m en s u r a e hi d s a s, ma on a n e a e r

t t t t
,

t
,

h
o r so m e o li q t p f c l y I
er a h c w d fi uo ar o s e xa n a a se e e ne

it
.

l gt h
s f ll w
en as o o s

If a g i ven li n e seg m en c on a i n s h e b h p a r of h e u n i t t t t t t tg m t se en

a. t t
i m es ex a c ly, we s a y h a i s l en g h i s h e fr a c i on a ttt t t t b .
38 A C O LLE G E AL G EB R A

Thu s if Sc t h l 0t
i t h p tf
on a n s e ar o s ex a ct
ly 7 t
i m es t
h le en gt
h of S
tm
, ,

(i n er s of s ) is 7 10 .

No t Obe s e r ve t
h t
if a a t
b is h e len g t
h f S i tm
o n er s of 3 a cc or d in g
tt t
.

hi
o s d efin i i o n , s o a l so is e ver y fra c t
i on of th f m m mb e or a

con ta in s th e bt
h p ar t ct t
im it wi ll c ti t
.

F or i f S of s ex a ly a h es , on a n e

h p ar t
m bt o f s ex ac tly m a ti m es .

Fra ct
i on s are u se u l f in m ea s u r e m e n t fo r t
h e sa m e r easo n

t h ta i t g n e er s ar e u se u l f :n am ely by t i ve p os i t
h ei r r e la t i on s
t t t t
h ey i n d i c a t
e t
h e r ela ti ve s i zes of t
,

in h i e ra on a l s y s em he
twh t
,

se gm en s os e len g t
h h y s e a re .

F or i f a b an d c /d are t
h l gt eh f S d T i tm f
en s o an n er s o 8 s o a lso

13 1 t h t t h p t
h bdt ti
,

a r e ad bd an d bc / bd , i a f i cs, e ar o s s o n a n ed in S
ex a ly a d t
ct i m es ,
in T exactly b t
im e es .

Hen c e S <, or > T, a cc ord i n g as ad <, or > bc ,

t
h t
i a s, S <, or > T, a cc or d i n g as a / b <, or > c /d .
§ 1 06

No t I th
e id t hat th e d efin it
a r dl y n e e d i o n o f len g t
be sah h er e gi ve n
is e q u i val e n t to th e d efin i t i o n o f fra ct i on gi ve n i n el e m e n tar y a r i t
hm e t
.

ic
an d t h at er o r l esse r fr a c t
gr e a t i o n s ar e t h er e defin ed as fra c t
,

i o ns which
c orr esp on d t o g r eate r o r l e s s er l i n e se g m e n ts or o t h e r m ag n i t
u d es .

R a i onal t nu m bers p i c td u re by poi n t s F r a c i on s, t as w ell as

tg t d by t t tigh t
.

in e e r s, m ay be p i c u re
poin s on an in de fin i e s ra

li n e, 85 .

Thu s t o c on st ru ct a p o in t P which w i ll pic t u re 7 3 in t h e s am e w ay

th at A pic t u r es 1 we h ave o n l y t o st ar tat th e o rigi n 0 an d l ay o ff t
, , ,

he
t
hi r d p ar t of t h e u n it 0 A s eve n t i m es t o t
h e r igh t
,

P t h e c o r res p on d i n g p o i n t
to t h e leftof 0 i s t h e pic t
.

u re of 7 3
’

W e pr o c e ed i n a s i m i l ar m an n er i n t h e c ase o f a n y gi ve n fr ac t
, , .

ion
i ve o r n egat
p os i t
,

i ve .

Al l t g d l
su g t
chh li pio i n s d ar e a r r an e a on e ne n an or er

c or r es
p d i g t th t f t
h t
ion l w hi c h
n th y p i t o a o e ra on a s e c u re

Wit h t ft p k f t ly i g t
.

hi i i d w s ni l m n e o en s ea o on e ra on a as n o

th l ft i g h tf
e e th ti l
or r ly i n g b t w n t w o an o er r a on a o r as e ee o

t t
,

o h i n l
e r ra o a s .
 I RR AT I O N AL N U MB E R S

IV . I R R A TI O N A L N UM BE RS
PRELI MI NARY CONS I DE RA T I ON S
Defini i on s t Th e p r od u c t a a i s re pr e sen te d by 2
a , r e ad a

t t
.

rodu c t u a a , b a cu be ct
”
sq u ar e h e p y
3
a , r ead h p e r od u

aoa tf o n a c tor s by "

a , r ea d “
t
h t
h p e n o wer o f a
”

t t
.
,

In h e sy m bol s a
2 3
a , a
"
h n e um b er s 2, 3 , n ar e c all ed
t; tlf t
, ,

exp on e n s a i se is c alle d h b e a s e.

Fi n di n g a
2
f ro m a i s c all e d s
q u a ri n g a ; fin din g
s
a , cu bi n g a ;
fin di n g a
"
r a i si n g a tt
h t
hp
o e n o wer
c o n s i st t
, .

Th e op er a t ion wh i c h s in r ai s i n g a g i ve n n u m b er o

a g i v e n p ower i s al s o c al l e d i n vo lu i on t
t
.

R oo s an d l og ari h m s t I f, as we ar e su p p o s i n g , a i s a ra t i o n al
t tg t
.

n u m b er , an d n a p o si i ve i n e e r, a
"
is a l so a r a i n
o al n u m b er .

Call th i s n u m be r b ; th e n
a
"
b .

Th i s e qu a t i on s u gges s tt w w p bl m o ne ro e s

F i rs tT o as s i g n v a u esl t db dt h o n an an en fin d a

t d b d th
.
, .

Se co n d . To ass i g n v l a u es o a an ,
an e n fin d n.

Th u s ( 1 ), le t n 2 an d b 9. Th e e i on t
qu a t h en b ec o m es
9,

an d we fi n d t h t a a 3 or 3 ; fo r b o t
h3 2
9 an d 9 .

Ag ai n , (2) l t e a 2 an d b 8 . Th e e qu at
i on t
h en b e c o m es

2" 8,

an d we fin d h a tt= 3 n z fo r 2 3 : 8 .

W he n a
”
b,

1 . a is th t
h tf b d i
c al l e d e n roo o , an s ex p r esse d in t erm s
d b by t /b t
n

of n an h y b l h i pl e s m o x e s m er sy m b o l Vb, r e ad

tf b b i g d wh n 2
,
“ ”
s q u ar e r o o o e n u se e n

i c ll d t
,

f b tt
.

2 n s h l g it
a h e h b e o ar m o o e a s e a an d is e xpr es s ed
d b by t
.
,

in t e rm s f o h y b l l g b
a an e s m o o ,
.
40 A C O LL E G E AL GEB R A

Thu s si n c e 32 9 an d 3 2 9, b o t
h3 an d 3 ar e s qu ar e r oot
s of

and b ot t 1 39
h m a y b e wr i t
,

9, t
en 9 ; bu see

Ag a i n 2 is th e l o g ar i t
f 9 tt 3; t
h t
.

h b
, hm i 2 l g 9 o o e as e a s, o s .

N t I td f po e ti gb t h th qn s eatf 9 b y th ym b l
o re r esen n o e s u are r o o s o e s o

t th p it d t
.

V9 w m y p e i a3 b y V9re h g ti re sen e os ve on e , an e ne a ve o n e ,

l m t t ti
,

Thi i t
, ,

3 by h h d f p i g q s s e u su a e o o re r e s en n s u ar e r o o s n

d w h ll f ll w i t
,

l m
e e ty lg b en a r a e ra , a n e s a o o .

E vol u i on t an d fi ndi n g l og ari t

hm s . Th e op e r a ti on b y wh i c h
{Vb i s f o u n d wh en n an d b ar e g i v e n, i s c all e d tc t
ex r a i g t
h n e

t t
,

n h tf b r oo o o r evo lu i on .

t
,

Th e op era by wh i ch l og b i s
i n o f o u n d w h e n a an d b ar e

t t
,

of b t o t
a

g i ven, i s c al l e d fi n di n g h e l og a ri h m h e ba s e a
t O p e r at t
.

B o th h e se i on s are i n ver s es of i n v ol u i on , 5 5 , 1 24 .

No t e Th e r e aso n h t
t i a n vo l u t
i on h as wo ti n ve rses , whi l e ad d it
i on an d

ip l ic t
t t t
.

mul i a on ea ch h as b u on e, w i ll b e see n by c o m p ar i n g t
h h e r ee

e qu a ti on s
1 . a +b: c. 2 . ab =c . 3 . ab z o.

Si n c e a b b a , an d a b ba , t
h p e r ob le m :G i ven 0 an d b in 1 or

2 , fin d a, i s of t
h e sa m e ki n d as t
h p e r ob l e m :G i ve n c a n d a fin d b
ti tq l tb t
.
,

Bu s n ce ah is no e h ua o “
e p ro b le m :G i ven c an d b i n 3 , fin d
t
i ki d f m t
,

a, i s wh o lly d i ffe r e n n h p n ro e r o b l em G i ve n c an d a , fin d b .

New nu m b er s needed We sh all b s e q u en ly s

su t tdy t
h u e se

t d t al g e b r a t
.

n ew i i
oper a il ; f on s n e a or in h ey ar e c
se o n d in
im p t c tth
o r an f f d e o e ou r un t
a m e n al o p e r a ti o n s o n ly . Bu t
th e

po n i t
w h i ch w c c no on e rn s u s is t
h i :Th y s e n e es s i a
c ttf t
h e u r er

t
ex en s i on s o
ft
h e nu m ber s
y s em t
t tc h t
tt t
.

In fact i i s a on e e v i d en V a b c an den o e a ra t i on al
c pt
,

nu m ber in ex i l c e on a a s e s o n ly .

Th u s tci tt
oh e e s m i p les to f i l l u st
ra t
i on s ne it
h er V 1 n or c an

t t
, ,

d en o i le a ra on a num b er F or
1 Si c t t p osi t t
.

h q n e e s u are o f e ve r y r a i on al n u m b er is i ve n o ra i o n al

i twh c an n o td en o t t
. ,

ex s s q os e s u ar e is 1 . He n c e V 1 e a ra i on al

num ber
t twh q u ar e i s 2 F or c le ar ly 2 is n o t
.

2 No ra i o n al n u m b er ex s s i o se s

t in t s h o w as fo llo ws t
h at it i s n ot
t
. .

h q
e s u ar e o f a n y e g er an d we c an he
fr a c t
,

q
s u a r e of a n y ion .
42 A CO LLE G E AL G EB R A

t
h cl
e on ec i t
i g f ll t
i l wh i h p c d (
a ss l
on s s n o a ra on a s c re e e a re e ss

t
h ) ant h t
h f ll ti l wh i h f l l w (
e o g t er o a ra on a s c o o ar e r ea er

t
h ) gan L t t
hs t. w c l f e b C d C
u s n am e ese o as se s o n um er s , an ,

res
p e c t i ve l y .

In t
h fig
e ure, t
h h e a lf li n ett h l ftf t
o h p i tc
e ti t
e h p i t
o e o n on a n s e o n

pic t u res o f all n u m b e r s i n e ass 1 an t

h cl 0 d t
h h lf l i tth t
igh th e a ne o e r e

pic t
,

p o in t u r e s o f a ll n u m b e r s i n t
-
h e c l ass C2 ,
134 .

F r om 1 09, 1 1 1 , an d 1 1 3, i t
i m m e d i a el y t f ol l o ws t
h t a

1 Ea h c nu m ber i n C , p r e c e d e s e v e ry nu m b e r in 0 2

t t
. .

2 . Th e r e i s no l as n u m b e r i n C , , an d no fir s i n C , .

Thu s we re t
h er e a las t mbnu er in 01, t
h er e wo u ld b e nu m b er s b e tw e en

td h y p ot t
,

i an 1 / 3, § 1 13 , w hich is i m p oss i b le s i n c e by h es is a ll r a i l on a s

t
, ,

l ess h an 1 /3 ar e i n CI .

2 In s td ea ofti g t
h t
hti u s se a r a
p n e ra o n a l sy s em t i tt
h n o e

t tC t
.

h r ee
p ar s g 0 w
,, y j i 2, e ma o n 1
o so f o rm i n g a cl as s
d t
, 1,

y:
’
C, m ad e u p f C od h , an
4 an en sa

tt t t ti
3

t
,

Th e num b g p er h i i
se ar a e s e en re ra o n al sy s e m n to w o

p a r s, tC ,
’
and 0 ch t
h t 2, su a

1 E a ch nu m b er in C, p r e c ede s ’
e v e ry nu m b er i n C,
tt
. .

2 Th er e i s a t
l a s n u m be r i n n am el
y bu h ere is no

t
.

firs nu m be r in 0 2 .

3 O r we m ay j oin t0 o c all t
h e r e sul t
i g n cl ass an d

t
.
2,

h en s ay :
Th e num b er 1
se p a r a e stth t
i t
i e en re ra o n al s s e m
y t i tt
w n o o

tC h t
ch t
3,

p ar s, , an d su a

1 E ac h num ber i n C , p r e c ed e s e v ery n u m b e r i n

t t t
.

2 . Th e r e i s no l as n u m b e r i n C , , b u th e r e i s a fi rs n mb u er

in n a m el
y
I ti s e v id e n t h t ch
t f th t
i a l ea o e ra on a n u m b er s de fin e s
s im il ar se p ti
a ra f t
h ti
on s o l y t e ra on a s s em .

Conv ers e l y if w bl i y w y t
e are a e, n an a o s ep ar a e t t
h nt i
e e re

t t t t t h t ch
t
, ,

ra i o n al s y m
s e i w p Bn d B o o a r s, , an 2, su ch a ea
 I RRA T I O N AL N U MB E R S

n u m b er i n B , p r e c e d e s e v e ry num b er in B2 an d th a t t h e r e i s
ei t
h er a t
la s n u m b er i n B , o r fi rst in B, he a t se p a r at i on w i ll

t
,

se rve o di s t i n g u i sh t h i s l a st or firs t n u m be r f r o m al l o t h er
n u m be r s a n d , i n t h a t se n se o d efi n e i ,
t t .

Thu s ig n t
t
le h e n eg a t
us i ve r at
ass i on als to B , an d t h e r em a i n i n g
r at Th e re i s t
tB h e n n o l ast n u m b er i n B, b u t 0 is t h e fi rst
,

i o n a ls o 2

An d zer o i s d i st in g u i sh ed fr o m all o t
.
,

n u m b e r i n B2 h e r n u m b er s wh en
h e fi rs t
c al l e d t n u m b e r i n B 2 as p e rfe c t ly as b y t
.

h e sy m b o l 0
, .

No t Obe i
v ou sl y t
h c er e an n o t
b b th l t mb i B
e o a as nu er n , an d a fir s t
t t
t t
i l b t t t
.

in B 2 F or h er e m h us en be ra w h w
on a s e een ese o num b e rs ,
hy p ot i l b l g it
t h tB tB
.

1 13 , wh e re as , b y h es i s , ever y ra on a e on s e er o , or o 2.

Sep ara i on s t of t
h e s econ d k i nd Bu t
w e c an al so , in v ar i o u s

tt t t t
.

way s , h i i l
s e p ar a e e en re ra on a sy s e m t i n to p ar A1 i n
a

wh i c h t
h i l t b d er e s no as num er , a n a p ar t A2 in wh i c h h e re i s t
no fir st
n u m ber .

Th u s, si n ce no ra t i o n al ex i s s t w h ose s q u ar e i s 2, § 1 42,
e ve r y ra t
i n o al is ei t
h er on e wh o s e s q u ar e i s l ess t
h an 2, or

on e wh o s e s q u ar e i s g r ea er h a n 2 tt
tA
.

Le c on s i s t t
o f all p os i i ve r at i o n al s w h o se s q u ar e s are

tA t
2

g r ea t th
er an 2, an d le , c o n si st o f all h e o th e r ra t i on al
n u m b er s . Th e n

1 . E a ch n u m b er i n A, p r e ce d es e v e r y n u m b er i n A, .

F or le tb a, e an y n u m b e r in A1 an d a 2 a n y n u m b er i n A2
t ga t p os i t
.
,

E vi d e n ly a, < d e, if a, is ne i ve or 0; an d if a, is i ve al 2 2
< g ,
a

t
,

an d h f
e r e or e a , a2 .

2 . Th e r e i s no l as t n u m b er i n A, , an d n o fi r s t i n A, .

F o r w h en an y p os i t
i ve ra t
i ig n e d wh o se s q u ar e i s
o n al , a , , h as b e e n ass

le ss t
h an 2, we c an al way s fi n d a gr e at er r a t i o n a l w h o s e s q u ar e i s a l s o
le ss t
h an 2, 1 8 3 2 (3 ) h en c e n o n u m b e r c an b e as s ig n e d which i s t he
t i on al c an b e ass i gn ed which i s t
Si m i l ar ly n o r at h e fi rst
,

la s i n A1 . i n A2 .

Th e nu m ber a V2 Th e r e l a i o n b etwe e n h e wo
n ew t tt
t
.

c l asses o f nu m b e r s A, an d A, i s th e re f ore p r e c i se ly h e
tt t t t
, ,

sam e a s h a b e w ee n h e cl asses C , an d C , i n h e s ep ar at i o n
t
c orre sp o n di n g o wh i ch was de s c r i b e d i n 1 44 .
 A CO LL E G E AL G EB R A

Bu t ti n o ra o n al n u m ber ex i s s t whi ch tc c an be sai d o o rr e

sp on d tt
h o ti on A,, A, o r o e e n e
e se p ar a tb d fi d by i t
t it tA tA
.
,

F or sin c e ever y r a i o n al b el o n s e er o , g h or o ,, no

r at i o n al e x i s t s wh i c h l i es b e twe e n A, a n d A, , a s } e li e s b e t w e en
C, an d 02
ti
.

An d s in c e t h e re is no l as t n u m b er i n A, an d no fir s n

A, , n o ra t
i on al ex i s s t wh i c h c o r r e sp o n d s tt
hi o s s e p ar a t
i on as

c orr e sp on d s tt
h o e s ep ar a ti o n C, of 1 45 , or tt ho e

sep ar a t
i on C ,, C,
’
of 1 46 ( Co m p ar e

t t
.

He n c e thi s se p ar a i n Ao ,, Ag c r ea e s ap l a c e for a n ew o r di
n al nu m be r n am el y , , a nu m ber wh i ch s h all f o ll ow al l n u m b e r s
i n A, an d p c
r e e de a l l in A2
W e i n v en t t
.

su c h a num b er F or h p e w e m ay r e p r e
r e s en t
tby th l t t a ; l t wh n t t
.

sen t i e e er a e r, e m u l i p l i c a i o n h a s be e n

d fi d f
e ne w h ll fi d th t = 2
or d w
a, th n
e s a n a a
2
an e c an e

pl c a by t i g ific t
,

re a eh y b l V2 1 82 e m ore s n an s m o

W th d fi t th t b
, .

e hi w n
en b e wh i c h l i
ne s ne u m er a a s a nu m er es

t
be ween a ll
p os i i ve t ra t
i on a ls wh o s e s qu a r es are l es s t
h an 2
a n d a ll wh os e s
q u a r es a r e g r ea tt
h er an 2
t t
.

We m ay al so ex p r ess thi s d e fin i i on b y h f e or m u l a

a, a a2

wh e r e a , an d a 2 de n ot e an y n u m b er s wh at s oe v er i n A, an d A2
r es p e ct
i v ely ,
an d , a s h ere tf
o or e , m e an s “
p c
r e ed e s.

No t Ob
e. s e r ve h t
t thi d fi i t
i
a s e n on is of t
h e sam e k in d as t
h d e efi ni
t
i on s of t
h e ne ga t
i d f cti l
ve a n gi ve n i n
ra on a 56 1 1 0 L ik e
n u m b er s

t y it s p os i t
i on i n an o r d in al sy st
.
,

h ese n u m b ers a i s a sy m b o l d e fin e d b e m of

s y m b ol s which i n c l u d e s t h e n at It t
,

u r a l n u m b ers h er efo re h as p r e ci sely

th e sam e r igh t as the y t
.

o b e c a lle d a n u m b e r

O u r r e ason fo r i n ve n t in g t
.

hi s an d s i m i lar n u m b ers is also t h e sa m e as

o u r r eas on for i n ven t i n g n e ga ti ve n u m b ers a n d fr a c t i o n s Th ey s er ve a
u sefu l p u rp ose i n t he st u d y o f r e l at i o n s a m on g t
.

h e n u m b ers which we
a l r e ad y p o ss e s s a n d a m o n g t
, hi n gs in t h e wo r l d ab ou t us * .

Weth t th w
m a y a dd o u ld be ob e j ct
i fr om
p o i n of a n or d i n a l t
i wt t t r t tt t
a e re no on
i i g m h an on e n u m b e ond c res p
o h e s e p ara o n i
yt t
v e o ou r n ven n o re o or
A A w mb db , de
i
fi n e d o r d n a l l y b y h e fo r m u l a a I < a < b
B tt bj ct t t t t
,, ,, sa o nu e rs , a a n a, .

h i f er k ndh i m o re i i g h
tt
u e r e a re o e on s o ano o o u r n ve n n an o n e
su c h n u m b er . See p ga e 6 7 , fo o n o e
 i
I R RATI O NAI N U MBE RS
'

o
45

Th e i rra i on al t n u m bers i n general Th e real sy s em Th e t

t
. .

p ar t i c u l ar s ep ar ati o n of h e r at i o n a l sy s t em wh i h we h av e c
be e n c on si der i n g i s b u on e t f o an i n fin i te num b er of p o ssi bl e
s ep a r a t i o n s o f a si m i l ar ch ar a c t e r
t
.

F o r e v e ry s u c h s ep ar a i o n w e i n v e n t a n e w n u m b er d efin in g
t tt t t
,

i or d in ally wi th re sp e c t o h e n u m b er s o f h e r a i o n al sy s te m

p r e c i sely as we h av e d efin e d h e n u m b e r a t V2 in § 1 5 1
t t t
.

To d i s i n g u i sh h e s e n e w n u m b e r s fr o m h e r a t i o n al n u m
t
b e r s w e c al l h e m i r r a t i on a l n u m ber s o r s i m p l y i r r a t
i on a ls
Ag ai n , o d i st t t t t
,
.
,

i n g u i sh h e r a i o n al a n d i r r a i o n al n u m b er s
alik e f r om t
h e i m ag i n ar y n u m b e r s w h i ch we h a v e y e o , tt
c on s i der , we c al l th em rea l n um ber s
t t t t
.

F i n al ly w e c all h e sy s e m w h i c h c o n s i s s o f all h e r at i o n al
h e sy st t t
,

an d i rr at i o n al n u m b e r s e m of r e a l n u m ber s , o r h e r ea l
s
ys tm
e

td n t y i ti t
.

H en c e , u si n g 5 o e o e an rr a o n al n u m be r we h av e h e

l d fi it
,

foll o wi n g i n f ch su a n u m ber :
g e n e ra e n o o

An i r r a t
i on a l n u m ber , a, i s d efi n ed wh en ever a la w i s tt
s a ed

wh i c h wi ll a ss i g n e ver y g i ven ra t
i on a l to o n e, a n d bu to n e, o
f
t
w o A, , A, s u c h t
c l a ss es , h a ( 1 ) ea c h n u m ber i n A, p r ec ed es t
t t
,

ever
y n u m ber i n A2 a n d ( 2 ) h er e i s n o l a s n u m ber i n A,
a n d n o firs t
n u m ber i n A2 h e d efi n i t
i on of a t t
h e n be i n g :i t
is t
h e on e n u m ber wh i c h l i es bet ween a l l n u m ber s i n A, a n d
a ll i n A2 .

I ti h s i m pl i e d t
er e h atth er e are n u m b ers i n bot h t h e c l asse s A, an d
A2 ; al so t
h at A, an d A2 t o get h e en t
h er c o m p r i se t ir e r ati o n a l sy s t
em .

An t
i rr a i o n al nu m ber a, is sa i d tb o e n eg a t
i ve or p osi i ve t
t
,

a cc o rdi n g as i p re ce de s or f oll ow s 0
t :t t
.

Th e real t
s y s em is an or di na l s y s em h t a i s, h n e um b ers
wh i ch it
c on stu te i t
a r e ar r a n g e d in a d e fin i t e an d kn own o rd er ,

§ 17 h d fi it
t i
F or f ech i ati
e l i n di c t h w i t
n on o ea rr on a a es o

wi t t t t t t
.

li es h p c yr es i l
e : d f o h d fi
e ve ri i ra on a an rom e e n on s

o f an
y t
w g i i ti o l w v en t c i
rr af h w t hon a s
y l i e c an a on e n er o e e

wi th p c t t
res t
h
e o on e a n o er .
46 A C O LL EGE AL G E B R A

Th u s l e t a an d b deno te an y t
w giv o en t
i rr a i on al s ; h en t
1 If e very ra t
whi ch p r e c ed e s a
i o n al a l so p r e c e d e s b , an d

t t
.

e v e ry ra i o n al wh i c h f oll o ws a al so f o ll o w s b , h e num ber s a

an d b o cc u py t
h e s am e p o s i t i on r el a i v tt
t h e o e n um bers of t
h e

rat
i l on a sy s e m t By ou r t
d e fin i i o n of an t
i r r a i o n al num b er
t t t
.
,

h f e r e or e , § 1 5 4, a an d b d en o e on e an d h e sam e n u m be r

tt t
.

We in di ca ehi s by h f e or m u l a :

a z b .

2 t
h tIf
i l wh i c h f
am o n g e ra on a s oll o w a t
he re ar e so m e

wh i ch p c d b t i tl f tp
.

h re e e en a se m us re c ed e b or b f ollo w a)
W i di c tt hi by t
, .

e n h f l
a e s e or m u a

a < b or b > a .

3 t
h tIf
i l wh i ch p c d
am o n g th e ra on a s re e e a er e ar e s om e

w hi c h f ll w b t i tl f tf ll w b ( b p
.

h o o en a se m us o o or re c ed e a)
W i di c t th i b y t
.
,

e n h f l
a e s e orm u a

a > b or b < a .

I tt
h us a
pp ea rs th twh a en an y t
w o d iffe r en t r e al num be r s
are g i v e n , we c antc i a on e n fe r wh i c h p r e c e d es an d wh i c h
fo ll o w s ; al so, t
h t w m y a e a a l wa s d r a w
y h e f o ll o wi n g c o nt
c lu sio n s wi th re s
p cttt h e o r ee g i ve n r ea l n u m b e r s, a, b, c :
t h If a z b, an d b = c, en a c .

If < b d b < t h < a , an c, en a o .

If = b d b < t h < a ,
an c, en a c .

Th l y t i d
e rea F t
s h s em t
i l b s en s e or er e are ra on a nu m e rs

t l y b tw y t l at 1 1 3 b tl
.

no on w eq i n l
ee n an o un e ua r o a s, u a so

b t y t t d b t
,

we w q l i
e e n an i l bo une w y ua rr a on a nu m e r s , an e ee n a n

tw bo nu f wh i c h i
m ti l
e r s on e o d t
h th i t
i l s ra on a an e o er rr a on a ,

15 6
t
.

Th e r eal s y s emt is co nt
i nu ou s Th e r e al s
y st e m , h e r e f o r e,
t td t t t
.

p o ss e s s e s h e fir s an c
se o n d o f h p e ro
p e r i e s of h e r at i o n al
 I RR A T I O NAL N UMBE R S 47

sy s em t n u m e r a te d i n
e ti tp
1 43 Bu o s se ss e s an a dd i t
i o n al

t t tt t l y t
.

r op e r no b e l on g i n g h io e ra on a s em n am el
p y s , y

If th ti l y t
e m b p en td i ttw pretR r ea s s e e se a ra e n o o a r s, ,

an d R ch th t ch
2, mb i
su R p c d y mb a ea nu er n , re e es e ve r nu er

in R t h i
2, ith l t mb
er e i R fi t
s ei R b t er a as nu er n , or a rs n 2, u

no tb th o .

F or in p arat in g t
se h e r ea l sy st em i n t o t h e p a rt s R , a n d R , we se p ar a t e

t h e r ati on a l sy s t em in t o t wo p ar t s A, a n d A, t h e on e p ar t c o n si s t i n g of
al l th e r at i o n als i n R , t h e ot h er o f a l l th e r at
, ,

i o n a ls i n R 2
E ve r y r at i o n al b elon gs e i t he r t o A, or t
,

o A2 a n d e a ch r a t
.

i on al i n A,
p re c e des e ve ry ra t
,

i on al i n A2
Le t a be t h e n u m b e r which t h e se p ar at
.

i on A, A2 d e fin e s 1 47 154
Th en e i t h er a i s a r a t i on a l —n a m e l y t h e l as t h e fi rst
.
, , ,

n u m b er i n A o r t

i n A2 § 1 47 — o r i f t h er e b e n o last n u m b e r i n A , a n d n o fi rs t i n A,
a i s an i rra t i on a l ly i n g b e t
, , , ,

we en A, an d A2 1 54
h l t
t ti h l t
t
.
,

1 I f a is e as nu m b er i n A, i s al s o i R e as n , ; fo r we re
t er a t ti l b t td
.
,

h y mb
e re a n nu er in R , a ft h e r e wo u l d b e r a o n a s w e e en i an a,

h t
t t a ft
,

i ai l s , ra on a s in A, e r a w hich i s i m p o s s i b le

t t m b i A it t
h fi t
, .

2 Si m i l a r l y , i f a i s h e fi r s
i l i R nu er n 2, s a so e rs n 2.

t
i l it tb y h y p th i b l g it h tR t
.

3 If i i a m s r ra on a us o es s , e on e er o , or o

If b l g t iti th l t mb t
.
, ,

R 2 R
a e on i R ; f
s w o h ,.y s e as nu er n , or e re er e an

ft t t
i l b t it d
.

nu mb i R er h n w ld b , a w er a, 1 58 er e ou e ra on a s e ee n an a,

th t ti l i A ft w hich i i m p i b l
,

i
a s , ra on a s A d i li k m
n , a er a , s os s e n n e an n er ,

if b l g tR i t i th fi t mb
,
.

a e on s i R
o 2, s e rs nu er n 2.

Fi lly t hnac tb b t h l t mb i R
ere d fi t
an n oi R e o a as nu er n , an a rs n 2,

i c t i l b t
t t t 1 58 th t
,

s n h e w ld b ere w hou w mb e ra i on a s e e en ese o nu ers , a s,

ti l b l gi g i t h tA tA which i i m p i bl
,
“

ra on a s e on n ne er o , n or o 2 s o ss e.

To i n d i c ate t h at t
h e r eal sy s e m t i s d e n se an d a t
th e sam e

t i m e p o s se sse s t
h p e r oper ty j u s td e s ri c b ed we sa y th ti ti a s

c on t
,

i n u ou s .

T h eorem A r ea l n u m be r a e i t
h er r a t
i on a l or t
i rza i o n a l, i s
at t t
.
, ,

d efi n ed w h en eve r a l a w i s s t ed by m ea n s of wh i c h h i e en re

r ea l sys e m t m y be s ep a r a ed i n
a t tt
w p tR o o a r s, ,, R ,, ch t
su h t a

ea ch nu m ber i n R , p r e c e d es ever y nu mber in R 2 t

hi s nu m ber , a,

t
h en bei n g ei t
h t
h l t mb
er e as nu er in R , or t
h fi e rs ti n R,
’

Thi s i s an i m m e di a t e c o n se q u e n ce of 1 47 1 5 9 .
 A C O LL E GE AL G E BR A

APPR OX I MATE VALUE S OF I RRATI ONALS

G i v en t an y i r r a i on a l nu m b er a, d e fin e d as in § 1 54 By
t
h m th d ill tt t
.
,

e d b l
e o u s ra e e ow we c an fin d a p a i r of ra i o n al s ,
t
h l
e on e d th th e s s an e o er g r ea tt
h er an a, wh i c h d iff er fr o m
each t
h lit
tl
o w er as e as e p l e a s e . Su ch ra t
i o n al s a re c a ll ed
a
pp r ox im a t e v a l u es o f a .

Le tb t
h i
a t
i e e r ra o n al , V2 p os i ti ve rat
w hich l i es b e wee n
i on als t al l

w h ose s qu a r es a r e l e ss an d a ll wh o se s qu ar e s ar e g r e at
,

er t h an 2
W e m a y fin d b e t wee n wh a t i ve i n t
,

p a i r o f c o n se c u t
.

1 eg er s a l i es b y

co m put in g t unt
.

h e s qu a r es o f 1 2 3 su cc ess i ve ly i l we r ea ch on e
which is g re at er t
, , , ,

h an 2
W e see a t on ce t h at
.

12 2 a n d
He n c e a l i es b et we e n 1 a n d 2 o r 1 < a < 2
W e m ay t h e n fi n d bet i ve t en t
, .

2 we e n wh at p a i r o f c o n se c u t hs a l i es b y
c o m pu t su cc e ss i ve ly u n t i l we re ach o n e which i s g re at
. .

in g er

t
,

h an 2
We t hu s ob t
.

a in < 2 an d >2 fo r
He n c e a l i es b e twe e n an d or

3 B y a s i m i l ar p r o c e d u re we fi n d s u cc ess i vely
.
, ,

<a < an d s o on wi h td
t ou en .

td4 Le a, en o ett
h t
h e n num b e r in t
h e se q u en c e
t bt t t t
.

h i d
us o a ne , an d h
a2 h e n nu m b er i n h e s e q u en c e

Th en a, < a < a2 an d a2 a,

an d bych o os i n g n gre at e n ou gh we c a n m a k e 1 / 10 l es s t h an n
an y p osi t
ive
n u m b e r as 6 we m a y ch o o s e t o ass ig n h o w e ve r s m a ll

t tt
, ,

h e app r o x i m at
, .

5 W e c all e va l u es o f a V5 h o e

fi r st s ec o n d t
.

, h i r d p la c e of d ec i m a ls ; a n d so o n
, .

E v i de n l y tt
h e p ro e ss h u s ill u s r a c t ttd e m ay be a p p li e d

t t
o a n y g i v e n i rr a i o n a l n u m b e r , a ll th t
; fo r th p c a a e ro e ss

re qu i re s i s ttf d t i i g wh t
a es h c t i t
ori l e erm n n e er er a n ra on a s

a re less or g tt h d th d fi it
re a e r i f 1 5 4 w i ll
an a, a n e e n on o a,

ch tt W t h f t
,

al way s s u pp l y su h h f l l wi g
a es . e er e o r e a ve e o o n

th eo r e m :
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

Nor c an t
h e re be t
w o n u m b e rs , o n e o r t
h f which
bo o ar e t
i rra i on a l,
ly i n g b e we en t e ve ry a , an d a, fo r b e t
w th tw
e en ese o num b er s t
h er e

t t
wo u ld b e wo i l l ly i g b t
raw y d
ona s a so1 58 which n e ee n e ve r a , an a, ,

j th w tb i m p i b l
,

w h e ave us s o n o e os s e .

N t Thi t
o e h m d iff f m t
s h d fi iti
e or ef i ti l mb e rs ro e e n on o an rr a on a nu er ,

1 54 i t it
h t t p tf t h i t
h hy p t h t y t
.

i n h a s no i l li
ere a ar o e o es s a e ve r ra on a es

it
,

e h i A er i A n , or n 2.

Addi t
i on Le t dbd t a an e n o e an y t
w gi o ven r e al n u m b er s
t t d l t t
.

t
,

ra i n o al o r i rr a i l on a an e a ,, a , , b, , b, , d en o e a ny ra i o n a ls

t ch th t
,

wh a s o e ver s u a

an d 1
( )
Ob s er ve t
h tt
h a ere is no l as t nu m ber of th ki d d
e n e n o ed t
by a , or b, , an d n o fir s t mb nu er of t
h ki e n d d td by
en o e a , or

b, ; an d t
h t
ifa
y an
p os it
i n mb
ve u e r , as 8, be a ss i g n e d , i m tt
t a er s

no t h o w s m a ll , w e c an a l w ay s ch oo se a ,, a , , an d b, , b, , 1 6 2,
so t
h t
b t
h a o
— 2
a, a, < 8 an d b, ( )
Wh e n b o t
h a an d b ar e r a t
i o n a l , s ay a a an d b 8 , we c an

t t tf ll
,

fin d h i e r su m a h8 by e ru le of § 116 ; an d i o o ws

tt
, , ,

f rom by § 1 2 1 , ha

M o r e o ve r, wh e h e r t d a an b are ra t
i on al or n o ti tf ll o ow s

h t
1 21 t
,

fr o m by , a

a, b, a, b, .
(3)
Th e se c o n s i d e r at
i on s l ead us td fi t
h
o e ne e su m o f a an d b,
wh en on e o r bo t
t h ar e i r r a i o n a l, as f o l l o ws
Th e su m f d b w it
o t a an r en a b, i s t o m ea nth t mb a nu er

b t ll t d ll t
,

w h i c h li es w e h mb
e en a e nu e rs a, b, an ah mb e n u er s

a, b, . I th
n ow d it i th er or s, s e nu m be r d efi n e d by th f m l e or u a

a'l '

i bl'

wh er e a,, a, , b ,, b, d en o t e a n y ra t
i on a ls wh a t
so eve r s u ch t
h t a

an d
 I RR ATI O NAL N U M BE R S

To j st
ify t
u h is d efi n i t
i on we m u s th s ow t
h t
th a er e is on e an d bu t on e

su ch nu m b er a b Thi s fo llo ws fr o m 16 3 ; for

i s l e ss t
.

1 Ea ch a, b, h an e ver y a , b,
t b d fi t
. .

2 Th er e is no l as a, , an no rs a, b,
t h l t
b t i ce t t
. .

Th u s a,
’
b,
’
c an n o e e as a ,b , fo r s n h er e is no l as a,

t h t
,

an d n o las b ,, w e c a n ch o o se a , an d b, so t a an d an d

t
h f
e r e o r e (1 1 b1 a,
’
Of
p os i t t
.

3 If an y i ve ra i on al , 6, b e a ss ig n e d we c an ch o o se a , , a, , b, , b, ,
t
h t
,
.

so a
a, an d bz § 162

an d t
h er e o r e f ( a, b, ) (a , b, ) 6 . 12 1

Defini i on t of a Le t a, a , , a , h av e h e t sam e m e an i n g s a s in
t t
.

1 65 Co n s i d er a i o n s l ik e h o se in 1 65 l ead u s, wh e n a is
t td
.

i r r a i o n al , o efi ne a as foll o ws
Th e sy m bo l a is tm o ea n t
h e nu m ber d efi n ed by h e for m u la t
a a d)

wh er e a, , a , d en o t e any ra t
i on a ls wha t s oever s u ch t
h t a

a, a a, .

I tf ll o ows fro m § 1 63 h t
t t
h a ere is on e an d bu t on e su ch nu m b er
a; for
1 Ea ch a, i s l e ss th y i c
an e ve r a, , s n e a, < a2 73 , 1 1 1
t fi t t t
. .

2 Th er e i s n o l as d a , an no rs a, Th u s wer e h e re a l as
t fi t ; b t t
.
.
,

a, , h er e wo u l d be a rs ch a, u n o su num b er ex s s i
th t
.

3 . We c a n a l wa y s ch o os e a , , a , , s o a

— a 2) de — a1 < a .
§ 162

Su b tt
i nrac o Th e r e su l tf o su btc t
i g
ra n b fr o m a, wri t
t en

tm t h t
t
.

a b, i s o e an h e nu m be r a b) ; ia s,

a b a b) .

Th e m ea n i n g of a b) it
self i s k n o wn fro m 1 66 , 168 .

I t
f ll o o ws fr om 166 , 1 68 h t
t a a b m ay al so b e d e fin e d b y h e tf or m ul a

a, b2 < a b < a2 b, ,

wh er e a,, a, , b, , b, d en o t e an y ra t
i on al s wha t so e ver su ch t
h at
a, < a < a2 an d b1 < b < b2 .
 A C O LL EGE ALG EBR A

Mu l ti pli ti n ca o t t
b o h fac ors p os i i ve t Le t a an d b betw an y o

t
.

it
,

g i ve n p it ios ve n u m b ers an d a , , a , , b, , b, , an y p os i i n l
ve r a o a s

c h th a t
,

wh at soev er su

an d
( )
1

W h en a an d b ar e r a t i on al say a a b 8 i t
f ll
o o ws fr om
t
h t
, , , ,

1 by § 1 21 a
a , b, “
B (1 262,

an d in e v e ry c as e i t
f ll o o ws t
h t a

a , b, .
a , b,
( )
2

We ar e t
h f
er e o r e l e d , wh e n on e o r t
h f t
h n
bo o e um be r s a, b
are t
i r r a ion a l, td fi t
o h i p e ne e r ro du t
cth us

Th e p r od u o o os ctft
w p it
ve n u m ber s a a n d b, w r i
i en ab, i s o t
t t
tt
m e a n h a n u m ber wh i c h l i es be wee n a l l h e n u m bers a , b , a n d t t
all th mb e nu e rs a , b , In o t
h er w o r ds , a b i t
h s e nu m ber d e fi n ed
by t
.

h f m l e or u a
a ,b , ab 3 213 2 ,

w h er e a,, a,, b b, den o te any p os i i ve t ra t

ion a ls wh a ts o e ver

su ch t
h t a
a nd

I tf ll o o ws fro m § 1 63 h tt
t h a ere is on e an d bu t on e su ch nu m b er
ab ; fo r
1 Ea ch a , b, i s l e ss t
h an e v e ry a g b,

tb
.

tb
.

2 . Th e r e i s n o las a , , an d n o firs a, ,
( Co m p a re p r o of 166 ,
An y p os i t h t
.

t
,

3 . i ve 6 be i n g gi ven , we c an ch o o s e a ,, a,, b, , b, , so a

a , b, a , b, 8 .

F or a, bz a , b, a, ( b, b, ) b, (a ,

an d we c an ch o os e a,, a, , b, , b, , 162 , so t
h t a

b, an d a,

an d t
h f
er e o r e a, (b, b, ) b, (a, a, ) 6 .

We m ay m ak e su ch a ch o ic e o f a , a , b, b, as fo ll o ws
ttk a n y p ar t
i c u la r n u m b e r o f t an d t
, , , ,

F i rs a e h e k i n d b, as hen ch oose
SO t
h t
,

0 2, a

612
 I R R ATI O NAL N U MBE R S

Nex t ,
us ni gt
he a, t
h u s fou n d ch o o se , b, , b, , so h t
t a

b, as in

Si n c e b, b,
’
an d t
h f
ere o r e 6 / 2 bg
’
6 2 b, , i t
f ll o o ws fr o m (3) t
h at
a, < 6 / 2 b, , as in

t t
Mu l i pl i c a
i n o on e or bo h tf t a c ors n eg a t
i ve or 0 Le t a an d b
t t
.
,

de n ot e an y w giv o en p o s i i ve n um b er s . Th en

1 . a
( b) an d a
) b ar e to m ea n

2 . a
) b) i s t
o m ean ab .

3 . a -
O an d 0
'

a ar e t o m ean 0 .

Defini i on t of 1 a Letb a e an y g i v e n p os i i v e t n u m b er , an d

t tt
.

a ,, a , , an
y p os i t i ve ra i n l wh
o a s a t s o e ve r s u h ha c
a1 < a <a 2.

t
Co n side r a i on s l i k e t
h o se of § 1 6 5 l ead u s, wh e n a i s i rr a
t
i o n al , td
o e fin e 1 a as f o ll o ws
Th e s y m bo l 1 a is tm
o ea n t
h e num ber d efi n ed by h e fo r m u l a t
1 /a, < 1 /a < l / a ,,

wh er e a , , a2 d en o t
e any p os i iv e t ra t
i
on a ls wh a t s o ever su c h h t
t a

I tf llo o ws fr o m 1 63 h tt
t ha er e is on e an d bu t on e su ch nu m b er
1 a fo r
1 E ach 1 / a2 i s l es s th a n e ve r y 1 / a, , 1 06 .

t t
.

2 . Th er e is no las l / a , an d n o fir s 1 / a , .
( Co m p are p r o of ,
1 68 ,
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

Di vi s i on Th e qu o i en t tf o a by b (b no t0) i t s o m ean t
h e

t
.

n u m b er a 1 b, h at i s,
a
, 1
b b

Th e m e an i n g it self i s k n o wn fr o m
of a 1 b t
h p e c
re ed n i g d efin i t
i on s
When a an d b are p os i t i ve i t 1 74 th at
.

foll o ws fr o m 17 1, we m ay
al so d e fi n e a b b y t
,

h e fo r m u l a

a, / bz a /h a z/ bh

wh er e a,, a, , b, , b, d en o t
e an y i on als wh at
i ve r at
p os i t soe ve r su ch t
h at
a, < a < a2 an d b1 < b < b2 .

Th e com m u a tt
i ve, as s oc i a t
i ve, an d di s tib t
i
r l u ve aw s Th e op e r

t td fi d t t
.

a ion s jus e ne ar e e x e n s i o n s h c p n d i g Op
of e or re s o n er

a t
ion s fo r tira l on a nu m b ers S b tc t i uc t i ra tb t h on on n u es o e e

f d di t lt
i pli c t
.

i n ve r s e o a i o n , an d m u i f di i i a Fi
on lly o v s on na

t t tc tt
.

t t
,

a dd i i on and m u t
l ip l i c a i on c o n i n u e o on for m h c
o e om m u a

t
i ve, a ss o cia t
i ve ,
t t
a n d d i s r i bu i ve l a ws .

Thu s if a, b, an d c ar e an y t
h ree p o sit
i ve nu m b ers d efin e d , as i n
t
,

1 7 0, b y h f e o r m u l as

b1 < b < b2 , 01 <C< 62,

we h a ve a (b c ) ab ac .

F or b y 16 6 , 1 7 1 , a (b c) an d ab ac ar e de fin ed b y t
h f e or m u l as

a, (b, c, ) a (b c) a, (b2 (1 )
a , b, ab a , b,
a , o, ac a , o, .
(2 )
An d s n i ce a, ( b, c, ) a , b, a , c , a n d a, (b, c, ) a , bz a ,c , , 120,
t
h e nu m b e r s d efi n e d b y (1) an d (2 ) ar e t
h e sa m e .

Th e ru l es of equ al i t
y an d i nequ al i y t Th e se a l so h old g ood
t j u st
.

fo r s u m s an d p ro duc s as de fin e d , n am e l
y
Acc o r d i n g as a <, or > b,

so is a + o <, ,
or > b + c ;
a l s o, ac or > bc ,

bu t ac or < bc,
 I RR ATI O NAL N U M BE RS

Thu s if a < h , t
h en a c < b c
t t t t
.
,

F or l e d an d d a be an y w i o ra on al s b e wee n a an d b, an d cho o se
0, so t
h t a a .

Th e n s i n c e a < d an d c < c , a we h ave a c < d c ,

, , a , (1)
a n d si n c e d a <h an d c , < c w e h a ve d a o, < h c 1 66 ( )
2
Bu t fr o m ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) i t h at
follo ws 1 5 7 t
, , .

a c <b c , , .

Th epr oof t h atif a < b an d c > 0 t he n a c < b c i s si m i lar

Bu t
in t h at
hi s c ase we ch oose c , so t
, , , .

c , < c < c , ( 1 a / d) .

F rom t
h ese ru l es i tf ll o o ws, a s i n § 3 9, t
h tifa a b an d

c d, th e n a c b d, an d so on ; al s o , a s i n § 5 0, wh e n
a, b, c, d ar e p osi t i ve , t
h t a if a b an d c d, t
h n e ac b d,
an d so on

t
.

On approx i m a e val u es t 1 H av i n g n ow de fi n e d su bt ra c i n o

t tt
h t
. .

for i rr a i on al nu m bers § , 1 69, w e c an s a e t h e eo r e m of

§ 1 62 as fo ll o ws :
Wh en y i r r a i on a l a i s
an t
g i ven , a n d a n y p os i i v e r a i on a l 8 t t
i s a ss i g n ed, h owever sm a l l, we c a n a lwa y s fi n d r a i on a ls, a , a n d t
‘
a , , wh i c h w i ll d ifier fr om a by l ess h a n 8 t .

F o r , b y 1 6 2 , we c an fi n d a , a n d a , su h at
ch t a, a a, a n d a , a, 6
t t t
h t t
.

B u fr o m a < a , i fo l lo ws , 1 78 , a a a, < a, a , , an d h f
er e o re

t
h t a a <
1, <5
pr ove t
h at
.

I n l i k e m an n er , i ce a
s n a ,, we a, a <6 .

Thu s § 1 6 1 , ,
we h ave V5 an d V5

We say o f su ch an a, or a, t
h tit p
a re r e se nt s a w i th an

err o r n o tc ex ee di n g 8 .

2 I n p r a c t i c al r e ck on i n g we e m p l oy ap pr ox i m at e v al u e s o f
t t t t
.

i rra i o n al n u m b e r s m or e f re q u e n t ly h an h e n u m b e rs h em
s e l v es If a , an d b, ar e a pp r o x i m tv l f
a e a u es o a an d b r es
p ec

ti ly t f t im t l
.

h n
ve b w i ll b e a, h m e an a pp rox a e va u e o e su

B t ti th t t tc d
, ,

a b h u f b h ll
o n su r e a e e rr o r o a, s a no ex ee

t di n ily ch th tt
.
,

8 w m e us d b or h i p c ti v
ar oo s e a , an , so a e r r es e e

t c d 8 2 Thi f l l w f t
,

h ll
e rr or s s a no h p f i
ex ee s o o s ro m e roo n

im t l
.

166 Si m i l l f fi d i g pp ar ruf b es or n n a rox a e v a u es o a

d / b wi t t c di g 8 y b d i d f m
.
,

ab an h a e rr o r s n o ex ee n ma e er v e ro

t
, ,

h p ef i 1 68 1 7 1 1 7 4
r oo s n , ,
.
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

I NVOLUT I ON AND E VOLUT I ON

Powers In t
h c e as e o f t
i r r a i o n al num b er s as in t
h t a of

t t
t d ct
.
,
2 3
ra i o n al s, we re
p r e se n h p e ro u s aa, aaa, by a a

t tf y g i p it t
t
, ,

R oo t s . Th e m h roo i o an ve n os ve n u m ber b ,
wr i en

WI ), is t o m e an t
h tp i ti b w
a h os ve n u m er o se m t
h p owe r is b ;

th t i
a Q/b i s, s td tt
o h p it
iv mb
en o e e os e nu er wh i ch i s d e fin ed

by th f l ( Wy e b o rm u a
n

t
i fy th i d fi it th t t
.

T j o ius s e n on , we m u s s ow h t a o n e , an d bu
ch
o n e , su b iti pl i num er a s m es a ct
u al l
y ex i t W
s s e a cco m p l i sh
t
.

hi f ll w
s as o o s

T heorem Th e r ea l s y s em t c ti t
h mt
h tf on a n s e r oo o ever y p os i

t
.

i ve r ea l n u m ber b .

1 I f b i s h e m h p ow e r t t of a r a ti o n al num b er t
h tth e ru of

t
h t
.
,

e h e or e m i s o b v i o u s .

t
3

Thu s ,
if b h en s h3
2 I f b is no tt
h mt
h p e o we r of a ra t i on al i tm th
s ti r oo s

t
h t t it t
.
,

a r e al n u m be r a wh i ch li e s b e w e e n all pos i i l
ve r a on a s,

a ,, wh o s e m h p o w er s t ar e l e ss t
h b an an d a ll p os iti t
i l
ve r a o n a s,

a ,, wh os e m h p o we r s t a re g r ea tth
er an b . Co m p ar e 1 51 .

I t
f ll fro m 1 54 t
o o ws h at th er e i s o n e a n d b u t on e su ch n u m b er a

i ve ra t
s i n c e ( 1 ) e ve r y p os i t i o n al i s e i t
, , ,

h er a n a , o r an a , (2 ) e a ch a , is less
th an eve ry a , a n d (3) t h er e i s n o l as t a , a n d n o fi rst
,

, a, .

W e m ay p r o ve (3 ) as fo ll o ws :
If t h er e b e a l as t a , c a ll i t p Th e n s i n c e p < b t h e r e ar e r ati on als m

b et we e n p a n d b L e t on e o f t W e h a ve o n l y t
, .
,

m
he m b e p 6 o s h ow
m

th at we c an fi n d a r at i o n al q > p su ch t h at
. .

6 m m m
< p <6;
'"
q p o r q
fo r we sh al l t b so t h at p i s n ot t
h e l as t
,

h e n h ave p m q
’"
a,

t
, .

Bu m _ —l —2 —2 —I
(q p ) (q
m
+q )
m
q ;
p
1n nl
p qp +p nl

(q p ) m ag
’
m —l
, if a, b e
’
an y p ar i t
c l u a r a, ,

< 6,
—I .

We h ow in
c an s a s i m i lar m a n n er t t
h th ai e re s no fi rs t a, .

Th is e st t h t
d t
m
ab l i sh e d ,
i m ay rea d i ly be p r o ve a a Vb .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

VARIABLE S AND LI MI T S

Vari abl es . We say t

h t n
a a eve r e -
ndin g s e qu en ce of n u m ‘

b er s , su ch as
a ,, “ 2, “ 87

i s g i ven or k n ow n if h e t v al u e o f e v e r
y t
p ar i c u l ar e r m a ,, i s t
k n o wn , or c om p u t
c ane d wh e n t
be he i n d e x n whi c h s h o w s
its p o si t i on i n t
,

h e s e q u e n ce i s g i v e n
We o f t e n h av e o cc a si o n t
.

o c o n s i d e r v a r i bl es w h i ch ar e a

su pp ose d t o be r u n n i n g t h r ou g h s u c h g i v e n bu t n ev e r e n d i n g -

se q u e n c es o f v al u es .

Thus — — i s su ch a g i ven n e ver en d i n g se qu e n c e a n d

g g il -

x i s s u ch a va r i a bl e i f we su pp o s e i t to b e r u n n in g t
, ,

hrou gh t
, , ,
n

his s equ en c e
th at is t o be t a ki n g s u cc ess i ve ly t
,

,
h e val u es g a , ,

Li m i t s As a:ru n s t h r o u gh h e t se q u en ce g g m t
i c on

t t t
h t
.
, , ,

i n u all
y app r o a ch es h e va l u e 1, an d in su c h a m an n e r if a

we a ss i g n a n y pos it
i ve n u m ber as 8, i tt
t t
h w
ma er s n o o s m all ,

t t tly
,

h d i ff
e c 1 e r en e x wi ll u l a e be c o m e a n d r em a i n l e ss
t t t h e 1 00t
ch e s t
,

h h
an b e num e r so ass i g n e d Th u s, a f e r x re a h
t ft t
.

e rm h oq e se u en ce 1 x w ill r em ai n l e s s h an 01
h t
t t
. .
,

We e x p r e ss al l
th i s by s ay i n g a as x ru n s h r ou gh
t tpp
,

h e se qu e n ce ag g
,
m
, , ,
i a roa ch e s 1 as li m i tA . n d in
g e n e r al

A va r i a ble x, w hi c h i s su
pp os ed tb
o e ru n n ing t
h rou g h a g i v en
—
n ever en d i n g s equ en c e of va l u es , i s sa i d t pp ch t h o mb a r oa e nu er

a as l im i tif t
h e d if e r en c e a x w i ll im t
lt ly b c m
u d a e e o e an

t t h t
,

r em a i n nu m er i c a lly l es s h an e ve r y p i i m
osb 8 t w ve n u er a e

m a y a ss i g n .

Ob se r ve t
h tit
i t a gh t h at s no
a x bec o m e l e ss t
en ou h an 6 i t m u st
al s o rem a i n l ess i f x i s to app ro a ch a a s l i m i t

ru n th ro u gh t t
,
.

Th u s i f a: h e se qu e n c e 4 0 0 a 0 h e d i ffe r e n c e
x w i ll becom e l es s t h an e ve ry 6 t hat we c an ass ig n b u t it wi ll n o t
, , , , , ,

1
r em a i n l ess t h an thi s 6 a n d x w i ll n ot a pp r o a ch 1 as l i m i t
,

In p art ic u lar a 9:m ay b e c o m e 0 ; t hat i s x m ay r ea ch i t s l im it

, .

, a ,
.
 I R R ATI O NAL N U MBE R S

To i n di c ate th a t x is ap p r o a ch i n g t
h li m i t
e a, w e w r i te
ei th e r x a, re ad “
x app r o a ch e s a as li it m
”
or lim x a,

t
h li i tf
,

”
r ead
“
e m o x is a .

W h e th e r a v ar i ab l e x ap p r oa ch e s a l im i t or no td p e en ds

en t i re ly on t
h ch e ar a ct
e r of t
h e se q u e n ce of v al u e s th r ou gh
wh i ch i ti s s u pp o s e d tb
o e ru n n i ng .

Th u s whil e x a pp ro a ch e s a lim i t
wh en i tu t h gh t
rh ns r ou e se qu en c e
t tpp l im it it t r o u gh t
,

} 3, a,
«
p l a in ly i d oes n o a ch
ro a a wh h en ru n s he
t
a
,

se q u en c e 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, or h q e se u en c e 1, 2, 1 , 2,

t
H en ce h e i m p or t an c e of h e f oll owi n g th eo r em s t
T h eorem 1 If t
h e va r i a bl e x c on t
i n u a lly i n cr ea s es, bu t on

t t t
.
,

h h e o er h a n d, r em a i n s a lwa
y s l ess h an s om e g i ven nu m ber 0,

i tpp a r o a c h es a li m i t An d h i s li m i t ti s ei t
h er c or som e

t
.

nu m ber whi c h i s l ess h an c .

F o r by h y p o t h e si s h e re ar e n u m b e r s whi c h t x w ill ne ver

ex c ee d Ass i g n a ll su ch n u m b er s o a cl ass R , , t a n d al l o t
h er

t
h t t tly
.

nu m b er s, i a s, a l l n u m be r s w hi c h x wi ll u l im a e ex c eed
t
,

o a cl a s s R
t t t t
,.

We h us o bt ai n a s e p ar a i n o of h i e y en re s t
s em o f r eal

nu m b ers in tt wo o p a r s, tR R,, so l td t
re a e h t a ea c h n u m be r
t
,,

i n R , i s le s s h n a e v er y nu m be r i n R ,
ly t
.

Ob v i o u s h ere is no l as t n u m b e r in R , H e n c e , § 1 6 0,
t
.

h er e is a fir s t n u m b er in R , Cal l th i s n u m be r a As x

twill t
. .

i n c r ea se s, i app r o a ch a as l im i
t
.

F o r h ow ev e r 8 m ay b e , i f on ly p o s i i v e , a
s m all 8b el o n g s

tt
h cl
o e as s o f nu m b e r s R , , w h i c h a:w ill u l i m a t tly e c
e x eed

t tly t
.

He n c e x w il l ul i ma e r e m ai n be w e en a 8 an d a, an d

t
h f
e r e or e d iffe r fr o m a b y l e ss t
h an 8 .

In t
h e s am e m an n e r i t m ay be dem on s r a ed t h t
tt a
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

R eg u l ar s equ en ces I ti s no tc n e e s s ar ,
y h o w e v er , t
h t a x

t
i t pp
.

s h ou ld al way s i n cr e ase o r al way s d e c r e ase , i f i s o a r oa ch

a lim it .

Th u s x _i s so m eti m es i n c reasin g an d s o m e tim d c es e r e as n i g as i t ru n s

hr ou gh t
t b t i tpp ro a ch e s 0 as l i m i t
, ,

h e se qu en c e g i i , , ,
u a .

We sh al l p r o ve t h atx w i ll or wil l no tpp a r oa ch a lim it

cc o r d i n g as t t
,

a h e s e qu en ce o f v al u e s a , , a , , m h rou gh

whi ch i t tt t
,

r u n s h as o r h as no h ch e ar a c te r d es c r i b ed i n h e

t
,

f o l l o wi n g de fin i i o n

Th e q se u en ce a,, a, , m is sa i d tb
o e reg u la r,
if for
t tt tt
,

ever y p os i i ve es n u m ber 8 h a m a y be a ss ig n ed a c or r esp on d

t f
i n g er m ak c a n be ou n d , w h i c h wi l l d ilfer n u m er i c a l ly r o m f
e ve r y s u bs equ en tm
t er by less h a n 8 t .

1 Thu s qu e n c e t
h e se § 16 1 i s r e gu l ar
h e d i ffer e n c e b e t wee n t h e firs t t an d e ve r y s u b s e qu en t
.

F or t
.
, ,

er m

t er m i s l e s s t h an 1 / 1 0 t h at b et we en t h e se c o n d t
,

er m a n d e ver y

s u b s e qu e n tt e r m is l e ss t h an 1 / 102 ; t h at b etween t he nt h t
,

e r m a n d e ver y

su b se qu en t t e r m i s l ess t h an
No w h o wever s m all 6 m a y b e we c an gi ve i t a val u e w hich w i ll m ak e

1 / 10 s m all e r s t ill an d if t o d e n ot t h t
, ,

n
e s u ch a val u e of n h e kt er m o f

w i ll d i ffer fr o m ever y su b se q u e n t t e r m b y l e ss t
,

0
h an 6 .

Thu s if we assign t h e valu e t o 6 we h ave 6 so t h at

t h e si xt ht wi ll d i ffe r fr o m e ver y s u b se qu e n t
,

t
, ,

er m o f er m b y

l e ss t h an t hi s valu e o f 6 .

2 Th e fol lo wi n g se q u en c es ar e al so re gu l ar
.

I l
iA i i
, , i t
, ( 3)
2 ( 5)
th t
O b ser ve i (2 ) ch tm i f ll w d b y g t tm i (3) b y
a n ea er s o o e a re a er er n

tm i (4) m t i m b y g t tm m t
,

al e ss er er n im b y l so e es a re a e r er so e es a esser .

m t c t g l
, ,

W eim so e q c lik es llenf wh ou n er re u ar se u en es e a o ose

tm ft c ti
er s a t
er ah m E id tly i b l which
e r a n o n e ar e e sa e v en a va r a e r u ns

t q c wi ll lt im t c ttt h t
.

h gh ch
r ou su ly b c m
a se i
u en wil l e u a e e o e on s an a s,

ch i tli m i t
,

r ea s

tg
.

3 . Th e follo wi n g se qu en c es are n o re u la r

1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5, g g g
 I R R ATI O NAL N UMBE R S

F or in (6) t
h d iff
e c b t
w er e n e e e en atm d er an a qu en t
su b se o n e m ay

al way s be
‘
in d fi it
e ly g
n t di
e re a an n ( 7) it
m y lw y a a a s be an d therefo re
t t tc t h t
,

no l h ess a n ever y n u m b er , i fo r in s an w e, a e c an ass ig n .

Form u l as for reg u l ar s equ e nces 1 We m ay i nd i c at e t

h e

h tm
t
. .

r el a t
i on b e t w e en e er a ,, an d e ve ry su b se q u e nt t erm
t
,

by h f e o r m u l a, 63 '

8 fo r ev e r y
p k .
( )
1

2 Ag ai n , s i n c e an y t erm s a, t h er e m ay b e wh i ch a re a ,,

t
.
,

wi ll li e b e we e n a , an d a , l 8 a n d an y wh i c h ar e -
a ,, wil l
t
,
. .

l i e b e twe e n a 8 an d w e m ay al so wr i e

a ,, fo r e v er y p > k . 2
( )
3 I t
f ll t
h t if m
o o ws ft h tf rom ( 2) l a so e o e erm s a ar e e ss,

tt t t
.
p

an d m sog eh h di ff
ar e c b tw
r ea e r w f an a,, e ere n e e ee n o o

th t
e se
y c d 8 b tt
e rm s 28
ma ex ee u no

B t t d t
,
.

w u lw y fi d e c an whi c h c
a a
p s n a er m a ,, o rr e s on s o

t
,

8 2 c as p dd ,c 8 T h d i ff
or re s c b twon y s o e e ren e e e en e ver

t f t w il l t t
.

w t o er m s a h b i c lly l
er a , h en e n u m er a e ss an

or 8; t
h t i th l t
ai b tw n s, tw e f th
re a t on e ee e v e ry o o e se er m s

will b t h t i d i c t d by t
e h f m l
a n a e e or u a

a
,
8 fo r e v e ry p g l .
( )
3

T h eorem 2 Th e va r i a bl e x wi l l pp a r oac h a li m i t t
if e h
t whi ch i t
.

seq u en c e of v a l u es a , a, h r ou g h i s supp os ed
t
, ,

o ru n , is a r eg u la r se
qu en ce .

F or th er e twh
ar e n u m b er s o o se r i gh t x w il l u t
l i m a t el y
r em a i n a s it t
h gh t
h
ru n s
q ro u e se u en ce a ,, a , , 0

,
a
( )
1

Th u s i f 6 an d a , h a ve t
h e m e an i n g s ab ove ex p l a i n ed x wi ll r em a n i t o

t
h e r igh t 6 aft er i t
re a ch es t
, , ,

o f ca , h e val u e 1 96

As si g n all s u c h n u m b er s t o a cl a ss R ,, a n d all o the r nu m

t twh twil l t
,

b er s th a i s , a ll nu m b e rs o o se r i g h x no r em ai n
to a cl ass , R, .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

W e th u s o bt ai n a s e p ar a t i on of t
h e en ti re sy s em t o f r eal

n u m b er s in tt
o w p tR R o ar s, so r e l a e d tt
h t ch a ea n um b er
t
,, ,,

i n R , i s l e ss h y anb e ve r nu m er in R , By § 1 60,
‘
a d e fin i t
e

i tt whi c h t t
.

nu m ber ,
a, e x s s a hi s s ep a r a i on o cc u r s .

Thu s t q c if he se u en e be 1
t
h e ne g ati ve r at i o n als
e R, bu t t t
, 3 ,

c on stut
it h p it
,

0 an d ,
i e os ve r a i o n a ls , R2 an d a its e lf i s 0 .

As x ru n s th g h t
h q c
r ou e se u en e i tw i ll app r o a ch t
hi s

nu m ber a as li i t
m

y p it tt tm t
t t
.

F or ass i g n an i os ve es nu m b e r , 8, i a er s n o h w o

s m a ll Si n ce i
( ) s
1 r eg u l ar , we c an fin d a tm
er a 1 96
t
h t
.
,

su ch a

l fo r e v e ry p g m . 2
( )
Buti n c s 8 2 b l g t e a ll th l f ft e on s o R ,, a e va u es o as a er a

c t i will li t
er a n o n e t h igh t f 8 2 A d i c
e 8 2o e r o a n s n e a

b l g tR g t t ft
.

e on s h o l h w ill b
am o n es e v a u e s er e e s om e a er a m

whi c h li tt h l ft t
,,

ef o f h wi
e e w ld o a or o er se a ou

b l gt
e on i c w ld l t
o i
R ,, tlys n i ti ti g h t
e x ou u ma e rem a n o s r .

Th u s i f t
h e se q u en c e b e { 3 an d 6 1 a ll val u es o f

aft h e fou r t li e b e t h t
, 5
t i b t
a 3
er t
, 1 , ,

a: h r ween a,
l
e,
6 2 an d a 6 2, w a s, e e en
1
26 an d 1
26
"

Le t a
,
’
d en o t e su ch a v al u e o f x . Th en

[ a
( )
3

F r om ( 2) an d sin c e q
’
m ,
i t
f ll o o ws , 7 8, 1 78, th at

[
'
a a
,,
8 fo r ev e ry p q .

In o t
h er w o rd s, a f t er x re a ch e s t
h e v al u e a
’
t
h d i ff e ere n ce
c ally le s s t
,

a x r em a i n s n u m e r i h an 8
app r o a c h e s a as l i m i t 1 8 9
.

Th e r e f o r e x , .

Con versel y , if x is a
pp r oa c hi n g a li m i t th a, e qu en c e of
se

t it
,

va lu es a,, a , , aD , h r ou g h wh i c h i pp s su os ed o ru n, t
m us t
b e r eg u l a r .
 I R R AT I O NAL N U M BE R S

For t
n c e h e d i ffer e n c e a x w ill u l i m a e ly b e c o m e an d
si tt
r em ai n t
n u m er i c ally l e ss h an e ve ry as si gn e d p os i i v e n u m b er 8 t
th t
, ,

1 8 9, w e c an c h oos e a ,c so a

| a an d a fo r e ve r y p > k;

wh e n c e 8 fo r e v e ry p k .

H en c e h e t s e q u en ce a ,, a ,, is r e g u l a r, 1 96

We m ay c om b i n e 1 97 , 1 98 i n t
h e s in gl e tt
s a e m en t
td
Th e sufi c i en an c
n e es s a r
y c on d i t
i on th t a a va r i a bl e ap
p r oa ch
a i t
li m i t h t t
h s a e s equ en c e of va lu es t
h gh
r ou whi c h i t i s s up

p d t
os e b o ru n e a r eg u la r se
qu en c e .

S OME I MPOR T ANT T HE ORE M S RE GAR DI NG LI MI T S

In t
h p e r ese n t se ct
ion a an d b w i ll d e n o t e an y g i ven r ea l
nu m bers an d x an d y va r i a bl es wh i ch ar e su pp o s e d t o ru n

t
,

h ro u g h g i ven n e ve r e n di n g s e qu e n ce s o f v al u e s

t§ 1 8 9 i ti
-

t t
.

Th e li m it0 F r om h d e e fin i i on of li m i mme

tly f t
h t
.
, ,

di a e o ll o w s a

1 If t
h e v ar i a bl e x w i ll t tly b c
u l im a e e om e an d re m a n i
t y p it h t
t
.

n u m e r i c ally le ss h an e v er i
osn b ve u m er , 8, a m ay be
ass i g n e d , t
h e n x ap p ro a ch e s 0 l i it
as ; d c m an o n ve r se ly

l i it t
.

2 If x a pp r o a ch es a as m h en a x ap p r o a ch e s 0 as

t
,
.

li m i an d c on v e r se ly .

Th u s to a pp r oa ch es t 0 as i t
h e li m i t h r o u gh t
ru n s t h e s e qu e n c e 3
5

a pp r o a ch e s t
h e li m i t ru n s t
h r ou gh t
, ,

an d 1 it 0 as 3: h e se qu en c e
,

A v ar i abl e wh o se l i m i t i s O i s c a ll e d an i nfi n i ti m
es a l.

T h eorem 1 If x i O and y i O, and A and B r em a n n u i m er

t t
.

i c a l ly l es s h an s om e fi x ed nu m ber , c, as x an d y va r y, h en

Ax By i O .

For ign an y p osi t

ass i ve n u m b e r 6 i t m at te rs n o t h o w sm al l
i 0 a:w i ll u lti m at
.
, ,

Si n c e a: , e l y r e m ai n n u m e r ic ally 6 2 c . 200, 1
 A COLLE G E ALG EBR A

Si n c e y i0 , 31 w ll i tim t
ul ly m i
a e re a n n u m er ic al ly 6 2c 200, 1

Hen c e Ax By im t
w i ll l t u ly m i a e re a n n u m er ic a l ly 2 c 6,

an d t
here o re a f pp r oa ch 0 l i m i t 200
es as 1
d y i O t
.
, ,

Th u s ,
if x i O an h ( y 3)
,
en x x 2y $0 .

No t Thi t
e .h s eo r e m i
m ay r e a d ly b e e x en d e d t to an y fin i t
e num b er of

i
va r a b le s .

Th u s , if x y i O an d z i O, t
h en Ax + B y + Oz i o .

T h eorem 2 Th e li m i tf t
h o e su m d ilfer en c e, p r od u c tq t
i t uo en

t s is t
, ,
.

of w o va r i a bl es wh i c h ap p r o a ch l im i t he su m d if e r en c e,
t i en t l im i t ha t
,

p c
r od u
qu o t of th es e s :t i s if x a n d y a
pp roa c h
th e li m i t t
, ,

s a a n d b r esp ec ti v e ly ,
h en

1 . x +y i a +b . 3 . xy é ab .

— — b
2 x y i a 4 x
/y i a
/ ,
b u n l e ss b O
-
. . . .

F or , s n i ce a x an d b y i o, § 2 00, i t
f ll o ows fro m § 2 01 t
h t a

A (a — y) i o .
(1 )
Th e fo r m u l as 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 m a y b e d er i ve d fro m Thu s ,

1 . a +b — y) . 0,

h t
t i a s, x +y i a +b .

2 . a — b — (x — x) — ( b — y ) a i o,

h t
t i a s, x —y i a —b .

3 . ab —xy :
(a
t
h t
i a s, xy i ab .

sa c a
x
— :

t
h at
is ,
x/ —
y i a/b .

Coroll ary . If x th a, en x
“
a
“

Th eorem 3 Th li m i tf t
e h t
h tf i bl wh i c h
o e n r oo o a va r a e

li m i ti t t tf t
h tli m i t
:th t
.

a p r oa c h es a h h s e n i r oo o a a s,
p

t
h V i Va a, en ic .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

n u m be r a t
h l gt
h f S
e en o We t
h e r e or e f h av e t
h f e oll ow i n g

t
.

d e fin i i on

t h f y
Th e l en g o an s eg m en tS i n c om m en s u r a bl e wi h h e tt i t un

t
,

i t h t t
,

t
,

8, i s i l a r ra on a nu m be r , a, w h i h l i es be c w een a ll i l ra on a s

wh i c h l gt h f a re en s O seg m en tl th S
s es s an and a ll t
i l ra on a s

wh i c h l gt h f a re en s o s eg m e n s tg t th S r ea er an .

Th u s V2 ,
t
is h e l e n g t
h ft
h di o e a g o n a l o f a s q u ar e i n tm er s of t
h e s i de .

t tfS i t
I f h e l en g h o n e r m s of s is a, w e wr i tS e as , an d

t
h t
wh t hai t
i l e er a s ra on a or i r r a i o n al t
t
.

R eal num h fig f 1 34
b er s p i c t d by
u re p oi n t s As in e u re o

tk y ig h tl i it fi d p i t
.
,

a e d an r 0 ig i l n e an on a xe o n a s or n a so

so m c i t it f
e i g l gt
o n ve n en h A d by t h un s, or m e as u r n en s n e

t t t d t
,

d i tc f
.

s an 0 f y p i e P f h l i
rom d h o an o n o e n e, u n e r s an e

l gt h f t
en h g tOP i t f
o 2 07
e se m en n e rm s o s, .

We c h oose a s t
he p ict
u re o
f a n y g i ve n nu m be r , a, t p i t
h t Pa o n ,

t t t
,

o
f h l i w h ed i c f
ne os e s an e r om h mO is e nu c
er i a l va l u e o
f a,

t h p i t
e b i g t k
o n tt h e n a en o e r ig h t l ftf0 or e o a cc o r d i n
g as a is
t
,

p i
osti g i ve or n e a ve .

If a is a ra t
i o n al n um ber we ct
u all
c an a
y c o n st ru c t P 1 3 4
t i r r at
i o n a l w e u s u al l y c a n n o t
, , .

On h c e on t r a ry if a is c on

t t t
h t ti t
,

h t
,

s rut ct P We h e n a ss u m e P a ex is s , h n o er wor d s, a

t t p i tP ly i g b t ll p i t
.

on h li h i e ne ere s a s i n gl e o n w n e e en a o n s

wh i ch p i ct t t d l l wh i c h p i ct
, ,

i u re ra o n al s l e ss h an a an a u re

t
rai l g t th
on a s r ea e r an a .
*

Thi s tt h pl c f
is di c i f t h i m fg m t y ; b t s u ss o n o
i t f t l t i tt b j c tf
ax o s o
t
no e a e or a e eo e r u
w m y m h f ll w i g b c h i h
t w d c id t
e a en on e o o n e a u se o e r re a on o e su e o
m m
e as u r e en no i un er on s e ra on

tt t ch t h t
.

1 A i m f A h im d If d S d w li gm
i t h th t
. x o o rc e es . s an en o e o n e se en s su a
s <S w lw y fi d
e can a g m
a s m n>s an n e er , su c a s

ti it If ll t h p i tf i g ht t d i t
.
, ,

2 A i m f li b
t h t
h t h p i t tt h l ft y p i t
. x o y o c on nu .
p a e o n s o a r ne e se ara e n o
w cl R d R i R li f
l t fi t
o e ver

p i t
a ea c o n n. es o

i R t it
o a ss e s , ,
an ,,
su c , e e o n
h i h i R i R
m pt
i t h t y
n er e s e er a as o n n or a rs n
t
,
.
,, ,

( 1 ) Th A i m f A chi m d i i l d i h
th fi tt
n vo ve

t b m i g S i tm f
e x o o r e es s n e a ss u on a e ve r
li gm d F p i m
i tg m ch t h t
rs s e n e a su r n

i tfi d
n e se en c an e e a s u re . or e n er s o
(m 1) < S < m ~

t m pt i i 209 t h t
s s
tp
s s o n an n e er , , su a . .

( 2 ) Th i m 1 d2 bl h f r o ve
i l t i t p d i g p i tP
e ax o s an ena e us o e a ss u on n a or

y gi i t h
t
e ve r ve n a e r e e x s s a c o r re s
i l y tm i tt w p twhich w m y
rr a on a on n o n
tt
.
,

F h m B
i l y C ll t p d i g tt ch t
n o ar s ,
p ct
o r a se a ra e s e ra on a s s e o e a na e
h p i t
p
an d C re s e ve c . a h mb i e h o n s o r re s on n o e nu e rs n ea e
 I R R ATI O NAL NUMBERS

Convers ely , wh en P i s g i v en , we c an fin d a, a l e as t t ap p r o x i

m at e ly , by m e asu r i n g OP an d a ta h i n g he or tc t si g n t o

t
h e r e su l t cc
,
a o rd i n g as P is tt
h o e r i gh t or l e ft of 0 .

Th u s igh t
if P i s tt
o f O a n d we c a n l a y 8 al o n g OP fi ve t
h o e r i m es
the ten th p ar t o f 8 al o n g th e p ar t l efto ver s even t i m es a n d t h e hu n dr edt
, , ,

h
p arto f s al on g t h e p ar t sti ll left i m es t
o ver s i x t wi ll b e t
,

h en h e val u e
of a to t
,

h e se c on d p l ac e o f d e ci m als .

In th i s m an n e r w e s e tp l t i n f t c sp d u a re a o o on e -
o on e
-
or r e on

en e,c § 2 b e t we en ll t h al n b d ll p inte r ea th u m e r s an a o s on e

t yt
,

l i n e ; an d i f a an d bd w l n b
en o e andP d Q o re a u m e r s , an an

t
h c e o rr e sp o n d i n g p i t P w ill l i t
o n t
h l ft i gh t f
s, e o e e or r o

Q a cc or di n g as a i l g s t th b e ss or r e a er an .

Thu s if a an d p os i t
bi ve an d a < b an d i f c den ot
ar e e a r ati onal ly i n g
t an d b an d R t h e c o rr es p on d in g p o i n t
, ,

b e wee n a , w e h ave 206 , , ,

OP < OR a n d OR O Q an d t h erefor e OP < O Q .

t t p i t p ct
p i
B o n s a n d h e C o n s res e i
v el y th t
W e a r e o s ow a h t th
e re i s i n t
he
i tp i t hich p t t p i t t pi t
- -
.

i
l n e a d efi n e o n , P , w se a r a e s all he B o n s fr o m a ll h e C—o n s
i t ig t p i t i t i tp i tt c
-
.

F r s ass n h e B o n s a n d all n e r m e d a e o n s o a l ass R , a n d a ll

p i ttt ight t h t c t tt p i thich t
-
.

o n s o he r of l ass R , , a n d l e P d e n o e h e o n w hi
p t
ese o a s
i
se a r a on d efi n e s , b y 2
t ig t p i t i t i tp i tt c
.

Nex a ss n h e C—o n s a n d a l l n e r m e d a e o n s o a l ass S2 an d

a ll p i ttt h i
e r l ef tt c t tt p i t hich t
l ass Sn an d l e Q d en o e h e o n w hi
p t
o n s o o a s
i
s e a r a on d e fi n e s , b y 2
t t c tt tt i
.

Th e p oi n s P an d Q m u s c oi n i d e F o r if n o , l e P Q d en o e h e l n e se g
tt t i t ch th t
.

m en b e we en h
em g
By 1 , we c a n fi n d an n e e r , m , s u a

d t
.

m P Q> h f PQ> /m s , an er e o r e s

B t t
'

l ct
.

hi i i m p i b l F r w f m B mb b d f m C '

h t b 1 m A d if L d M b t h p i t
a nu an
c ch t
u s s oss e . o e c an se e ro er ro

mb c p di g
tb d c p ct
a nu er su a c . n an e e o n s o rr e s on n
o an i ly w h re s e ve e a ve

d t
,

LM < / m d P Q < LM s h f PQ< /m an an e r e ore s

It i t p i tP Q t h t p d t cc d i g t 209
.
, ,

hi s s on e c o n or a o rr e s on s o 3. a or n o

th t p d i g t2 t y t
.
, ,

(3) F i l ly b c h m f l mb h
t p d i g t1 t
as
h p p t
se r v e e s s e o r ea nu er s
h p p t
na , o a o rre s on n o
e y d
ro i b d i 16 0 d c
er e sc r e n y an o rre s on n o e ro er

y t
w p it i t
,

If d b i l mb w lw y fi d e c an a an n e er ,
ch t h t
a an ar e a n o osg ve r e a nu er s , a s n
m su mb> a a.

i t g m ch t h t
,

F by 1 08 17 6 1 7 8 w ch m > b d
t
or , , , , e c an oo se an n e er , , su a a an
h f mb
l y t t t hi p p t t tt wi th t
e r e o re a.
Th m w ld p — l
i — w w ti tm t
a e as no a
c ific f m f it t
y s ro er ou
h p p t
e rea s s e ou no osse ss
h
p t
n ven

i l y tm f t
sa r es ere e o ore an on e
i t ft t
e o so e o s o er ro er
r ra i lf i h h k i d d c ib d i 15 4 s s e o e n es r e
i l i it
ona or a se on a n

t
ar a on o e ra .

Th if u s,
y h
e ve r ra d <b
on a < f s e y e r a n a1 o r a n a , , a n a, c d o r e ve r
—
2
w h ld h b< 17 8 d p f f 16 3
B t 8 w m ight i g
dl an roo o
p it
, a, , e s ou av e c a2 a, , .

h w m ll i mb w c ld fi d
i t
e a ss n e ou n no
t
u o e v er s a ve n u er,
g t h t
a os , ,

g m m (
it w ld t h f ll w t h t —b > 8 / m which i i m p i b l i c
n e er, , so r ea a c
F
th t
or ou en o o a c , s oss e s n e
c —b < azd w -
ch
al an e c an oo s e a , , a 2 so a az
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Th eorem If h l gt
t h f S i tm
e en f T i o n er s o s a, a n d h t
ta
f o

tm t
h l gt h f S i tm
.

T in er s o f s i b t
sh ,
en e en o n er s o f s is ab .

1 . Wh e n a an d b ti l ar e r a on a .

Le tza a b an d b c / d , w h er e a, b, c d d en o ti tg
e n e er s .

a in s t tp tf T t i c on t
,

Si n c e S c on t he b h ar o a im es , 1 30, bS w ll ain T

it
s elf a t
im es t hat is, ,
bS aT .
( 1)
Si m i lar ly dT cs .
(2)
Bu t
f rom
( 1) an d (2 ) i tr e ad i ly fo ll o ws h t
t a

MS a dT, an d d dT ac s ,

an d t
h er e o r ef d ac s .

Th at
is ,
t
h l e en gt
h of S in tm er s of s is

2 . W h en a an d b, on e o r bo t
h ,
ar e i r r a i on a lt .

Le t
8 1 an d 8 2 d en o t e an y s e s c o m m e n su r ab l e wi t
g m en t h T , su h at
ch t
8 1 S 8 2,

an d le t al ,
a2 be t
h l e en gt
hs of 8 1 , 8 2 in tm
er s of T , so h t
t a

8 1 al T an d 8 2 a zT , wh e r e a1 < a < a2 . 208

Si m i la rl y , l e T1 , T2 d en o t t
e a n y se g m en t
s c o m m e n su r a b l e wi t
h s , su ch
t
h t a
T1 T T2 ,

an d t
l e bl , bz b e h e l e n g t t
h s of T 1 , T2 i n tm er s of 8 , so h t
t a

T1 bl s , an d T2 n , wh e r e bl < b < b2 .

Th en s i n c e 8 1 a l T, an d T > T1 , an d T1 bl s ,

we h ave , by c as e 1, S l > a 1 bl s .

Si m i l arly S2 ag n .

Hen c e a l bl s 8 1 S S2 a g bzs ,

an d t
h f
e r e o re a l bl s S a g bzs .

W e h ave t
hu s ttd t h tll t
d e m on s
h mb ra e a a e nu er s a l bl an d a g bg a r e

l en g t
h s, in tm f f g m t p c t
er s o i ly l
s, o se e n s res e ve ess an d g r e at
er t
han S
b t b t t
.

Th er efore a h mb which l i
e on e w nu er es e e en a ll h e n um b e rs a l bl

h l gt
17 1 i t h f S i tlf i tm f
,

a n d a g bz, , s e en o se n er s o s, 207 .
 I R R ATI O NAL NUM BE R S

Coroll ary Ift

h l gth fS
e d T i tm
en f s o an n er s o s a re a a n d

t t th l gth f S i tm
.

b r es
p ec i vely , h en e fT i en o n er s o s a b .

t
F o r le th l gt h f S i tm f T b
’

e en o n er s o e x

i c t gt
h f S i tm f T i h tf T i tm
t
.

Th h l
en s n e e en o n er s o s x , an d a o n er s

o f s i b t h l gt
s h f S i tm f i b
e en o n er s o s s x 2 12
B t b y hy p th i t h l gt h f S i tm
.
, ,

u , o es s , e en o n er s of s is a .

He n c e xb a,

an d t
h f
e re o r e x a b .

Th e nti nu ou s vari able

co On e o f o u r m os t
f m ili
a ar i ntu i t i on s
i n u ou s m o t
.

is th at o f c on t ion .

t t
Su pp o se h e p o in t P o b e m o v i n g c o nt i n u o u s ly f r o m A o B t
t
al o n g h e l i n e OAB ; a n d l e a, x , a n d b d e n o e t
h e l e n g h s of tt t
OA, OP , an d t
h
OB i gin
r es
pe c t i v e ly 0 b e in g e or

Acc di n g tt m pt f 2 09 t
, .

h or i h o g t AB
e a ssu on o e se m en c on

b b t d b t
,

t in
a p i nt f
s a y no w or e v er h gh w h i c h um er e e e n a an r ou

i it f m A tB Thi l d
, ,

ofc P tp
ou r se , m ti m us as s n s o on ro o s ea s

t y th t P m v c nt i ly f m A t
.

us o sa a as B inc o es o n u ou s ro o x r eases

f m t tt b t g h ll i t di t l
,

ro h v l eh v l h
a ue a o e a ue r ou a n er m e a e va u es

t tb
,

or th t v i a i
x ly f mar es c on n u ou s ro a o .

t
O f c o u rs e i is i m p o ss i bl e ctu ally t o t ra c e th e var i at
a i o n of t hi s x s i n c e
to an y gi ven on e o f i t s val u e s t here is n o n ext
,

follo wi n g val u e I f we
at t
e m pt to r eason ab ou t x m at he m at ic ally we m u s t c on ten t
.

ou r sel ves

wi th d efin i n g i t thu s :( 1) x m ay t ak e e ve r y g i ven val u e b e t

,

we e n a an d b
(2 ) i f p a n d q d e n ot e a n y gi ve n p a i r o f t h e se val u es an d p < q t
,

an d h en
wi ll t ak e t t ak es t W e m ay ad d t h at
, ,

1: h e val u e p b efo r e i t h e valu e q x is

ofte n c a lle d a c on t in u o u s var i able when o n ly t h e fi rs t of t h es e p rop ert

.

i es
is at ta ch ed t o it .

R a io t Le tM an d N d en o t e an y t
w o m ag n i td u es of t
h e

t t t t
.

sam e k in d By h e m ea s u r e o f M i n e r m s o f N , o r h e r a i o
t t
.

of M o N , w e m ean h e v ery sam e n u m b er s wh i c h we h av e

d efi n ed as l en g hs i n t 8 1 , 1 3 0, 2 07 , wh e n M an d N d en o te
li n e s eg m e n s t .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t
Hen c e h e th e o r e m s of 2 1 2, 21 3 r e g ar d i n t
g l e n g h s h o ld
g oo d fo r t
h
e m e asu r es or r a t
i os o f a n
y m ag n i t u d e s o ft
h e sam e

k ind .I n p ar i cu l ar, t
t
If h e m ea s u r es o
fM and N in tm er s o ft
h e sa m e u ni t a re a

and b r es t
p e c i ve ly, t
h t
i
e ra o of M tN io s a b .

V . THE I M AG I N AR Y AND C O MPLE X

N UM BE R S

PURE I MAGI NARIE S

Th e r e al s s e m
y t d o es no t
c nt o ai n t
h e e v e n r oo s o f t n e g at i v e
n u m b er s ; for th e e ve n p o w e r s o f a ll r e al n u m b er s ar e p os i i ve t
t y t t
c ti t
.

Th u s h e r ea l s m d s e oe s n o h on a n e s q u ar e r o o t of 1
lt t t
.

To m ee t th i s d i ffic u y w i,
e n v en a n e w s s em
y o f s ig ns
c al l e d im agin ar
y or c om p lex num b er s
t tf
.

Th e si m l
p e st of th ese n ew sign s i s i, c al l ed h e u ni o

i m a g i n a r i es W it
h t
h is u n i t
an d t
h e re al n u m b e r s, a, we f or m
t t
.

sign s l ik e a i, wh i c h w e h n e re
gar d a s arr an g e d in h e o r de r

i n whi c h th e i r oe c ffic i t en s,
”
a, o ccur in th e r e al sy s e m t We
w c t y t
.

”
th u s o bt ai n a n e i on n u ou s o rd i n al s m
s e of
“
n u m b er s ,

whi ch we c all p u r e i m a g i n a r i es .

Thu s p roc eed in g as wh e n d evelo pi n g t

h e real s y s e m t we m ay firs t
for m t
h e c o m p l et
, ,

e sc a le of i m a g i n ar i es

—3 i 2i i ,0 , , , i, 2 i, 3 i,

t
h en g t
e n l ar e o a den se sy st
h is i n t em b y i n t r o d u ci n g i m agi n ar i es wi t h
i o n al c o effi ci en t
fr a c t s a n d fi n a lly i n t o a c on t
i n u o u s sy s tem b y i n tr o d u ci n g

i m agin ar i es wi t h i rr ati o n al c o effi ci en t

,

t t ly
.

Her e 2 i i s m e r e ly h e n a m e o f on e of o u r n e w n u m b e rs I s on

i tp i t
y i s a d efi n e os o n i n t
p r op e r t tm B t
.

i h e n e w o r d i n al sy s e u en e wh w
ip l ic ati o n we s h all s e e th at tth p d t
.

h ave d efin ed m u l t ,
2 i also r e r esen s e r o uc p
2 x i or i Si m i larly e ve ry p u re i m a gi n a r y a i
I n p a rt ic u l ar we sh all d e fin e 0 i as 0 He n c e we wr i t
.

e 0 fo r O i

Ob s e r ve t hat 0 is t h e on ly n u m b er which i s c o m m on t o th e real syst

. .

em

an d t h e sy st em o f p u r e i m agi n a r i es .
 I M AG I NAR Y AND COM PLE X NUM BE RS 71

F or th ese n u m b er s we i n v e nt o pe r at i o n s wh i ch we c al l
n ew 219
a dd i t
i on an d m u lt
ip li c a t
i on Th ey a r e d e fin e d b y h e f ol l owi n g t
t
.

eq u a i on s

1 . 2 . a -
bi = bi -
a

3 . ai ~bi — ab .

Th u s, 3 , t
h p e ro du c t of t
w p o u re i m ag i n a r i e s , a i an d bi , i s
t o m e an t
h l e r ea n u m b er o b tia ned b y m u l i p ly i n g h e t t
nt f i tg t t
,

c oeffic i e s o a an d bi h o e er an d c h an g i n g h e si gn o f
t
h e r e su lt .

We d efine p ower as in 136 . Th u s , ( ) ai

2
ai ai .

Th e sy s t
m e o f p u re im a g n a r esi i c on t
ain s t
h e s qu a r e r oo s o tf
a ll n e
ga t
i ve n u m ber s i n t
h e r ea l s y s em t ,
n a m el
y

V 1 = i and

F or i i § 2 19, 3
qu are ro o t W e i n d ic ate t tb y
l

Th er efore of
i is a s 1 38 hi s roo

1 an d t
.
,
“

V hu s h ave i V 1
I n l i k e m an n e r i t h at i i s a s qu ar e r oot
m ay b e s h o wn t
.
,

of 1 We
i n d ic at e t
.

hi s ro ot
,

by V 1
a2 we h ave a t
.

Si m i larly s i n c e (a i ) 2 ai ai
'

, ,

COMPLE X NUMBE R S

To c b er sy s em whi ch w il l c o nt a i n h e h i g h er
s e u re a n u m t t
e v en r o o t s o f n e g at i v e n u m b e r s we i n v e nt c o m p l ex n u m ber s ,
.

Th e se a re e x p r e s si o n s l i k e a bi f o rm e d by c o n n e c t i n g a r eal
t t
,

n u m b er a w i h a p u r e i m ag i n ar y bi by h e s i gn Th ey
t
, , , ,

a r e al s o o f e n c al l e d i m a g i n a r n u m bers
y .

t dd it
Un i l
i h b a on as een d efin e d fo r c o m pl e x nu m b ers t
h e ex pr essi on
t bi i tb g d d
a s o e re ar e a s a sm gle sy m b ol an d t
h e s ign as m ere ly a
p tf t
ar hi y m b l
o s s o .

Si n c e a a Oi an d bi 0 bi , r e aln u m b e r s an d p u re

i m a gi n a r i e s are i n clu d e d am o n g t
h e c om p le x n u m b e r s .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

We r eg a r d t
h c e om p l ex num b er s a s a r r an g ed in r o ws a n d

c ol u m n s in su ch a m an n er t
h tlla a nu m b er s a bi wh i h h a v ec
t
h e sam e tb l ie in
h e s a m e r o w a n d a r e ar r an g e d in t
hi s row

fr om l fte t i gh ti t
h o r n e o rd er of t
h i e r a s
’
; wh i l e al l num

b er s wh i ch h t
h av e e s am e a lie i n t
h e s am e c ol u m n an d are

a r r an g d ie thi c l f
n s o um n r om b el o w u p ward in t
h e order of

t
h i e r bs
’
An d w e m ay c o n sid e r t an y p a r i c u l ar c o m p l ex n u m
tp i t t t
.

b e r defi n ed by i s i os on in hi s
“
wo d i m e n s i o n al o rd i n al
-

a r r an g e m e n t ”

t t
.

In 2 38 w e sh all e x p l ain a m e th o d o f p i c u r i n g h i s arr an g e

m en t
f o r a ll v al u e s of a a n d b W e m ay i n di c at t
e i a s f o ll o w s

t
.

fo r i n g e ra l v al u e s o f a a n d b .

1 — 2i

Thi s ar ran g em en t m ay al so b e d es c r i b e d as an o r di n a l s y s t
em § 17
w h o s e el e m en ts a r e r o ws ( o r c o l u m n s ) e a ch o f which i s i t
, ,

se lf an o r d i n al

s y ste m o f s ig n s o f t
,

h e fo r m a bi .

Defi n i i on t of equ al i t
y Tw o c om p l ex nu m b er s ar e sa i d tb o e

t t t t
h t
.

e qu a l wh e n h y e o cc u py h p i i
e sa m ei w di os on n e o m en

t
-

s i o u al o r di n al a rr a n g e m e n j t
d c ib d
us H c es r e en e,

t
.

If a bi c di , h en c d b
a d; d c an an o n v e r se l
y
t 0 t
.

I n p a r i c u l a r, i f a bi h ,
0 d b
en a 0; d an an c on v er s el
y .

t q l c m pl
O f wo u ne u a o e x n u m b ers , l ik e 2 3i an d 3 i , we can n o t
sa h t
y t t
h a i l e one s es s o r g r ea er tt
h an —t
ha ti s, p re c e de s o r follo ws
t
h th
e o i c c m pl
er, s n e o ex n u m b ers d o no t
f or m a s i m p le o rd i n a l s y s t
em .

Defin i t
i on s of addi t
i n bt ti n
o su rac o m ul i pl i t
t i ca on Th e su m,

d c tf t
.
, ,

d if er en c e, an d p ro u w c m pl o o o ex n u m b er s a bi , c di ,
a re tm
o e an tc he om p l e x num bers wh i c h f o r m t
h e s e on dc
m em b er s o f t
h f ll e o ow i n g e qu a t
i on s
74 A CO LL E G E ALG EBR A

Mo r e o ve r , i c e (4) i s t
s n h e on ly p a i r o f valu es of 1c a n d y which w i ll
sat i sfy t h e c o rre s p o n d i n g n u m b er a; yi is t h e o n ly n u m b e r which
m ul t ip l i e d b y c d i w i ll gi ve a bi
It i s evi de n t fr o m (4) t h at i on o f q u ot
0 o u r d e fin i t i en t
.

wh e n C2 d2
is m ea n in g l e ss B u t if c 2
d2 0 bot h c z 0 an d d 0 si n c e o t h er r

w i se w e sh o u ld h ave a p os i t i ve n u m b er e q u al t
,
.
,

o 0 An d if c z 0 a n d
0 t
.

d ,
h e d ivi so r c d i is 0 .

Th e c om mu tt
i a ve, as s oc i a t
i ve, a n d di s tib t
i
r u ve law s Th e O p er
t j t t t
.

a i d fi
on s us v id en ly i n c lu d e h e c o r re s p on di n g
e n ed e op e r a

t
i wi t
on sh lr e a n u m ber s Lik e h e l a e r t h ey c onfor m t tt tt
oh e

at
,
.

c om m u tive a ss o ci a ti ve a n d d i s t
, r i bu t
i ve l a ws , .

Thu s , (a a
’
i ) (b b i)
’
ab a
’
b
’

(a b
’
a
’
b) i ,

an d
’

(b b i) i) ba b (b a ba
’ ’ ’ ’ ’

(a a a )i .

Bu t
th e s e on d c m em b e r s o f an d (2 ) ar e e qual ,
by 1 77 .

Hen c e (a a
’
i ) (b b i)
’

(b b i)
’

(a a
’
i) .

An d t
h e rem a n n i i g l a ws m ay be ti h
e s ab l s ed s i m i l arly .

R u l es of equ al i t
y . Le tb a, ,
c d en o t e an
y c o m pl ex num b er s .

1 . If a .
—b
, t
h en

2 . t
h en a = b .

3 . If a b, th e n ac bc .

4 . If ac be, t
h en a b, u n less c 0 .

1 .

If

t
h en a b an d a
’
b
’
.

Hen c e a + c =b+ c an d

th
an d f
er e or e
(a c) (a
’
c
’

)i (b c) (b
’
c
’

)i,
t
h t
i a s,

2 . H a + c =b +m
we h ave a +c + ( —c ) , by l

an d t
h f
e r e or e a b . 22 6

3 an d 4 Th e p ro ofs of t
h e se r u l e s a r e s i m i lar tt
h o ose of 1 an d 2
pec t
.

re s i vely .
 I M AG I NAR Y AND CO M PLE X NUM BE R S 75

Coroll ary . If a p r od u c t v a n is h , on e o f i tf t s a c or s m us t va n i s h .

This fo llo ws fr o m 2 30, 4, b y t

h e r eason in g of 76 .

Ab solu t e val u e of a c om p l ex nu m ber Th e p o si i v e r e al n u m t be r

t
.

Va 2 2
b is c alle d h e a bs o l u t e or n u m er i c a l v al u e o f a bi
td by [
.

an d is re
p r e se n e a bi ] . H e n c e , by d e fin i t i o n,

?
b
Thu s , [2 + ii
| z V4

Wh e n b 0, t
hi s d e fin i t
i on o f n u m e r ic al valu e r ed u c e s t o t
h atal r ea dy

gi ven fo r r e al num b er s , § 63 . F or a g e o m et
r ic al i n t
e rp r etat
i on o f t hi s
d efin i t
ion se e 2 39.

We al s o say o f h t t
t h fi t i t
w c o om p le x nu m b er s a e rs s n u m er

ica lly l th q l t
ess
g tth th c n d cc di
an, e ua o, o r r ea e r an e se o a or ng

t b l t l h fi t
f t t q l t
,

as h e a i l
so u e h va u e o e rs s e ss an , e ua o, or

g r ea t th t
er h tf th c d an a o e se o n .

Th u s , 2 3 i is nu m er ic ally g re at
er t
h an 3 i .

3 i | = V 13

t
F or | 2 an d
[3 i | : V 1 0, an d V I3 > V IO .

T h eorem 1 . Th e a bs o l u e v a lu e o f a
p r o du ct
o
f t
w o c o mp l ex
num ber s i s equ a l tt
oh p e r od u ct
of t
h ei r a bso lu te va l u es .

Le t
th e num b e rs b e a
‘
a a
’
i an d b b bi
’
.

S i n ce
’
ab b (a b b) i ,
’ ’ ’
ab 2 a a g 226
we h ave mm V ab b) 2 ab b) 2
’ ’ ’ ’

( a ( a . 2 32

Bu t on c ar ry i n g ou t
t e d o p er a t
h e i n d ic a t i on s t
i wi ll b e h at
fo u n d t
(ab a
’
b
’

) 2
(ab
’
ai ) 2 a
’2

) ( b2 W) .

Hen c e ( ab a
’
b
’

)
2
( ab
’
a b) 2
’
m .
m .

Th at
is

Th eorem 2 Th e a bs o lu t e va l u e f
o a su m o f t
w o c om p lex
c a n n ot t t t
.

num ber s ex c eed h e su m o

f h i e r a bs o lu e va lu es .

E m p l oy t
h e s am e n o a tt
i on as in 2 34 .

Th en m m 2 W W ( 1)
if
’

(ab b)
’ ’
a2 b2
> 2 2
+b
’
a 2 a
 76 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

if W g a b + av § 178

if new a
’
2
b
’
z
a fi
g
z
a
’
2 b2
z 2
a b2 a b 2
2 ’ ’
2 aba
’ ’
b g 18 4
if 2
’
2 2 b2
b
’
2 2 a ba b
’ ’
a a 178

if ( ab
’
b) 2 2 0
’
a .
(2) 1 78

Bu t
(2 ) i s al wa y s t i ce t
ru e s n h e s q u a r e o f e ve r y r e a l n u m b e r i s p o s i t
i ve
( or Hen c e ( 1 ) is a l wa y s t
ru e — which p r o ve s o u r t h e o re m
—
.

Th u s , O.

Bu t an d

Powers an d roo s t 1 Th e n th p o wer of a bi , ri t t

en

t t c tf t
. .

( a is o m e an h p e ro du o n fa c ors e a ch of w hi c h
is a bi . Itf ll o o ws f r om § 2 2 6 , 3, tha tt
hi s p r od u ctis a

c om p l ex nu m b er as c di
t t
.
,

I b e pr o v e d ,
m ay t h at h e l aws o f e x p on e nts
as i n § 1 8 5,
h old g oo d for p o we r s of c o m p l e x n u m b e r s a s h u s d efi n e d t
c d i w e c all a bi a n n h r oot t
.

I f (a bi ) "
of c di , ,

an d we m ay i n di c a e i hu s V c di tt
t ”

tt
.
,

W e s h all p r ove s u b se q u e n tly h a e ve ry g i ve n c om p l e x

n u m b e r c + di h as n s u c h n t h r oo s :i n o t t tt
.

h e r wo rd s h a i n
t t t
,

h e sy s t em o f c o m p l ex n u m b e r s h er e ar e n differ e n n u m b e r s
wh o s e n t
h p o we r s e q u a l 0 di .

Thu s i c e ( l / x/ i
s n 2 t
/2 i,t
h mb e nu er

tf i d t t tf 1
,

1 i V2 is a squ a r e r oo h o an f
e re o r e a fou r h roo o

i i gt t tf —1
, .

Th e re m a n n h re e fou r h roo s o a re

1 / xff
i — / xfi ,t
Gen eral n
co cl u s i otf t h n b No f u r th e r e n l a r g e m en o e num er

t td t 22 6
.

sy t is em c y F h j b
s n e ess a rn p i or , a s as us ee o n e ou

23 6 t y t tll t tf t
.
, ,

h c pl e om h q i ex s h f s em m ee s a e re u r e m en s o e ou r

tl Op t i n d l ti A d wh i l c t
,

f ndu am e n a er a i o s an e vo u on n e er a n

t t wi t pl c i m t t
.

o h p er i o h mb erah on s h ic nu er s ave a a e n a em a s,

gth
am o n th Op t
i f fi d i g l g it
em h fn e b er a on o n n o ar ms o um e r s,

140 t
h O p ti
, d i tf d fi i t
ese i by i fi i t i
er a on s a m o e n on n n e s e r e s,

lik e u , u 2 na wh os e t e rm s ar e c om p l e x n u m b er s ; an d
if su ch a s er i e s h av e a su m ,
t
t h a su m i s a c o m p l e x n u m b e r .
 I MAGI NARY AND CO MPLE X NUMBER S

GRAPHI CAL RE PRE SENTATI ON OF COMPLE X NUMBERS

Com p l ex n u m b ers m ay b e p i s i n a p l an e t
c t u r e d by p o i n t he
t
h e g raph s of t
,

p oi n s t b e i n g c all e d h e c orr esp on d i n g n u m b er s .

T ak e an y t
w o r igh t
lin es K
’
OX , Y O Y
’
in t
e rse c t
in g a tight gl
r an es a t
t
h e o r igin 0 also s o m e fix ed un it
se g m en t

8 for m e a su r i n g l en g th s

t ch
.

1 We re p r es en ea rea l n u m ber , a,

t
h t p i t tc
.

by A aX OX o n on
’
wh ose d i s an e

f m O i tm f i |
ro n er s o s, s a | § 209, tk i g
a n

A tt igh t l ftf 0
, ,

h o e r or e o a cc or d i n g as a

i p it g t
,

s i os i ve o r n e a ve

p resen t
.

2 We ea ch p u r e i m a g i n a r y
re

bi b y t h at p oi n t
.
,

B o n Y O Y wh ose di s
’
'
X
t O is [b ] t
,

a n c e fro m ak i n g B a b o ve o r

b e lo w 0 a cc o rd i n g as b i s p o s i t
,

i ve o r
n e g at
,

i ve
3 W e r e p rese n t
.

ea ch c om p lex n u m ber

bi b y t he poin t a in ed b y t ru c t
h e fo ll o wi n g c o n st
.

a P which is o b t i on
F i n d A an d B t Th e n t
,

h e g ra ph s o f a an d bi a s i n 1 an d 2 hr o u gh
A an d B d r a w p ar al le ls t o Y O Y a n d K OX r es p e c t i vely Th e p o i n t
, , .

P
’ ’

h e se l in e s m eet is t
.

i n which t h e g ra ph o f a bi .

W e c all X OX
’
t
h e a xi s o f rea l n u m ber s an d Y OY he
'
t f
a xi s o p u re
i m ag i n ar i es .

By th i s b r in g h e sy s e m o f c om pl e x nu m b e r s
m e th o d we t t
t
i n o a r e l a t i on o f on e t
o on e c or r esp o n d en c e 2 wi h h e asse m
- -
tt
t t
, ,

b l ag e o f a ll p o in s in a p l an e M or eo v e r w e o b a i n a c o m p l e te
t tt
wo d i m e n si on al o r d i n al c h ar a c t t
.

r e r e se n t a i o n o f h e er of h e
p
-

co m pl ex sy ste m 2 23 ,
.

Ob ser ve h t
t t
h g ph
a f ll
e ra s o a nu m b ers h ave tw hich
h e sa m e i m agi n ar y
p ar t
li e o n t
h m p ll l tX
e sa e ar a e o OX an d t
'
h at th e gr a ph s o f al l n u m b e rs
t l p t on t
h e sam e p a r alle l t
,

which h ave h m e sa li e r ea ar e o Y OY
’

Th e a bs o lu t l
e va u e o f any co m p lex nu m ber is h di t
t e s an ce o f
i tg
s ra
ph fr o m t
h e or i g i n .

i ce t
F or h e l en gt
s n hs o f OA an d AP in t
h fig e u re o f § 238 a re a an d b
r e sp ec t h e l en gt
i vely t h of OP i s V a2 b2 bi | ,
, or [a 2 32 .
 A CO LLE G E ALGEBRA

Th e g r ap h s of t
h e su m an d p rod u c tf t
ow c o om p le x n u m b er s
'
a i, b
'
a a b b i , m ay b e f ou n d as f oll o w s
Gi ven A and B, t
h ge r ap hs o f a a nd b resp e ct
i vely J oi n 0 A a n d O B
a n d c om p let
e t
.

he p ar a lle lo
g r a m O ACB . Then C i s h e t
g rap h o fa b .

F o r , d r aw t
h p e e r p e n di c

u l a rs BD , AE , CF , AG
Then a a b b a r e t
.

’ ’
he
l e n gt
, , ,

h s o f OE E A OD D B
re spec t i vely an d t
he t
, , ,

r i an ,

gl es OB B an d AGO ar e

c on g r u e n t .

Hen c e OF OE EF OE OD a b, i n l en g t
h ,

an d

Th erefore C i s t h e g ra ph o f a b ( a + b ) i or a b
’ ’
226 , 1 .

r a igh t
,

Wh en 0 A B ar e i n a st
,

l i n e ( an d a l w ay s) 0 m ay be fou n d by
h an d d i r e c t ion t
, ,

d raw i n g A C e q u a l i n le n g t o OB

AC t
.

Si n c e oo g OA e g OA OB w e h a ve [a |b|
Th e gr aph o f t h at of t
, . . .

b is t
,
‘
h e d ifi er en c e a h e su m a b) .

Gi ven A an d t
B , he g r ap hs o f a an d b, an d t
le I den o tt
h ge e r ap h o f1
c on st
ru ctt
he t t
.

J oi n O A, O B , I A, a n d on O B r i an g le OB C s i m i lar o OI A
a n d su th t
chw a er e OB t
u r n ed a bou t
0
un t
il itl y l g a a on O X , 0 0 wou ld li e
a lo n g OA . Th en C i s he g r ap ht f ab
o .

This ru l e w i ll b e pr o ve d la t
er a n d

ru le s d e r i ve d fro m itfo r c on stru c t

in g
g raph s o f qu ot i en t
s a n d p owers

Wh en b i 0 0 is OA t
.

u r n ed 90°
a b ou t
,

c ou n t
e r c l o c k wi s e
-
0 .

tf ll w t h ti d t i c
I o o s a en al r el a

t
i on s g c pl
am on om ex num b e rs
may b t l td
e i t g r an s a e n o tc t
e o m e r i al h e or e m s H en c e i m a g i
t t
.

n a ry n u m bers m a
y exp r ess r e la i on s a
g m on r ea l hi g n s .

Th u s t h e i den t it
y (a b)/ 2 z a (b a) 2 s h o ws th at t h e d i ag o n als
o f a p a r all e l o g r a m b i s e c t e a ch o t h e r ; fo r t
,

h e gr a ph s o f (a b ) / 2 an d
t i p i t n d AB i n t e fir s t g
'
a ( b a ) / 2 a r e h e m d o n s o f O C a h fi u r e § 2 40 ,
.
 PART SE COND ALGE BRA

I . PR E LI M I N AR Y C O N SI D E R ATI O N S

ON THE USE OF LE TT E R S T O DE NOT E NUMBE R S

Con s tt an s an d vari ab l es In al g e b ra a l e tt er i s o ft e n u sed t o

t y t t
.

den o e an nu m ber w h a s oever Th u s , i n h f e o rm u l a a b ba

t t
h l t t t t t
.

e e er s a a n d b den o e e v e ry w o nu m b e r s e m ea n i n g o f h e
h
ct of a n y fir s t t
,

f or m u l a b e i n g h p e rod u n u m b e r by a n y se c on d
t s am e a s t
n u m ber i s h e h e p r od u c t o f t
h e s e c o n d by t h e fir s t
I n m an y al g e b ra i c di s cu ss i on s we fi n d i t c on v e n i e n t t
.

o m ak e

t i n ct
h e f o ll o wi n g d i s t i on b et we en t wo l e tt e r s w h i c h h a ve t hi s
m ean i n g as b e t we e n t he let te r s b an d x i n t h e e x p r e ss i o n at 6
tW g d t t
.
,

Fi r s h 6 h i g h d
e re
p ic l
ar e on e, as av n a a ar u ar

b ty t h t i g d i tt t
,
.

v l
a u e, w plu an h t t w hi ch
a e ea s e, a s s ne a e ou se

it i t t ti t t t
,

h s h
en gh h di c i
o re a n S ch l tt rou ou e s u s s on u a e er

k w l t c tt
.

w e sh ll c ll a t n mb a a no n e er or u er , or a on s a n

t c nt y t t t
.

S c d e on O h h gh hn di c i w
e o r ar r ou ou e s u ss o n e

g d t t tt k v y p ib l l
.
,

re h
ar h f e o e r , as, a s d r ee o a e e er oss e v a u e an

tch g f
o an
y v l
e t y t
h
ro m S c h anl t t w on e a ue o an o er . u a e er e

sh all c al l a va r i a bl e

tl t td
.

Unk now n l e t
t er s Bu t e er s ar e al so em p l oy e d o en o e t
tb
.

t
p a r i c u la r nu m be r s wh o se v al u e s a re o e fou n d Su ch a

tw t
.

l et er e s h all c al l an u n kn own l et er o r nu m b er
W e ar e n ot at l i b e rt t p e a se t
.

y o a ss i g n a n
y v a l u e w e l o an

u n k n o wn l e tte r a s w e ar e t o a c o n st
, an t o r v ar i a b l e l e t
t er .

Th u s i n th e e q u ati on 2 x 5 0 x i s an u n k n own l e t te r wh o se val u e

we re ad i ly fin d t In t
, ,

o be 5 / 2 h e ex pr e ss i on 2 2: 5 we m ay ass ig n a:
an y val u e we p l e as e b u t in th e e qu at
.

i o n 2 x 5 0 we c an assign itn o
oth er valu e t
,

h an 5 2 .
 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

Th e c h oi ce of le t
t ers Th e o n ly c
n e es s a r
y r es r i tct i on on ou r

t ti t h t i gl l t tb m t d t
.

ch o i c e of le ers s
p a no s n e e er e a e o re r e se n

t w d iff o nt b ere t th t
nui m ers a e s am e me

It i c t y h w t p
.

s u s o m ar t kn w n b o e ve r , o re r e s en o n um er s or

c n ttby t l tt f t lph b t
,

o s an h s li h e e ar b er; e ers o e a a e as a, 0

by t h l tl t t
, ,

un k w no b d
n num i bl e r s an y va r a es e a er e e r s, as x , z

l t t w t l t t ff ctd
,
.

B id es i pl es s m i e e er s e so m e m es u se e ers a e e

wi t h cc t b c i p t:t ' " '"

a en s h or su d p i
s r s u s, a , a a rea “
a r m e,

t
,

“
a c d s e on hi d ; d” “
a d r b n ll”
an a o, a ,, a2 r ea “
a su u

b t
-

, ,
” ”
“
a b su -
o n e, w “
a su -
o

k n i n g wi t t b by
.

O n rec h l t o t Wh w p e ers en e re re se n num er s

l t t ly i d i c t t lt f c
.

e b c w
e r s, a s a , h e c a n on bi i g n a e e r esu s o om n n

t h m by t t t t t dd b t
, ,

e h p i f ei h o i c Th er a on s o ar me u s, o a o a

tf t b whi ch w t
.

m ly
er e m e an s h p i o o rm h e ex r ess o n a e e re

c ll t Si i l ly t
,

f or e h a f d 6 e su m o h p d c tf b y b
a an m ar e ro u o a

i t
.
,

s h p e ex i b r e ss o n a

t t t
.

I ch
n as m u h li t l p as i h ebt i d d er a ex r e s s on s us o a ne en o e

n mbu w e r s, y ck wi t
e h t h m by t
ma h re
p ti fon e e o e ra on s o

ar it h t ic me B t i ch c k n i g w c n t m k u n su
y re o n s e a no a e an

di ct f t f t t
.

re h
u se l o h p ie i c
v a u es h o e ex r e s s o n s, s n e e se a re

no tg i W ve n m ly c n ct t
eh c an
p i by t h
e re on e e ex re ss o n s e

t t t t
.

a pp p i
ro i r a e s
g f O p i d h ns o i p li fy h f f
er a on an en s m e or m o

th lt
e res u by c h g w h i c h w k n w will an tfie ti tv l
es e o no a c s a u e,

no t t wh tt
m a hi er y b a s m a e

ll t th t b
.

N w o w h as § 68 e h ch ngave se en , a e a es a c an e

t d p d c tw i t tff ct
, ,

m d a i eh f n f e orm s h o i g su m s an ro u s ou a e n

th i v le r b di d i t
a u e s ar e h f l l wi g f em lo : e n e o o n o rm u a s

1 . 2 .

3 . ab = ba . 4 . 5 .

tm y t
I h f b id t
a h t t
h f m l 1 —5 ti
ere or e
p e sa a e or u as ar e rac

f dd i t lt
x

c lly ll t
a h d fi it
i a i d i p li c t
e i t
h t
e w n on o a on an m u a on a e

eith d wh
e r n ee c bi i g l it l p i d
o r c an u se en om n n era ex re s s on s an

th li k i t
e ft
h e i i g ps t i f ith
ru e o t
i e rem a n n o er a on s o ar me c.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

fr om wh i ch a c an be o b ti a n ed by ad d i n g W e c al l t h i s n u m
6
t t
.

b er h e r em a i n d e r whi c h r e su l s o n s u bt r a ct i n g b f r o m a an d

t
itby t H en c e b y d e fin i t
,

we re
p r e se n h e exp ressi on a b . ion , ,

( a b) b 2 a .

I n p ar t i cu l ar , w e re
p re se n tO b by b .

t t
Mu l i pl i c a
i n o Th e r e su l tf o m u l ip ly i n gt a by b i s t
h e

b t th
.

e x p r e s s i on ab W e c al l a h p e ro du c tf o a by b I as a

t
. .

v al u e an d bu on e , fo r an yg i v e n v al u e s o f a a n d b
t t
.
,

I n p ar t i c u l ar , a O O a 0, wh a e v er fin i e v al u e a m ay

h av e
t t6 t
.

W h en b is a p o si i v e i n t e g e r , a b a a o erm s

t t
.

Mu l i p l i c a tt ci t
i Op t i n
i o n i s a c om m u a i ve an d an a ss o a ve er a o

d it ib t wi t t t t t
,

an i di t i s h p c
s r t d d i
u i n ; h t i
vei res e o a o a s, c on

f or m s tt h th l w
o 4 5 —4 7
e r ee a s,

ab ba , a
( )
be
( )
ab 0, a
( b c) ab a c.

Th e f oll owi n g r u l es of e qu a l i t
y a r e t r u e of r o d u c
p t s, 7 5, 7 6

If a b, t
h en ac be .

If ac be, t
h en a b, un l es s c O*
.

If ac = 0, th en a s O, or c = O .

Divi s i on t
Th i s i s h e i n ver s e o ip li c a t
f m u lt i on 1 24 G ive n
t c ept whe n b i s 0 t
. .
,

an y w n o um bers a an d b; h e r e i s a l w ay s
ex

bu t f r om w h i c h a c a n b e o b t
, ,

a num b er an d on e ai n e d by

t W e c al l t h is n u m ber th e q u oti en t
, ,

m ul i p ly i n
g by b w h i ch
lt by t
ti t
.

r e su s on d i vi d i n g a b y b, an d we re
p r e sen h e ex p r e s

s ion
g or a b . He n c e, b y d e fin i i on , t
a
, ex ce p t
w h en b O .

I n vol u t
ion Th i s i s a c a se o f r ep ea ed m u t t t
l ip l i c a i on We
tt t t t
. .

re
p h c i
re s e n e on n u ed
p r o du c a a 0 0
o n f a c to r s by a
"
an d

a t
c ll i th thp w e n o er o f a .

La tw
er e s h al l fi n d t
h at
t hold good wh en c i s i n fin i t
hi s ru l e do es n ot e .
 PR E LI M I NAR Y CO NSI DERATIO NS

In t
h e sy m b ol a
"
n is c all ed t
h e exp on en t an d ath b e a se

t tt
.
, ,

I n v ol u t i o n , o r r ai s i n g o a p o w e r, c on fo rm s h f ll wi
o e o o n g
thr e e l aw s , call e d t
h l e a ws o f exp o n en s , t 185

( ) G)
b b
m n m m u " n u
a a ai a i a .

Th e f ol l o w i n g ru l es o f e qu a l i t
y ar e tru e of p o w e r s, 184

If a b, th e n a
”
b "
.

If a
2
= b2, t h en a = b, or a -
b .

Th e c on d o f th e se r u l e s an d t
se h e g e n e r al r u l e of wh i ch i t
is a p a rt
i cu l a r c a s e w il l b e d e m o n s tra t
e d l at er .

E vol u i on t Th i s i s on e o f t
h i e n ver s es o f i n vo lu i o n , t 1 38 ,
t t
.

1 40 G i v en an y p os i i ve t num be r a, h er e is a p o si i ve nu m b er
t t t
.
,

an d bu o n e, wh o se n h p ower is e q u al o W e c al l
a . th i s
nu m b er th p e rin h root
c ip a l n t of a an d we r e p r ese n t i t
by \/ d
t
, ,

o r, wh e n n 2, b y x/ h . He n ce, by de fin i i on ,
—
( Vti
)
"
a .

tt
hiBup i t
i v n b /d i
s tth ly n
os b e um e r, x
n

s no e on u m er

t l t O t t y wil l b
,

wh h p w
o se i qn h c o er s e ua o a n e o n r ar as e

t t b wh t
,
.

sh w o b q ly t h
n su d iff
se u en h e r e ar e n e re n nu m ers ose n

q l t ; d t t ly w h
,

p w o e r s ar e hi i t e ua i o a an s s ru e no on en a s

p iti
os b tl wh
ve, i y t uh ki d f a so b en a s an o er n o nu m er

i p it i cad t tf
.

Wh i en d a h p i c ip l t
s hos ve an n s ,
e r n a n r oo o

a is
On t
h e revers ib il i t
y f t
h p o e rec edi ng ru l es We h av e c alle d
c e rtai n o f t h e r u l e s j u st e n u m er a te d r u l es of equ a li t
.

y ; we m ay
h e re st
c al l t r u l es o
f c o m bi n a ti on
O b se r v e th at al l t h e ru l e s o f c om b i n at i o n an d t
.

h e r u l e s of
0
q u al i y fo r t su m s ar e r eve r s i bl e, bu tt
h tt
h a e r u l es o f e q u al i ty
fo r p r o d u c s t an d p o w er s ar e n o t
c m pl o e e ly r e v e r s i
t bl e .

Th u s a cc or d i n g tt
h di t
o ib t
i e s r u ve l aw , a (b c) ab ac, which i s
t c o m b i n at
,

o n e of h e r u l es o f i on , we c an re pl a c e a (b c) by ab a c , or

r ever sely , a b ac b y a (b c) .
84 A COLLE GE ALGEBR A

Agai n ,
if a b we m ay al way s h at
c on clu d e t a c b c , an d

reversely t hat c t
,

if a c b h en a b
But c o n c l u de t h at bc ; on t
, , , .

whi le if a b, we m ay al way s ac h e c on
ty t
h at b o n l y wh en we kn o w t h at
,

r ar if ac bc , we c an c on clu d e a

c is n ot
,

0
tlw y h t
t t
.

An d whi le fro m a : b i a a s foll o ws a a2 b2 , fr o m a2 b2 i

o nl y follows t ei t
h at her a b or a b
.

Th e ru l es of i nequ al i y t Th e f or m u l a a bm e an s a is no t
tb
.

”
e qu al o

Of t t
.

w g v n q l ol b i en u e ua r ea num e r s , a an d b, h e on e is a lg e~

br a i lly t
h g
ca tt h th lg b e r ea er , e o er a e ra i a c lly t
h l e ess er , 62
i t d bt w it
.

If h g ta s h l e re a er an e e sse r , we r e

a > b or b< a .

I n p ar t i cu l ar , we h av e a O or a 0, a cc ord i n g as a is
t
p o si i v e o r n e g a i v e t
t
.

For an y g i ve n r e al nu m be r s a, b, c , we h av e h e r u l es,

17 8, 1 84

1 . If a = b an d b = c, th e n a = c .

If a = b an d b< c, t
h en a < o .

If

2 . Acc o r di n g as a or b,

so is a + c <, or > b + c,

an d ao <, , or > be, i f c > 0;

bu t ac > , or < bc , i f c < O .

3 . When a an d b ar e p os i i ve, t
ac co rd in g as a

so is a
"

an d ( 7;
As h a s al r eady be en p o i n e d ou , h e r u l es u n de r 2 an d 3 t tt
wh i ch i nv ol v e o n ly h e Si g n t
h ol d g o od o f i m ag i n ary n u m
be r s al so Thi s i s al so r u e o f h e r u le :I f a b an d b = c , t t z

th en a c , whi ch we m ay c al l h e g en er a l r u l e of e qu a li t t
.

y .
 PR E LI M INAR Y CO NSI D E R ATI O NS

ADDI T I ONAL ALGE BRAI C SYMBOLS

Besi de s t
h e sy m b o l s wh o s e m e an i n g s h av e b ee n e x p l ai n ed
in t
h p e c
re e d i ng s e c t i on s , t
h e f oll owi n g ar e o f e n t em l
p yo e d
in al g e bra
1 Va r i o u s si
gn s of ag t
g r eg a i on , l i k e t
h pe nth ar e e ses

t t
h tt
.

em p l oy e d a b o v e , an d [ J, 35 i o n di c a t e ah p e ex r ess i o n

t t
,

i n c l u d ed by h em i s o be u s ed as a s i n l e s
g y m b ol .

”
2 Th e d ou ble s i g n s i , r e ad
“
p l us or m i n u s, an d z r ead
.
p ,
”
m in u s o r plu s
“
.

Th u s in a i b 4:c which m ean s a b 4 c or a b c t

he u p per
tg t t
, , ,

s ign s b ein g r e ad ho e e r an d h l e o we r s ig n s s i m i larly .

3 . Th e s
y m b ol fo r h en c e or t
h f
er e or e .

4 Th e s m b ol
y for a n d s o on

t tt
.

t
.

5 Al so, fo r sin ce j> fo r no g h r ea er an ; for no l es s

t
.

h an
2 for g r ea t
er o r t
l es s h a n .

ALGE BRAI C E X PRE SS I ONS

An y e x p r ess i o n fo rm ed by c om b i n i n g l e tte rs, or l e tte rs an d

t t
n u m b e r s, by h e O p e r a i o n s j u st des c r i b ed, i s call e d a n alg ebrai c
ex press i on .

No t Th
e e nu m b er of t
im t
h t es a an o p erat
ion is i n volved in su ch
t t i
.

an ex p r ess i on m ay b e li m i de as in 1 + x + x2 , or u n li m i ed , as n

pp ose d t t h t d I t
i d w it
,

1 x x2 + o b e c on
su nu e ou en h n e on e

c ase we say t h at t iti t th i fi it F t

.

h e e x p r ess i o n i s fi n e n e o er n h h n e or e

p r esen t
we s h al l h a ve t h fin i t
.
, ,

o d o wi t e e x p re ss i o n s on ly .

I t
i c s t
u s om a r
y t c l o as s i fy al g e br ai c e x p r e s s i on s a s fo ll o ws,
a cc ord i n g tt
h o n e ma n er t
i n w h i ch
h i e va r a bl e
( or u n k n own
)
le t
t er s u n de r c on s i d e r a ti on cc i to h m : ur n e

An e x pr e ssi o n is c l l d i nt
a e g l i f itd e ra o es n o ti n v ol ve a n

i n di c a td di e vi si on by an e x p r e s s i o n i n wh i ch a v ar i ab l e le t
t er

o ccu r s ; t
frac i onal , if i t
d o es.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Thu s ,
if x an d y are t
h i
e va r ab l e le t
t e rs , bu tb cc
a, , on s an s, tt
d x2 bx c an d V5 ar e i tg l
n e ra ,

fra c t
1 2 +x
—x
ar e i on al .

x 1

An ex p r ess i o n is c al l e d ra t
i n l
o a if i td oe s no ti v n ol ve an

i n di c a td e roo tf o an e x p r e ssi o n i n wh i c h a var i a bl e le t

t er

o ccu r s ; i rra i onal , i f i t td oe s .

Thu s , a \/ b x i s r a t
ion al , t
Vy V ybu x is i rrat
i on al .

No t
es . 1 . In a pply i n g t
h tm t ese er s o an ex pr ess i on pp ose
,
we su i t
re d u ti t i m p l t
ced f m
o Th V 2 y
s s es it or u s, x2 x y
2 i
s r at
i on a l s in c e
d c d tt t
.
,

c anb e re h i lf m u y
e o e ra on a or x

i t t thi g td wi t
.

2 Th tm g l e i l d
er h s n e ra h ra on a an so on ave n o n o o

t ft twhich t
.
, , ,

h m
e nu ic l l er h p i a h y ppl i d
va u es o e ex r e ss o n s o e ar e a e

t b tit p t
.

Th 2 i
u s, i l i t
x g l p i s a ra on a n e ra ex r e ss on , u re re se n s an

i t
n eg ly w h
er i tlf p
on t It p t f ct
en x i f se re r esen s on e re r e se n s a ra on or

y f ct i t t
.

e ve r i l l ra f d i l mb f
on a y i
va u e o i l x , an an rr a on a nu er or e ve r rr a on a

val u e of x .

W h en a n al g e b r ai c e x p r es s i on A is m ade p u of c er t
ai n p ar t s

c on n e c t
e d by or si gn s th e se p art
s tt si gn s wi h h e im m e

d i ate ly p re ce din g t h em ar e c a ll e d t
,

he t
erm s of A .

Thu s ,
h tm
t e er s of t
he ex p r essi on
z+ 7”
M a a fi

a re a , a2c , (b c) an d so on , t
h o se of t
h tm e er s which t
h m e se lve s

c o n s i sto f m or e t t
,

er m s t h an on e b e i n g en cl ose d b y p aren h eses o r s om e

e qu i val e n ts ig n of a gg r eg a t
i on § 2 6 2 1 , , .

In tg e r al e x p r e s si o n s ar e c all ed m on om i al s , b i n om i al s ti r no

tt
,

m i al s an d i n g e n e r al p ol y n om i al s , a cc o r din g h
o e nu m be r of

h i tm
t
,

e r er s

th p d c tf t ttf ct i
.

In an y m on o m i al , h c e ro u o e o n s an a ors s

c al l ed t
h e c oef
fic e h p d c tf t
i ntf t o h i bl f ct e ro u o e v ar a e a or s .

Thu s i n 4 a b2x3 y 4, 4 a b2 i s h e t c ffi ci tf yoe en o x3 4

tt ti m it p tc ll y f c t t cie n tof t
, .

A h m i p
e sa e e, s ro er o h c a an a or e o ef
fi he
res tf th p d ct
o e ro u .
 PR E LI M I NAR Y CO NSI DE R AT I O NS

In e ve ry m on om i al th c ffici t
e h ld b w it
oet fi t Wh en s ou e r en rs en n o

ici en t d it Th 1 i t tf y
.

co eff i s e x p r e sse ,
i 1 h c ffici
s . u s, s e oe en o x l’

Li k e tm
er s ar e su ch as di ffer i n t
h i e r c o effic i en t s a t m ost .

Thu s ,
2 x2y an d bxfiy ar e lik e tm er s .

Th e deg ree of a m on om i al i s h e t su m of t
h e ex p o n en tf s o su ch
t
o f h e va ri a bl es u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n as o cc u r in i t .

Thu s t i blif h e var a e s a r e x an d y, t

h d e e h at
g r ee o f 4 a b2x3y 4 i s seven ; t
t ; t
h tf b
,

o f a x3 , h ree a o , zer o (se e

Th e deg ree of a pol y n om i al i s h e de g r ee o f i s t e r m o r e r m s t t t
t
o f h i g h es t d e g r e e ; a n d h e d eg r e e of a n y i n eg ra l exp r es s i on i s t
th a tf t
o h e si m p l es t p o l y n o m i al tw hi ch i t
o c an be redu c ed .

Th u s t h e d e gr e e of a x3 M y cy3 dx2 ey f is t
h ree ; an d t
h e

t
,

d e g r e e of (x 1 ) (x 2 ) i s wo .

I t
i c s on v e n i e nt t o a rr a n g e h tm
t e er s of a
p o ly n o m i a l i n h e t
o rd e r o f t
h i e r d e g r e e s, d e s c en d i n g or a s c e n di n g , an d if h er e t
ar e s e ver al t e r m s of t
h e s am e d eg re e, t o ar r a n g e t
h i t
h e se n e

o rd e r o f t
h i e r d e gr ee s i n o n e of t
h v e ar i a ble s .

Thi s o r d er is o b se r ve d in t
h p e oly n o m al i gi ven in 2 74 .

A o
p yl n om i al i s s a id tb o e h om og eneou s wh e n al l i tts er m s

ar e o f t
h e sam e d eg r e e .

Th u s , 5 x3 2 x2y 4 xy 2 y
3 is h o m o gen e o u s .

Pol y nom i al s i n a s i n gl e vari abl e t

R a i o n a l i n t e g r al e xp r es

tc
.

s i on s in a si n g l e v ar i a b l e as x, are o f e sp e c i al i m p or an e

t tg
.
,

Th ey p l ay m u c h h e sam e r 6 l e i n al g eb r a as in e r al n u m b ers
i n ar i t h m e t i c I n f ac t we sh all fin d th a tth ey p o s s e ss m an y

t tt tg
.

ro
p p er i e s an al o g o u s h o os e of in e r al num b er s Th e y c an

d tt t
.

al way s b e r e du ce h f o e orm of a p ol
y n om ia l in x, h t i a s,

on e o f t
h f e o rm s

2 3 2
“ of” ‘ ‘
i an “ 0513 i
‘ ‘
“ 1 513 “

i
“
“ 2; “ 0x “ 1 313 l
‘ ‘
“ 250 a s)

o r , as we s h all say , tt
h f
o e orm

" "‘ l " "

2
a x alx a zx an
o ,
88 A COLLE G E ALG E BRA

wh er e n den o tt
esh d g e e r ee of t
h e e x p r e s s i on an d t
h d t e o s

t y t tm t t
,

s an d for as m an e rm s as a re n e ed e d o ak e h e en i re

n u m b er of t e rm s n 1
c oeffici e n t tc tt wh i ch m y
.

Th e s a ,, de n o e on s an s, a be
o f an y I n p ar i c u l ar, an y o
ki n d em t f t
h c pt m y b ex e ao a e 0,
t t
.

h e p oly n o m i al h e n b e in g c alle d i n c o mp l e te

th t ch t t t tf
.

Ob i
se r v e h a n ea e rm e su m ofh e su bs c r i p o a

an d th p tf i th d g
e ex on e n o x s e e ree o f t
h p e o ly n o m i al .

Th us ,
i n 5 x6 — x3 + 2 x2 + x 3 we -

, h ave n
-
6, ao = b, al z o, ac z o,
—3 .

Fu nc i on s t Cl e ar ly an al g e b r ai c e x p r e s s i on l ik e x +2 or

t
.

y , w h i c h i n v ol v e s on e o r m o r e
2
x v ar i a bl es i s i se l f a v ar i
t b e c a u se i t
,

a bl e W e c al l x 2 a fu n c i o n o f x s va l u e d e en ds
p
t
h tf ha t
.

on a o x in su ch a wa y t t
o ea c h v a lu e of x t h ere
c orr esp on ds a d efi n i t
e va l u e f
o x 2
t
.

F or a li k e r e aso n we c al l x
2
y a fu n c i n o o f x an d y a n d,

i n g e n e r al , we c all e ve ry al g e b r ai c ex
p r e ss i o n a fu n ct
i on o f al l

t h e v ar i ab l e s whi c h o cc u r i n i t
W h at tt tg t t
.

we h ave jus er m ed in e r al or fr a c i o n al , r a i o n al

or t
i r r a i on al e x p r e ss i o n s in x, x an d y, an d s o o n , w e m ay al so
te rm i tgn e ra l o r fr a c ti o n al ,
ra t i o n al or i r ra t t
i o n al f u n c i o n s o f
x , x an d y , a n d so on
t gi t t
.

P "

we sh all o fte n r e p r e se n a v en f u n c i on of x by h e

sy m b ol f ( x) r e ad
“
fu n ct
i f on o x
”
We h e n t re
p re s e n e tt
h
t f ct d t
, .

v al u e s of h i e un on wh i c h c orr e sp o n o x O, 1 , b, b y

f f f (5)
Thus i ff (x) x 2 weha ve f (0) 2 f ( 1 ) 3, f (b) b 2 An d
i n g e n e r al iff (x) r e p r ese n t tt
, , ,
.
,

a n y gi ve n e x p r e ss i on in x , f ( b) re p r e s e n s h e

resu l t o f su b st
ituti n g b for x i n t
,

h e e x p r ess i o n .

When d e al i n g w i h tt w o or m ore f u n ct
i on s o f as, w e m ay
r e p r e s en t on e o ft
h m by f( e x
) , t
h t
h e o er s by si m il ar sy m b o l s,

as F C) C
TC
”)

tf ct t
,

I n l ik e m an n e r , w e m ay r ep re se n a un ion of w o v ar i
a bl es ,
x an d y , by t h e sy m b o l f ( x , y ) , an d s o o n .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Th e f ol l o wi n g v e ry u se u f l t
h e or e m i s i m p l i e d in 28 2 .

T h eorem . t
If w o p o ly n o m i a ls i n x a r e i den i c a lly t e qu a l, t
h i e r

c or resp on d i n g c oef
fic i en s a r e e qu a l ; h a i s , t tt
1 —l
If a ox
n
al x
“ ‘
an E box n
bl x “
b,,
t
h en ao = b a1 = b 1, ~

th c ffi ci td i ff
F or were tth p ly ese oe en s e re n e o n om i als wou ld b e d i fferen t
h y td d t
t h fi t c ld t b t f or m e d i n t
o t
,

as e s an an e rs ou no e r an s h e se c on d b y
t
h l f ck i g
e r u es o re on n .

Th u s i f ax2 + 3 x
,
—3 .

If i n st ead o f b e i n g c on st an t s th e c o effici en t s ao d l bo bl
d en o te a lg ebr a i c exp r essi on s wh i c h d o n ot i n volve x i t fo llo ws fro m t
, , , , , ,

he
th at
,

i den tity a ox al x" l

5 box n v
bl a
—l
ao b0 a 1 E bl
" n

in ot h e r wo r ds t h atth e e x p r ess i o n s d e n o t
e d b y c o rr esp on d i n g c o effi ci e n t
, ,

a o an d be a n d so o n a r e i d e n t
, ,

,
ic ally e qu al
,
.

A si m i l a r t
h h ld g d f t w id t
e or em i c lly q o s oo o o en a e u al o
p yl
n om i al s wh tose p d c t f p w
er m s ar e f t
w ro u s o o er s o o or m or e

v a r i a bl es h c n t
wi t nt c ffi c i to s a oe en s .

Th u s ,

Proper i es t of i den t
i l ca equ a t
i on s In al g e b r ai c re ck o n i n g we
c o n st
an t t t
.

m ak e u se of h f e o ll owi n g h eo r e m s

T h eorem 1 . If A B, t
h en B E A .

th p c
F or b y which A m y b t f m d i tB i
e ro e ss a e r a n s or e n o s revers i ble

i c it
s n i
e l ly l fc m bi
n vo ves o n t
i 259 B t
th ru e s o o na on , u e r e ver se p r oc ess
wi ll t f m B i tA
.

ran s o r n o

h t f m t i i t
.

Th w m y u s, t e a h m pl i
r e ve r se e r an s o r a on n e ex a e n 28 1 .

F or

+4 . 2 52

T h eorem 2 . If AE C and B E C, t
h en AE B .

F or i ce
s n B E C, w e h ave CE B . by Th eorem 1

He n c e A C an d C E B, an d t
h e re ore f A B .
 PR E LI M I NAR Y CO NSI DE R AT I O NS

Th u s si n c e
, x x ( 2) +45 23? 2 x 4,

an d

we h a ve x x ( + 2) 2 (x
T h eorem 3 An i d en i t
ty m i re a ns an t
t
i d en i y w h en t
h e sa m e

t
.

o
p er a i on i s p er for m ed on h it
b t mo s em bers .

Thi s fo llo ws fr o m t h e r u le s of e qu ali t

y ,
2 49, 2 53 , 2 5 7 .

Th u s if A E B t
, h en A , C, an d s o o n .

On provi ng i den i i es t
t To p r o v e of t
w o g i ve n e x p r e s s i o n s,

t
h t
A E B it tc ct tt
.

A an d B, ai s no n e e s sar
y a u al l
y o r an s o r m f
tB t fii c i en t
,
,

A in o As 28 6 , 2 , sh o w s , i i s su if we ca n r ed u ce
tt
,
.

A an d B h o e sa m e fo rm C
t t t
.

Th e f oll o w i n g h e o r e m su pp li e s an o h er v e ry u se u l f m e h od .

If fr om a su pp os ed t
t
i d en i y , A E B , a k n own i d en i y, C D, t
t
can be der i ved by a r ever s i bl e
p r o c ess , h e s u
pp o s ed i d en i y t t
t
A B i s ru e t .

F or i ce
s n t
h p e ro c e ss is r e ve rs i b le AE B c an b e d e r i ve d fro m C D
Th er efo r e s i n c e 0 E D i s t B i s a ls o t
, .

,
ru e A ru e ,
.

E x am p l e Pro ve t
h at
. a b b is i den t ic a lly e qu al t
o a .

I f we sup p ose a b bE a ( 1)
itwi ll f ll w t h t [(
o o b) b] O a b (2 )
a E a . 2 49

B t ( )
2u i k w i d t
i t
y
s a 2 5 0 d
not
h tp ( 1 )
n t ( 2 ) i en an e s e o s r eve r s i b le .

(1) i t
, ,

Th f er e o re s ru e .

Th t it ia t f td w t
s h c
no cl i A B l t
sa e o h p ra e on u s on u n e ss e r o ess c
f m AEB t
ro D i i bl m y b i l l tt
o d t h s r ever s e a e u s ra e us

I f we su pp ose Ex x (1)
i t
wi l l f o l lo w h t
t a x2 E x 2 ) ( 2)
t b t it
Her e (2) i s
d ru e , u o es n o t
f ll o ow from t his th at ( 1) i s t
ru e S i n c e

t tp ( 1 ) t(2) i t An d i n fac t( 1 ) is fa ls e
,

h e s e o s no r evers i b l e § 2 59
, .
,
.

t t d q l it
I den i y y It i
an e ua s i m p or ttt m m b t
an h t o re e er a

it
t t t t
.

ide n y i p i m il y l
s i r ar a re a on of for m h h n f l
ra er a o va u e

t
t
.

A h e sa m e tim e ,

If A a n d B a r e fi n i tp e ex r ess i on s , a n d A E B, t
h en A a n d B h a ve
equ a l va l u es for a l l v a lu es o ft
h e le t
t wh i ch m
er s ay o cc u r i n h em t .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

t
F o r , b y h y p o h e s i s , we c an tra n s or m f A in t
o B by a l im it
e d n u m b er of

t t
a pp l ic a i o n s o f h e r u l es a b b a , an d so o n . Bu t a b an d b a

h ave e qu al valu es w hat e ver t h e valu e s of a an d b ; an d so o n .

Th e re aso n for r e st
r ic tin g the t h eo r e m t
o fin it
e e x p r ess i on s wi ll appe ar

la t
er .

Con ve r sely , i f A an d B h ave e qu al val u es for all valu e s of t t

h e le t
er s

in A an d B, t
h en A E B . Thi s will b e p r o ved su b se qu e n t
ly .

He n c e i n t
h e c as e of fin i t e e x p r e s si o n s we m ay al w ay s
re
p l ace h e t sign o f id e n t i y o f f o rm t ,
5 t
by h e s i g n o f e q u a l i y t
o f v al u e , an d wh e n A E B wr i t e Az B W e sh al l u su ally
t
h i p ct
, .

f oll o w ic
s ra e

ft tb
.

Th i s h
u se o ig e s n is o e c ar efu l ly d i s t i n g u i sh e d f r om
th a t de s cr i b e d i n 3 25 .

ON CONVE R SE PR OPOS I T I ONS

Co n s i de r a t
propo s i i on wh i h h as c t
h f e or m

If A ,
t
h en B, ( )
1

or , m or e f u lly e x p r e s se d :I f a a i n s t at
c er t e m en t A, i s t r u e,

ce r t t ttm tB t
,

th e n a ai n o h er s a e en , ,
is al s o ru e .

I f a fig u r e i s a s qu ar e ,
h it
t i c tgl
en s a re an e.

If x = 1, t
h —I = O en x .

I nte r ch a n g i n g t
h h yp t
h i
e o es s A, an d he tc on c lu s i on B, of 1
( )
t t
,

we o bt ai n h e co v ers e n p r o p o si i o n

If B, t
h en Afi “
2
( )
Thu s ,
t
h c e on ve rses o f t
h p e ro i o n s j u st
p os it ci t
e d ar e

If a fi gu re is a re ct
a n gl e , t
h it
i en s a s qu ar e .

H as t
h l en .

As t
h fi e rs t of t h ese e x am p l e s i l l u str ate s, t
h c e on vers e o
f a

tru e t
p r op os i i on m a y be fa ls e .

* ti l ik I f A d B t
A p r o po s i h C w hich h d bl h y p t
h i h ’

t : m ly I f C d B t
e an
h A d If A d C t
on , en , as a ou e o e s s, as

w c h B Si m i
h b t
l ly i f t ip l hy p t
h i t t
o o n v e r se s na e , an , en , an an , en .

ar ,
ere h
e a h c
r ; e d o es s e r e a re r ee o n ve r s e s an so o n .
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

Th e se f or m u l as m ay b e d e s c r i b ed a s ex en si o t ns of t
h e c om

m u tt
aiv e , a sso c i at
i ve an d d i st r i bu t i v e l aw s t btc t
i
o su ra on

t
, .

We m ay pro v e 1 an d 2 by a id o f h e r u le , 24 9

Two exp r es s i o ns a r e equ a l if t

h e r es u l t bti
s o a ne d by a dd n g i
t
h e s a m e exp r ess i on tb t
o h o a re e u a l
q .

1 . a + b — c a —c + b .

F or t
h e r e su l tf o a ddi n g 0 t o ea ch m em be r is a 6 .

Th u s , § 25 0

an d (a
2 . a a — b —c .

F or t
h e r es u l t o f ad di n g b c t o ea ch m em b er is a .

Thu s , [a
an d a -
b a —b —c + c + b
— a

We m ay p r o ve 3, 4 , 5 as f oll o w s
Si n c e 6 = (b c
) + c ,

we h av e , 3 . a +b —c
_ a + (b — c) + c § 2 48
+( — by l an d § 2 50
_ a b c
) .

— b—
-
a
( c
) .

— ao
ab a
[( b

— a (b — ac § 252
-
c
) + ac

_ a
( b — c) . by 1 an d 25 0

Ob ser v e t tf ll
h at i o o ws f ro m § 2 48 an d t
h f e or m u l a s 1 —4
t
h t a a s e r i es o f a dd i t
i on s a n d s u tct
b i ra on s m a
y be p er f o r m ed in
a n y or d er wha ts oeve r .
 THE F UND AM E NT AL O PE R AT I O NS

a —b + c —d + e a + o —b —d + a by l

a + o a + c + e by 2 an d 1

a + c + e —b -
d . by 2

R u l es of s i g n Th e “
ru les o f si g n ”
wh i c h fo ll o w ar e p ar
t t ttbli
.

i l
c u ar c a se s of h f e o r m u l as 3 , 4, 5 jus es a sh ed .

1 . a —
+ ( c) = a 2 . a

— ac 4
3 . a
( 0
) . . a
)( )
0 a c.

We ob a n ti 1, 2, 3 atc on e by se t
t
i gb n 2 0 in 2 97 , 3 , 4 , 5 r es p ect
i vely .

We m ay p rove 4 as fo ll ows
-
a ) (0 — a) o — 0t
)c
O —a c ) —
_ ao .
. by 2 an d 3

R u le of t
paren h es es F r om t
h f e or m u l as § 24 8 an d § 2 97 ,
bti t tt l
.

2 , 3 , 4, w e o h f a n e o l l o wi n g i m p or an ru e

t
P a r en h es es p r ec ed ed by h e s i g n m a y be r em oved ;
p a r en t
th es es p r ec ed ed by h e t
s i g n m a y a l s o be r em o ved,
if h e s i gn t
o t t t
f e ver y er m wi h i n h e p a r en h es es be c h a n g ed t .

P a r en th e se s m ay be i n td ro u c ed in a cc o rd an c e tt
h
wi h e

s a m e ru l e .

Thu s ,
a +b -
c — ( c + d — e) .

To s im l
p yi f an e x p r e ssi on wh i c h in v o l v e s p a ren th ese s
w i t h i n p a r e n h e s e s, t a pp ly t
h e r u le tt
h o e s e v e r al t
p ar e n h e se s
s u cc e s s i v e ly .

— —[c —(d —efl f — b l [c —(d

Thus , a
g b z a - -
e) ] -

—a — b + c — ( d — e)
—a —b + c —d + a

Of c ou r se t
h p e ar e n th e ses m ay be r em ove d in an y or d e r ;
bu tby b eg in n i n g wi h tth t t e ou er m os on e ( as in t
h e e x am
pl e)
we a vo i d ch an g i n g an y i g th s n m ore an o n ce .
 A CO LLE G E AL GE BR A

R u les for addi ng an d s u b rac tt

i ng i tg n e ral n
ex p res s i o s F r om
t t
.

h f e o r m u l as of 2 4 8 , 2 5 2 , 297 we d e r i v e he r u l es :

To (a dd t c
ort
) t w suli k
b t m
ra d d ( bt c t
) t
oh i e er s, a or su ra e r

fi
c oe i i t d fi
c en s , a n th c mam l t
xt t th lte o on e er s o e r es u

w i t ll t
.

T dd t
o aw m op lyor mi l or e h i tm i o no a s, r e a e r er s n

su cc i w it
ess on h t h i ig ch g d
e r d t h
s i m p lify by
ns un an e ,
an en s

co m bi i g l i k
n n tm e er s

btc t p ly t
.

T o su ra mi l f m
on e h
o ch g t
no h ig fa ro a no er , an e e s n o

ever y tm i t er h bth d
n e su d dd ra en an a .

E x am p l e 1 . Add 4 a bz a n d 5 a b2 a lso s u b r a tc t 5 a bz ro mf 4 a bz .

We h ave 4 a b2 + ( —5) a b2 z — abz ; § 2 48

an d 4 a bz § 2 97 , 5

E xam p l e 2 . Add ma asc 2y 2 a ba a n d ba 2y 5 a b3

W e h ave x3 acc 2 y 2 a bs (M y 5 a b3 )
— 5 a hg § 299
— 5 a b3 § 2 48
b) 332 3; 3 a b3
( a . 2 52 , 2 97 , 5

E xa m pl e 3 . Su b tc t
2ra a
‘
2
b ab
2
b3 fro m a3 a 2b b3

We h ave a
" b3 (2 a
2
b a bz b3 )
— 2 a 2 b + a b2 — b3 § 2 99
a3
Q
a b a b2 2 52 , 297

tW h en
h p e ol y tb
n o m ia l s o e add e d
( or su b tctra ed ) h av e lik e
t iti c
er m s, s o n v en e n i t t o a rr an g e t
h t ese e rm s in c ol u m n s an d

t
h t dd (
en o a or su b tc tb
) y
ra c ol u m n s .

‘
E xa m l e 4p Ad d a4 a 3b 2 a Z b2 b4 an d a bs 3 afib2 an d

tc t5 t t
.

s u b ra a 2 b2 a bs fro m h e r e su l .

We h ave a4 a% 2 a 2b2
‘
é
a3b
’ 2
3 a b a b3

5 a fib2 a b3

-
4 a2b2 + 2ab3 —b4
98 A CO LLE GE ALG EBR A

fa ct
or s by t
h t f th l iat l f c
o t i m p ify g
le i t
h l t
t by
er a a or s, s n e a er

a dd n i g ex
p t fp w
on en s of th m l tt o er s o e sa e e er .

G i ve t
h lt th
e r esu ig cc d i g
e th m mi l
or s n, a or n as e on o a s

h a v e l i ke or u n l i k e s i g n s

t t
.

2 fi h To
p d c l
f p y nd
m i l b y e m m roi u o a o no a a on o al or

t t t t
.

l
p y moi l m l
no ip yl h a m f h m l i
up l i c d by ea c er o e u an ea ch
tm f t h m lt h p d c tt
d dd t bt
,

er ip li
o e u h ier an a e ro u s us o a n ed .

Th e firs tl ru e follows fro m t

h c e om mu a tt
i ve a n d a ss o ci ati ve l aws an d
t
h l e aw of e x p on en t
s Th e c
se on d r u le follo ws fr om th e d i str ib u t
ive
t
.

l aw ; h u s,

Th e fi r s tl ru e ap p li e s al s o tp o r o du cts o f m or e t
h t
w an o

m on o m i a ls W h e n an o dd n u m ber of t
h m n mi
ese o o al s h av e
h e Si g n o f t
t he p r o d u c t t it
.

s i g n s, is oh wi ier se s

A p r o du c tf o m t
h t
w p ly
or e an o o n om i a ls m ay b e fo u nd by
t
r ep e a e d a pp l i ca t
i fth c d
on s o e se on ru l e .

E x a m pl e 1 . F in d t
h p e r o du ct
of 4 a2 b2x3 , 2 bx", an d 3 a% .

W e h ave 4 2 bx4 3a 3
:
a 2 4 a b2x3bx4a 3x
2 ’

2 4 a5 b31 t3

t tf 2 b
'

E xa m p le 2 . F i n d h e p r odu c o a an d a b b2 a2 .

F or c on ven i en c e we arr an h f ct
g b t e o a or s i n d es c e n d i n g p owers of a,

an d ch oo se t
h e si m p ler fa c t m lt
o r asip li u er . We t
h en h ave

( a2 + ab — a b2 — 2 a2 b — 2 a b2 + 2 b3
— a 2b — 3 a b2 + 2 b3 .

Th e deg ree of h e p rodu c wi h r espe c tt t tt o an y l e tt er ( or se t

t
t
of le ers
) i t t
s h e su m of h e d eg r e es of h e t f t wi t
h a c or s r es
pe ct
ttt
o h a l e tt e r ( o r s e o f l e te r s t t
) .

Thi s fo llo ws fro m § 302 l an d t h e fa c t h at

t the t erm o f high e st

d eg re e i n an y p r o du c t is t
h e p r od u c tof t he t er m s o f high e st
, ,

d e gr e e i n
th e fa c to rs

Thu s t l are t wo a n d t hree resp e c t

.

h e d e gr ee s o f 1 an d x3 i vely
an d t h e d e gr e e o f t h e p ro d u c t
, ,

1 ) (x3 l) o r x5 x2 1 , ,

is fi ve .
 THE F UNDAM E NT AL O PE R ATI O NS

W h e n b o th f a c t o r s ar e h om og en eou s , § 2 7 6 , t
h p e r od u ct is
h o m o ge n e o u s .

th tm
F or if f ch f c t
a ll f th m
e d g er ll t
h s o ea a or a r e o e sa e e re e , a e

p d ct b t
ro i d b y m lt
u s o ip ly i g tm f th
a ne by tm f t h u n a er o e on e a er o e

ot
h f th
er m
are d g o H c th m f t
h
e p d c ti
sa e e r ee . en e e su o ese ro u s s a

h om o g en eou s p oly n o m i al .

Arrang em en tf t
ho e r ec k o ni ng Wh e n b o th f a c t or s ar e p ol y
t t wh bo t
.

n om i al s i n a:or an y o h er si n g l e le t er , or en h a re
h o m og en eou s fu n c t
i on s o f tw l t
t i ti c
o e e r s, s o n v e n i e nt t o

a rr an g e t
h e re ck o n i n g as i th f ll wi g
n m pl
e o o n ex a es .

E x am p le 1 . M ul t
ip ly m2 5 by a : 3 $
62 .

W e a rr an g e b ot h fa c tor s i n d e sc en d

22; 2
2
2 5
i n g ( or as c e n d i n g ) p o we rs o f a: an d
3
pla c e m u l t
pli i er u n d e r m ul tipl ic d an

We t ti tw t
.

2 x5 x4
h en wr i e n se para e ro h s e

i al p r o d u c t
p ar t p di g t
2 m4 x3
s c o r res on n o

t tm t h m lt
6 x3 3 x2 15
—7 a3 —1 5 h e s e ve r al er s of ip l i e u er ,

p la ci n g t h t
t l i k tm t h t
2 335 + x4 +8 a2 +5 x
h e m so a e er s, a

is, tm er s of t
h e s am e d e g r ee , ar e i n t h e sa m e c ol u m n
t
.

F i n ally we a dd th lik
ese e e r m s b y c o lu m n s .

E x am p le 2 . M ltiply
u as? y
2 2 mg b y 2 y a t .

m2 y
2 In c ase b o t
t
hi s h fac t
ors ar e h o m og e n eou s

:
a 2y fu n c t
i o n s o f a:an d y
W e ar ran g e t h e m b ot
.

x3 2 932g my ? h i n d es c en d i n g p owers
2 932 31 4:
1:
y
2 2 y3 o f x an d t h erefore i n as c en d i n g p o wers of y
an d t
,

4 afl y S ay 2 2 y3 h e n p r o c e e d as i n E x 1 . .

De th
ac ed coefli c i en s t In t
h e re cko n i n g ill u st r a td i
e n 3 05,
t
h t h t
t t
.

Ex 1, e erm s ar e so a rr an g e d tha ei r p os i i on s su ffic e

ti tp w f : cc i th
.

o n di c at e wh a W y m k
o ers o a o ur n em e m a a e

f t hi f c t t b idg t
.

u se o s h ck i g b y p p
a i g x
o a r e e re on n su ress n

and w it i g th r c ffic i t ly
n d it i elw y w t h
oe en s on an s a a s or

whil td t t
,

e hi wh
o h g i v n p ly
o mi l hs n m ic l en e e o no a s av e u er a

c ffi c i nt
oe e s

tb tk t
.

I f i th p ly
e i l i in c
er pl t co n om a s om e e, are m us e a en o

i n di ca t e ever y m i ss i n g tm er by a O c oe fii c i en t .
1 00 A COLLE GE ALGE BRA

E x am p le . Mu l t
iply m 3 3 2 by 3 m2 2 .

We arrange t h e r e c k o n i n g a s i n § 305
bu t
wr i t
e th e c o e ffi ci en t
,
1 3 0 2
E x 1, s o n ly i n d i

t gt m g tm b y O t
.
,
1 3 0 2
h m fii ea i n e i ss er s c oe c re n s

W m t th p t l p d ct
.

1 3 O 2
c p d e o i e ar i a ro u o r re s on ~

i g tt h 0 tm f t h m lt t
3 9 O 6
ip li I n o e er o e u e r. n s er
2 6 0 4
—9 + o + 42 — 0 — 4 i g th pp p i t p w f : i t h fi l n e a ro r a e o e rs o a n e na

lt — b gi i g wi t h i c t h m r esu e nn n s n e e su

o ft
h d g f t
e h f ct i
e i —w
r ees bt i th op d ct q i d e a or s s s x e o a n e ro u re u re ,

n a m el y , a “ 9 x4 1 2 x2 4
t c ts ix i n d ic at t
.

Th e d e gre e of h p e r odu is a lso ed by h e nu m b er of

tm t t1
, ,

er s , s even , in h e r e su l O 9 0 12 0 4, 27 7 .

Thi s i s c al l e d t
h t
h d e m e o f det
o a c h ed c o efi c i en t
s I app li e s t
tn ly tp t a s i n g l e l e tt
.

no o o ol y n o m i al s i n er bo h arr an g e d i n
f t h t t b tl t
l t
,

d c di g
e s en c di g p wn or as e n n o ers o a e er, u a so o

h om o
g p ly i l i t w l t
e n eo u s t F i o ng i g t w
n om a s n o e ers or n ar r a n o

f th l t t
.

such p ly i l i d c di g p w
o n om f a s n es en n o ers o on e o e e e r s,

w t t
e ah ti g t h
e sa m e i c di g p w f t h
m e a rr an e em n as e n n o ers o e

oth l t t t
er h t t
h p it
e i
e r, sof y c ffic i twi l l i di c t
a e os on o an oe en n a e

Wh t p w
a f b t
h l ot t g w i t
h
er s o i t o e e rs o .

For m u l as deri ved b y t

h m t
h d
e e o of de th ac ed c oef
fi c i en s t Con
t
.

s id e r h f e o ll o wi n g exa m l
p es .

E x a m pl e 1 . Pr o ve h tt
t h ft e it
h id ty ru o e en

( a4 a sb a 2 b2 a ba N) ( a b) as 65 .

W e p erfo r m th e ipl ic t
m lt i i d ic t
u d i a on n a e n

t
h fi t m mb
e rs e er by d t ch d c ffi ci t d
e a e oe e n s, an

bti t fii i t f t h p d ct
l 1
so o h a n e c oe c en s o g d e ro u ar r an e

in d es c e n d i n g p o wers of an d in c
as e n d n i g
"
l _ 1 _ 1 —1 1
a

p o we r s of b
h at
ce t t t
1 0 0 0 O 1
We kn ow in ad van he d e gr ee of h e

p r od u c ti s five i n d ic at
which i s ed by a ls o t
h e nu m b er of tm
er s , six , in
t h e p rod u ct
resu l t He n c e t
,

h fi e n al . is

a5 +o -
a 4b +o b5 , or a5 ‘—b6
E x am pl e 2 . Prove h e t tt
h ft
h id t
it
i ru o e en es

( afi

( as — a ?b + a b2 — b4 .
 A Co LLE GE
‘
3
'

2
1 02 r
ALG EBR A

part t t t c ffic i t f t t
‘‘ ‘c ‘

p duc s an d
'

i al ob ai n
’

ro so h h e oe en s o e n ex

p o we r ,w e a r e m e r e l
y a pp ly i g t
h l : n e ru e

To a n y c oe fi lc i e n t
in a
p owe r a lr ea dy fou n d a dd t
h e c oe fii c i en t
wh i c h p r e c ed es i tt
h e s u m wi l l be he tc or r esp on d i n g c o efii c i en t

t
i n h e n ex p o wer t
t t
.

t
All h e c o efii c i entf thi p w s o s n ex o er , ex ep c th fi t d l t
e rs an as ,

can be f d by thi
ou n l th 1 s ru e ese a r e and 1

Thu s t
h
,
c ffi ci t f (4) which c
e oe en s o orr es p on d t3 o , 3 , 1 in (3) ar e

1 +3 or 4
t t ti
.

App ly i n g h e r u le o we ob a n 4 1 or 5, 6 4 or 10, 4 6 or

1 0, 1 4 or 5 . Hen c e

( a b) 5 a5 5 a
4
b 1 0 a 3 bz 1 0 a 2 b3 5 a b4 b5 .

tt
E v ide n ly h e c o e ffi c i e n s o f an y g i ven p o w e r t of a b c an

t t
b e o b ai n e d b y r e p e a ed a pp l i c a i o n s o f h i s r u l e t t .

E x am ple . F in d su cc ess i ve ly ( a b) 6 , ( a b) 7 , ( a b) 9 .

Produ c ts fac t
of t
ors of t
w h e fir s t
o bi n om i al
deg ree Th e
t t t
o o b a i n i n g p r o d u ct t t t
.

s u de n s h o u l d a cc u s o m h i m se l f s o f hi s

ki n d by i nsp ec t i on We h a v e .

( )
1
2
bl ) 01 06093 2
“ 1
) ( box a rbo
) $ 0 1 61
( )
th p d ct ( 1 ) t
In h c ffi c i tf
e ro i t hu d th e oe en o x s e su m an e

fi l t i t
na h p d c tf
erm d b s e ro u o a an

I th p d ct t t t t p d ct
.

n 2
( ) hefi d l
ro c ffi c iu e rs an as oe en s ar e ro u s

ofth fi t c ffi c i t d f t
e rs h l t c ffic i tf t
oe h f ct e n s an o e as oe en s o e a or s,

and t
h idd l c ffi c i t
e m i t
h f th c
e p d c
oe t en s e su m o e ro ss -
ro u s
”

a obl a n d a lb o.

E x am pl e 1 . F in d t
h p e r od u ct
(a: 5 ) (x
— 8 ) = x2 (5 — 8 ) x — 40 = x2 — 3 x —40 .

E x am p le 2 . Fi nd t
h p e r o du ct
(9; 3 y) (x 10 y ) .

( x 3 y) (
x l o y ) = x2 .

(3 1 0) xy 30 312 x2 l y 30 312
 T HE F UN DAM E NT AL O PE R AT I O NS

E x am p le 3 . F in d h e tp r odu ct(2 x 3) (4 x
-
4) x + 3

E x a m p le 4 . By t
h m t
h d j t pl
e e o s us ex i
a n ed fin d t
h p e rodu ct
s

(x 10) (x (3 a 4 b) ( 5 a 6 b) , (7 x y ) (5 x 3 y) .

Produ c tf o an y t
w o p ol y nom i al s i n x . Co n s i d er t
h p e ro du ct
2
)
a 2
( d ox a lx a zx a3
( box bl x b2 )
5 4 3
“ 02
50-713 “ 15
0 93
( a obz a l bl
'
652 60
) x

41 362
2
+( a 1 62 “ 2 61 l
‘ ‘
( hall o
) 93 ‘ ‘
i ‘ ‘
i “ 36
0 33

Th e p r o d u c t i s a p ol y n om i al i n x wh os e d e g r e e i s h e t su m

t
of h e deg r e e s o f h e fa c o r s t t
An d h e c o e ffic i e n o f e a ch t t t erm

ti t t
.

m ay be o b a n ed by h f lle o ow i n g r u l e, i n whi c h a ,, de n o es

on e o f t
h n e u m b er s a o, a , , a , , a 3 , an d b,, on e of t
h e b er s
nu m

t t t t u ct
bo, bl , b2 F in d h df c
e i e r en e be ween h d g e e r ee o
f h e p r o d
t t d t t
.

dn d th d g e e r ee f
o h m e er ,
an h f m en or and a dd a ll h e

p ro d ct b
u s ah k
i n wh i c h h k e q l t
hi d f
ua s s i er en ce .

Thu s t o ob tain t h e c o effi ci en tof x

2
we fin d th e d iffe r e n c e 5 2 or 3
an d t h en fo r m an d a d d a l b2 a g bl 0 3 00 t h ese b e in g all t h e p ro d u c t
, , , ,

,
s , ,

a h bk i n which h It 3 .

Th i s ru le a pp l i e s tt
h po e r odu ct of a n y t
w p o o ly n o m i al s in
t
h f m
x of e or a ox
m
an d box “
tl I a so i n di
c t h w t bt
a es i o o o a n an y p ar t
ic l u ar c o e ffic i e n tf t
h p o e r od u ct
wh th f ct h
en e a ors av e nu m e r i al c c o e ffici en s t .

E x am p l e 1 . F in d t
h c e o e ffi ci en t
o f x1 00 i n t
h p e r o du ct
( 0 055 75 ( 1 1 957 4 0 7 423 G 75 ) 5
( 02360 51 335 9 55 933 boo)

Th e d eg r ee of t
h p e r o du ct
is 7 5 60 or 13 5 an d 1 35 1 00 z 35
t c ffi ci tf
.

Hen c e h e oe en o 93100 is a 0b3 5 a 1 b3 4 a g 4b1 a g 5 bo .

Si m il ar ly t
h c ffici tf e oe en O £1335 18 a 4obeo 6141 059 G 7 4b2 6 “

i
“
(1 7 5 035 .

E x a m pl e 2
,
. F in d h e tc oe f
fi ci en t
o f x3 i n t
h p e r o du ct
(3 x4 2 x3 + x2 8 x 7 ) (2 x3 5 x2 6 x

Th e re qu i r e d c o effi ci en t
is 2) 3) 8) 5 7 2, or 14 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

E x am p le 3 . In t
h e pr o d u c tof Ex . 1 , fin d t
h e c oeffici en t
s of 331 30

an d o f x23 .

E x am ple 4 . In t
h p
e r od u ctof E x . 2 fin d se par at
el y t
h c e oef
fi ci en t
s

o f x6 , x5 , x4 , x2 , an d x .

Produ c tf s ou n d by aid of k nown t

t
iden i i es Th e f o l l ow i n g
f o rm u l as or id e n t
it tt d
.

i es a r e v e ry i m p or an an s h ou ld be c ar e
f u l ly m e m o ri zed .

” 2 2
( a b) a 2 ab b . 1
( )
2 2 2
( a b) a 2 ab b 2
( )
0 — b) = — b2
z
( a + b
)( a .
( )
3

To thi s t l i s m ay b e add ed h e tf or m u l a s g i ve n i n 3 08 ,309,

3 1 0, an d t h e f ol l o wi n g , 3 1 1

( )
4

t h l t
I n as m u ch t d b
as y b p l c d by
e e
y er s a an ma e re a e an

alg b i c
e ra
p i w h
ex t v th f l
r e ss o n s
pp ly t
h a so e er , ese orm u as su e

si pl t
m es f bt i i g
m ean s o
g tit y f p d c t Th
o a n n a re a v ar e o ro u s e

will m k t
.

f ll w i n g
o o m pl ex a h i cl es a e s e ar .

E xa m p l e 1 . F in d t
h p e r odu ct
(3 x b y)2

( 2:
2 2
3 3
( )x 2 3x 5g ( y)
5 9 x2 3o xy 25 y 2 .

E x am p le 2 . Fin d t
h p e r od u ct( x2 my y
?
)(x2 xy

(t 52 ? flv2 ? ”
i 2 xv 210 6 $21 y ) [( y ) my ] [0 32 y ) 1133
1 ]
( x2 932 2 2 $4 $2212 “
1 y .
( 1)
E x am p le 3 . p in
E x la t
h tp e s e s in t
h f e ol l o w n i g p r o c es s .

— z) (x — y —z)
—(y — z)J
z2 —<
[ (y an [ as y z r]
[(w2 —y 2 — zfil —y 2
x2
[ (y + 2 z2 )] —4 2 2
2
y z
 A CO LLE GE ALG EBR A

E XE RCISE III

In t
h f e i g ex am p les p erfo r m each m u lt
oll o w n ip lic ati on b y t h e m ost
i ou s m et
ex p e d i t hod p o ss ib l e I n p ar tic u l ar e m p loy d et a ch e d c o effi ci en t
s

wh ere t his c an b e don e w it h a d van t a ls o t

h e i den t it
.

age i es of § 3 15 .

1 . Mul t
iply 3 x5 2 x4 x3 7 x2 6x 5 by 3x 1 .

2 . Mul t
iply 5 x3 3 a x2 2 a zx a3 by ax 2 a2.

3 . Mu lt
iply x5 x4 y x3 y 2 x2y 3 xy 4 y
5 by x y .

4 . Mu lt
ip ly 3 x3 2 x2 7 by 3x 5 .

5 . Mu lt
iply 7 x 2 y by 5 y, by i n sp e c t
i on .

6 . Mu lt
ip ly a2 ax bx x2 by b x .

7 . Mu lt
ip ly x4 2x 5 x2 x3 by 3 :
a2 x .

lt
8 Mu iply 2 x " 3x " —2 5x n —3 b x n "
? x n -
3.
.
y

9 . Mul t
iply a2 ab 3 b2 b y a2 ab 3M .

10 . Mu lt
ip ly x 3 21 -
2 z by x 3y 2x .

11 . t
M u l ip ly x2 + xy +y + 2
x —y + l by x —y —l .

12 . Mu lt
iply ca — ab by a +b —c .

13 . t
Mu liply 3 x 2 11 5 by x 4y +6 .

14 . M ltiply
u x 7 31 3 z by 2 x y

15 . Fi d t
nh p e r od u ct
(b x ) (b x) ( b2

16 . Als o (x2 x 1) ( x2 x 1 ) (x4 x2

17 . Also —z) .

18 . tbl f t
F or m h ca a e o e oe f
fi h e first
s o ft
ci en t fou r p o wers o f x2 x

19 C tionth t bl
nue e a e of c o effi ci en t
s of su cc e ss ive p o wers of a +0
th t t
.

as fa r as h p w
e en o er .

20 . F i n d (4 x an d (4 x 3 y) 3 .

21 . F ind (
55 + 2 11 + 3 :
7 4 u )2

22 . Fin d (t a 2 3; 3 z 3 ) ; also (t
a 2 31 3 z) 3 .

23 . Mu l tip ly ( a 2 b) 2 b y ( a 2 b) 2 .

24 . F in d th c e oef
fi ci en t
s o f x29 a n d o f xl 5 in t
h p e r o du ct
b 19 (712318 bi sx b19)
l o-C27 “ 155 6 )
2
( ( 0
”
C 61 2 6 33 027 x
 THE F UND AM E NTAL O PE R ATI O NS

25 . F in d h e ffi ci en t
tc s o f x6 x8 an d x4 i n t
oe h e p ro d u c t , ,

( 2 x6 —3 x5 + 4 x4 —7 x3 + 2 x —5 ) (3 x5 —x3 + 2 x2 + 3 x
26 . Ve r ify h e t f ll o ow n i g i d en t
it
i es
1 .

(t
2
2 ( a 62 ) ( v2 y
?
) oro by ) 2 (bfc any 2
)
4 ( bi : a g z.
2
3 .
( a b? ) ( x2 y
?
) ( ax by ) 2 )
4 .

3 02 (a b) 6
27 . Si m p l ify t
h f e o llo w n i g p owers
(2 a 2x3y 7 5 ,) x5 y 8 z9 7 ’ a 2bm c 3 2 n ,
) ( ) ( am bn c2 n ) n

28 . Si m p l i fy t
h f e o ll o w n i g p r odu ct
s

ar cs) (av) ? a o3 5 , ) M ar c e a u ) “

DI VI SI ON

Qu ot i tL t A
en e an d t w lg b i c
B de n o te
p i n an y o a e ra ex re ss o s

tq l t0 By t i t
.

o f wh i c h B i s no e ua h q t f A d i id d by
o e uo en o v e

th si p l t twhi ch t h f ct
.

B , we s h all m ea n fe m i n A B
es or m o e ra o

c an be re d u ce d by th l f ck n i n g
e ru es o re o

ch d ct i n t
.

Form u l as . I n k ingma h f ll wi n g f m
su re u o s e o o or u

l as a r e e sp e c i ally u se u l ,
f n am ely ,

ac a

bc 6

wh e n m n ; wh e n n > m .

a
"

5
,

a +b a b
+
d d d

We m ay p ro v e 1 , 3 , an d 4 by a id o f

Two exp r es s i ons a re

qu a l
e if t
h i e r

exp r ess i on
( no t0) a re e qu a l .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

F o r in 1 t
h p e ro du c tf o ea ch m em be r b y be i s ac .

g
ac
be ac ; an d bc 2 5 4, 25 2
be

Ag ai n , in 3 ct t
o f e a ch m e m b e r o f t
h p e r od u h e fir st e qu a

ti o n by b i s a an d t h e pr odu c t s o f e ac h m e m b e r of t he
se c on d an d thi r d e q u at a r e s e ct
,

i o n s by b ar e a an d p i ve l y

)
a a a
a an d — b -
b 2 98 2 54
’
b b b

F i n ally , i n 4 t
h p e ro du c tf o ea ch m em b er by d i s a b .

+b b b
)
a a a
d : a + b; + a —d + — d : a +b . 2 54 2 52
d ,
d d d d

Th e f or m u l a 2 is a t
p a r i cu l a r case of t
h f e o rm u l a 1 .

Th u s ,
if m n, am am a" .

—
Hen c e
u m n
an
am
— n

R ul es for sim pl i fy i n g A B Th e fo rm u l a s 1 , 2, an d 3 g i ve
t
.

us h f o ll o wi n g r u l e s fo r s im l i f i ng A B
e p y .

1 Ca n c e l a ll fa c t
ors c om m on t o nu m er a t or a n d d en om i n a tor

t
. .

2 Wh en nu m er a t
or a n d d en om i n a ti
or n vo l ve d izf e r en
p o we r s
t
.

f
o h e sat
t( m e le
p i ) f ct er or ex r ess on as a o r s, c a n ce l h e lo wer t
p o we r a n d btc t
it psu tf m th t ft
h hig h
ra
p w s ex o n en ro a o e er o er

q ti t t
.

3 Gi t
h ve h eig cc di g
uo t
h en e or s n, a or n as e

t d d mi th t
.

n u m er a or an h m pp i t i g
en o n a or a ve e sa e or o os e s ns .

bc a 5 5 —2
a2 1
ba ba3 , an d
cd 2 as

R u l es for di v i di n g by a m on om i al From t
h d e e fin i t
i n o of

t
.

d i vi s i o n a n d 3 2 0, 4, w e d er i ve h f e o l l o wi n g r u l es .

1 To d i vi de on e m on o m i a l by ano t
h er , f rmo a fr a c t
i on by
t t t
.

h di
wr i i n g e vi d en d o ver h di e vi s o r , a n d s i m p l ify .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBRA

E XE R CISE IV

1 . D i v i d e 1 5 a 3bc 2 b y 10 a b202 .

2 . D i vi d e 7 5 x2y 4z1 ° b y 1 00 a x7 z9 .

3 . D i vi d e 3 5 x2 m y n b y 2 8

4 . D i vi d e 54
g( ab2 2 c
) g s by 18

5 . D i vi d e x2y my ? b y x2 y
z
.

6 . D i vi d e ( x3 3
11 )( x3 31
3
) by ( x y) ( x2 xy W) .

(
a br o ><
c 3 c a s
(b a ) (c bro o r
30 a 2b3 c4 25 a 3b?c 5 2 0 a 4b4c 7
8 . Si m p l ify
5 a b2 c 3

3 0: c l“ 2 ( x W 5 (
x — y)
2
9 . Si m p l ify
(y m) ?

10 . Si m pl ify 4 a7 x (3 a b3c 2
2
) ( a bc 2 ) 6 be .

11 Si m pl ify t
h f e ollo w n i g (1)p erfo r m i n g t
byh e o p er at
i on s in
i n d ic at r e m o vi n g t
fi rs t h e p aren t
.

o r d er ed , ( 2) by h eses .

—
a"
§ a5 z ( a4
-

12 . t t
B y wh a m u s 2 a ( x2y 3 2 ) be m ul t
ipl i d tgi
e o ve 4 a2 w
( y )
? g

III . SI MPLE E Q U ATI O N S I N O NE UN KN O W N

LE TTE R

CONDI T I ONAL E QUAT I ONS

Th e e x p r e ss i on s 3x 4 an d x 6 a re n o t
id t
i c l ly
en a e q u al ,

28 1 , an d t
h f
e r e o r e are n o tq e u al in v al u e fo r a ll v a l u e s o f x

tl t
.

If a sk e d , Fo r wh a va u e or v al u e s o f x a r e h e v al u e s o f

th ese e x p r e ss i o n s th e w e b eg i n by s upp os i n g t
h m e

tb t
o h e e sa m e , an d ttth
s a e e s u pp o s i i o n tt
hu s :
3 x

Th e e x p r e ss i o n t
h fo r m ed i s c all ed a c on di t
us i o n a l e qu a t
i on
on d i t ttt t
,

o r a n e qu a t
i on o
f c i o n b e c a u se i s a,e s a c o n di i o n wh i ch
 SI M PLE E Q UAT I O NS

t
h e “
u nk n o wn t
l et er x is t o sa t i s fy t t h p I se r v e s e u r p o se

tc t tv l ti fy t di t
.

Of r e s ri
i g n x o a u es wh i c h sa shi c i s on on , be i n g
t wh n t
ru e h v e e alu e s o f 3 x 4 an d 6
x t
h ar e e s am e an d

t
h ly
e n on

c o n di t t
h t
.

Si m i l a r ly x y : 0 is a i o n al e qu a ti on in we o

u n k n o wn l e tt er s x an d y ,
an d, i n g e n e r al ,

Wh en t
h ti d t
e exp r es s i on s
i c lly q l A and B a re no en a e ua ,

A B i di t
i l q t
i Th i
s a c on
q t
i m : A d on a e ua on . s e ua on ea n s an

d th A d it t i c tt
”
B pp
a re q l
su l os e oh a ve e ua va u es n r es r s e

i bl l t
t i A d B t l f wh i h t pp i t
.

va r a e e er shi n i an o va u es or c s su os on

i t
s ru e .

Th e l e tte r s wh o se v al u e s t
h e e qu a t i on A B t
h u s r es r t i cts
ar t
e call ed
h k w l tt Of t h q t
e un i no n e e rs e e ua on

wh t f ll w t t
.

”
I n h w d
a q o i ow i l ls, e or
“
e ua on m e an c on

di ti l q
on a ti e ua on
”

If t ly l t ti t t t
wn l t
.

h e on q i e h k er s n an e ua on ar e e un no e e r s,

as x ,y w c ll i tn m i l q t
z, e i ; b t
a if t h a l u er c a e ua on u e r e a re a s o

k w l t t b c w c l l i tl i t l q t
,

no n e e r s, as a , i n , ,
e a a era e ua o .

Thu s 2 x 3 y 5 is ic al b u t
a nu m er
ax by e r al e qu at
c is a li t i on
A l it
er al e qu at d oes n o t
r es t
r ic t th e val u e s o f t
h e kn own l et t
, , .

i on ers .

Ifb o th A an d B a r e ra ti o n al an d i n te g r al w i h r e sp e c t o t t
t e rs t
h e u n k n o wn l e t h e e qu a i on A t B i s s a i d o b e rat i onal t t
a n d i nt t
Bu i f A o r B i s i r r a i on al o r f r a c t t t
,

egr al i o n al he
t id tb
.
,

e qu a ion is sa o e t
i rra i on al or t
frac i on al .

NO cc ou n t
a ak e n o f n u m b e r s o r k n o wn l e t
is t t ers in t
hi s c lassific at
i on
h r at i o n al an d i n t
.

Thu s ,
V2 x y b c i s b o t e g r al .

In t
h c e ase of a ra t
i on a l in t
e r a l e qu a
g t
i on re du c e d ti to s

sim l
p e st f or m t
3 40, h e d e g ree o f h e e r m o r tt t er m s o f h i g h es t
t t t
,

d e g r ee i s c al l e d h e deg ree of h e equ a i on i se l f t .

Th u s t h e d e g ree O f a x? bx c is t
wo t h at of y
4 b is five
Th e d e gr e e i s m easu r ed w i t
h res p e cto a ll t h e u n k n o wn l e t
t but
, .

t ers

th ese let t
,

ers on ly .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E q u ati o n s h fi t
t Of d g e rs e r e e ar e O f tc en a ll e d s i m pl e or l i n ear
e qu a t
i on s t
; hi d f tt
h ft
h d g
h c
o se o c ll d e s e o n d, r ou r e r e e s are a e

q d t bi q d t t p ct
,

i
u a ra bi i
c, cu q i i ly
c, u a ra c e ua o n s r es e ve .

A q tn i i
e k uaw l tt on ti ct tn on e un no n e e r, a s x, re s r s x o a

fi i t
n b
e nu f l mW y t
h t t
h er o l f ti f
va u es
y e sa a e se v a u e s o x sa s

t t th t t it l t
.

h e e
q i ua h y on i ,
t H c
or a e ar e s so u o n s o r r oo s . en e

A t Ofroo q ti i i y mban e k w pua i n on n x s an nu er o r no n ex ress o

wh i c h if b t
, it td f will m k t
su h q t si id t
u ity e or x , a e e e ua on an en .

Thu s ,
1 an d 2 a re r o o s o f t t
h e e qu at
i on x2 x z 2 ; for l 2 1 E 2
an d —2
) —2 .

Ag a i n , a fo r (a
No t es
‘
1 An e qu a t
i on m ay h a ve n o roo tf i t
m or tt
ay s a e a c on d i
t
. .

i on which n o nu m b e r c a n sa t
i fy s

t i fy t q t
.

Thu s no fin i e nu m b er c an s a t h is e e ua on x 2 zx 3
t i m ly y m b l f
,

q u at
.

2 In e ve r y e i on in x w hich h as r oo s , x s e re a s o or o n e

t ft t I f c tt q t
.

or o h h er o h i i tlf i m ly d i g i
e se r o o s n a e e ua on se s er e a s u sed

id t it b ti ttf t l c tl i d tit
i Ob t
.

eny h a su s i d b y p l ci
u e or e se ve r a a ua en es a ne re a n g
t
i t
,

x by ch ea r oo n u rn

b ti ttf t h tw id t it
.

Th t z 2 i m ly
us, i 2 x i 1 1 s e re a su s u e or e o en es 2
5 2
an d 2) —2 .

ON S OLVI NG E QUAT I ONS

TO s ol ve an e q u a ti i on n o n e u n k n o wn le t
t i tfi er s o n d al l i t s

t tp
r oo s , o r o rov e h t
t it h a as n o r o o t
t ttd
.

The r e a so n i n g o n whi h c h p e ro cess d ep e n d s i s i l l u s ra e

in t
h f e ol l o w i n g e x am ples .

p
E xam le 1 Sol ve t h e equ at i on 3 x
. x 6 .

St
ar t ht
i n g wit h e su p p os i t
i on t h atx h as a val u e fo r which t
hi s e qu at
i on
is tru e , we m ay rea so n a s fo llo ws :
H 3x

t
h en 3x

or 2x = 1 0,

3x t
h en
 A COLLE GE ALG E B RA

c on c lu d e h t
t c i a t
s a r oo
; and t
h p e r o c es s is r ever s ibl e
if i tis
m a de u
p f r eve rs
o i bl t
p e s e s .

I ti s i m p or ttt m
an o re em b er t
h tt
h a e m ere tt
fac h t a a

cer ti a n v al u e o f x h as b e en de r i v e d fr om an e qu a t
i n by t
ho e

r u l e s of re ckon i n g d o e s no t
p ittbr o ve o e a r oo t Th e p ro c e ss
tw tt
.

m us t be r e ve rs i bl e o ar ran hi c cl s on u s i on .

Th u s fro m ,
x 2 0, ( 1)
it follo ws t h at (x 2 ) (x 3) O, (2 ) 2 53

a n d h en c e t eit
h at her x 2, or x 3 .
(3 ) 2 53

Bu h ave n o r i ght
t
w e t
o d r aw t h e ab su r d c o n c l u s i on th at 3 is a ro ot
of F or w h e n x 3 we c an n ot rever se t h e p r o c ess t h at i s d i vi d e
b ot 3 sin c e t 3 is t
, ,

h m e m b e rs o f ( 2 ) b y x h e d i vi s or x h en 0
On t he ot h er h a n d wh en x 2 we c a n r e verse t
, .

h e p r o c e ss s i n c e x 3
is t
h en n ot 0 b u t 1 ; an d 2 i s a r o o t
, ,

of

T RANS FORM AT I ON T HE ORE M S

t
Inh l i g h t f wh t
e h j t b id w o y g d a as us een sa e m a re ar an y

c c tp pl i c t
o rr e i a ft
h l O f ck i g t q t
a on o i e ru e s re on n o an e ua o n as

a l gitie tt f t ma e i f t h q t i ; d if ch
r a n s or m a on o e e ua on an su a

t f t i
r an s o r m a i ibl w y c n cl d t
on h t it l
s r e v ers e, e ma o u e a e a ve s

th e tf t h
r oo s q t
i n ch g d H c t
o e h f l l wi
e ua on u an e en e e o o n g
t
.

h eore m s .

T h eorem 1 . Th e follo wi n g t f
r a n s or m a t
i ons o f an eq u a t
i on

l ea ve i t t
s r oo s u n c h a n g ed n a m e ly

f c o m bi n a t t
,

1 . App ly i n g t
h e ru l es o i on , 2 5 9, o ea ch m em ber

se
p a r a e ly t
fi n i t tb t
.

2 Add in g any exp r ess i on wh i c h h a s a e va lu e o h o

tct
i g it t
.

m em bers , or su b ra f n r om bo h
t t
.

3 t
M u l ip ly i n g or di vi d i n g bo h m e m bers by h e s a m e c on s a n tt
t
.

( no

For all t
h e r u l es o f r e c k o n i n g i n vol ved in t
h t e se ran s o r m af t
i on s are

re ve r s i b le 2 59
ttt
.
,

We m ay a l so s a e h p e f
r oo s o f 2 an d 3 as follows
 SI M PLE E Q UATI O NS 115

If A an d p i
B d en o in x t h e r oo t
t s of th e e q u at
e e x r ess on s ion A B
are n u m b e rs which s u b st itut
,

e d fo r x i n A a n d B m ak e A E B 332
Bu t an y va l u e o f x which m ak es A E B a n d C fin i t
.
,

e w i ll m ak e

A 05 3 C an d c on verse ly § 249 ; h en c e t h e r oo t
s Of A z B ar e

th e s am e as t
, ,

h os e O f A C B C
Agai n i f c d en o t e an y c o n st an te x cep t
.

0 an y va lu e o f x which m ak e s
A B wi ll m a k e c A 5 CB a n d c on ver sely § 2 53 h en c e t h e ro ot
, ,

s Of A B
ar e th e sam e as t
, ,

h o s e Of c A c B .

Th u s , in 334, E x . 1, t
h qu at
e e i on s
3 x —4 = x — 6 , (l )
3x (2)
2x = 10 , (3)
(4)
h ave t
a ll h e sam e r oot 5
he t
He re (2 ) i s d e r i ve d fr o m ( 1 ) b y t r an sfo r m a t
.
,

i on 2 (3) fr om (2) by
t
he tr an sfor m ati on 1 an d ( 4) fr o m ( 3) b y t he t r a n sfo r m a t
,

, ion 3 .

Coroll ary Th e fol lowi n g t r a n s or m a f t

i on s o
f an e qu a t
ion

t t
.

l ea ve i s r oo s un c h a n g ed n a m el y :
tm t i t ig
,

1 Tr a n sp os i n g a er ,
wi h s s n c h a n g ed fr om on e

tt
,

t
.

m em ber oh h e o er .

2 Ca n c elli n g tm t
a ny h t m y er s a a oc c u r i n bo h m em bers t
t t
.

t
.

3 . Ch a n g i n g h ig f
e l l sm ns o a er s i n bo h m em bers .

F o r 3 isq u ivale n tto m u lt

e iply i n g b o th m em b e rs b y 1 An d 1 an d

t ractin g t he t e r m i n qu est t
.

2 ar e e qu i val e n t o su b t i on fro m bo hm em b ers

of th e e qu at i on
Th u s if from b ot
.

h m em b er s o f x c b (l )
tbt
,

we su b r a a b
we o bti a n t
i c a .
( 2)
Th e effe ctOf t
h tc ti
e su b r a on is tc o c el b i n
an t
boh m mb e e rs o f (l ) an d

tt
o ra n sp ose a, h i t ig
wi t s s n c han g ed fro m ,
t
h fi t m
e rs em b er tt
ho e

c
se on d .

By a id o f t
h t ese r an sfo r m a t
i on S, 33 8 , 3 39, e v e ry ra t
i on a l

i n t e g r al e qu a t i on in x m ay , wi th o u tch a ngin g i t s r oo s, t be
r ed u c ed tt
h
o td e s an ard form
a ox
”
a xx
'
“ 1
a ,, O .
11 6 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

We s u p p o se su ch an e qu a t
i on r e du ced tt hi f m wh n
o s or e

itd g
s e ree is m eas u r e d , § 3 29 Th e l i k e i t s f t
i n l
ru e o ra o a

int t t w l tt
.

g l e ra e qu a i on s in m or e h an on e un kn o n e er .

Thu s x2 3 x 5 = x2 — 4 x + 7 c an b e red u c e d t
o t
he fo rm 7x —2 0
It h er efor e on e n ot
s d e g r ee i s t t
, .

wo ,
.

T h eorem 2 . Wh en A ,
B, and C a re in t
g e r a l, t
h e e qu a t
i on

AC BC

h a s he t s a m e r oo s a s h t
t t w e o e
qu a i ons t
A= B and

F or an y val u e O f x which m ak es A C 5 B C m u s tm ak e e it
h er A5 B
or C 0 an d , c o n ve rsely ,
a n y va l u e O f x which m ak es e it
h er AEB or

0 5 0 wil l m ak e AC E B C, 2 5 1 , 2 53
t p r o of i ti s assu m e d th at t t
.

In hi s A B 0 h a ve fin i e va l u es fo r h e

i on Thi s is a l wa y s t
, ,

va lu e s o f x i n q u es t r u e wh en as is h er e su pp o sed
C a re i n t e gr a l ; b u titis n ot al way s t
.
, ,

A, B, ru e wh e n A , B , C are

fra c t
i o n al .

In p a rt
ic u lar wh en A an d C are in t
g l t
h
e ra e equ a t
i ACon 0 has he t
t t t t
, ,

s a m e r oo s as h q i A 0 d C
e e ua on s an 2 0 jo i n ly .

Thu s e r o o s o t
h tf th q ti
e e u a o n x2 3x ar e e sam e t
h as t
h os e o f t
h e

t t z0 t h t
,

wo e qu a o n s x ian 3x d ais 3an d 0

Si m i la r ly t h e r oo t 0 ar e t t
.

t
, ,

s O f (x 1 ) (x 2) h e sam e as h ose of h e

t
wo e qu a t i on s x 1 O an d x 2 0 t h ati s l an d 2 , , .

H en c e h e t e t
ffe c t b t hof b m f u i t
l i pl y i n g o m em er s o an n e

g r al e q u a o n t
i A B by t h i t g l f ct
i 0 i t e s am e n e ra un on s o

t
i n r o d u c e ex r a n eo u s mo o t t ly t h tO f th q ti
s, n am e e r oo s e e ua on

ly t ff c tf i g t i t
,

C 0 Co n v e r s e h h e e gr l e o r em ov n e sa m e n e a

fa ct b t i t t
.
,

o r 0 from h b o f m g l q
em i AC BC
er s o an n e ra e ua on

ti O f i t t ly t tf C 0
,

is tl o os e cer a n h s r oo s , n am e , e r oo s o .

th
On th h d i f ct i
e o l q er t
i it i an lly t
h c n at h t ra on a e ua on s us u a e ase a

t t i td c d wh b t
, ,

n o e x ran e o u s r o o s a r e h m mb m lt ip l i d
n ro u e en o e e rs a r e u e

h l w t
by t c m m d m i t f ll t
e o es h f ct
o i on en o na or o a e ra on s

if t m ltip ly b t
.

Th h q t
u s, i b l/ 1 / (2 el) d w
e ua on h e x x an e u o

l ) w Ob t ti 1 A 1 i
,

m mbe by (2
e rs i 2 xl wh x e a n x 33, ose r o o s s s

t tf (2 l ) 0 w h i td c d t t
.
,

no a r oo o x x , e ave n ro u e n o ex r an e ou s r oo .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EB R A

S OLUT I ON OF S I MPLE E QUAT I ONS

F r om t
h t
f
e ti on
r an s o r m a t
h eo r e m s o f 338 , 3 39 we m ay
a t o n c e d e r i ve t
h e f ol l owi n g r u le fo r s o l v i n g a si m p l e e q u a i o n t
in o n e u n k n o wn l e tt e r as x ,
.

To sol ve a s i m
p le e qu a t
i on in x , r ed u ce i t
tth f o e or m ax h .

Th en

1 If a 0, tt
h
h i gl
e eq u at b t
i on ha s e s n e r oo a.

0 t t t
.

2 If 0 a d b h q an i h e e ua on a s n o r oo

id t it
. .
, ,

3 If . 0 ad b 0 t h , q an t
i i y ,
e e ua on s an en .

If t h q t i
e e h uaf ct i l c ffi c i
on ti t
as i l ly b t
ra on a oe en s, s u su a es

tb g i by m lt
o e n i p ly i g b t h m mb
u by th l w t
n c mm n o e ers e o es o o

d m in t f t
en o ha or o f ct i Thi p c
e se i c ll d c l
ra i g on s s r o e ss s a e ea r n

t t
.

h e e
q i f f ct
ua i
on o ra on s .

W t h e d c t
en h q re ti tt
u h f m
e e b by t
e ua on o e or ax ra ns

p ios n
g th k w t
e un m tt h fi t
no m mb
n d t
er h kn w s o e rs e er a n e o n

tm tt
er sh o c d d c ll c t
e se on i g t h tm i an ch m m b o e n e er s n ea e e r.

t t t tti t i th g iv n q t
,

T ify
O v er h l b ie r e su f , su s i n u e or x n e e e ua o .

2x x
E x am p l e 1 . So lve
2 6

To cl ear Of fr ac t
i on s , m ul t
ip ly b t
hm o em b er s b y t
h e 6 .

Th en 4x —3 (x — 2 ) =x —x) ,

4 x —3 x + 6 = x — 24 + 6 x .

Tr an sp ose an d c olle c tt
er m s ,
6x 30 .

Th erefo r e t
i 5 .

Ver ific a t '

i on
2
3
5 5
2
2 5
6
4 5

E x a m ple 2 . Solv e m x n pa : q .

T ra n sp o se an d c olle c tte rm s (m , p) x q n .

He n c e i f m p t h e e q u ati o n h as
,
t
h e i g le
s n r oo t(q n ) (m p) .

If m :p an d q n, ith as no ro o t .

If m =p an d q n, iti s an i d en t
it
y an d e ve r y val u e of 9 :
sa t
i fi
s es i t
.
 SI M PLE E Q UAT I O NS

E x a m p le 3 . Solve ( x a )( x b) ( x a 2
) .

Ex p an d ,
— 2 a x + a2 ‘

Can c el x2 , an d t r an s p ose an d c olle c t

term s .

Th en (3 a b) x a2 a b,

an d t
h f
er e o r e
a2

3a +b
ab

t
So m e i m es tf q t i b f d by i p cti
a r oo o an e ua o n c an e oun ns e on .

Th e e
q ti i th
ua c pl tly l d if i t
on b i pl qs en om e e so v e e a s m e e ua

t i o n, f it h or t
h t
t h th c an th f nd ave n o o e r r oo an e on e us ou .

E x am p l e . So l ve ( x a 2 ) (x b) 2 ( a b) 2 .

E vi d e n ly tt
hi s is a s i m p l e e q u at
i o n an d w h e n x b i td re u ces tt
h o e

t
t He n c e i ts r oo t
,

i d en i y ( b a 2 ) (a b) 2 . is b .

Th e t O f an e q u at i on of h e fo rm AB 0 i n wh i c h A
r oo s t
an d B d e n o te i n t h e fi rs t
e g r al e x p r e s s i o n s O f t d eg r e e i n x c an
tt t
,

be f ou n d by so l v i n g h e w o si m p l e e q u a i ons A 0 an d
B O § 3 41 I n l i k e m an n e r w h e n A B C a r e o f t h e fi r st
t
.
, , , ,

d e g r ee, h e r o o t s o f AB C : 0 AC B C an d A 2 2
B m ay
t
,

be f o u n d by sol v i n g s i m p l e e q u a i o n s 3 41 3 43 , ,
.

E x am p l e 1 . So l ve (x 2) (x 3 ) (2 x 5 ) (3 x 0
.

Thi s e q u at
i on is e qu i vale n t 347 , ,
tt
h f
o e ou r e qu at
i on s
{
I t x +3
-

0, 2 113 —5 2 0, 3 x + 2 =0 .

Hen c e i t t s r o o s ar e 2, 3,

E x ample 2 Solve 4 x2 5 x 3 x2 7 x . .

i o n h as t
This e qu at he t
s as t
h e sam e r o o t wo e qu at
i ons
an d 4 93

I t t t
h
s r oo s are f
e r e or e O an d 12 .

E XE R CISE V

t
h f e oll ow n i g e qu a t
i on s .

15 —3 x) .

+ 3) — 4 x (x — x)
x x (
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

3 (U (U 93

x —2 [x — [x —8 (x
— 1 ) —8 ] —2 0
2
§ 3 [4 ( 5 x
§
— 1)

5 —2 x 4 —7x x +2
4 +
5 10 2

x —4 3 x +5
_

6 4

5x 1 3 95 — 8 3:
. 3 2

3 cx —5 a + b —2 e z 6b

— c ) (d — a ) (b — b)
.
(b (c
+1
p ec t
x x
+ 2, by In s i on .

a +1 a

x +1 x —l
a +b a — b a2 — b2
m n

n m

(2 x — l ) (3 x

xZ — x) ( 2 x
(
—
(x

( x2 — 2 x + 1 ) 2 — (x

PR OBLE M S

On s ol vi n g probl em s In t
h f e o ll o wi n g t
p r o b l e m s i i s r e q u i re d
td i t ti
.

h e v al u es of c er a n u n k n o wn n u m ber s f r o m
o e r ve g i ve n
l t
i
re a c ll d t
h c
o n s, a e e on d i t
i on s o f t
h p e r obl e m c on n e ct
in g t
h e se

wit t
,

n b u h k
m w
e rs no n nu m bers a n d o n e an o h er

t
.

In ea c h c a se we re p r es e n t h
on e of e u n kn ow n num ber s by
a le t
t er, as x . Th e g i v e n c on di t
i th on s en e n a bl e us t
o e x p r es s
 A CO LLEG E ALGE BR A

An d i g ( 2)
s ol v n we Ob tain x 32/ 9, w hich b e i n g fr a c t
ion al is no tan

a dm i ss i ble so l u t
io n of t
h e p ro b l e m .

t en t p bl m wh i ch h td wi t
d e al in g w i h a h c t in
ro e as o o er a

m ga i td
n i
u t
es , l O f t
i
as m m
n m b t
h
e rv a s t t
h l tt e, re e er a e e er s

d i
u se tt
i g t
n h
s ap bl m n l g b i c ll y
e t p
ro et a e ra a ar e o re r e se n

nott h m g it e d t
ha ln b t
u th es b wh i ch
e m s e v es , u e num er s ar e

th ie r i t
m ea s u r es f ngi it
er m s it C o s om e v en un or un s ar e

tl b tk t p t f ll m g i t
.

m us a so e h m
a en o ex d
r e ss e e asu r e s o a a n u es

oft h m ki d w h t
e sa h
e k wn
n k w e i t ft
er h n o or u n no n, n er m s o e

it
,

sam e u n .

E x am ple 1 A tk hpply pip e A which wi ll fill i t

an as a su i n 3 h ou rs
a n d a wa s t e pip e B which wi ll e m p t y it i n 3 h ou r s a n d 40 m i n u t
.
,

es If
the t an k b e e m p t y wh e n b o t h pip es ar e Op e n ed h o w lon g wi ll i t
.

b e b efo r e
the t
,

an k i s fu l l

L et x den o t e th e n u m ber of h ou rs r e qu i r e d
Th en 1 x i s t h e p ar tfi ll e d i n o n e h o u r wh en b o t
.

h A an d B ar e o p en
Bu t we r e A alo n e Op e n t h e p ar t
.

fil l e d i n o n e h o u r w o u l d b e 1 / 3
An d we r e B al on e Op en (a n d w a t er i n t he t an k ) t h e p ar t em pt
.
,

i ed i n
O n e h our wou ld b e or

Hen c e
I
1 i 2
.

x 3 11 33

Ther efor e x z 33 / 2 h ou r s , or 16 h o u rs 30 m in u t
es .

E xa m ple 2 c r ew c an r o w 2 m il es ag ai n st
A th e c u r re n t i n a c er tai n

ht h e c u rr en t in 10 m in u t
.

r i ve r i n 1 5 m i n u tes ; w i t es Wh a t is t h e rate Of

th e c u r r e n t An d a t wh a t r at e c an t h e c re w ro w i n d ea d wat
.

er

Le t x r ate o f c u rren t i n m i le s p er m in u t e

AS t h e rat e of t h e c re w ag a i n st h e c u rr en t
.

t is i n m i le s p e r
m in u t e i n d ea d wa t er i t wo u ld b e 2 / 15 93

An d as t h e r ate of t h e cr e w wi t ht h e c u rr e n t
, .

i s 2 / 1 0 or i n m i l es
p er m i n u t e i n d ead wat er it
.

, w ou ld b e 1 / 5 x .

He n c e 2 +
1 5 n — x ,

wh e n c e x ( m i l es p er m i n u t e) ,

an d 2 x ( m il es p er m i n u t e)
1 5 .

E xa m ple 3 At wh at t im e t t wo an d t hree O cl o ck do t
b e we en h e h our
’

e h an d s o f a c l o c k p o i n t
an d m i n u t i n o pp osi t
.

e d i rec t
i on s
Le t x n u m b er o f m n u t es p as t two o c l o c k at
i
the t i m e re qu i red ’
.
 SIM PLE E Q UAT I O NS

Si n c e t
h mi th
e nu e an d tt tX I I i twil l t
s ar s a h en h a ve t r ave r s ed x

m in u t
e s p a c es

Th e h ou r h an d s t ar t s at I I or 1 0 m i n u t e S p a c es i n a d van c e o f t
.

he
m in u te h an d b u t a s fast as t h e m in u t
,

it m o ve s o n l y e h an d

The re fore wh e n t e h an d i s a t x m in u t e s p a c es p as t XII t

, .

h e mi n u t he
h ou r h an d is at 12 m in u t e s p a c e s p as t
,

10 x XII
Bu t by t h e c on d i t
i on s of t h e p r ob l e m at the t i m e r e qu i r e d t
h e m in u t
.

h an d i s 30 m i n u te s p a c e s i n a d va n c e o f t
,

h e h ou r h an d .

Hen c e x :
( 10 +
1
o r s olv n i g , in u t
e sp ac e s x 43 r7r m .

Th e re for e t h e h an d s p o i n t
i n o pp os i te d ir e c t
i on s a t
43 7
rr m in u t
e s aft
er

t ’
,
es b efo r e t
wo O c l o c k o r 1 6 I T m i n u t h r e e O cl o c k
4 ’
.

Som e im t es in t
h tt e s a em en t Of a p ro bl em t
h k e n ow n n um

ber s ar e d en o td by l
e e tt e r s , as a , b, c. Th e v al u e f o u n d fo r x

wil l th e n b e a n ex p r e ss i on i n a b wh i c h m ay r ep r e s ent an c
t t t
, ,

a d m i ss i b l e s o l u i o n O f h e p ro bl e m fo r c e r a i n v al u e s O f th e se
t
l e ter s b u n o fo r o h e r s tt t
Th e d i s c u s si on o f h e f o ll o w t
t
.
,

i n g p r o b l e m kn o w n a s h e p r obl em of c ou r i er s w i l l i l l u s t r ate
t
, ,

th i s p o i n .

E x a m p le Two c ou r i ers A an d B ar e tr avel n i g al on g t

he sa m e r oa d

t t t
t t h ou r r es p ec t
.

in h e s am e d ire c i hon a e r a es O f m an d n i
m l es a n i vely
Wi ll t be to g et
.

B is n ow d m i les i n a d va n ce of A . h ey e ve r h e r an d if,

so , wh en
Le t t h x e n um b er of h ey w i ll b e t
h ou r s h en c e w h en t og e t
he r
A w i ll t h ave t
.

h en r avel e d m x m i l es an d B nx m i l es ; a n d s i n c e
,
B is
n ow d m i le s i n ad van c e Of A w e h a ve ,

mx ms d ( )
1

mx = a
h o u rs h e n c e .
(3)
n

1 If A is t o o ver ak e t B, t
hi s val u e o f x m us tb e p os i t
i ve ; an d sin c e
hy pot h es is d m n all d en ot e p os i t t hi s re qu i r es t
h at
.

by i ve n u m b e r s
Which c o r r e sp o n ds t o th e O b v i ou s fac t t
ha t if A is t o o ver t
, , ,

m > n ak e

B h e m u st t er t
r av el fa st
.

h an B d oe s
At th e sa m e t im e we c an in te rpre t t i ve val u e which itt
h e n e g at
.
,

2 ak es

i f we s u pp ose m < n as m e an i n g t h at A an d B wer e t o get

.

h er d/ (n m )
h o u rs a g o .
1 24 A CO LLE G E ALG EB R A

3 If m c an n o tp rop erly sp eak in g de ri ve ( 3 ) fr o m

n, we sin ce

t Bu t
, ,
.

h e p r o c ess i n vol ves d ivi d i n g b y m n w hich i s 0 we c an d er i ve

( 3) fr om ( 1 ) i f m d iffers a t all fr o m n i t m at ters n ot h ow l i t
t
.

le An d i f
i n (3 ) we r eg ar d m as a var i ab le which Whi le g re a t er th an n i s c o n t
.
,

i n u a lly
a pp r o a chi n g e q u a l i t
y wi t h n t h e fra c t
,

io n d/ (m n ) b e c o m es a var i ab le
which c on t i n u ally i n c re ases an d t h at wi th ou t li m it 5 1 0
,

All o f w hich
c orr esp o n ds t o t h e ob vi ou s fa c t t hat th e s m aller t h e ex c ess O f A s r at
, , .

’
e

o ver B s t h e lo n ge r i t wi ll tak e A t o o ve rta k e B an d t h at A w i ll n ever

’

t tb t t
, ,

o ve r ak e B i f h is B ’
ra e h e e s am e as s ra e.

4 F i n al ly , i f we su pp o se bo t
h m n an d d t
h O, qu at
e i on ( 1 ) i s
e

t tt vi o u s fa c tt hat
.

sa ifi s ed by e ver y va lu e of x Which c o rre sp o n d s h Ob

o e

t tt t n ow to ge t h er t
.

if A an d B ar e ra ve l n i g a h e s am e r a e an d a r e hey
tg t
,

will a lwa y s be h o e er .

E XE RCI SE VI

1 The su m o ft
h d igi t f e s o a c er t
ai n num b er of t
w d igi t
oi s s 14 If
t f t d igi tb t
. .

h e or d e r O h e s e r ev e r s e d , h e nu m b er i s i n c r e ased b y 18
Wh at t
.

is h e nu m b er

2 B y wh a t num b er m u s t156 b e d i vi ded tgi t

o i t
h q t 11 ve e uo en an d

t
.

h e r em a n d er i 2

3 Th er e are t wo n u m b er s wh ose d iffer en c e i s 2 98 An d if th e gr e at

er

h e l ess t
d i vi d e d b y t h e qu oti en t h 12 Wh at
an d r e m a i n d er are b o t
. .

be
t
, .

a re h e n u m b e rs

4 Th e t
en s d igi tf t igi ti t
O a c ert
w ic t
ain h it nu m b er o f wo d s s e e un s

d igi t A d i f 1 b d d d tt h t d igi t d 5 tt
.

n e a eh i td igitt
o h e en s an o e un s e

bt i di t t
.

g t if t f t d igi tb
,

nu mb er o h im
a ne s h ree d h es as re a as e or er o e s e

fi t
rs d d t
r e verse h 1 b b tc t
an d f m t en h t d igi t d 5 f m e su ra e ro e en s an ro

th e uni td igi t Wh ts i t h . mb i a s e nu er
’

5 If 2 b b tc t d f me su c t i ra mb e d t h ro m i d b a er a n nu er an e re a n er e

m lt ipl i d b y 4 t lt
.

u h
e m i Ob t i d
e sa if twic t h
e r es umb d s a ne as e e nu e r an

dd d t g t Wh t i t
,

h lf
a mb
a nu l b er o n e h ess h e a mb e o e e r. a s e nu er

6 Af t h i wf
a tim
er ld
s no hi If b t
ou r h h d hi es as O as s s on o e an s

g h wi ll t h b t
.

Wh t
.

so n li 20 y ve l e ar s wi c
on ld
er , hi e en e e as o as s so n a a re

t tg f f t h c wi ll t
.

h p e re s e n h a d es o d h wm a y y er an h s o n , an o an e ars en e e

f t
a h b t er h tim e ld
r ee t h e s as O as e so n

7 A tk b fill d b y
an c anpp 3h
e d m pt
e i d by c d
on e i e 111 o u rs , an e e a s e on

t H w l g w ill i t tk t m p t
.

i 2 h
n d by hi d i 4 h
o u rs , a n a r n y t
h ou rs o on a e o e e

tk if i ttt f ll d ll t
.

an s ar h pip u p and a e es are o en e

1 26 A CO LL EGE ALGE BR A

20 c ert ai n q u an t
If aity of wat er h e a dd e d t o a gallon o f a g i ven

l iqu i d i tc on t o f al c oh o l ; i f t wic e t his qu an t ity of wat

.

ai n s 30% er b e

ad ded it c on t Ho w m u ch wat er i s a dde d e a ch t

,

a i n s 2 0% o f al c o h o l im e
a n d wh at p er c en t ag e o f al c o h o l d i d t
h e or igi n al li qu i d c on t
,
.
,

a in

21 A ti
ra n t w h o se
i i 45 m i l p h r a e oft tt i ttip mo on s es er ou r s ar s on s r

f m Phil d lphi tJ y Ci t y t d t t
.

ro a e 10 a o e r se h a A M an a A M an o er

ti wh ti 50 m il tt i ttip f m J y Ci t y t
.
.
,
. .

ra n h
o s e ra e s es an ou r s a r s o n
“
s r ro e r se o

Phi l d l phia A mi g t
e h t ath tw ci tssui 90 m i l
n p twh a e o es ar e es a ar en

will t h ti ch t d t wh t di tc f m J y Ci t
.
,

p e h
ra n s ass e a o e r , an
y a a s an e ro e rse

22 I f t w ti ttt th t im m t
o i di t
ra n s s ar h p c di g
a em es en on e n e re e n ex a

ch t t p i th lf w y b t y Cit
.

pl e d p an h ass ea o w er J a ay do n a a e e en e r se an

Phi l d lphi a d if t
e h l w ti m
a , an g f t t e s o h wift er ra n ov e s as as as e s er o n e ,

wh t t a h i t d wh d t
ar e h yp
e r ra e s , a n ch t h en o e ass e a o er

23 A b b i t i w d i tc
ra q l t50 f h l p h d f f
s no a s an e e ua o o er ea s a ea o a ox

H w m y l p w i ll t b b ittk b f t
.

which i p i gh s u r su n h
er . o h an ea s e ra a e e ore e

fox tk h i f h tk 5 l p whil t
o ve r a es er h f
s e tk 4 b t2 f
a es ea s e e ox a es u o

t q i l t t3 f h l p
,

h f e l p
ox s
’
ea s are e u va e n o o er ea s

24 I f 1 9 c f g l d w igh b t ou n 18 es c who o bm g d i e u ou n es en su er e n

w t t
.

d 10
a er , a n c f il h w igh 9
ou n es o c h wm y s ve r c en e ou n es , o an ou n es

o f il s d f g ld
ve r a n th i o m o f ll y f t
ar e h t w m te re l n a ass o an a o o e o e a s

which w igh 38 7 c i i
e s d 35 1 c i w t
ou n es n a r an ou n es n a er

25 A t l tt j r av e er s e
y w it h c t ou i m fm
on a y i o u rn e a er a n s u o on e n

h i p ck t d ch d y p t f wh t t h d y wit
.

s o e an ea h b g a s h d$
en 2 o a e e an e a an

b ides At
es th d f t h t hi d d y h i me en y w o h t ed H w r a s on e as e x au s e o

t t tt
. .

m ch h d h
u h a e a e ou se

2 6 Th b f c t i py m i d i
e a se o q a dt
er a nh ltit d f ch
ra s a s u ar e , an e a u e o ea

ft h t d it l t l ly i q l t dg f t
.

o i gl which b
e r an es ou n h b a er a s e ua o an e e o e as e

t d lt i td t ft
.

W e rehi dg s e ch i c e an d b y 3 i ch
a u h e ea h n r e a se n es , e a re a o e

py m i d w ld b i c
ra d b y 1 17 q
ou e i ch
n Wh t
re ase i th f s u ar e n e s. a s e ar ea o

th py m i d
e ra

2 7 Th m ft h d igi t f
e su c t io mb e f t w d igi ti s o Ifa er a n n u er o o s s a

t ft h d igi tb d t Wh t
. .

h d
e or er o h
e mb i i c
s d by b
e r e ve r se e nu er s n r e ase a

i t ? Sh w t h t t l t
, .

s h mbe nu h er i i dm i i b l o ly w h
a 9 2 be so u on s a ss e on en a

an d wh b th9 en b d 9 o b ct
a, ly d i i i b l b y 1 8
an a ar e e x a v s e .

28 Tw p A dB o w d by
e r so n s ld
an p ct i ly I ar e n o a an e ars o r es e ve s

t t A wi l l b c t
. .

h e re ai m wh A w whe en i as o rld B d if en e m e s as o as , an

so , wh e n
D is cu ss h e t r es u l t
f i
o r va r ou s val u e s o f a , b, c , as in 3 54 .
 SI M ULT ANE O U S SI M PLE E Q UAT I O NS

IV . S Y S TE M S O F SI M ULT AN E O US S I M PLE
E Q UATI O NS

S I MULT ANE OUS E QUAT I ONS

A c on d i i on al t e qu a t
i on tin
w o u n k n o wn l e tt e r s, :
a s a an d y,
wil l b e sa t
i fi d s e b y i n fin itly e m a n y p a i r s of v a lu e s o f t
h e se

le t
t e rs W e c al l e v e ry su ch p a i r a s ol u t
i n o t
h of e e qu a ti n o

t h n t
t
. .

Th e li k e i s tru e o f an e qu a i on in m ore w a o u n k n ow n
l et t er s .

Thu s th q t
i e e ua on y 3 ( 1) i s sa t
i fi
s ed i f we gi ve a n y va lu e wha t
t: d t ty
,

s oever h
o a an e c o rr e sp o n d i n g va l u e o f 3 2 a; o F o r in ( 1)
it
t t y mb t
h t
.

su b s u e an nu e r a s b fo r a: an d 3 2 b fo r y, an d we h ave e ru e

i de n t
, ,

it
y 2b (3 2 b) E 3
t
.

n -
a r e so lu i on s

of

No t Wh t
e. w t t y en d o u n k n own le e rs , ac, ar e u n er c o n s i d e r at
i on t
h e

t h t:i th t t
,

t
,

e qu a i :z 2 m
on a h l 2 ean s a a s o a ve e va u e an d y a n y va lu e wha
t t t t i n fin i t
,

s oever ; i h w d n oh q i z 2
erh h or s, e e ua o n a; en as a n e n u m b er

of so u l t i A d t
h l ik
on s i t f y q t i n e e s ru e o an e ua on w hich i n vo lve s b u t
ft t
.

on e o h k w l t
e un no n e ers .

I t
i th s f q u i r e wh e h e r h e re m ay n o b e
e r e o r e n a u r al t ti o n t t t
p ai r s o f v al u e s o f a a n d y w h i c h w i l l s a i s fy wo g i v e n e qu a t t -

t t t
t
;

i on s i n h ese l e e r s Su c h p ai r s u s u al ly e x i s t
. .

Thu s , bo t
h t
h e e q u at
i on s 2 3; y 3 an d 3 1 5 ar e sa t
ifi s ed

wh e n x =2 an d y
— 1 ; fo r 2 an d 4 — 1) E 5 .

Si m u l ta n eou s equ a t
i on s Two or m ore e qu a t
i on s i n v ol v i n g
cert t
t tb i lt
.

ai n u n k n o wn le e r s ar e s a i d o e s mu a n eo u s wh e n ea ch
u n kn o wn le t
ti er s su p p o se d ttnd f t
h o s a or e s am e n u m b er in
a ll
‘
t
h e e qu a t i on s .

Th u s th e e qu at i o n s 2 a: y 3 ( 1 ) an d 4 9: 3 y 5 (2 ) are s im u l
t t e t
o d en o t
,

a n e ou s i f we s u pp o se a: h e sa m e n u m b er i n
(1 ) as in an d

y i il arly
s m

t tc h tll t
t t
cc u r i n every on e of t
t
.

I is no ne e ss a r y h a a e u n kn o wn le er s o he
equ a t
i on s Thu s a: .
, 2, y it
3 c on s tut
e a p a ir o f s im u l t
an e ou s e q u a t
i on s
in a:an d y .
1 28 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

G e n e r al ly Sp e ak i n g , t
h e s u pp o si t
i t
h ton a c e rt
ai n equ a t
i on s

ar e s im u l a tn eo u s is a ll o wa b l e o n ly wh e n t
h e nu mb e r of

e qu ati on s is e q u al t o, o r le ss t
h t
h an , e num be r o f u n k n o wn

le t
t er s .

Th u s the t i o n s 51:z 2 an d a: 3 c an n o tb e s i m u l t
wo e qu a t an e o u s

m u st e d ifi er en t
den ot n u m b e rs i n t
he t
, ,

s i n c e a: wo .

A s olu t
i on o f a sy s e m t of sim u t l an e o u s e q u a t
i i on s s an y se t
o f va l u es t
h of e u n k n o wn le t wh i c h
t ers wi l l t
i fy sa s a ll t
h e

e qu a t
i f t
hon s o e sy s e m t .

t t t
.

y l is a s ol u i on o f h e sy s e m

2 113 4 31-
2 3, 4 x + 3 y : 5 .

To s ol v e a s y s e mt t t
i i t fi d ll i t
o f s i m u l a n e ou s e qu a on s s o n a s

l t
so u i tp t
on s o r h t it h o l t
rove i a as n o so u on

wh i ch t t
.

Th i g
e r e aso n n h p c on d p d i i il e ro e ss e en s s s m ar o

th t d c ib d
a es rd i ll tt e d i an 3 3 4 33 5 u s ra e n

i t f q t
.
,

Th h c
u s, f p i
n e i
a se o i x d y w b gi
a a r o e ua on s n an e e n

by pp i g t
su h t : d y c tlly h
os n a a l an whi c h t i fy a ua av e v a u e s sa s

b t h q t
o i e O tua hi on s pp i ti th n q t
i sy b su os on e e ua on s ma e

t td l ik i d t it d t ck i g pp l i d t
.

re a e i e h l
en f es an e ru e s o re on n a e o

th em By i d f t h l
a w od tt f t
e se ru esh e en eavo r o r an s o r m e

q t i t f q t f t
.

e iua on s n
p i
o one i
or m ore h f a rs o e ua on s o e o rm

as:
y =a, b If t h p c b y w h i c h ceh p i
ro e ss su a a r as a

t
.
,

y b h as bee n d e r i ve d i s r eve r s i ble wh en x, y h ave h l e v a u es

a, b, w e m ay a t on c e c on c l u d e t
h t a a, b is on e of th l e so u

t i on s s ou g h ; t an d th e p r o c e ss is re ve r sible if itc i tf on s s s o

r e ve r s i bl e tp
s e s

t t
.

Th e on l y n e w p r in c i p l e i n vol v e d in a ll hi s is h f e o ll o wi n g

Pri n c i pl e of s u b s tit tui n If f m t

o h pp i t
i h tll t
t h
ro e su os on a a e

t c tl ly t f ll w t
i fi d it h t t
.

g i ven equ a i on s are a ua sah l s e o o s a e v a u es

of a c er ti p
a n a ir of p ex i A d B th
r ess on s , m t
h an are e sa e, e

t t t t t t
,

on e exp r ess i on m a y b b i
e su d f h sh i u y f h
e or e o er n an o e

equ a t
i on s .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

F ort
h l ti f t
eh i so u on s o e n d i vi d u a l e q u at
i on s r e m a in un ch an g ed by
su ch t f m t i
rans o r a on s .

Th t h p i
us f q t
i e a r o e ua on s 3 9: 2 y z1 an d y 2 a 5
t l t
,

h as h m e sa i e so u on s as 2y z 1 an d y 5 2x .

T h eorem 2 . Th e p a ir o f e
q ua t
i on s

y X, f (x, y ) = 0

ha s he t s a m e s o lu t
i on s a s t
h p e a ir

y X, f (x, X ) : 0 .

He r e X d e n o t
e s an y e x p r e ss i o n in 3; al o n e c o n st
(o r an t
a ) f (a y ) a n y
t r es u l to f su b s tit
ut
, ,

ex p ress i o n in a; a n d y, an d f (a , X ) h e i n g X for y i n
f (x y) , § 2 80
t p e ci al c ase o f t i tt
t
,

Th e h m i eo r e s m er e ly a s h e p r i n cip l e o f su b s i u on .

Th u s th p i e a r of e q u a ti o n s y a: 2 an d 3 a: 2y 1
t so lu t
,

h as h e s am e i on s a s y z a; 2 a n d 3 a; 2 (a 2) 1 .

Th eorem 3 . Th e p a ir f o e qu a t
i on s

Az B, C D
ha s t
h e s a m e s o lu t
i on s a s t
h p e a ir

C= D .

F or A z B, O z D h as t
h e sa m e so l u t
i on s as

O z D, C = D h as t
h e sam e s o lu t
i on s as

Th u s , t
h p e ai r x +y z 5 an d r —y z l

h as t
h e sa m e s ol u t
i o n as x + y + (x an d a —y z l ,

an d t
h f
e re o r e a s 2a : 6 an d a : y z 1 .

Corol lary th t
h m B e fo r e
f § 3 69 w m y a p pl y i n g e eo r e o e a

wit tch g i g t l t m lti ply b t h t

.
,

h ou h i i an h gi n e r so u o n s, u o e ve n

eq t
i
ua th t i b
on s t h b f c h q ti — bya
y s, o m em er s o ea e ua on an

c ttw pl
on s a n s c pt0 H c e e as e , e x e . en e

If k d 1d t y c tt c p t
an 0 t h p i f q t
i
en o e a n on s a n s ex e ,
e a r o e ua on s

A B, C D

ha s h e t s a m e s o lu t
i on s a s t
h p e air

kA z t=s t
lD , c =D
‘

.
 SI M UL T ANE O US SI MPLE E Q UAT I O NS

Theorem 4 Wh en A B, and C a re in t
e
g r a l, t
h p
e air f
o

t
.
,

i
equ a on s
AB O C 0
has t
h e sa m e s
o t
lu i on s as t
h t
w p
e o a i rs

A = O, 0 2 0 a nd E = O,

F or AB 0 h as t
e s a m e s o lu
h t
i o n s as h t
t w e o e qu at
i on s A 0 an d

B O j i t
ly
o n 34 1
t t t t t
.
,

He n c e h e sol u i on s o f h p e i
a r AB 0, C 0 are h e s a m e as h os e

of t
h p ie a rs A 0, C 0 an d B O, C O j oi t
lyn .

t l t
Th u s
h i , e so u on s o f my 0 an d a : y 2

areh tf
t a o a z o an d x +y z 2,

tg t
o e ht
h wi t h tfer a o y 0 an d :
a y 2 .

E qu i v al en ty tms s e s t
Tw o sy s e m s o f s i m u l an eo u s e q u a i o n s t t
tb t t t t
.

a r e sai d o e eq u i va l en wh e n h e i r s o l u i o n s ar e h e s am e .

Th u s t h e p a i r o f e qu a t
i o n s a: 2 y z 5 2 a y 4 is e q u i va len t t o t
he
5 4 a: 3 y z 1 0 b o t h e sa m e so l u t
h p a i rs h a v i n g t
, ,

pair y ion 1 2
Ag a i n t 2 i s e qu i val e n t t
o the t
, .
, ,

h e p ai r f
, ry 0 a; y ,
w o p a i r s a; 0 ,

E LI M I NAT I ON . S OLUT I ON OF A PAI R OF S I M PLE E QUAT I ONS

E l i m i na i on t To eli m in a te an u n k n o wn le t
t er, as a , fr o m a

t t t t
.

p ai r o f e q u a i o n s i s o d e r i v e fr o m hi s p ai r an e qu a ion in
wh i c h a: d o e s n o o cc u r t
t t t
.

We p ro c e ed o e x p l ai n h e m o r e u s ef u l m e h o d s o f elim i
na t
i g n : a or
y f r o m a p ai r o f s i m p l e e q u at i o n s in x an d y , an d

o f d e r i vi n g t t t
h e so l u i o n o f h e e q u a i on s fr o m h e r e s u l t t t.

Me t
h d o of su b s t
itt
i nu o . Thi s m e t
h d io s b ase d o n t
h th
e e o re m

of 3 68 .

Exam ple . So lve

1 32 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

Hen c e h e t s olu t
i o n , an d t
h e o n ly o n e , of
( 2) is x 3, y 2
t q u at t
.

F or , b y 36 7 , 3 6 8 , h e fol lo wi n g p a i rs of e i on s h a ve he sa m e

s ol u t
i o n , n a m e ly : an d t
h e

s ol u t
i on o f (5) is x 3, y 2
tf t
.

Th e sam e c o n c lu s i o n m ay b e d ra wn d i r e c ly ro m § 36 2 F or h e

t
.

pr oc ess fro m ( 2) o (6 ) i s r e ve rs i b le .

Verific a i on t .
-
2 3, (1) 3 ( (2 )
He re (4) w as ti
ob a n e d by el i m i n at
in g x b y s u bs it
t t
i u on .

t k w lt
To eli m i n a t f e an u n no n e er , a s x , r om a p a ir of equ a t
i on s
by b t
it
sut
i bt
si p u i f on , o a n an ex r ess on or x in tm er s of th e ot h er
l t
e t( l tt) f m
er or ft h e
q ti er s ro on e o e e u a o n s, a n d t
h en in t
h t
h
e o er

eq t
iua
pl c by t
hi
on r e
p i a e x s ex r es s on .

Th e f ol l o w i n g ex a m pl e i ll u s ttra es a spe c i al f orm of t hi s

t
m e h o d, c al l e d el i m i n a t
i on by com par i s on .

E x am pl e . Sol ve x 5y 7,
(B 6y 8 .

Sol vi n g bo h ( 1 ) t an d
(2) for x in tm
er s of y ,

x =7 —5 y , (3 ) x =8 —6 y .

Equ at in g t h ese t wo e x p r e ss i o n s fo r x , 7 5y 8 6y .

Sol vi n g ( 5 ) y 1 .

Su b s titut i n g 1 fo r y i n x 2 .

He n c e t h e s ol u ti on o f ( 2) i s x 2 , y z 1 .

Me t
h d o of a dd it
i on or s u b rac tt
i on Th i s m e t
h d o is b a se d
h t
t
.

h e e orem of 3 6 9, 3 7 0 .

E x am ple . Sol ve 2x 6y z 7,
3x 4y 4 .

Mu lt
iply ( l ) b y 3 , 6 x 18 y 21 .

M ltip ly (2) b y 2
u ,
6 x Sy 8 .

S b tc t
u
(4) f m
ra ro 26 y 13

Wh en c e , y
Su b s tut
it e fo r y i n 2 x 6 ( 7 .

Whe n c e ,
x 2 .

Hen c e h e t s ol u t
ion o f ( 2) is x 2, y 1 2 .
1 34 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

In t h i s c ase t h p i A e a r 0, B 0 h as n o so u l t i on ; for an
y
v al u e s o f x , y t h t k Ba m a e E 0 w i l l m ak e A E l, no t
AE 0 .

Thu s le t
A=2 x +6y B =x +3y
an d

h t
t t tt I f w
,

H er e A E 2 B 1, so A a 0 an d B 0 a re n o c o n s i s en e

i m i n at t
t t ty
.

el e x fr o m (4) we s h all a h e s am e im e el m n a ei i .

Form u l as for t
h e s ol u t
i n o We m ay r e du ce an
y g i v e n p ai r of

t tt
.

sim pl e e qu a i on s in x,
y h f o e or m

' '
c ( 1)
’
ax by ,
a x by c ,

wh e r e a, b, c '
a ,
'
b, c
'
d en o tk e n ow n num ber s o r e x p r e ss i o ns
t t t
, .

By § 3 7 7 , h e p a i r 2
( ) h a s o n e so l u i o n , an d b u o n e,

u n l e s s a c o n s an tt
k c an b e f ou n d s u c h h a a '
k a an d b'
tt kb;
an d t
h f
e re o r e a b
'
a
’
b k (a b a b) : 0
ti t ty t
.

To o b a n th i s s ol u
i on , e l i m in a e an d x i n d e p en d en ly by
t
h t
h d e me o o f su btct i ra on , 376 . Th e r e su l s a r e t
' ' ' '
( ab a
’
b) x bc bc , ( )
3 ( a b a
’
b) y ao
'
a o.
'
( )
4

Th er e fo r e, if ab
'
a
'
h 0, t
h e so l u t
i on of 2
( ) is
' ' ' '
bc be ao a o
,
' ’ ' '
ab a b ab a b

Th ese f or m u l as a r e m o r e e a si l
y re m e m b e r ed i f wr i tte n

x 1
bc ’
bc
'
ab
’
a
’
b ( )
6

D id we no tk wi no ce t h at
n a d va nt
h e p air (2 ) h as t
a s ol ui wh on en

ab
’ -

a
’
b 0 t
h g e ar u m en th e re gi ven wo u ld o n ly p r o ve h t
t if t
a h p i e a r

sol u t
ion i t
,

(2) h as any is ,

E XE RCI SE VII

Solve h e tf ol l o w n i g p a i rs o f e q u at
i o n s for x an d y .

x +y z 6 2, 6 x —5 y z 2 5,

x —y = 12 . 4x —3 y z l9 .

x —x, l2x s 9 —l oy ,

8 x —3 y 8y =7 —9 x.
 SI M ULT ANE O US SI M PLE E Q UAT I O N S 1 35

x/ . 3

4x —3 y = 4 6 y
(
—5 —
) (y l ) ,
10
(4 + y ) —y — x)
x
(8 .

ax by zc , r (a

px qy .
(a
x + y 21
—x
+ —
a y u x+2 y
—5 y
— 3 y + 2 x —5
3 2 n
9
4 6 4 6
x
+ 5x —2 y +6
—0
5
.

:
3 v 93
+ +
a b a b

w y 1
e+ a
a
’
b
’
c ’
b a

Sh o w t t
h th f
a e oll o w n i g e qu a t
ion s ar e en t
i n c o n s i st .

15x 1 0, 6 x l oy 15 .

I n E x 15 ign va lu es t
a ss o a b c a b c fo r which
’ ’ ’
e qu at
i on s
n ot en t i n d e p en d en t
, , ,

c o n si st (2 ) n o t
.
, ,

ar e ( 1) ,
.

PAI R S OF E QUAT I ONS NOT OF THE FI R S T DE GR E E W HOS E

S OLUTI ONS CAN BE F OUND B Y S OLVI NG PAI R S
OF S I M PLE E QUAT I ONS

A p ai r o f e qu a tf th fi t d gt
i w i th
on s w hi c h are n o o e rs e ree

res
p ct
e t dy yy t o x anb f t h fi t d g wi th p ctma e e o e rs e re e res e

t c ti p i f f c t
o a er a n i f d y W
a r o th l un on s o x an e c an en s o ve

t q t t ct t lt it
.

h e e i ua f hi p i f f
on s i d f
or h s a r o un o n s, a n rom e r e su

i
s o ft p i bl td i
en t
h
o ss l f d y t
e h l o e r ve e va u e s o x an e m se v e s .

E x am pl e 1 . So lve 2+ 5
9+ 10
x 3y x y

Bo t
h q t
ei ua o n s are o f t
h fi t
d g
e rs e ree wi t
h r es p ect
to 1 x an d 1 y .

So l vi n g fo r l / x an d l / y , we fi n d l / x 1/y Hen c e
x 3, y 5 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E x a m p le 2

Solvi n g fo r
. Solve 3 x

x an d y / x, we fi n d
g 6, 7 x

x 1, y / x
2
: 3 . Hen c e x 1, y 3 .

G i v en a p ai r o f e qu a t
i on s re d u c i b le tt
oh f e o rm AB : 0,
AB ' '
0, wh e r e A, B , A B d e n o
' '
ti tg
e n e r al e x r e ssi on s o f
p t
h e

td g i It h t
t
,

fir s d y
e r ee f ll w f
n x an o o s r om h e eo r e m of 37 1
h t ll t
t l t f t bt
.

a h ai hi p i
e so u on s o s a r c an b i d by
e o a ne s ol vin g
t
h f e p i O f
ou r i p l a rs
q t
i S m e e ua on s A O, A = O ; '
A = O,
B = O; E
'
= 0 A = O; B
'
= O, B = 0
'
, .

E x am p l e . Sol ve x2 2 xy 0,
—l 0
( x y ) (2 x + y .

This p a i r is e qu ivalen t
to t
h e fo u r p a i r s

x + y —1 = ( 3)
2 x +y (4)
x —2 y = 0, x +y —1 -

0, ( 5)
— 2 0, 2x +y
x y (6 )
-

Solvi n g t
h ese fo u r p ai rs (6 ) we ob a n ti t
h f e ou r s olu t
i on s

of (l ) , n am ely :x , y
-
0, 1 ; 0, 3 ;

An d , i n g e n e r al , if AB C an d AB C ' ' '

d en o tp
e r od u cts of

m an d n tg l f ct in e ra a or s o f th fi e rs t d e g r ee i n x an d y, all t
h e

s ol u t
i fth p i
on s o f e a r o eq t
i ua on s AB C O, A B C ' ' ”
0
c an be f ou n d by t
s o l vin g th
p a i r s o f si m p l e e q u a i o n s
e m n

t t t t t
o b ai n ed by c o m b i n i n g e a ch f a c t o r o f h e fir s p r o d u c e q u a e d

t t t tt
o 0 wi t h e a ch f a c o r o f h e se c o n d l i k e w i se e q u a e d o 0

I f ll t q t b t
.

h p i
a f i pl e sei h i d p d t
a rs o s m e e ua o n s ar e o n e en en

d c
an i tt w t h
on s s enbt i l ti th ti th
e b us o a n m n so u on s, a s, e num er

ft t i t h p d ctft
,

f l t
o i so u h gi o ns o
q i e h i d g ve n e ua o ns s e ro u o e r e r ees .

E XE R CI SE VIII

Sol ve h e tf ol lo w n i g p a i r s o f e q u at
i on s .

7 1 3 14
 A CO LLE G E AL GE BR A

in t ct t
h p i t
er s e
p i ct , as e o n -
u re , o r g r ap h, of t
h p e a i r o f v a l u es

x a, y b
t t t h t
b t
.

I i c s on v e n i e n tp o re r e se n h o e v al u e -

p ai r x a
y b
d i tg
,

an s ra
ph P by t
h y e s m b ol ( a, b)
t t t
.

W e c a ll h e num ber a, or on e of h e e q u al l in e se g m en s

0A or B P, t
h e a bs c i ss a O f P ; an d b, or o n e of th q e e u a l se g

t t di t f P A d w
m e n s OB o r AP , h e or na e o n e ca ll t
h e a b s ci s s a
ttg t t
.

and di or h h b di tO f P
na e o e er e co r
’

n a es

t
.

W l c l l X OX t
e h — i
a so h i a
'
e x ax s or e ax s o
f a bs c i ssa s an d

Y OY t t
,
’
h y i h i f edi t -
a x s or e ax s o or n a es .

Ob ser ve t h t
t
h db i g ththi l ap i f yi t t s me o r n s e va u e -
a rs o x, n o on e -
o on e
-

c p d c
o rr e s 2 wi t
onht h p i tft
en h pl e, ; th ti f ch l e o n s o e an e a s, o r ea va u e

p i ( b) t p i t ch p i t P t
,

a r h i
a, P d cip c ll y f
e re s on e h o n an re ro a or e a o n ere

i gt
,

p i ( b) f d b y m h d i tc f P f m Y OY
’
i v l
s on e a ue -
a r a, ou n e a su r n e s an es o ro

d K OX p cti ly d an
’
r es e ve , an

gi i g t h m t h i pp v n e e r a r o

pr i a tSige ns

p a rt t
.

In ic u l ar
gr aph h e

h at
,

o f ( 0 0) i s t h e o r igi n t
o f ( a 0) i s a p o i n t on t
, ,

he
ax i s an d t h at
,

x— o f ( 0 b) i s

a point on t
, ,

h e y ax is -
.

E x a m pl e Pl o tt h e va l u e.

p airs —3 —4
, ,

5, (3 ,

Car r y i n g ou t
the c o ns ru c t
i j t
t c r i b ed ea ch
'

d
on us es fo r
p a ir in tu r n we o b t ai n
val u e -

th e i r g raph s a s i n d ic at
,

ed ih -

th e a cc o m p a n y i n g fig u r e
t
ic p t h ow t
h e p osi t h e g r aph d e p en d s o n t
i o n of t
.

No ic l e ar u a rl y h e s ig n s
o ft
h c o di
e t o r n a es .

Th e g rap h of a n equ a t
jqq m x an d y I f, as is c o m m on ly t
h e

t t
.

c a se a g i v en e q ua i on In x an d y h as i n fin i e l y m an y r e al

t t t
,

s ol u
i h w il l
on s, l ly b e re u su a e a d e fi n i e c u r ve w hi c h c on

ti n t
a h g ph
s f ll th e l t
i d
ra s o a e se so u on s an no o t
h er p o i n t s

hi c v t
.

W c ll t
e a h g ph f t h s
q t
i ur e e ra o e e ua on .
 SI M UL T ANE O US SI M PLE E Q UAT I O NS

Bu tt
h g ph e ra o f an e qu at
i on c o n s i st
m ay of m o r e t h an on e c u r ve
th t st
ra igh t
.

O b se r ve w h a e e re i n c lu d e l i n es a m o n g c u r ve s .

Th eorem Th e g r ap h of e ver y s i m p le e qu a t
i on in o n e or bo ht
t
h l t ti g h t
.

f
o t e e er s x and
y i s a s ra li ne .

On t
hi s a cc ou n t
S i m p le e qu at
i on s are o ft
e n c a ll e d li n ea r e qu a t
i on s .

Th e td tm
s u en a
y c o n v i n c e h i m s el f
r e a d il
y of h tt
t h f
e ru o

h et
t h e or em by sele ct
i n g so m e p a r t i c u l ar

q t
e i ua o n an d
“
p l o t
t
i g n a n u m ber of i ts

l t
so ui on s .

Th u s t ak e th e e q u at
,
i on y 2x 4 .

Wh en x 0 l 2 3 , , , ,

we h ave y : 4 2 0 2 , , , ,

An d p lo t tin g t h ese valu e — p ai rs (0 4) ( 1 2)

as i n t
, ,

( 2 ( 3 — 2) h e a cc o m p an y i n g
fi g u r e we fin d t h att h e i r g raph s all l ie i n t
, ,

he
s am e s tr a igh t
,

l in e .

We m ay p r ove t
h t
h e eo r e m a s f ol l o w s
1 . W h en t
h q tei e ua on h as t
h f e o rm

x a , or
y b
.

E x am p le . F ind he t g ph f ra o x 2 .

Thi s e qu at
i on is sa t
i fi d by t
sh e e val u e 2 o f x an d ever y val u e o f y, 356
p ar all el to t h e y ax i s a t
.

Hen c e t
h g e ra ph is a -

th e d i st an c e 2 t o it s r igh t F or t hi s l i n e c on
t
.

a i n s all p o i n t
s w h ose a b s ci ss as ar e 2 an d su ch

point
,

=2 s on l y
( x ) .

An d i n g e n e r al , h e g r a p h o f x
s o, a t
tt t
t is a p a r all el o h e y ax i s a h e d i st an c e -

[ t th i g h t l f t cc d i g ai o e r or e a or n as a s

p i t
i g ti v ; d t
h g p h osf ve or n e a e an e ra o

y b i p l l t t
h i tth s a a e o e x ax s a
-
e

d i tc | b | b v b l w cc d i n g s an e a o e or e o a or

as b is p itiv osn g t i e or e a ve

t t 0 i t
.

In p aric l h g ph f y
u ar , h i
e d th t f
ra o s e x a x s , an -
a o

x 0 is t
h y— i e ax s .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

2 . Wh en t
h e e qu a t
i n h
o t
h f as e orm y mx .

E x am p le . F in d t
h g e ra ph of y 2x .

Th e g ra ph is t
h e r igh t l i n e which p asses t h rou gh t h e orig in (0 0) an d
t
h p i t this l i n e c on t wh o s e or d in at
a i n s e ve r y p o i n t e is t
,

(1
e o n 2) fo r wic e
it s a b s ci ssa an d s u ch p o in t
,

, s o n ly .

An d so, in g e n e ra l, t
h e g r aph o f
y mx t
h ist c e ri gh li n e wh i h p asse s
b ro u gh t
h igi d th p int
e or
(1 n an e o ,
m
) .

3 . Wh t h qenti h th f e e ua on as e or m

y mx 6 .

E x am ple
ph o f y 2 x 3 . F ind t
h g e ra .

E vi d e n tly we s h all o b tain th e gr aph o f t hi s

e q u ati o n if we i n c re ase t he o r d i n a t
e o f e very

po i n t of t h e gr aph o f y by 3 Bu tth at c o m es to t h e sa m e t hin g

as s hift ing t 2 x u p war d p ara llel t
.

h e l in e y o

it
s el f u n til its poi n t of i n te rs ec ti o n wi th t he
y a x i s is 3 u n i t
-
s a b o ve th e o r igi n .

An d g e n e ral ,
so, in
h e g r a ph o f t
mx
.

c i s a r i g h l i n e p a r a l l el o t t
th e g r ap h o f y m x an d m e e i n g he t t
y ax i s a
-
t
t tc
h e d i s a n e [c | fr om h e o r ig i n , t
a b ov e o r b e l o w a cc or di ng as c i s po s i
t i v e o r n eg at
,

i ve .

To fi n d t
hi s li n e AS an y t
w o of i t
s

t td t
.

p oi n s s u ffi e c o e e rm in e a r ig h t l in e,
w e m ay fi n d h e g r ap h o f t an y equ a t
i on , a x by c 0, as

t
i n h e fo ll o w i n g e xa m p l e .

E x am p l e . Plo t th g ph f 3
e y 6
ra 0 o x .

F i rs twh en y 0 t h 2 S c d wh
en x :0 th y 6 e on en x z en

ly t th p i t th ti th p i t
,

pl t
. .
, , ,

He n c e w e h a ve on (2 0)
o d (0
o e o n s an a s, e o n s

t wi ll m t t d d wt which t p i t
, ,

where h li e ne h ee h li
e axes , a n h ra e ne ese o n s

de tm
er ine (see fig u re in
t t q u at t
t
Thi s me h d f ilo a s wh en h e e io n h as one of h fe or m s x a,

y b, y mx . We t
hen fin d t
h e lin e by he m e t
h d
o s ex p la i n ed in

§ 38 4, 1 an d 2 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EB R A

Th e gr aph of ( 1) c on si st
s of t
h e l i n es PQ an d R S which ar e t
h g e ra phs
of 4x y 7 0 an d 3x p ct
2y i vely
17 0 re s e
T h e gr a ph o f (2) c on s i st ti QR which ar e t
.

s h e g raph s
o f h e l n es P S a n d

of x 2y 5 0 an d 2 x 3y 7 z 0 r e sp e c t i vely
Th e p o i n t Q R S i n w hich t h e p a i r P Q R S m e et s t
.

s P h e p ai r
P S QR a re t h e s ol u t
h e g ra p h s o f t
, , , ,

,
io n s o f ( l ) n a m e ly
(1 (2 , , , ,

(5 , (3 ,

Graph of an equ a t
i n
o of h i g h er deg ree i n x an d y W e fin d a
t l t f t t tt t
.

num h ber i of h e so u on s o e e qu a i on , plo h e se so l u i o n s,

and t
h wit h f
en h d d a re e an ra w a c u r ve w h i c h wi l l p a s s
t
h g h
roull t h p i t t
h fa e o n s us ou n d By t ak i n g t t
h e s ol u i on s

gh t g t t bt
.

“
n ea r
”
h w
e n ou o e er , e c an in h i s w ay o i c v a n a ur e

wh i ch d i ffe r s fr om t
h t g ph e ru e ra

as li t
t
l e w e p l e ase
as

t ti
.

In wo r k o f h i s ki n d i s c on

ve n i e n tt o u se
p ap e r r u l ed in t o

sm all s q u ar e s , as i n t
h e a c c om

p an y i n g fi g u r e .

E x am pl e F in d t
h e graph of t
h e

qu a t
.

e i on y x2 .

Wh en 1, 2, 3,

we h ave y = 0, 1, 4, 9, 16 ,

An d wh en -
1, —2 — 3 — 4 , , ,

we h a ve 1, 4, 9, 16,

Ta k i n g t h e s i d e o f a s q u ar e as t he
u n it o f l en g th pl ot t
h e c or r e s p o n d i n g p o i n ts (0 (1 ( 2 4) 1
A fe w o f t h e m s u ffi c e t o i n d ic at e t h e g e n e r al ch ar a c t
, , , , ,

2 4) er of

t h e g r aph t h e c u rve i n t h e fig u r e e x c e p t b et
,

wee n x l an d x 1 2

It l i e s w h o lly ab o ve t h e x ax i s e x t n d i n g u p war d i n d e fi n i tely ; a n d i t

.
, ,

e
-

l i es sy m m e t r ic a lly w i t
h r esp e c t t o t h e y ax i s t
,

h e sa m e valu e o f y c or r e
-

t
,

s p on d i n g o x a an d x a .

Wh en x =i 1 / 2, i l / 4, u

we h ave y

an dp l ot tin g o n e or two of t
h c e or res p on d i n g p o i n t
s we fin d t
h tt
h a e

graph t o u ch e s t
,

h e x—
a x is .
 SI M ULTANE O US SI M PLE E Q UATI O NS

E XE RCI SE IX

1 . Plo t
th f e ol l o w n i g p a i rs o f val u e s o f x a n d y .

(0 , (5 , (0, (6 , 7, 4, (5 ,

2 . F ind t
h g e ra ph s of t
h f e o ll o w n i g e qu a t
ion s .

y z o, 2y + 7 = 0, 3 y + x : 0,
7x +3y 3 x — 4 y = 24 .

3 . F in d he tg ra ph s o f t
h e fo l lo wi n g .

xy = 0, ( x +y —3) (x x2 a2 z 4 y2, x2 + y =0 2 .

4 F in d h e t s olu ti ft
h f ll wi g p
on s o e o o n i
a rs o f e i on s b y t
q u at h e gr aphi
t ify t lt l g b aic
.

c al me h d o a n d ve r h e r e su s a e r ally .

y 2 0,
( 1) —2 y = 0
x . 2y

5 . Do h e t sa m e wi t
h ea ch of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g p ai rs .

( ( — — 2 = 0
x y x ) x
(1 ) — (2)
( 3 x 2
+ y l o) ( 2 x (y
6 . F in d h e tg ra ph s of t
h f e o ll o w n i g t
w o e qu at
io n s .

y : y : x3 .

S YS T E M S OF SI M PLE E QUAT I ONS W HI CH I NVOLVE MORE

T HAN T wo UNKNOW N LE TT E R S

tMe
h d f o o s ol v i n g a s y s em of n s i m t pl e equ a t
i n o s in 11 u nk nown
l t
e t Ap ers ai r of equ a ti on s in t
h r ee u n k n o wn le t
t e rs wil l
tly l t
.

o rd in ar ily h a v e i n fin i e m an y s o i u on s .

Th u s th e p ai r x y z z 1 h as i n fin i t
el y m an y s ol u t
i ons ; fo r
h e qu at
b ot i o n s a r e sat t tz
,

i s fie d i f we as s ign a n y va l u e wh a so e ve r , a s b, o

an d t
e val u es
h 2b an d b 1 t o x an d y .

t y tm f t
Bu h a s s e o r ee si m p l e equ ati on s in t
h r ee u nk n o wn
l t
et d i ily h
ers o r n ar as on e , an d bu t on e , sol u ti on wh i c h m ay
bt t
,

b e oi d h f ll
a ne as I n e o o wi n g e x am l
p e .

E x am ple . Solve h e t t
sy s e m o f e qu a t
i on s
3x
2 x 5y 3z —9 ,

6 x 3y 2z 7 .
1 44 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

E l i m in a tz b t
e w e een t
w o p a i rs of t
h ese e i on s t
qu a t hu s ,

Mu l t
ip ly ( 1 ) b y 3 , 9x 6y 12 z 39
Mu lt
ip ly (2 ) b y 4 , 8x 20 y 12 z
Ad d 17 x 14 y

Ag a i n , ( 1 ) is 3x — 2 y + 4 z = 13
t
M u l ip ly ( 3) b y 2 l2 , x 6y 4 z z 14

S b tc t
u
(7) f m
ra 9 ro x 8y 1

E lim i ty b t
na e w t
h e een e resu l t
i gn e qu at
i on s t
h us

M ltu iply (6 ) b y 4 , 68 x 56 y 12

M ltu ip ly (9) b y 7 , 6 3 x l 56 y
-
z 7
S b tc t
u
( 1 1) f m
ra ro 5x 5

He n c e x z:1 .

Su b s itt
t i gu n x 1 in ( 9) we fi n d y 1 .

Su b s t
itt
i gu n x 1, y 1 in w e fin d zz 2 .

Th e refo r e § 36 2 i f (3 ) h as an y s o lu t
i it
ion , s x z 1, y 1,
z z 2 Bu t t
, ,

h e p ro c es s b y which we h a ve d e r i ve d x 1, y 1, z 2
c ti t tc
.

fro m (3) is r ever s i ble I n fa m ay re a d i ly be ra e d b ac k

tp b y tp t
,
.

war d s e s e . He n c e x 1, y 1, z 2 is h e s o lu t
i on of

We m ay a l so h at
p rove as follo ws t x 1, y 1, z t
2 is he s olu t
i on

of

I t
i i d en t
s ev by 368 t hat x z 1 y z 1 z 2 is t h e so l u t
i on o f
We t h erefo r e h ave o n ly t o p r o ve th atth e s y st
, ,

em
( 1)
h as t h e sam e sol u t i o n as t h e gi ve n s y st
em

Le t u s r e p r e se n t t h e e qu ati on s ht
wi t h e k n o wn t er m s tra n s

p o se d to t h e fi r st m e m b e rs t hu s ,

—
A O = 0,
, (1 ) E (2) (3)
t tI wi ll
h en follo w fr o m t h e m an n er i n which ( 9) a n d ( 1 2) wer e der i ve d ,
t
h t
w m y
a e a e x p r e ss t
h e e qu ation s ( 1 2) t
hu s :
A 2 0, (1) (9) 19 A + 1 6 B — 1 4 C : 0 .
( I 2)
E vi d en ly an y t se tf o valu e s o f x, y, h at
z t m ak es A 5 0, B 5 0, 0 5 0
will m ak e A 5 O, A 2 0 5 0, 1 9 A + 16 B 14 0 5 0
t
.

Co n ve rse ly , wh e n A 5 0 an d A 20 5 0, h en 0 5 0; an d wh e n
al so 1 9 A + 16 B 14 0 5 0, t
h en B 5 0
t tm t t t t
.

He n c e h e sy s e (3 ) h as h e s a m e so l u i on as h e sy s e m

n a m ely , x l, y 1, z 2 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

F r om t it
h id ty Ae en 5 kBtf ll w t h t lC i ’
o o s a e ve r
y s ol u

t i on of B O an d 0 O i l t i
s f A
a 0 so u on o H en c e i f
i tt 3 7 7 2 th t t
.

B 0 an d C 0 are c on s s en h e r ee e qu a i on s

tly m t
, , ,

A O, B O, 0 0 W i l l h a v e i nfi n i e an
y so l u i on s .

Th u s c on s i der
, t
h t
e sy s e m o f e qu a t
i on s
A : 3x —2 y + 4 z
B : 2 x 5
+ y — 3z+

0 =7x +8y —2 z +

E li m i n a t
i gzb t
n w e ee n ( 1) an d

3A +4B 5 17 x + 14 y —3 = O .

E li m i n a t
i gzb t
n w e e en
(1) an d

A+20 5

17 x + 14 y
E li m i n a t
i gy b t
n w e een ( 4) an d

2A + 4B — 2 0 5 0 .
x (6 )
He r e th fi l q ti
e na e ua on a x b 0 h as h e tf orm 0 -
x 0 0, an d in
d er i i g i tw fi d t
v n h t t
h e n a e ex p res s i o n s A B, 0 ar e con n ect
ed by t
h e

tit
, ,

i d en y 2A 4B 2 0 0 5 or 0 5 A 2B
tw h at ti
.
,

An d , i n fa c e see on ex a m n n i i g (l ) (3 ) t 0 m ay b e ob a n e d

t a dd i n g t
h e r e su l t t
, ,

by m u l iply i g B b y 2
n an d o A

c t y t e l y m an y s ol u t
( 3) h as i n fin i t
.

He n eh m e s s e i on s .

2 If a O an d b 0, i t
W ill b f e ou n d t
h t fth f ac on e o e un

t d i t ft t tw t
.

i on s A, B , 0 m ay b e e x p r e ss e n er m s o h h h e o er o, us

A 5 kB + l C + m ,

w h er e k, l, m d en o tc tt
e on s an s, m no t
0 We t
hen say t t
h th a e

t t tt
.

e qu a i on s A O, B O, C O ar e n o c o n s s en i
t
h id t
it tf l l h t
t
.

Fr o m y Ae en 5 kB lC m i o o ws A a O,
B O, C 0 h av e n o so l u t
i on F or an y v alu e s of x , y, z h t
t a

t
.

m ak e B 5 O an d 0 5 0 w i l l m ak e A 5 m ,
no A 5 0 .

Th u s c on si d er
, t
h t qu a t
e sy s e m o f e i on s
A : 3 x —2 y + 4 z
B : 2 x + 5 y —3 z +

0 =7x +8y —2 z +
 SI M ULT ANE O US SI M PLE E Q UATI O NS

E li m in a t
i gz n an d y a s ab o ve , we ti
ob a n

2 A + 4 B —2 0 5 0 -
x =0 .

He n c e t
h fi e n al e qu a t
i on ax b 0 h as t
h f e or m 0 x 2 0, an d

A B, C
’
c on n e c t
ar e ed b y t h e i de n tit y 0 5 A 2B 1 An d , in fa c t
( 3 ) we fi n d t hi s to be t
, .
,

o n e x am i n i n g ( l ) h e c ase
He n c e t h e sy s t (3 ) h as n o so lu t
.
,

em i on .

Sy s tm
e s of s i m ple equ a t
i on s i n g eneral F rom t
h p e re c e di n g
t
.

d i s c u ss i o n we m ay dr aw h c e on c l u s i on
Or di n a r ily a t f
s ys e m imp l q t
i o i k w
In s e e ua on s n 11 un no n

le t
t er s ha s on e so u l t i wh m on i fi it ly m y enl ti n, n n e an so u on s

wh en m II , l t
n o so u i wh m on en n

c pt ft
.

IVh en ever ex i e tthi l

on scc tw o m h s ru
q e o u r, o or or e o e e ua

t
i on s a r e con n e ct d by i d t
e ic l l t
i fth ki d d c i b d i
en a re a on s o e n es r e n

3 7 7 , 3 94 .

I n p ar t i c u l ar , a sy s t em o f h r ee t si m pl e e qu a ti o n s A 0,
t
t t
,

B : 0, C 0, i n wo u n k n ow n l e t e r s, x,
y , h as a i s ol u on

wh e n , a n d o n ly wh e n , A, B , C a re c on n e c t
e d b y an id t
it
y f
en o

t
h f e or m A5 kB lC ’
an d B O, 0 O ar e c o n s i s tt
en .

Th u s t
h e sy s e m t x y 1 x y 7 3x y 1 0 ( 3) h a s no

s ol u t t t t
,

i on fo r h e so l u i on of n a m el y , x 4, y 3 , d oes no

s at isfy
t t
On h e h o er h an d t
h e sy s e m x t y 1 x y 7 3x y 9 (4)
t t tb h t
t
,

h as a s ol u i on ; fo r (4 ) i s sai fi s ed by x 4, y 3 . Bu o se r ve a

3x —y —9 5 2 (x — y
t
Le t
h td t
d wt h g
e s u en ra e ra ph s o f He wi ll fi n d t
h t
th y
a e

m ee t
i c mm p i t
n a o on o n .

E XE R CI SE X
Solve h e tf oll o w n i g t
sy s em s o f e qu a t
i on s .

x +y + z =L
1 .
y + z : 13,

123 + 2y —3 z z 3, 5x —2 y : — 33 ,
3 . 3x —5y + 7 z = l9 x +y — 7 z = m,
5x —8 y — 1 1 z x + 3y -
10 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

x +2y —4 z : 11, 3x —5 = 2 (x
5 . 2x —3 y : 0, 6 .

y
—4 z : 0 .

6
x z
"

y
1 1 4
+
z
“

a g
3 2 1

y x z
4x

5 y + z —4 a z l 7,
10 . by + az m ,
: 12 ,
.

3y + u

lx z my z n z, 2x 3y 6 z,

( x +2 y +z —l 6 ) (3 x

Sh o w h t
t t
h f a e oll o w t
i g n sy s e m s ar e n o ti d n e p e n d en tan d fin d t
h e
i d en t
it
y which c o n n e c tt
hsq t
i e e ua o n s of e a ch sy s e m t .

x _
y z 37 3 x

13 .
y
—z —5 , 14 . 2x + 5 y — 3 z = 12,
z —x : 2 16 x + 9 y —z : 8 0 .

PR OBLE M S

Th e f ol l o w i n g p ro blem s c an be s ol v e d by m e an s o f si m l
p e
e qu a t
ion s in t
w o or m o re u n k n o wn le t
t e rs , a s x ,
y, Ho w
m an y of t h l t
t i ti b tt pl
e se e er s s es o em oy in c as e wil l
an y

de p e n d on th c d it
i f t
e h p blon on s o e ro em Bu t
wh e n a c h o i c e
f t t
.

h as be en d
ma e h k w b o e un no n num er s of h e p ro ble m
wh i ch x, y t p tdt h
are o re r e se n an e re m a i n
n u n kn o w n

nu m b e r s if an y h a ve b e e n e x p r e ssed i n t t t
, ,

erm s of h e se le
t
te r s i w ill b e fo u n d t h at t t t t
, ,

h e c o n di i o n s o f h e p r o b l e m s il l
u n u se d w i l l y i e l d j u s t t tt
,

a s m an y i n d e p en d e n a n d c o n s i s en

e t
qu a io n s on n ec in g x , 1c a s h e re ar e l e t t t
t ers x ,y, In
ct t
fa , i f h ey g av e m o r e h an h i s n u m be r t t o f e qu a i on s,t t
h e
150 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

c on ta in 32 % of al o c hol Wh at
ar e t
h p e c tg
er e n a e s of al o c h ol i n A an d B
re sp e c t
.

ive ly
Le t x an d y d en o tt
eh p c tg e e r e n a e s o f al o c h ol in A an d B r es p ect
i vely
c d it
.

Th en by t
h gi e ve n i wonh on s e s all h ave
3x 2y 40 x 2y 32
°
’
1 00 100

Solvi n g ( 2 ) we fin d x or y or

E XE R CI SE XI

1 F in d t
h r ee n u m b er s wh o se su m i s 20 a n d su ch t
hat(1) t
h fi t
e rs

plu s t t c d pl t tim t h t hi d q l 44 d (2) t

.

wic e h he s e on us wic ree es e r e ua s an e

th e sum ft h fi td o c d mi e f rs tim t
an h t hi d q l
se o n 14 nus ou r es e r e ua s .

2 Th m f th e su mb i 51 o If t h fi t mb
r ee n u b di id d e rs s e rs nu er e v e

by t q t d t 5 b t if t
.

c d t i t
.

h h
e se on i 2 h e m i d
uo en h c d s an e re a n er u e se o n

h t hi d t i t
t d t
,

nu mb b d i id d b y t
er e v h q e i 3 h m i d
e 2 r e uo en s an e re a n er

Wh t t
.
,

a h mb
ar e e nu ers

3 Fi d mbn f t w d igi tf m t
a nu h f ll w i g d t
er o :( 1 ) t
wic
o s ro e o o n a a e

th fi t pl t h t im t c d q l 3 7 (2 ) if t ft
.

e d igi t
rs h us ree h d h
es e se on e ua s e or er o e

d igi t b s d t h mb
e r e ve r s e i di m i i h d b y 9
, e nu er s n s e .

4 A w $5000 d B w $
o es 3000 A c l d p y ll h i d b tif
an o es ou a a s e s

l d p y ll b t
. .

b ides hi es w m y h h d g f B
s o n ; d B c
on e e $100
a o
’
s an ou a a u

o f h is d eb tif b
s es i d es h is o wn m o n ey h e h ad of As ’
. Ho w m u ch m on ey
h as ch
ea

5 F in d t h e for tun es o f t h r ee m en A B an d C fr om t h e follo wi n g

d at A an d B t og et
.
, , , ,

a : h er h ave p d ollars ; B a n d C q d ollar s ; C an d A

Wh a t i o n s m u st
c on d i t p q an d r s at h at
i sfy in o r d er t t
, ,

r d o l l a rs he
s ol u t
.
, ,

i o n fou n d m ay b e an a d m i ssi bl e o n e
6 A su m of m on e y a ti m pls e in t
er e sta m ou n t
s t
o i n 2 y e ar s
t Wh at t h att
.

an d i o n 4 y ears is h e su m of m o n e y , an d w he
tfi t t
.

ra e o n eres

7 A m an ed a c e r t
i n vest ai n p ar tly i n 4 % b o n d s a t su m
p ar of m on ey
p ar tly i n 5% b o n d s a t1 1 0 an d h is i n c o m e fr o m t h e i n ves t
.

m en t
,

was $ 6 50
If t h e 4% b o n d s h ad b e e n a t
80 a n d t h e 5 % b o n d s at
, .

1 1 0 h i s i n c o m e fr o m
t m en t
h e i n ves t 100 g r e at Ho w m u ch d i d h e i n ves t
,

w ou ld h ave b e en $ er .

8 th Fin d e a r ea o f a r e ct an g l e fro m t h e foll o wi n g d a t a :i f 6 i n ch es

dd d ti tl en g th an d 6 i n ch es t o it s b r e ad t h t of t
.

b e a e o s h e o n e b e c o m es he
t d t a re a o f t
h e r ec t
,

o h h
e r , an e a n g l e i s i n c r eas e d b y 8 4 s qu a r e i n ch es .
 SI M UL T ANE O US SI M PLE E Q UAT I O NS 1 51

9 A gave B as mu ch m o n ey as B h ad ; h en B g ave A t as mu ch
t t
.

m o n ey as A h ad lef ; fi n a lly A g a ve B as m u c h m on e y as B h en h ad
l ef tA t
. h en h ad $
1 6 an d B $
24 . Ho w mu ch h ad ea ch or igin ally
10 A an d c e rt
B tg t
h
a i n pi e c e o f wo r k i n 5
o e
; d ay s ; A
e r c an do a

All th re e o f t h e m wo r k a t it
.

an d C i n 4 4 d ay s for 2 d ay s wh en
A d r o p s ou t a n d B a n d C fin i s h i t Ho w lon g wou l d i t t
.
, 5

in d ay s ak e

e a ch m a n se p ar a t
ely t o do t
.

h e pi e c e o f work

11 poi n ts m o ve a t
Tw o an t
c on st e s al o n g t
ra t h e ci r c u m fer en c e o f a
ci r cle wh ose l en g t h i s 1 50 fee t Wh en t h ey m o ve in Opp o s i t
.

e se n ses

th e y m ee t e ve r y 5 se c on d s ; wh e n th ey m o ve i n t h e sam e s e n se t
.

h ey ar e
tog e t h er e ve ry 2 5 se c o n d s Wh at h e i r r at
ar e t es .

12 tk t w f igh t
I t
w ti W h l gt
ou ld h 2 40 y d
a e d o re ra n s o se en s ar e ar s an

p cti ly 2 5 c d tp t
.

2 00 y d ar s res e h wh m i g i
ve se o n s o a ss o n e a n o er en ov n n

o pp i td i c t
os i b te w th ti re m i gi t h
on s m d i ec t
i it u ere e ra n s ov n n e sa e r on ,

w ld t
ou k th f t a 32 m ie t tp t eh l w Wh t
as e r o n ea nu es o as s e s o er o n e . a re

th t ft
e r a es oh ti i m il p h e ra n s n es er ou r

1 3 Tw tm A d B ply b t w
o s ea th citi C d D whi ch
er s , an e e en e es an ar e

p t Th tm A ttf m C 1 h l t t
.
,

2 00 m i l es a ar h B e s ea er c a n s ar ro ou r a er an

tk B i 2 h w it
.
,

o ve r a e d h i g ch d D d m d
n 4 h ou r s , an av n re a e an a e a ou rs
’
a

th it t t
er e , o n ip m t B 10 m il f m D Wh t t
s r e u rn h tf r ee es ro . a ar e e r a es o

A an d B

14 In a h alf m ile -
ra ce A c an b ea t
B b y 20 y ar ds a n d C b y 30 y ar d s
t
. .

By h o w m an y y ar d s c an B b ea C

15 tA an d
w 440 y d c
B I t
runh fi t c A gi o B tt -
ar r a es n e rs ra e ves a s ar

db t c d I t c d c A gi B tt
. .

of2 0 y d ar him by 2
s an h
ea s se o n s n e se on ra e ves a s ar

d b t Wh t t t fA d B
.

of4 c d se o n h i m by 6 y a d
s an ea sh r s . a ar e e r a es o an

16 Tw p g t g t h h
o 500 p
a ssen d f b gg g
ers O o p y e er a ve ou n s o a a e ne a s

t t t h w igh tll w d If t
. .

h h f e o c ber h b g
o r e x e ss a o ve e e a o e e a

g g h db l g d t h d tp y $
.

a e a p e on h w ld h
e o on e 4 H w e r so n , e ou a ve a o a o

t i gl p
.

m ch b gg g i
u ll w d f
a a e s a g o e ree o a s n e a sse n er

17 Gi th ll y ve nf t h f ll wi g c m p i t
ree a i A 5 p t(b y
o s o e o o n o os on ar s

w igh t 1 l d B 2 p t 1 l d C 3 p t
.
,

e ) g ld 2 il o s g ld 5 il
ve r , ea ar s o s ve r , ea ar s

bt ll y c t
, , , ,

g ld 1 i l
o 4 l d s T ver , i 9 c f
ea i i g q l
o o a n ou n es o an a o on a n n e ua

q t iti (b y w igh t
.
,

u an
) esf g l d i l de l d h w m y o c f A B o s ve r , an ea o an ou n es o

tb t d t g t
,

d m lt
, , ,

and C m k us e h a en an e e o e er

18 A d B ll y an f S il d c pp ar e a A ll y which i 5 p t
o s o ve r a n o er n a o s ar s

d 3 p t d 11 p t
.

w hich i 5 p tA
.

A an B i 52% il ar s O s s B i
ve r ne s ar s an ar s s

Wh t t tg f i l i A d B p c t
.

427 i l J s ve r h p c . a ar e ei ly er en a es o s ve r n an res e ve
 A CO L LE GE ALG E B RA

19 A m ark sm a n wh o is fi r i n g a ttg t500 y

a ar e ar ds tt d is
h th an e ar s e

ttik 2 g c d ft h fi d i tt
.

b u lle s r e A b se o n s a er e r es . n o s e r ve r 600 y d
s an ar s

f m t
ro h tg t d 2 10 y d f m t
e ar h m k me han ar s ro e ar s an e a rs th b ll t ti k
e u e s r e

2l c d ft h h
se on th p tf t
s a h ifl er e e ars e re or o e r e Fi d t h n l ci t
y e ve o

l ci t f t t
h t b th ft
.

of d d t
s ou nh y han b ll t mi g e ve o o e u e as su n a h o o es e

c tt
,

l ci t
ve o i es a r e ons an .

2 0 A tk i pp l i d b y tw pip an A d B d
s su e o es , an an em pt
ied by a t
hi d r

pip C I f t h tk b f ll t
h tk w i ll b
.
,

e, d ll th pip b ep an e u an a e es e o en ed , e an e

pt
.

em ied in 3 h ou r s ; p en e d i n 1 h o u r ; i f B an d 0
if A an d C a lon e be o

al on e b e o p e n e d i n 45 m i n u t I f A su pp l i e s 100 m ore g allo n s a m i n u t

,

es e

th an B d oes wh at is t y of t
h e c ap a ci t he t
, .

a n k a n d h o w m a n y g allo n s a .

m in u te p ass t h rou gh e ach o f t

, ,

h e pip es

PROBLE M S I LLUS T RAT I NG THE ME T HOD OF UNDE T ERMI NE D

COEFF I CI E NT S

We t
p r o c e e d o c on s ide r on e o r wo s i m p l e p r o b l em s t r el a tin g
tt
h
o e s ub j e c m a tt
t
e r o f al g e b ra i se lf t
t t
.

Th e in q u i ry m ay a r i se w i h r e g ar d o so m e p ar t i c u l ar f u n c
t t
i on o f h e v ar i able s u n de r c o n si d e r a i o n , Can h i s f un c i o n t t t
be red c d t u e o a ce rta i n sp e c ifi e d fo r m an d if s o, wh a t it a re s

ffic i twh e n r e d u ce d to t
,

c oe en s hi s f o r m ?
Th e fo ll o wi n g e x a m p l e wi ll il l u s ttt
h m t
h d
ra e e e o of a tck
t a

in g a p r o b l e m of t h i s k i n d .

E xam p le Ca n th p i e ex r es s o n x2 4x 6 be r ed u c ed t
o th e for m o f
ft
.

a p oly n o m i al o h c dd g
e se on e r ee in x 1, an d , if so , wh at a re i t
s c oef
fic ien ts wh e n r e d c d tt
uhi f
e o s or m

Th e m os t
pr ess i o n o f t
g h e fo r m in q u e st
e n e r al e x t
io n m ay b e wr i ten
a (x l )2 b (x 1) c wh e r e a b c d e n o t e c o n stan t s

He n c e if t
h e re d u c t
i on u n d er c o n s i d erat
, ,

i o n i s p os s i b le we m u st
, .

, h ave ,

( 1)
( 2)
By § 2 84, h e n c e ( 1 ) wi ll b e a n i d e n t
( 2) an d it y wh en an d o n ly wh e n
th e c o e ffi ci e n t
s o f l i k e p o we r s o f x i n ( 2 ) ar e e q u al th at
, ,

is wh e n a 1 , , ,

2a +b 4 z
, o r s o l v i n g fo r a b c wh en a : 1 b : 2 c = 3
, , , , , ,

Hen c e
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

399 Th e m e h o d i ll u s t ce di n g se cti on s i s c alled t

ttd i t
h p
ra e he n e re

m et h o d o f u n deter m i n ed c oefii c i en t
s It is th e p r i n c i p al m e t
h od
o f i n ve s t
i g ati on i n al g e b r a a n d we sh all o f te n h av e o cc a si o n t
.

app ly i t as we p r o c e e d .

E XERCI SE X II

1 . Ex pr ess 3 x3 x2 2x 5 as a p oly n om i al in x 2 .

2 . Ex p ress 4 x2 8 x 7 as a p o ly n o m i a l i n 2x 3 .

3 . F i n d f (x) ax? bx h at
c su ch t
f( 1) 11, f( 1) 5, f ( 5) 6 .

4 . Fi n d f( x ) a x3 bx2 cx d su h at
ch t
f (0) 5, f( 1) 1, f ( l l = 9 f (2 ) , 31

5 . F in d f (x , y) ax by 0 Su ch t
h at
f (0 ,
0) 4, f (4 , 0, f (l , 0) 6 .

6 . F in d a s m i p l e e qu at
i on ax by l 0 t
w o of wh ose s ol u t
ion s

ar e x =3 y =1 ,
an d x : 4, y 1 .

7 . Can a s i m p l e e qu a t
i on ax by c 0 b e fou n d which h as t
h e

x : 4, y : —1 ;

8 th i m pl q t
F in d i wh e s e e ua on ose graph i s t
h tigh t
li
e s ra ne de ter

d by th p i t(2
.

mi ne 4
e o n s , ,

9 D tm i c t h tth g ph
e er ne so a e ra of 3x y c 0 wi ll p ass t
h r ou gh
h p i t 2
t
.

e o n ,

10 F i d tw i m pl q t i by 1:0
’
by 1
’
n o s e e ua o n s , ax 0 a x

ch th t b t t
.

su h a i fi d by z 2
o a r e sa s e x , y 3 an d als o
( 1) by x 7, y 5
an d

Plo t
th g e ra phs o f t
h e se e q u a t
i on s .

11 . F in d t
h e e qu a t
i on x3 bx2 c x d 0 wh ose ro o s aret 2, 1,
an d 3 .

12 F in d an e qu at
i on of t
h f e orm x2 bxy cx dy 0 which h as
t t
.

h e solu i on s l , y : 0; x —2 , y : 1 .

13 . E x p r es s 3 x 2y 3 in t
h f e or m

a (x + y
wh ere a, b, an d c den ot an t
e c on st s .
 T HE D I VI SI O N T R ANSF O RM AT I ON

V . THE D I VI SI O N TR AN SF O R M ATI O N

THE GE NE RAL ME T HOD

Preli m i nary n
co s idera t
i n o s In 3 1 9 we d e fin ed h e q u c i en t t t
t tf t t
.

A by h s im l o whi c h h e fr ac t i o n A B
‘

of B as e p es orm

c an be r e du c ed by t
h e r u l e s of r e ck o n i n g
tg i v t t t
.

We ar e n o w o e a g en er al m e h od fo r fin d i n g h e q u o t i e n
as th us d e fin e d, wh e n A an d B are p ol y n om i al s i n h e s a m e t
le t
t e r , as x , an d t
h d e eg r e e o f A is no t l th n t
e ss h t f B a a o

i t
t tt t
.

1 I h nps e o ss i bl e h a B i s a fa ct
or ofA i h w d n o er or s,

d tt
.
,

t h at A c an be r e du ce h f o e o rm

A 5 QB,

wh e r e Q i s an in t
g e ra l f u n cti on of x .

A
W e then h a ve
B

t h at i s, t
h q t
i nt
e uo e of A by B is t
h i nt
e eg r al f u n c t i on Q ;
an d we say th a t A is ex a c t
ly di vi s i bl e by B .

Th u s , if A = x3 + 4 x2 — 2 x — 5 an d B : x2 + 3x t f
— 5 , i will b e ou n d

t
h t a x3 4 x2 2x 5 (x 1) ( x2 3x an i d en t
it
y f t
h f
o e or m

Q b ei n g x +1 .

H en ce —x 1
—5
.

B x2 + 3x

2 Bu ti t
w ill u s u a ll
y h app e n t h a t B i s n ota f a c t or o f A

tt t
. .

We c ann o t th en re du c e A o h e f o r m QB ; b u , as w e s h all
Sh o w, § 401 , w e can re du c e ittt o h e f orm

A 5 QE + B , 2
( )
wh er e b o th Q an d R ar e in teg r a l f u n c t i o n s of x , an d t
h d g
e e r ee

of R i s l ess th an th at o f B .

We th en h ave
1 56 A COLLE G E ALG EBR A

t h at i s, t
h q e uo ti en t of A by B is t
h e su m o f an i nt egr al fun c
ti on Q, an d a fr a c t
i on , R B , wh ose n u m er a or ti s of lower
th n i td
,

d eg r ee a s en om i n at o r
t t h q t
tf t i t
.

I hi c
n w c s a se e a ll Q h i t
ge n e ra l p ar o e uo en , an d

R t h i d
e r em a n er .

Thu s if A we c an a ton c e

r ed u c e A t
o t i g it
,

h e for m ( 2) b y wr i t n

x3 +2 x2 +3x +

wh ere Q i s x an d R is x 3 , which i s o f l o we r d eg re e t
h an B .

A x3 +2 x2 + 3x + 3
He n c e
x2 +2x +2 x2 +2x +2

Th e di vi s i on t f
ran s or m a t
i on I t re m a i n s th o S ow h ow t o

o t
ce A t
.

r e du h e fo rm QB R , wh ere R i s of l o w e r d eg r e e t h a n
B a n d m ay be 0 Th e p r o es s by w h i h c c t h i s i s u su ally ac c o m
t t t
.

p li sh e d i s c all e d h e d i vi s ion r a n s or m a i on , f or “
l o n g d i vi s i o n ”

t ttd i t
.

I i i ll
s u s ra eh f n e o ll owi n g e x a m p l e

L t
.

Ae —2 an d B : x
2 —x + l
t t t tfi d
.

H h d g
ere e e r ee of B is w o, a n d h p e ro b l em is o n an

i t g l f nct
n e ra i u on , Q, su ch th t t
h a i d R e r em a n e r, o bti d by
a ne

bt ct fth fi t t td
“
,

su i g QB f
ra n rom A, sh a ll b d g
e o e rs e r ee a m os an

m ay b e 0 ; for i f su ch a f u n c t i on Q , b e f o u n d
, , we Sh all h av e

A QB 5 R, an d th er e fo r e A 5 QB R .

Si n c e t
h d e fou r an d th at
eg ree of of R i s t
A is o b e n ot

g r e a t
e r t h a n o n e Q m u s tb e s u c h t h a t
th e fi r st th r ee t
er m s of A

a r e c a n c el l ed w h e n w e su b t Th i s s u g g e s ts t
,

ra c t QB h e f ol l ow
t
.

i n g m e h od for fin di n g Q .

—2 x
2
x +1: B
2x B : 2
2x “ — 2 x3 + 2 x 2
A —2 s 3
5 x +2 x + 2
x —2
5 xB 5x 3 — 5 x2 + 5 x
A 7x — 4 x —2
2

2—
7B 7x 7 x +7
A 3 x —9 : R
 A COLLE G E ALGE BRA

P r oc eed i n a si m i la r m a n n e r wi h h e r em a i n der h u s o b tt t ti a ne d,
tl di g tm by t
d i vi d in g i h l d i g tm f B
s ea n d er e ea n er o an s o on

C t t t
, .

i onh p c il
nu e m i d e i c h d wh i c h i f
r o ess u n a re a n er s r ea e s o

l w
o d g
er th Be W h ll t
ree h h f d ll t
an h tm e s a en a ve oun a e er s

t
.

o
f Q d h,
fianl m i d w i l le b A QB na B re a n er e or .

Iti c t m y ts us o
g t h ck i g i t
ar h m o ar r a n e e re on n n e an n e r

i ll tt d b
u s ra e W t h a d t
o ve ch d c ffi c i t e c an en u se e a e oe en s , as

i m lt i pl i c t
.

n u i a on .

E x am pl e ] . G i ven A: 2 x5 — 6 x4 + 7 x3 + 8 x2 — 1 9 x + 2 0, an d

E z a2

2
2
-
19
—l + 3 4 Hen c e Q = 2 x3 —x + 5
5 an d R z o .

th ti td f t
Ob se r ve h fi tm i d a n s ea o e rs re a n er , 1 8 19 20, we
r h t
w i t ly t p t 1 8 1 9 w hich i i l
e on a ar s n vo ve d in t
h tbt e n ex su r ac

t t
h tt c d c ffi ci tf Q i 0 b th t
, ,

i l
on h a so a e se on oe en o s c
e au se w l di g e o ea n

tm f A c c ll d b y t h fi t b tc t
,

er s o i
ar e an e e e rs su ra on .

E x a m pl e 2 . G i ven B : x2 + 2 x,
fin d Q an d R .

R em ark s on t
hi s me t
h d o 1 Ob se r ve t h ti
a th di i i n e v s on

t t tm d i t m i p y t
. .

r an s o r m a f i on ea ch in er e a e re a n der l h ol a s e r e of

a n ew di v i d e n d ; a so l th t if R d t y a en o e an su ch r e m ai n d e r , Ql
dy b t d Q t tf Q
I

t
h e p a r o f t Q al rea i d o h a ne ,
an 2 e res o ,
w e h a ve

A 5 Q 1B ——
l RI an d R1 5 Q2 B + R .

2 c
Th e p r o e s s b y wh i c h Q an d R a r e f o u n d i s n o i se l f h e tt t
t t t
.

d i v i s i o n o f A b y B , b u a p re l i m i n ar y p e r a i on o n s i s i n g o f O c
tc t tc t t
m u l i p l i a i on s an d s u b ra i on s , h e a i m o f wh i h i s o re d u c e c t
A tt h f m Ao e or 5 QB R Th e d i vi s i o n of A b y B d oes
tcc n t h id t
t it tt
.

no il w p
o ur u e ass from y A e en 5 QB R h o e

id t
it
y A
en
/ B Q 5 R / B .
 T HE D I VI SI O N T R ANSF O RM AT I O N

A tt
h t
tim e i i s c u s to m ary o c all h e op e r ati o n by
e sam e t t
wh i c h Q an d R ar e f o u n d “
d i vi si o n , an d al s o o c all Q h e
”
t t
“
q u o i en i tt t
n s e ad o f h e i n t
eg r al p ar t o f h e q u o i e n e ve n t t tt
t
wh e n R i s n o 0 an d w e s h al l u su al ly fo l l o w hi s p r a c i c e t t
B u t di vi di n g A by B t
.

”
“
d oe s n o t h e n m e an as i n § 2 5 4,
lt
,

fin d i n g an e x p r essi o n w hi c h m u i p li d e by B w i l l p r od u ce A,
butfi d i g n n fir s twh tm l t
ip l a u e of B we m us t su t
b r a c t fr o m
A t bt i
, ,

o o a n a r e m a in d e r wh i c h i s ofl o w er d eg r e e th an B an d
t
, ,

c
se o n d , wh a th i s re m ai n d e r is Com p ar e 87
t
. .

3 Th e t
s ep s by wh i c h
t e g ral e x p r ess i on A i s r edu c ed
h i e n

tt t t t
.

o h e i n e g r al f o rm Q B R m ay b e t ak e n wh a e v e r h e v al u e
of x He n c e A an d Q B R h av e e q u al v al u e s for al l v al u es o f
t t
.

x e ven t
,
h os e va lu es for wh i c h B i s eq u a l t o 0 On h e o h er .

h an d ne i th e r A B n or Q
,
R B h a s an y m ean i n g wh en B O .

Th u s , if —1 ,

we fin d , b y § 401 , ( 1)
an d t
h f
er e or e
fi +
x
x +1
1
_
x +2+
3;
3
1 ( 2)

He r e B 0 wh en x 1 Su b s t
itt
i g 1 fu n or x in ( 1) an d we h ave
t t
.

3 3 , which i s ru e , bu 3/0 3 3 0, w hich is m e an i n gl e ss .

4 Th e t ran s for m at i o n of A tth f o e or m QB R is u ni

qu e,
i t
t tb t fi t
.

th a h s, er e e x i s s u on e
pa r o i g n e fu n c ti o n s Q
r al an d R

( of wh i c h R i s of a l owe r d e g r ee th an B ) su c h t h a t

A 5 QB R .

F o r we r e t
ch p a i r say Q R we S h ou ld h ave
h c
e r e a s e o n d su ,
’
,
’
,

R an d t h e refor e ( Q Q ) B 5 R R ’ ’

QB R 5 Q B
’
.

Bu tt
hi s i s i m p o ss ib le si n c e R R w ou ld b e of l o wer d e gr ee t
h an B
’

but Q ) B n ot o f l owe r d eg r e e t
,

(Q
’
h an B .

Th e effec tf m lt
oi pl y i n g t
u h di e vi de nd or di vi s or b y a co an t
n st
c e fu r t
.

Th e f oll o w i n g t h e o r e m s w il l b e o f s e rv i h er on .

1 t t
If w e m u l ip ly h e d i vi d en d by a n y c on s a n tt as c we
t
, ,
.

t tt
m u l ip ly bo h qu o i en a n d r em a i n d e r by c .

E or if A 5 QE + B , t
h en c A5 c Q B + cR
-
.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

2 t t
If we m u l ip ly h e d i vi so r by c , we d i vi de h e qu o i en t t tby
t
.

c, bu t
l ea ve h e r em a i n d er u n c h a n g ed .

F or i f A 5 QB R, t
h en A CB R .

3 t t
If we m u l ip ly bo h d i vid en d a n d d i vi so r by c , we m u t
l ip ly
t t t tt
.

h e r em a i nd er b c
y , bu l ea ve h e q u o i en u n c h a n g ed .

F o r if A 5 QE + B, t
h en c A5 Q -
cB + cR .

4 t y tg fIf a an s a e o a d i vi s i on t f
r a n s or m a ti w m lt
ip ly
on e u an

i tm d i t t
.

n er i de a e r em a n er o r th di i
e v s or by c h fi el m i d na re a n er ,

if c h g d tll i
,

an e a a ,
s m er e ly m l t
ip l i
u ed by c .

This follo ws fro m 1 an d 2 an d 402 , 1 .

Th e t
s u den t w i l l d o we l l tv
o e ri fy t
h e se t h eor em s for so m e

t
p ar i c u l a r c a se .

Thu s w e m ay ve r ify th e se c o n d t
h e o r e m b y d i vi d i n g A 4 x2 6 x 1
t an d t
,

fir s by E : 2 x 1, hen b y 2 B : 4 x — 2 .

4 +6 + l
4 —2 4 —2
8 + l
8 —4 8 — 4
5 R 2 5 . 5

t t
Di vi s i on by h e m e h od of u nde erm i ned coeffic i en s W e m ay t t .

a l so fin d Q an d R wh e n A a n d B a r e g i ve n , as f o ll o w s :

E x a m p le 1 .

t
Si n c e h e d eg re e of th tf B i t
A i s fou r w w an d a o s o, e k n ow in a d van ce
t
h t
th d
a e e gr e e o f Q is t
w h t
d t th d g
o an fR i a e e ree o s o ne a t
m t os .

Hen c e l e t Q c ox2 clx 62 an d R dox d, ,

where ch valu es are t

su o be fou n d fo r h e tc oef
fi ci en t
s co cl , , 62 , d o, dl h t
t a

we s h a ll h a ve

2
2 x4 + 3 x3 + 4 x + x

Cox ‘+ wa + c o z2 + cl x + c2

+ 01 —01 —6 2 + di
+ 02 + do
 . A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

of t
l o wer d eg ree h an B b e g i n s w i h W e m ay h e n o bt ai n an t t
t
.

i n te g r al e x p r e ss i on fo r A i n t e rm s b y B b y h e p r o ce ss o f
t
c an c el l in g l ead i n g er m s de s c r i b ed i n § 4 01 I f A i s ex a c ly t
t tt
.

di v i si bl e b y B , hi s r e su l i s h e s am e a s wh e n A an d B ar e
a rr a n g e d d e s c en di n g p ow e r s ; b u
in if A is n o ex a c l y t t t
t
d i v i si bl e by B , h e r e su l i s e n i r ely di ffe r en t t t
Th e f oll o wi n g
t
.

e x am p l es w ill m ak e h i s cl e ar .

l + 3 x + 3 x2 + x3 + x 1 —2 x + x2 1 + x

1 + x l +2x + x2 1 + x 1 — 3 x + 4 x2 ‘

2 x + 3 x2 — 3 x + x2
2x +2fl —3 x — 3 fl
z2 + x3
x2 + x 3 4 x2 + 4 x3
O 4 333

F ro m t
hi s re c k on i n g i t
f ll o ows by t
h e r e ason n i g of 401 t
h t a

(1)
1 —2 x + x2 — 4 x3 .
(2 )
Th e r esu l t( 1) i t
h s e s am e as h tb t
t a i o a n ed wh e n t
h gie ven d ivi d e n d
an d d i vi so r g ed i n d es c en d i n g p o wers of x Thi s m u st
ar e a r r a n al wa y s

tc wh e n a s h er e t h e d i vi s i o n i s e x a c t
.

be he ase as foll o ws fr o m 402 4

B tt r es u l t i rel y d iffe ren t
( 2) i s e n t fr o m t h at
.
, , , ,

hu e ob t a in e d wh e n w e

arr an ge 1 2x x2 a n d 1 x i n d e s c e n d i n g p o we r s o f x We t h e n g et .

x2 (3)
Bo t
h ( 2) an d ( 3) are t ru e i de n t
it
i es bu tth y gi
e d iff tp
ve u s er e n ex r es

tm d l d td iff tp i
,

i
s on s for x2 2x 1 in er s of x 1 an ea o e r en ex r e ss o n s

fo r t u
qheo t
i e n t
o f x2 2x 1 by x 1, n am ely

2
1 4 x3
l + x 1 +x
x 2x + l 4
x —3
x +l x +1

Ob se rv e h t
t i t
h
a n tcc di g t c din g
e arr an g e m e n a or n o as e n

p o we r s t
h d e eg rees f th l di g t
o f the cc i
ea n er m s o e su es s v e

r e m ai n d er s i n c r e a s e, d c ptwh
an t
h di i i
ex ei t en e v s on s e x ac

t tl t i t By t tp
, ,

h p e ro c e ss h as no i
n a u ra ki g e rm n a on a n s e s

bt t
h i t g l p tf t ti t
.

en o u g h we c an o i a n , as h q e n e ra ar o e uo en ,
a
 T HE D I VI SI O N TR ANSF O R MAT I O N

o
p yl n om i al of as man y t erm s an d t h e r e f or e o f as h i gh a d eg ree
as w e p le a s e . Hence
If A and B d en o tp e o ly n o m i a ls a r r a n g ed in a s c en di n
g p owers
of x, A no tb i e ng ex a ct
ly d i vi s i bl e by B n or beg i n n i n g wi h t
a tm f l w d g t
er ho o er e r ee an B beg i n s wi h , we t can r ed u c e t
h e

qu o ti tf A by B tt
en h f o o e or m

A r
R '

Q
B B

w h er e Q
’
and R '
a retg l f in t
e i ra u nc on s a rr a n
g ed i n a s c en di n
g
p ower s o f x, Q
’
end i g wi t
h n hi g h p as a ower o
f x as we p l ea s e
a nd
'
R begi n n i n g wi th t
i ll h i g h p w
a s er o er .

I f he t num b er of te r m s in Q i s'
n, we c al l Q
'
t i t
h q t
e f uo en o

A by B t tmo n er s , an d R t
h c e orr e s p o n d i n g r em a i n der

t
.

W he n h e v al u e of x is sm al l
( h ow s m all w il l b e sh o w n
su b s e qu e n t
ly ) we c an m ak e t
h v e al u e of R '
/ B as s m all as

w e pl eas e by ak i n g t n g r eat en ou g h ; th at i s, w e c an fin d a
'
o l n om i a l Q W h o s e v al u e w i ll d i ffe r as l i ttl e w e p l e ase
as
p y
fr om t h tf A B a O th i cc o tth n s a ou n e
'
p oly n o m i al s Q ar e
t c ll d pp i ti t t
.

so m e i m es g l p a e a r ox m a e n e ra ex r ess i on s fo r h f e ra c
tio n A B .

Th u s “
d i vi d i n g ”
1 by 1 x to n
“
tp
s e s,
”
we ti
ob a n

—1 mu
+
1 x 1 x

I f we gi ve x a n y val u e n u m e r ic ally l ess t

h an 1 , we c an ch oose n so
h t
t 1a x x " —1 wi ll d iffe r i n va l u e as li t
t
l e as we p le ase fr o m
x ) . Thu s ,
if x t
h en x 3 / (l — x) so h t
t 1 a x + x2

d i ffe rs fro m — x) by o n ly 1 / 18 . Si m i l a r l y 1 x x2 x3 d iffe rs

from x ) by on l y a n d so o n .

Qu o i ttn tm
t en s o er s fou nd by t
h e t
m e h od of t
u n de erm i ned
coef
fi c en s i t W p c . e ro ee d as in t
h f e ol lowi n g e xam l
p e .

E x am pl e 1 . F ind t
h q t
i t
e
(3 uo en x ) (1 x 2 x?) tf
o ou r tm er s .

3 —x
1 x +2 x?
1 64 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Mu l t
ip i gly n bo t
hm em b ers b y 1 x 2 x2 a n d ing t
c oll e ct er m s ,

3 —x 5 a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +
( ot — al — Ct
g

+2 ao +2 ai

Bu t
tm o ak e (2 ) an it
i d en ty we ,
m us t
h a ve , 2 84,

al —1 ,

al + 2 d o z 0, dl —2 a 0
a2 + 2 a 1 : 0, a2 — 2 a1

Hen c e ( 3 —8 x3 +
E x am p le 2 . F i n d (2 x x tfi tm
o ve er s.

Pol y n om i al s i n vol vi n g m ore t

h an on e var abl e i Le tt
w o o
p yl ~

t
.

n om i al s , A a n d B , b e g i ven w h i h in v o l ve m o r e h an c on e vari a b l e

t t ctt
.

U n l ess A i s o f l owe r d e g r e e h a n B w i h r e sp e o so m e o n e

o f t
h i bl it i p
e v ar a ibl t h t A i e s, ct ly d i i i b l b y
s oss e a s exa v s e

B i t
hn ow d th t i t er g l f ct
or i Q s, i t ch t
a anh t n e ra un on e x s s su a

t t t
,

A B Q W5
y d i c w h h e hi i
m a d if
s o ve r e er or n o s s so , a n

it i fi d Q by fi t gi g b t
.

s n h A d B p ly
rs mi l
a r r an n o an as o no a s

f t d t p p ly i g t h m t
,

in m so h
e i bl
on e ho e va r a h d es an en a n e e o

of § 401 .

E x a m ple 1 . D i vi d e x3 y
3 z3 3 xy z b y x y z.

x3 + z)
2
+ (y
—3 y z -
x
2 —
(y + l
z m lv zl zx
2 — ‘

(21 yz zl lx ( 21
3
z3 )

He n c e (x3 + y 3 + z3 x9 + y + z — y z — zx —
2 ~x
y .

E x a m p le 2 .

I f A is no t ct
ly d i
ex a vi si bl e b y B h i s t t
m e h o d w i l l y i e l d an

t
,

e x p r e ssi o n fo r A / R of h e f o rm A / B 5 Q R /B wh e r e Q
tg t ttt t
.

h l t
t
,

an d R a re in e ral wi h res
pe c o e e er o
f a r r a n g e m en ,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

11 . Di vid e 2 x2 + 5 xy — 3 y 2 — 5 x + 1 3 y — 12 b y x + 3y —4 .

12 . D i vi d e 2 d2 — b2 — 6 c2 —3 c .

13 . D i vi d e by ab + bc + ca .

14 . D i vi d e x4 +( a — a ) x2 — 2 ax + 8 a by x2

15 . D i vi d e 8 x3 27 y 3 by 2 x 3 y, us n i g de tch
a ed c o effici en t
s .

16 . Also x4 — 4 x y 3 + 3 y4 by x —y .

17 . Also 6 a5 + a 4b — a 3b2 + 1l a 2 b3 5 ab4 + 4 b5 b y 2 a2 —ab -

l
-
b2 .

18 Th e d i vi d en d b e i n g 2 x3 xy z y
3 an d t
h di e i
v sor b ein g 2 x y,
tw h i t t
t g e m en t
.

s ec on d
”
fin d Q an d R , fi rs k en x s a e n as
“
le e r o f ar r an

tk t
h t l t
t
, , ,

wh e n y i s a e n as a e er .

19 Arr an gi n g d i vi d en d an d d i v i s or i n c
as e n d n i g p owers o f x, fin d
qu o ti en t t o t tm
.

hr ee er s an d re m a n d er i wh e n d i vi d en d i s 1 3x 5 x2
a n d d i viso r 1 x 3 x2 .

20 . Al so w h en d i vi d en d i s 1 x 3 x2 an d d i vi s or 1 3x 5 x2 .

t
21h m th d f By e e o o t
u n d e er m n e d i c o effici en t
s § 408 fin d tf o ou r

tm t ti t
.
, ,

er h q s 1 (1 2e uo en x ) .

22 Al th q
. i t
t (2 so e uo en 3x 4 x2) (1 x 2 x? ) tf
o ou r tm
er s .

S YNT HE T I C DI VI S I ON AND T HE RE M AI NDE R T HE ORE M

tt
Sy n h e i c Di vi s i on We p r o e ed c t o e x pl a i n a ve r y ex p e d i

t t t t f t
.

i on s m e h o d o f m ak i n g
h di e v i si o n r an s o r m a i on , 4 01 ,
wh t
h di i
en h th f e v so r as e o rm x b, t
h t i i a s, s a b i n o m i al of

th fi t
e d g wh rs l di g c e ree os e ea n oe ffi c i e n t i 1 s

t l tf d i i d i
.

a 2
C id h
on s er e r e su o v n g d ox a lx a zx as by
x b .

3 z
a ox alx a 2x a3

d ox
a
a obx
2
a ob
2
t
ab
2
( a ob d l
) x a zx

2 2
( a ob
)
d l x
( a 0b alb
) x
2
( a ,,b a l l) a,
)x as

2 8 2
a b alb )x (a b a 1b
( o a2 o a zb
)
3 2
a ob alb +a 2b as R
 T HE DI VI SI O N TR ANSF O R MAT I O N

Th e c oeffic i ents of Q an d R are

2 8 2
a ob G 1, “ 06 "

f “
“ 16 “

l
“
“ 2; “ 06 i
‘ ‘
4 16 “ 26 “ 30

O bse rv e th fi t f th that c ffic i nt e rs o es e oe e s is t

h l e e ad i n g

coe ffi c i n t
Of t
e h di v i d d th t th e t en a e r es ma be ob a i t
on e a ft t h t
her b t h f ll wi g
e o l : er e o o n ru e

t t
M u l ip ly h e fii c i en t
c oe la st o bt
a i n ed by b a n d a dd t
h e n ex t
u n u s ed c o efii c i en t
o
ft h e d i vi d en d .

Th u s ,
(l ob2 al b (1 2 ( a ob al )b (22 ,

an d a 0b3 a 1 b2 ag b a3 (a ob2 al b 02 )b as .

Th i s tv t
r u le app l i e s
h d g f t h di vi d n d m y
wh a e er e e r ee o e e a

b e F i c t h c ffic i t
or s n ft h l di g t
e e ft h d i vi
oe en o e ea n er m o e so r

ch w c ffic i t f Q will l w y b t t
.

i 1
s ea ne oe h m enh o a a s e e sa e as e

l d i g c ffi c i t f t l tb t
,

ea n h i d
oe en in d oLik t h t e re m a n er as o a e e a

c ffic i t it i f n d by m l ti p ly i g t
.

oe th f en er e or e , h p c d in g s ou u n e re e

c ffic i tf Q by b d d d i g w c ffi c i tf t
,

oe en o h di v i
an a n a ne oe en o e

d d
en A df lik w
n h ll bt i R i f w
or a lt i p ly
e r easo n e s a o a n e m u

t d dd t h l t c ffi c i t f t
.
,

h l t c ffi c i t f Q by b
e as oe en o h an a e as oe en o e

d i v i de n d
t t t
.

He n c e , wh en h di e v i so r h as h f e o rm x b an d h di v i e

den d t
h f e o rm a ox
"
alx
" —1
a we c an fin d Q an d R
as f oll ows, wh er e c o, c l, d e n ot e h e tc oe ffic i e nt s of Q .

a ,,
[ b

We t h c ffic i t
fir s t wr i t e d ow n ft
h di vi d nd i e oe en s o e e n th e i r
p ro p d d
er o rb t
t h ier ani g h t a e r r

w w i t wh i c h W k w tb t
.

U d n er a o e r h m
e c o, e no o e e sa e as

W t h m l tip l y
e en by b u tth p d ct b d co se e ro u co un e r a , , ad d,

bt
,

an d in
so o a cl

w m lt tt
.

I l ik m
n e i ply by b
an n e r h p d ct be u c1 ,
se e ro u cl u n d er
“ 2, a dd, an d so O btai n c g .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

An d w e c on t in u e t hu s t
m u l i p ly i n g an d add i n g al e rn at ely , t
t t
h e c o e ffi c i e n t td
,

un il l l a s a ,, a ,, a r e e x h au s e .

E x am ple . D i vi d e 3 x4 5 x3 —4 x2 +3 x — 2 b
y x —2 .

We —5 1 —2
h ave 3 4 +3 Q
6 2 —4 —2
1 —2 —L —4

Hen c e Q = 3 x3
4
£
x2 —2 x —1 an d R -
4.

Thi s v e ry c o m p a c tth d i me o s c al l e d tt
y n h e i c d i vi s io n
s Th e
t nt cc t hi m t t t
.

s u de Sh ou ld a u s om s el f o e m p l oy i wh e n e ver h e
d i v i so r h as h e tf orm x b
t
.

R em ark s on t
hi s me t
h d o 1 I n di vi di n g h t i c l ly w h
sy n e a en

t tp tb t k
. .

h di id d i
e v en s an i n c om p le e ol
y n om i l c a ar e m u s e a en

ti d i c tt by O c ffic i t
,

o nh a e e m i s si n g p o w e r s of x oe en s .

2 Si n ce x b x b) , w e m ay di v i d e sy n t h e t i c ally by
t t t
.

a b i n o m i al of h f e or m x b I i s o n ly n e c e s s ary o r ep l ac e
t t pl i
.

6 by b in h ck
e re on in g ju s ex a n ed .

E xa m ple 1 . D i vi d e x4 1 by x 1 .

Her e x 1 x l), an d d i v id in g b y x we h ave

I +0 +0 +0 —1 | —1
_ 1 +1 —1 +1
1 —1 +1 —L 0

Hen c e Q x3 —x2 + x — 1 an d R =0 .

3 To d i v i d e b y a b i n om i al of t
h f e orm ax 8 , wr i ti t
e

t
.
,

h us :d (x B/ a )
t
h t tQ
.

Th en d i v id e sy n i c ll y
e a by x B / ,
a an d le an d R
tt t
i t d t
,

re r e se n h q e uo en an r em ai n d e r so o b ain e d
p
q ti t d g tt
.

Th e uo en an re m ai n d er c o r r e sp o n d i n h d i vi o e s or

a x —B w ill be Q / a an d R, § 4 03 , 2 .

E x am p l e 2 . D i vi d e 3 x3 1 1 x2 18 x 3 by 3 x 2 .

He re 3 x 2 3 (x and d i vi d i n g b y x we have
-
11 + 18 —3
2 6 8
9 12, 5
170 A CO LLE G E ALG E B RA

E x am p l e 1 . Wh at
is t
h e val u e of

f( ) x 5 x4 1 2 x3 20 x2 43 x 6 , wh e n x 4?

1 . By h m t
t h d
e e o of d i re c tb t
itt
i
su s u on we h ave
f (4) = 5 44 12 43 —2 0 -
42 —43 —7 6 8 —320 —1 72 l—
6 -
z 26 .

2 . By t
h m t
h d
e e o o f sy n t
h t
ic d ie i i
v s on we h ave
5 12 20 43 6
20 32 48 20
5 8 12 5, 26

pl e 2
E x am G i ve n
f( ) x 3 x4 x3 5 x2 8 x 4 F in d , b y sy n ~

t
h et
. .

ic d iv i s i o n , f (2) f ( , f (4 ) f (
Coroll ary 1 If f (x ) y a n i s h es w h en x =
b, t
h en f (x ) is
:
.

ex a ct
ly di v is i ble by x —e
,
and c on ver s ely .

F or , b y 41 3, f ( b) is t
h e r em a i n d e r in th di e v i s i on o f f (x)
by x bi
’
an d t
h di e vi si on is ex a ct
wh e n t
h e r e m ai n d e r is 0 .

Thu s f (x) x3 3 x2 2 va n i s h es wh en x 1 , for f(l ) 1 —3 2 :0

ct ct
.
,

Hen c e f (x) is ex a ly d i vi s i b l e by x 1, as m ay b e ve r fi e d b y a i u al

d i vi s i on
t
.

Aga i n f (x) ,
x" bn i s e x a c l y d i vi s i b l e b y x b, s n i c e f (b) b" b" 0 .

E x a m p le 1 . If x3 3 x2 m is ex a ct
l y d i vi s i b l e b y x 2 , wh a i s h e tt
va lu e o f m

We m us t
h ave -
22

E x am pl e 2 Sh o w t
h t a x" b" i s ex a ct
ly d ivi s i b l e b y x b if n i s O dd ,

tt
.

bu if no n is eve n .

Coroll ary 2 If tg l f ct
an i ftin
w m e ra un on o o or or e va r i a bl es

t
.

v a n i s h es wh en w f t
h o o i bl d y es e va r a es , a s x a n a r e s upp os ed

ct ct
,

equ a l, t
h f e un i ion ly d i i i bl by t
h d ifl
s ex a v s e e
'

e r en c e o f t
h es e

va r i a bl es , a s x y .

F ort
h f ct
i y b
e un on m a e r ed u ced tth f o e o rm of a
p o ly n o
m i l i
a wi t
h c ffic i ti
n x oe en s n vo l v i n g t
h t
h e o er v ar i ab l e s By
hy p t h i t t
i t
.

o h i p ly i l
e s s, s o n om a v a n i s h es wh e n x y . I h s er e

fo r e exa c tl y d i v i s i bl e by x
y, 41 5 .

Thu s x2 (y z ) y
2
( z x ) z2 x ( y) va n s i h es wh e n x y for su b

t
itt
,

s ui g y fn o r x, we h ave y
2
(y z ) y
2
( z y) z2 (y y) 5 O
.
 T HE D VI S ON
I I T R A NSF O R M A TI O N
He n c e x2 y ( z ) y
2
( z x) z2 x( y ) is ex a ct ly d i v i s i b l e by x y
ify t ct d i vi s i o n t
.

We m ay ve r hi s c on c lu s i on by a u al hu s ,

(y v i z— (r — 2
w z
z ) + (y z 96 21
—
(y z) a> ( yz
—z2)
( yz z2 ) x (
2
y z 2 23
1 )

E x am p le . Sh o w h t
t ( a x y)
3
(y z 3
) ( z x 3 ) is ex a ct
ly d i vi s i b le
by x —y , y
—z , an d z —x .

T h eorem . If a p o ly n om i a l f ( x ) va n is h es wh en x a a n d a ls o

wh e n x b, th en f ( x ) i s ex a c l y d i vi s i ble by ( x t a
)( x b) .

F or si n c e f (a ) : Ob
y h yp o h e si s, t f( ) i ctl y d i v i i bl
x s exa s e

by x a, 41 5 , an d if we ca ll t
h q t
i t p ( ) w h v
e uo en c l x ,
e a e

f( ) x E .

(x a
) ( )
x ,
wh ere ( )
x i s i nt eg ral .

I f in ( )
1 w e se t x b, we h a v e

f ( 5) ( b

Bu t
by h y p o t h e si s f ( b) O, an d b a 0
ct tf ct
.

Th e r e f o r e, si n ce wh e n p a r od u v an i s h e s on e o f i s a or s

m us t v an i s h 2 53 , i t f f ol l o w s ro m 2
( ) h t
t b ( b)a ( l 0
tif 0 t
.
,

Bu I (b)
( ) , h ( ) i en x s ex a c tl yd i v i si b l e by x b,
c ll t t
,

4 1 5, an d i f we a h q i t e uo en 1 (x )
( 92 w e h av e

c l p ( x ) E (x b) ( )
x ,
w h e r e ¢ 2 ( x ) i s i n t e g r al .

Su b s i t
tti g t
hi
u n s e x p r ess i o n for p (x ) i n
c l w e h av e

f (x ) 5
( w a
)( : a b) a ( ac >
, ( )
4

wh i ch p ro v es t h a t
f( x
) is exa ct
ly di v i s i b le by (x a
)( x b) .

Co n t i n u i n g th u s, w e m ay p r ov e h e m o re ge n er al th e or e m t
If f ( x) va n i s h es f or x a, b c
, ,
t
h en f (x ) i s ex a ct
ly
d i vi s i bl e by ( x
)( b )( x a c ) x

Thu s , 2 x3 3 x2 — 2 x — 3 van i s h es wh e n x 1 , for 2 + 3 — 2 —3 O,

an d wh e n x —1 fo r
ct
,

Hen c e 2 x3 3 x2 2 x 3 is ex a l y d i vi s i b l e by (x 1) (x or

x2 1, as m ay b e ve r fie d b y i a ct
u al d i vi s i o n .
172 A CO LL E G E ALG E B R A

E xam p le 1 F in d a p o l y n o m i al f (x) , of t
h e c
se o n d d e gr e e , which
tk t
.

wi ll ah e e val u e 0 wh en x 2 an d w hen x 3, an d t
h e va lu e 6 w h en

Si n c e f(x) i s of t
h c
e s e on d d e g re e an d t
i s e x ac l y d i vi s i ble b y (x 2) (x

5 417, t
m y b
i p a e ex r esse d in t
h e fo r m f (x) (x 2 ) (x wh ere ao

de n o t c tt
es a o n s an .

An d s i n c e f ( 4) 6 , we h ave 6 ao
(4 2 ) (4 wh e n c e ao 3 .

Hen c e f (x) 3 (x 2 ) (x 3) 3 x2 15 x 18 .

E x a m pl e 2 . F in d a p oly n o m i al f (x) of t
he t hi rd d e gr ee which wi ll
van s i h wh e n x 2 an d wh en x ak e t
3 an d wi ll t h e va lu e 6 wh e n x z 1
t
,

an d h e va l u e 18 wh e n x 4 .

R e a s on i n g as b efo r e we h ave f (x) (a ox a1 ) (x 2 ) (x 3) wh e r e

a o, a l ar e c o n st
an t
s .

Aga i n , sin ce f (1) z 6, an d f (4) 1 8 , we h ave

ao + a 1 = 3,
or 4 a0 + a1 =9 .

Sol vi n g ( 1 ) an d we ti
ob a n a o 2, al 1 .

Hen c e f (x) = (2 x + 1 ) (x — 2 ) (x 3) = 2 x3 9 x2 7 x +6 .

T h eorem .Ap o ly n om i a l f (x ) , wh os e d eg r ee i s 11 , c a n n o t va n is

r m ore t
h a n n va l u es of x .

F o r if f (x ) c ou ld v a n i sh fo r m or e t
h an n v al u e s of x , i t
w o u l d be ex a ct
ly di v i s i b l e by t
h p e r od u ctof m ore t
h an n

t
f ac o r s of th e form x a, 4 1 8 , wh i c h i s e vi d e n t
ly i m p o ss i b le
t
s i n ce h e d e g r e e o f s u ch a p rodu c tc ex e e ds n .

T heorem If we kn o w of a c er t a i n p o l n om i a l
y f ( x ) wh os e
t
ha t
.

d eg r ee c a n n ot it
,

ex c eed 11 wi ll va n i s h for m or e t ha n n
v a lu es of x w e m a y c o n c l u d e t
ha t a ll i t
s c oefi i c i en t
,

‘ s a re 0
, .

F or i f h e tc oeffi c i e n t s wer e n o tl l 0 t
h p
a e o l y n o m i al cou ld
t
,

no v an i sh for m o re t h an n v al u e s of x , 41 9
t
h t
it
.

We s ay o f su ch a p o l y n o m i al a va n i s h es t
i den i c a l ly .

T h eorem If p t
w o o ly n om i a ls f
o th t
h d g
e n e r ee, f ( x) and

t t
.

h a ve equ a l va lu es for m or e h an l n va u es f
o x, h i e r

c o r r esp on d i n g c oe fi en
i c i ts are e u a l
q .
1 74 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

11 . By § 416 , s h ow t
h at
3 bm am 2 an 6 bn is ex a ct
ly di vi si b le
by m —2 n , al so by a 3b .

12 By 4 16 , 4 1 7 , s how t h ata (b —c ) 8 b (c a 8 ) c ( a b) 3 is
ct
. .

ex a ly d i vi s i b l e by (a b) ( b c) (c a ) .

13 Fi n d h e ti tg n e r al fu n c t
i on of x o f t
h t
hi d d e r g
e r ee which van s i h es
tk t
.

wh en x 1 , 4, 2, an d h
a es e val u e 1 6 wh en x 2 .

14 F in d he t i tg l f ct
ni e ra un on o f x o f t
h t
hi d d e r e gree which i h es
va n s

d t t t
.

wh en x 2, 3 ,
kan h l a es e va u e 6 wh e n x : 0
z an d h e val u e 1 2 w h en
x =1 .

15 . Sh ow h t2
t a x3 ax 1 an d x3 5x 2 c an n o th ave q
e u al

val u es fo r fou r val u es o f x.

E X PRE SS I ON OF ONE POLYNOM I AL I N T E RM S OF ANOT HE R

Le t
A an d B den o tt
w p
e o ol y n o m i al s i n x, A of h i g h e r d e g r ee
t
h an B
t
h q t
i t Q t
.

D i vide A by B an d c all e h uo en ,
e r e m ai n der R ; th en
A 5 QB + R .
( )
1

If Q istf l w no o o er de g r e e t
h an B , di v i d e Q by B an d call
t
h q e u o i t
tenQ t
h 1, e r e m ai n d e r R, , th en
Q 5 621 3 RP

Si m i l ar l y , i f Q 1 i s tf l w
no o o er d egr e e t
h an B , di v ide Q 1 by
B an d c all t
h q e uo t
i tQ th
en 2, e r e m ain d er R2 ; t
h en

Q1 5 R2 . 3
( )
Su pp o s e t
h tQ i a 2 s of l o we r de g ree t
h an B . W e th e n h a ve

A 5 QB R by 1
( )
n B + R1 §B +R by ( )
2

by ( )
3
a 2
ezB R 28 RIB B.

wh e r e all t
h c e oe ffic i e n tQ
s R , , R ,, R are of l ower d eg r e e
t
2,

h an B .
 THE DI VI SI O N T R ANSF O R M ATI O N

i n g e n er al , if an y p ol y n o m i al A b e g i v e n whi ch i s
d e g r ee t h a n B , an d w e c o n i n u e h e p r o c e s s j u s t t t
d un t
il qu o ti en
a t
i s r ea ch e d wh i c h i s of l o we r de g r ee
we sh all h av e

As Q , _ I
B
”
R 13 R

R, RI, m , Q , _ 1 d en ote t
h e su cc e ssi v e r e m ai n de r s
e fin al q u o t i en t, all b e in g
‘

f
o lo w er d eg r ee h a n B t .

R ed u c e x5 4 x4 3 x3 w ".
i x 4 tt
h f
o e o rm o fa p oly
t ci ent th t
(v .

1 wi hc
"

in x2 x oe ffi s wh o se d eg ree s a re l e ss w an o .

g de tch
a ed c o effici en t
s we , m ay a r ra n ge t
h e re c k on i n gth us
B
—1 + I +4

1 —6 —6
—5 — 5

R1 = 12 x + 3
—3
—3 —3 -
3
3 7 R 3x 7 .

l oe x5 —4 x4 + 3 x3 —x2 + x + 4
— (x — (3 x

t
p ar i c u l ar , thi s m e th od e n a bl es u s tt
o f
r an s o r m an
y p ol y
t
al i n x i n o a p o l n o m i al o f h e sam
y t e d eg r e e i n x b wi h t
in t
c oe ffi c i en s t .

i m pl e . T ran sfor m 2 x3 x2 4x 5 in to a p ol y n o m i al i n x 2 .

m ay p e r fo r m t
h e su cc e ss i ve d i vi s i o n s s y n t
h etic ally an d arran ge
c k o n i n g as foll o ws

2 I 4
4 6
2 3 1 0, R 15
4 14
2 7, 24 RI 24
4
2, 11 R2 11 an d Q2 2 .

—x2 + 4 x
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E XE RCI SE XV

By t
h m t
h d
e e o of § 42 2 ex p r e ss x4 x3 1 in tm
er s o f x2 1 .

Al s o 4 x4 2 x3 4 x2 + x 6 in tmer s of 2 x2 1 .

Also 2 x7 — 3 x6 + 2 x5 + 5 x4 — x2 6 in tm
er s o f x3

Also x5 x3 y 2 x2y 3 y in
5 tm
er s o f x2 xy y
2
.

By h e m t t
h d e o of 42 3 ex p r ess 2 x3 8 x2 x 6 in tm
er s of x 3

Also x5 + 3 x4 — 6 x3 + 2 x2 — 3 x + 7 in tm er s of x +2 .

Also
‘
x3 9 x2 2 7 x in t e rm s o f x 3 .

Also x3 + 3 x2
+x — 1 i tm n er s of x +1 .

VI . F ACTO R S O F R ATI O N AL I N TE GR AL
E X PR E SSI O N S

E
PR LI MI NARY CONS I DE RAT I ONS

Fac t or Le tA d t en o e a ra t
f u n c t i o n of o n e
i on al i n t e g r al
An y r a t ion a l i n t t
.

or m o r e v a ri a bl e s eg r a l f u n c t i o n o f h e se
t
.

v a r i ab l e s whi c h e x a c ly d i vi des A i s c all e d a fa c t or o f A

H e n c e i n o r d e r h a a g i ve n f u n c ttti on F m ay b e a f a c o r o f t
t
, ,

A i i s su ffi c i e n t a n d n e ce ss ar y
1 Th a F b e r a t t i on a l a n d i n t t tt
,

eg ra l w i h r es e c t o he
p
t
.

v ar i abl e s O f wh i ch A i s a f u n c i o n
t tt
.

2 Th a A b e r e du c i bl e o h e f or m A 5 G F wh e r e G al so
t
.
,

is i n e ra l
g .

E x am p l e 1 Si n c e 2 x2 2 xy 2 x (x y) , bo t
h x an d x y a re

fa c t
.

ors o f 2 x2 2 xy .

—
E xa m p le 2
— Si n c e 3 x2 x bo t
h
fa c t
.

y an d V3 x a re ors of 3 x2 —2 y 2 .

E x am p le 3 Al t
h ou gh x y 6 ) ( V5 we d o no t
c ll a

sf; fa c t t tt
.

x/ i y an d V5
\/ o rs of x y , b e c a u se h y
e ar e n o i ra o n al

wit
h r espe c tt
o x an d y .
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

I n wh a t
f ll o ows we sh all a ssu m e th a t
1 i on A h a s bu o n e s et
An y g i ven fu n c t of
p r i m e fa c or s t t
or s of A a r e p r od u c t s of th es e p r i m e fa c t
.

All oth er fa c t
.

2 or s

h es e p r i m e fa c t
.

Two o r m o r e of t o rs m a y be e qu a l , bu t
.

3 A
ct t
.

can be exp r es s ed in o n ly o n e wa y as a
p r od u of
p o we rs of i s

d ifier en
'

t
p i m r e fa c t
o rs .

Th ese t
h e or e m s of which 2 an d 3 are c o r oll ari es t1 o w i ll b e pro ved
t a fu n c t
, ,

in 484, 48 5 fo r h c e ase in w hich A is io n of a s i n g l e var i ab l e

t
,

an d h y e c an be p r ove d g en e r a lly
t p r i m e fa c t
.

Th u s i ce
s n x3 y 3 2 x2 y 4 xxy y y (x 2 y) , h e o rs of

tt h f ct
,

x3 y 3 2 x2 y * y d
a r e x, x , y, y, y, 2y x I s o er a o r s , as x2 , x an

p d ct t t p i m f c t I td ifi t
.
,

so o n , a r e h ro u s o f wo o r m o r e o f ese r e a ors s
'

eren

p i m f ct d it d i b t
.

r ye 2y
a b p
o rs a r e x , w y x an c an e ex r esse n u on e a as

p d ctf p w ft f ct m ly t
, ,

a ro h u h : y (
o 2 y)
o e rs o ese a ors , n a e us x2 3 x .

Fac ti or n g To fa c t
o a r
g i ve n f u n ct
i on A c o m p l et
e ly ist o

ti ti tp fac t h t
t t itt
.
, ,

“
r e sol v e i n o s rim e o rs
”
i a s, o r e du ce o

t tp
,

h e f or m A E B C D -
wh e re B , C , D , d en o e rim e

fu n c ti on s

B t di tt t p ttd i c
.

u i ly w d
or n ar e o no a em o s o ver th e s e p rim e

fa ct t t
orsh tt W d
a fi t t e ou se e en e av o r rs o r e so v e l A in t o

t t t t tt
.

a p d cro f u w f i f c o F so m e o o s a o r s, as an d G, n ex o

re so v e l F d G d il t
t h anp i an so on , un e r me f ac t or s ar e

t fi tt t
,

r ea ch d A d e h p i hi n
p e ve n e rs s e n s ro c e ss m a
y be
f cti g A
.

ca ll d e
“
a or n .

ti g i t
F ac h
or n f m lt ipl ic t
s i A m lt
e ipl ic ti
r e ve r se lly o u a on u a on u su a

t tp ( 1 ) f pp l ic t ft h di t
.

i l n vo ve s w m i o mb a n s e i s ib ti a nu er o a a on s O e s r u ve

l w i
a d t pl c ( b) c b y
n or er b
o re d a e(2) th c m bia ac e , an so o n e o na

t f l i k tm i t lt t bt t
,

i on o h e h er i d T s n h p c e r esu us o a ne o r e ve r s e e r o e ss ,

w m t tt h tm t
h c m b i d it hi th t
.

e ( 1) p
us se a ra e i i d i g t e er s us o ne s n o n s a

th d i ffic l t
e y f f c tu i g c i t— o d t h ( 2 ) pply t
a or n h di t ib ti on s s s an en a e s r u ve

l w i
a d t pl c
n or erb by ( b) c
o re d a e ac e a an so o n

It tt pp d t h t y c m p i tf c t c tlly
, .

m b
us no e su i b
o se a e ve r o os e un o n c an e a ua

f c t d Th
a o re whi l i t b p d t
u s, h t b e d i c an e r o ve a x5 ax 3 x2 cx s

c m p i ti t l b p h t
d t th f ct f t t
.

o os e, c a n a so hi p i c
e ro ve a e a o rs o s ex r ess o n an n o

b f e d b y l g b ic m t
ou n h d t h t ia b y pp l y i g
e ra fi it m b e f o s, a s, a n a n e nu er o

t t t
,

im h es , i l g b ic p
e va r o u s a i e ra o e ra on s .
 F ACTO R S OF I NTE GRAL E X PR E SSI O NS

E X PRE SSI ONS W HOSE T E RM S HAVE A COMMON F ACT OR

E x p r es si o n s wh o se t e rm s al l h av e a c om m o n f a c t or m on o ,

c an b e f a c t o r e d b y a s i n g l e a
m i al or o
p yl n om i al , pp li c at i o n of
t
h di t i b
e s r u ti ve l aw , n am el
y

E x am p l e 1 . F ac t2
or 2 b 2
a c a c 4 ac2 6 a ed .

All h e t tm er s h av e h f ct 2
t e a or ac . Se p a r a t
i g n
”
i tw
, e h ave
2 a2c +2 a bc +4 a o2 6 a ed 2 ac (a b +2 c 3 d) .

E x am p l e 2 . F ac tor a (c d) b (d c) .

Bo t
h tm er s h ave h f ct c
t e a or d. Se p ar a t
i n g i twe h ave ,

a ( c -
d) — b (c —b) (c —d) .

F a c t or s su ch as th e se sh o u ld be t t t
h
s e p ar a e d a
t e ou se t .

Som e e x p r e s s i on s wh i c h ar e n o ti thi f nt
h y s or m as e s an d
t
c an be r edu c ed t o it
by c o m b i n i n g ch f t
su h i t o e r e r m s as h ave
a c o m m on fa ctor .

E x am pl e 1 . F ac t
or a c bd ad be .

Co m b i n i n g a c an d a d , a l so be an d bd , w e ti
ob a n a (c d) b (c d) ,
a b i n om i al wh os e tm
er s h ave t
h c e om m on fa ct c or d .

Hen c e

Ob se r v e t h t th p ti t
a e ar s n o w h i c h we s e p ar a e tt
h e e x p re s

s i on in a pp ly i g thi m t
h d
n s e o m us tll a h ave t
h e sa m e n u m ber
o
f tm
er s .

E x am pl e 2 . F ac t
or a2 ab bd ad ac cd .

We m us th a ve e it
her t
w g o r ou ps of t
h t ree e rm s , or t
h r ee gr ou p s of

t
w tm o er s F ou r of h tm
t e er s i n vol ve a , n a m ely , a 2 , a b, a d, a c , an d

t i i gt Ob t
.

h e r em a n n wo i n volve d, n am e ly , bd an d cd a i n gr o u p s
To
t tm t
he t a d wi t
.

which h ave h e sa m e n u m b er of er s we co m b in e er m h
t
h d tm
e -
er s , an d h ave
a2 + ab + ac — ad —bd
(a
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

EX E R CI SE X VI

F ac tt
h f ll
or e o ow n i g ex pre ss io ns .

1 . 6 x4 y 3z2 1 2 x2y4 z 8 x2y 3 . 2 n2 + ( —3) n

u .

3 . ab a b 1 . mx — nx — m u + nz .

5 . 3 xy 2 x 12 y + 8 .

7 . x3y z x2y 3 2 xfiy 2 xy 2 .

9 . ac bd (be ad
) . a 2o a bd —a bc + a 2d .

11 . a2 + c d — ab — bd + a c +

F ACT OR S FOUND BY AI D OF KNOW N I DE NT I T IE S

In th e s e on dc ch ap t
er w e de r i v ed a nu m b er of sp e c i al
p r od u ct s, a s ( a b) ( a b) a
2
b 2
If a g iv en fu n ct
i on A
tt f t p d c tw
, ,
.

c an be h f m f
r edu c ed
h o e or o on e o e se ro u s, e c an

w i td w i tf ct t c
r e o n Th f ll wi gs ct
i a o rs a on e e o o n se on s will
ill ttt hi m t h d f f c ti g
.

u s ra e s e o o a or n .

P f t ti n m i l q
er ec Th i
r m i gi
o t p a s u are s s na e s v en o ex r e s s i on s

ft t
.

wh i ch h v h f m
a e on e o: 2 b b S ch p e or s a
2
a
2
u ex r e s s i on s

b f c t d by m ft
.

c an e a h f m l
o re ea n s o e or u as

~
2 ab l 6 = b) —
2 2
+ ( ( b) (
2
a - -
a -
a -
a -
b)
2 —b a — b 2
a
)( ) .

O b s e r ve th at in a p e r e f c ttin r om i al s qu ar e
( p r op e r l y
arr an ge d
) t
h e m i dd l e tm er twi c t
h p d ct
is f q t e e ro u o s u a r e r oo s

f
o t
h tm tm
e ex r e e er s, an d th t t h f c t wh i c h
a
q l e a o rs, ar e e ua

Ob t i g t
ct tf t
,

ar e ain ed by c on n e h p i c ip l q
n h e r n a s u a re r oo s o e

t tm
e x re m e er s by t
h e Si g n o f t
h m i ddl t e e e rm

tc tt tf t tfi
.

To ex r a h e s qu a r e r oo h p f ct o e er e s q u ar e is o nd

on e o f t
h ese e q u a l fa c t o r s .

E xam ple 1 . F ac t9 or x2 12 xy 4 y2 .

ctq
Th is i s a p erfe s u ar e s i n c e 1 2 xy 2 V 9 x2 V 4 y 2
h e m i ddle t
,

2 y an d th e S ig n o f t
.

An d s i n c e V 9 232 3 x V 4 y2 , er m ,

we h ave 9 x2 —12 xy 4 y2 ( 3 x 2 y) ( 3 x 2 y) ( 3 x 2 y)
2
.
18 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

As w e h av e se e n 2 1 9, 2 2 0, i c on fo rm s t ll t
h
o a e ordi n ary
t
,

ru l e s o f r e ck on i n g On e h a s o n ly o r e m em ber wh e n em p l oy
t
th t
.

2
ing i i a 1 .

Su m s an d differences of an y t
w lik o e p owers In 308 , 309,
tt
.

3 1 0 w e p roved h a
F i rs t W he h e r . t i n s od d o r even ,

a
"
b "
( a b) ( a
"“
a
n —z
b ab
” “
z
t) u -
l
( 1)
Se c o nd . W h en n is e ven ,

1 z 2 l
b ( b) ( b ab b ) ( 2)
‘
" “ "“ n ’“ n ‘

a a a a .

Thi r d . W h en n is odd,

—1 —2 b 2
b ( b) ( ab b ( )
3
" ” " n "‘ n
a a a a

t
Hen c e h e f ol l ow i n g h e o r em s t
1 . a
n
b is11
a lwa
ys d i vi s i bl e by a b .

2 . a
n
b is11
d i vi s i bl e by a b wh en n is even .

3 a
n
b i s d i vi s i bl e by
n
b wh en n i s odd a

t c on s i s t
.

h e qu o t
i en t t
.

4 . In e very c a se s o
f t
h e erm s

—l —2 —Z —I
a
ll
a
ll
b ab
n
b fl

c on n e ct
ed by s i gn s wh i c h a re a ll w h en a b is t
h di e vi s or ,

bu t a r e a l ern a ely t t and wh en a b is t

h di e vi s or .

Thu s , 1 . x6 —1 = (x

2 . x6 —x4 + x3 — x2 + x

3 . 8 a3 2 7 b3c 3 (2 a s ) (3 be)
3

( 2 a 3 be) a 2 ) (2 a ) (3 be) (3 bc 2
) ]
(2 a 3 bc ) ( 4 a 2 6 abc 9 b2 c 2 ) .

E x am ple . F ac tt
h f ll
or e o ow n i g ex p re ssi ons .

1 . 6 4 x8 1 25 y 3 . 2 . 2 7 x3 1 . 3 . 16 x4 8 1 314 .

W h en n is com p os it
e Th e f oll o wi n g t
h eo r e m s ar e an im m e
tc
.

dia e o n se q u e n ce of 438 , 3
( ) an d 43 6 .

1 . If n is a t
m u l ip l e o f a ny in t
g e er , p , h ent a
n
b is
11
ex a c t
ly
di vi s ible by ap b" .
 F AC T O R S O F I N T E G R AL E X PR E SSI O NS

r —r = c r — e r
( 02
0 21
2
)( x4 sch/ 2 £1
4
)
2 . If n is a n e ven m u t
l ip le o f any in t
g
e er , p ,
t
h en a
‘1
b is11

ex a ct
ly d i vi s i bl e by ap bp

Th u s , x6 y
6
( ) x3 2 (y ) 3 2

963 3
953 3
( 21 )( 11 )

3 If n is an odd m u t
l ip le of a n y i n eg er , p , h en t t a
11
b n
is
ct
.

ex a ly d i vi s i bl e by ap t
b ”, wh e h er 11 i se l i s o dd or tf e ven .

Th u s , x6 y
6
( ) x2 3 (y )
2 3

‘
x2 ?
)( x4 m2 2 l
( y y y ) .

4 If p o wer of n h en is a 2, t a
n
b n
can be r es o lved in t
o

t t
.

t
fa c or s of h e s econ d d eg r ee by re
p t
ea ed u se
f
o h e d evi c e
exp l a i n ed i n § 4 3 6 .

Th u s , x8 y
8
x8 2 x4y 4 y
8 2 x4 y4

Aga i n ,
x4 + 21 4
14 6 5 2 112 = x4 y
‘ (2
y
a
)
: (2 V2) 1132212

( x2
+ 11 4 2 .
“

V2 —V2xy ) (x2 21
2 V2 V5 33” ,
an d s o o n .

As ch of t
eah e s e qu a d r a t ic fa c t or s c an b e r e sol ve d i n t
o t
wo ( i m agi
n ar y ) fa c t
ors o i t h e fi r st d eg re e b y § 444 t h e c o m p let e fac tor i zat
i o n of ,

a"
b i s alw ay s p oss i b le wh e n n i s a p o wer o f 2
"
.

W h en n c om p o si t e i t
is i s be s t to b e g i n b y r es ol v i n g a b " "

i nto t wo f a c t
, ,

o r s w h o s e d eg r e es a e a s n e a r ly e qu a l a s
”
or a r

p oss i ble It w i l l al w ay s b e p ossi b l e t o f a c t o r at l e ast on e o f

t f ct
.

he a or s t h u s o bt ai n ed .

Thu s , h f c ti t
t ei a or za on o f x6 y
6 gi ven u n der t
2 is h e b es tC t
i
. on nu

i n g, we h ave
zG — v3)
 A CO LLE G E AL G E BR A

E x am p le . Fac tt
h for
‘

e o llo w n i g ex pr ess i on s .

1 . x4 y
4 . 2 . x8 y
8. 3 . x9 y
9
.

Th e th eor em s of 43 8 , 43 9 al so ap p l y t o e x p r e ss i on s o f

t h fe o rm a
m
i b "
wh e n m an d n ar e m u l tipl e s of t
h e s am e

i ntg e er p .

Thus , 36 g
ls
( ) x2 3 (g )
s a

932 5 x4 $2315 ”
( 21 )( y )

E XE RCI SE XVII
t
h f ll wi g
In m pl
e o o n ex a es c arr y th e fa c to r i zati on as far as is p ossib le
wi t
h ti td ci g i t
ou i n ro u n rr a o n a l o r i m agi n ar y c o e ffici e n t
s .

1 . 4 x3y 20 xey 2 25 xy 3 . 2 . 28 i x2 6 3 y2 t .

3 . x2 + 4 y 2 + 9 z2 —4 xy 12 y z + 6 zx .

4 .
(7 a2 2 b?) 2 (2 a2 7 b2) 2 .

5 .
( 7 x2
+ 4x 6 .
— b2 — a b) — a2 .

7 . x4 + x2 +1 . 8 . a4 — 6 a 2 b2 + b4

9 . a4 4 a2 16 . 10 . 9 x4 1 5 xfily 2 16 y ‘ .

11 . 4 ( ab cd 2 ) b? C2 d 2) 2

12 . 576 x6 y 3 9 y“ . 13 . x9 21
9

15 . x1 0 16 . x5 32 .

FACT ORS F OUND BY GR OUPI NG TE RM S

So m e i m e s t t
h t e er m s o f a p ol y n o m i al i n x c an be c om b i n e d
i n g r o u p s, all o f wh i c h h av e so m e c om m o n f act
o r as F Th i s
c om m o n f a c t t t t t
.
,

or F is h en a fac or of h i e en re e x p r e ss i on .

Co m p ar e 43 3 .

E x am ple 1 t 3 . F ac or x3 x2 2x 6 .

N t
ici g t
o t
h th l t
tw c
n a e as o fi
o ef ci e n t ip les o f t
s are e q u i m u l t h e first
two ,

we h ave
x3 + 3 x2 — 2 x

( x2
 A CO LLE G E AL G E B R A

Two su c h nu m b e r s t§ 444 t h g h th y al way s ex is ou e ar e

t B t t i t
, ,

s el d o m i
ra l on awh i l th y u g 4 54 en ra on a e ar e n e e r s,

t t
.
,

an d m a y b f d
e b y i p c i
ou n i h f ll w i g m
nsp l e o n , as n e o o n ex a e s.

E x am p le 1t . F ac or x2 13 x 42 .

We see w i t
k t g o n e p ro d u c t
e r s , a an d i s 42 an d su m 13 As
b, wh os e
b oth a b an d a b are p os i t i ve b o th a a n d b m u st b e p os i t
.

ive Hen c e a m o n g
th e p osit eg e r s wh os e p r o d u c t
i ve i n t
, .

i s 42 — n a m e l y 42 an d 1 2 1 an d 2 , , ,

1 4 an d 3 7 a n d 6
,
w e se ek a p ai r wh ose su m i s 1 3 an d fin d 7 an d 6 , .

Hen c e

E x am p le 2 . F ac t
o r x2 13 x 22 .

Her e b o t
h a an d b m us be t g at
ne i ve fo r t
h i p e r ro du ct i s p os i ti ve an d
t
h i e r su m n e g at i ve Hen c e t
est
in g a s b efo r e th p e a i rs o f n eg a t i ve i n t
e

p ro du ct
.
,

gers wh o se i s 22 w e ,
fin d 11 an d 2 fo r 11 2 13 .

Hen c e x2 13 x 22 (x 1 1) (x
E x am p le 3 . F ac t
o r x2 9x 22 .

Here , i ce
s n ab is ne g at
ive a an d b mus th av e o pp os i t
e s ig n s ; an d

i c e a b i s n e g at
ive t t t
,

s n h e o n e which i s n u m er ic al ly g re a e r m u s b e
n e ga t
ive Hen c e we s et 22 tt
,

. 22 x 1 11 x 2 , an d , es in g as

b efor e fi n d a
,
—1 1 an d b : 2 ; for —9 .

Hen c e x2 —9 x —22 : (x

E x am p l e 4 . F ac tt
h f
or e ol l o w n i g ex p ress i o n s .

1 . x2 +3 x +2 . 2 . x2 — 16 x + 15 . 3 . x2 —4 x —12 .

4 . x2 + x —30 . 5 . x2 + 2 0 x + 96 . 6 . x2 —2 1 x + 80 .

Th e qu adra i c t ax
2
bx c fac t
ored b y i n s pec i on t Thi s i s
t tg
.

so m e i m e s p o ss i b l e , w h e n a, b, an d c ar e in e er s

t
.

By m u l i p ly i n g an d d i v i di n g by a, w e m ay re du c e ax
2
+ bx c
tt
o he f or m a, an d h n f ct t
t e h a or e

b ck t
rad e e pec
e x p r e ss i o n
o wi h t res tt by ax t
h m t h d j t
e e o us

ex pl ai n e d, n am ely , by fin di n g wo i n t tg wh e ers os e
p r o du c t i s
a c , an d su m 6 .

E xam pl e 1 . F ac t2
or x2 7x 3 .

c m) 2
We ha ve
 F ACT O R S O F I NT E G R AL E x PR E SSI O Ns

E x am p le 2 . Fa c t
o r a bx2
( a2 b? ) x ab .

W e h ave
abs 2 a2 b2) x ab
(t
a2 b? ) a bs : 6 252
( ab

( a bs a? )( a bx b? )
ab

(bx a ) ( ax b) .

E x am p l e 3 . t 16
Fac or x2 72 x 63 .

In t
hi c s ase it
i tc
s no ne es s ar y tm l t
o iply u an d d i vi d e b y 1 6 , for we h ave
16 x2 72 x 63 4
( )x 2 1 8 ( 4 x) 63

(4 x 2 1 ) (4 x

E x am ple 4 . Fac tt
h f
or e o ll o w n i g ex p r e ss i o n s .

1 . 6 x2 — 13 x + 6 . 2 . 5 x2 + 14 x —3 .

3 . 1 4 x2 + x — 3 . 4 . 18 x2 + 21 x + 5 .

5 . 49 x2 + 1 05 x + 44 . 6 . a bx2 -

( ao — b2) x —bc .

Th e qu adra i c t x
2
px q or ax
2
bx c fac td ore by com

t t
pl e i n gh s qu are W hil e t
h c e din g t
m e h od s app ly in
t
e .
p e re

p a r t i cu l ar c ases o n ly , he f oll o wi n g i s p er f e c tly g e n er al .

Si n c e x x
2
+p x
2

we c an m ak e x
2
p x a p er f e ct s q u are by a ddi n g t h at i s,
t
h f
e s qu a r e o f t ha l t o
f x h e c o efii c i en
Th i s p r o c e ss i s c all ed c om p l et in g t
.

2
h e s qu a r e o f x px
1 W e sh all n o t a ffe c tt q i f w e b ot
.

h e v al u e o f x px h 2

a dd an d su bt r a c t t t n s w e c an t
.
,

p 4 B u b y h i s
2
m e a r an s f o r m

th e ex p r e ssi o n i n t o t h e d i ffer e n ce b et we e n t
.

wo s q u ar es an d
th e n fa c t or i t by § 4 36 Th u s .
,

x
2
+px + g x
2
+p x + +g
4 4

r
2
p
2 —4 q
_

2
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

b
2 . Sin c e m 2
+ bx + c a x
2
+ — x +
cb

we m ay o b ai n t t
h f e a c to r s of th i s e x p r essi o n by su t
b s ti t u i n g
b / a for p an d c
/ a for q i n Si m p li fy i n g t
h e r e su ltw
,
e

h av e
b
+ bx + c —a
2 _
ax
2a 2 “

E x am l e 1 p . F ac t or x2 6 x 2

We h ave x2 —6 x + 2 : x2 —6 x + 3 2

(x 7
— —
a 3 + V —
Ba 3
E x a m pl e 2 . F ac to r x2 +8x 20 .

We h ave

a + 4u —4 a
—2 i ) .

He re we fi rs tb ti
o a n a su m o f s q u ar es (x 4, an d t
h ta en r f
n s or m

t in t fac t
,

hi s su m o a d i ffe r e n c e by re p la ci n g 4 b y 4 112 , § 43 7 . Th e o rs

a re i m agi n ary .

E x a m ple 3 . F ac t3
or x2 5x 1 .

We h a ve 3 x2 v
5x+ 1 =3
[ x2

s
l e — H
MJ
E GY( E —

3
< w
-

E xa m p le 4 . F ac tt
h f
or e o l lo w n i g ex p r e ssi o n s .

1 . x2 + 10 x + 23 . 2 . x2 — l ox + 24 .

3 . x2 — 12 x + 45 . 4 . x2 +x +1 .

5 .
2
2x +3x +2 . 6 . x2 — 4 ax — 4 b‘
3
i - -
8 ab.
1 90 A CO LLE G E ALGE BRA

Th us , tf ct
o a or x
2
2 xy 8 y2 2 xz l 4 yz 3 z2 , we se t
x2 2 xy
'

8 312 2 xz l 4 yz 3 z2 s (x 4y lz) ( —2y

x m z)

an d t
hen p ro c e ed as ab o ve , a ga in fin d in g l 1, m 3 .

E x am ple 2 . F ac t2
or x2 7 xy 3 y2 5 xz 5 yz 2 z2 .

E x am p l e 3 . Sh o wt
h t a x2 y
2 2x y 1 is pr i m e .

Pol y nom i al s of t
h t
h d g
e n e r ee We h av e sh o wn th at e v e ry

t t t
.

p o l y n om i al o f h e se c o n d d e g r e e, a , x i s h e pro d u c
2
alx a ,,

t
o f f a c o r s o f h e fir s d eg r e e t t Th e l i k e i s t ru e o f p o ly n o m i a l s

t t tf
.

in x o f e ve r y d g h gh
e r e e, ou no g e n e r al m e h od ex i s s or

fin di n g th e s e f ct ; i
a t
h or s n o er w o rd s,

Th eorem . E ver y p o ly n o m i a l i n x, o ft
he n t
h deg r ee,
1 —1
‘
f ( x) aox
n
al x au _ l x an

t
i s h e p rodu c of n fa c t t
ors o
ft
h e fi rs t
d eg r ee ; t
h ti t
ha s, er e a r e

n bi n om i a ls, x ,8 1 , x 32 x , B su c h , n,
h t
t a

f (x) 5 3O
( K 3 1)
, ( X
( X
fi) n

Th e p r oo f of thi s th e o re m w ill b e g i v e n l a t
er .

Cor oll ary A h om og en eou s p o ly n om i a l in t

w o va r a i bles, x and

t t i t tf n h
.

y, o
f h h d g
e n h p e r ee, s e r od u c o om o en eou s
g fa c t
or s in
x an d y fth fi t
,
d go e rs e r ee .

Thu s t h e h o m og e n e o u s p o ly n o m i al a 0x3 a 1x2y a 2xy 2 a 3y 3 m ay

t
i tt
,

b e d e r i ve d fr o m a 0x3 a 1 x2 a zx as by su b s i g
u n x y for x an d

m u ltip ly i n g t h e r es u lt b y y3 .

Bu t
b y § 447 a ox3 a l x2 (1 2 33 a3 5 ao x ( fir) (x 132 ) (x an d

b tit t t it
hi i d t dt t
ip ly b t
,

i f we su s u e x y for x i n s
y h en an en m ul hm o em b e rs

b y y 3 , we ob a n ti
0 0s “ 1 332 1
/ w ay 2 5 C M?6 (95 Bay ) (23 Bay ) .

E XER CI SE XIX

F ac tt
h f
or e o l l ow n i g exp r essi on s .

1 . x2 — 14 x + 48 . 2 . x2 —2 1 x —l 2o .

3 . 5 x2 —53 x —22 . 4 . 1 6 x2 + 6 4 x + 6 3 .

5 . 54 x2 —2 1 x + 2 . 6 . 12 x2 + 2 0 xy -
8 y3
 F ACT O R S O F I NT E G R AL E X PR E SSI O NS

x4 13 x2 + 3 6 . x3y 3 x2 y 2 1 8 xy 3 .

x2 —3 x + 3 . 3 x2 + 2 x —3 .

x2 — 4 xy — 2 y 2 . x2 —6 ax — 9 b2 — 1 8 a b .

a bx2 —( a2 — b2 ) .

x2 — 8 xy + 1 5 y 2 + 2 x — 4 y

APPLI CAT I ONS OF THE RE M AI NDE R T HE ORE M AND

S YNT HE T I C DI VI S I ON

On fin di ng fac tor s by a id of t
h e r em ai nder t
h eorem Le t
f( x
)
t
.

den ot e a o
p yl n om i al i n x By h e r e m ai n d e r th e o r e m 41 5, i f
tn ch t t t
.
,

b d en o e a um b er su h at f ( b) 0, h en x b is a f ac o r of

f (x ) We c an so m e t
i m e s fi n d su h a c n u m be r 6 by i n sp e c t i o n .

E x am p l e . Fac tf (
or x ) x3 5x 4 .

—5 + 4 u f ( l) 1 Si n c e 5 +4 0, x 1 is t ff ( ) a fac or o x

bti t q ti t
.

D i vi d i n g f (x) by x 1 , we o h a n e uo en
1 1 4
m + x —4
.-

1 1 4, 0
He n c e
-

f( ) x ( x 1) (x2 x

No t Ob
e t
h t
se r ve wh a en ever , as in thi s e x am pl e t
h e al g eb raic su m
t tff ( ) i f ct
.
,

of h c
e oeffi ci e n s o x s O, x 1 is a a or of f (x) .

Pol y n om i al s wi h i n nt t tg
s I f ask e d o f a c t or a
e r al coeffi c i e t
t t t
.

l h i n e g r al c o e ffi c i e nt s i i s u su all y b es t
p yo n o m i a l f( )x w i
t o l o ok fir s t fo r a n y f a c o r s o f h e fi r s t t t
,

d eg r ee w i t h int
, ,

eg r a l

c o e i c i en t
fi
’
s t h a i m a y h av e tt
Th e s e m ay a l way s b e f o u n d by

t
.

a i d o f h e f o ll o w i n g p r i n c i p l e s 4 5 1 45 2
t
.
, ,
—l
A p o l y n o m i al f ( x ) a ox alx wi h i nt eg r al
" "

t
c oeffic i e n s m ay h av e a f a c or o f h e fo r m x b wh er e b i s a n t t
t h e c on s tant t
,

B u i f so , b m u s t be a fa c t t
,

i n t e g er . o r of a er m n,

o
f f (x ) .

Th u s let
f( ) x a ox3 a l a2 (1 223 If x b is tb o e a fac t
or of

t
,

f (x) we
, m hus ave , § 415 ,

f (b) a ob3 a l b2 a gb a3 5 0,

an d t
h f
er e or e ( a ob2 al b a2 )bE (1 3 .

Th erefore si n c e , a ob2 al b a2 d en o t es an in t
ege r , b is a fac t
o r o f as .
1 92 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

H en c e a l l su c h f a ct
or s x b m ay be fou n d as in t
h f e o l l ow

in g e x am
p le .

E x am p l e tf ( ) 3 . 3 F ac 13 or11 lo x 6 x5 x4 x8 x2 x .

Th f c t f t
e h c
a tt tm 6
o rs o j l i2 i3 j 6 db
e o n s an er are an

t
; ;

ft b i tb f ct f f ( ) W tt
, , , , , ,

m h
us h
ave o n e o l if ese va u es x s o e a a or o x e es

t f ll w b y y t h t
.

h l fb
ese va u es o ic d i i i
as o o s s n e v s on .

Si c f ( l ) 0 1 i t f c t n e x s no a a or .

b y ttg
6[
W t
3 3 13 11 10 ,
h f b g 1) e er e o re e i es i n
O

x
n
—
3 6 7 4 6
+ 1 Th d p t b or x e I VIS I o n ro ves o e
OE
t t
.

3 6 7 4 6
c h q t i t
,
b i g Q 3 ex a e uo en e n 1 x4
3 9 6
—6 —7 —4 — 6 d t
,
2
h m i d x3 x2 x an e re a n er

f ct f f ( )
2 6 OL E _
,
,

0 H c 1 i en e x s on e a or o x

d Q i t h p d c tf t
9 0 6
.
,

h m i i g an 1 s e ro u o e re a n n

f ct
3 0 2 0 ,
a o rs

t tf t Q I tl p tb ct
.

W h e a ve n ex o ac ly d i i i b l b y
or 1. a so r o ve s o e ex a v s e

x 1 t h q t i t b i g Q
e 3 uo 9 en 2 6 e n 2 x3 x2 x

T f ct Q w h c tt tm i l 6 w tt cc
.
,

o a or 2, ose i ly
o n s an er s a so e es su ess ve

bt t
,

x 1 2 x 2 b t i ch c x i m i d u which i
n ea as e o a n a re a n er s no

ft f ct B t tt 3 w fi dt h t it
, , ,

H c en h
e n on e o i g
e s e a re a d i id
o rs u es n x e n a v es

ly t ti t
.
,

Q ct
2 ex a h q b i g Q
, 3
e uo2 Th f en e n , x2 . e re o re

f( ) : (x 1 2
3) ( 3 x2
x + ) ( x

A p o l y n o m i al f (x ) a ,,x
"
alx
" ‘
l
t
w i h i n te g r a l
c oeffic i en t
s m ay h av e a fa c t
or o f t
h f e orm a x
B wh e r e a

ti tg fa c t t
, ,

an d 8 de n o e n e ers wh i c h h av e no c o m m on or Bu
tb fa c t B a fa c t
.
,

if r of and Th i s
so , a m us e a o or o
f
th e o r e m i n clu de s h tf
t a o 45 1 .

Th u s t
le f( ) x a ox3 (1 1332 0 2 23 as If ax 6 . Or a (x N a)
tb f ct f f ( t
.
, ,

is o e a a or o ) we
x ,
m us h ave , 415 ,

f
( g)
t E0
t
an d h ere o re f a o i” fi (1 1 3 2 6! a z cfl fi a ga 3 .
( 1)
F ro m ( 1 ) we ob a n i a ofi3 5 ( a l l?2 ag fi a a m )a ?
.
( 2)
Th erefore s i n c e a 1 /3
2 a g fia g
a ar 2 is an int
e ge r a fa c t
is
o r o f a ofia
a

t n o fa c t t He n c e a is a fa c t
, , .

o r in co m m o n wi h 13 3
Bu a h as , § 492 , 2 .
or

O f (1 0 , § 492 , 1 .

Ag a n i f rom ao i2
( r al fi a a 2 a 2 ) ,6 E a 3 a 3,

wh e n c e , r e as o n n i g as b efo r e , we c o n c lu d e t
hat
B i s a fac t
or o f a s .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

I t
f ll o fr om 4 5 2 th at a p o ly n om i a l f ( x ) x
o ws a
n

w h os e l ea d i n g c o effic i e n tis 1 t h e r es tbei n g i n t

eg er s , c a n n ot
n,

i on a l fr a c t
,

va n i s h for a r a t i o n a l va lu e of x .

F o r if f (B a ) th f( ) m t
z :0,b en x us e ex a ct ly d i vi s i b l e b y a x B an d

t
h f
e r e or e a m u s t
b f c t f 1 which i
e a a or o , s o n l y p oss i b le wh e n a 3 1 ,
.

Fac ti
or n g pol y nom i al s an d s ol vi n g equ a t
i n o s I tf ll o o ws fr om
tt tt
.

3 5 0 h a t h e p r o b l e m o f r e s o l v i n g a p ol y n o m i a l f ( x ) i n o i s

t t t
f ac or s of h e fi rs d e g re e i s e ss e n i al ly h e sam e a s t h at t t
l i ng t
so v h q t
i f( e e ua on x
) 0 .

E xam pl e 1 . Solve f (x) 2 x4 x3 1 7 x2 l6 x 12 0 .

By § 452 we fin d th t
f( a x) (2 x 1) (x (x
Hen c e h e t e qu a t
i f( )
on x 0 is e t
q u i valen to t
h e fou r e q u at
i on s
2x x + 2 : 0, x + 2 = 0, x

Th erefor e t
h e r o ot
s o f f (x) 0 are 1 2, 2, an d 3 .

E x am pl e 2 . Solve x3 3 x2 l ox 24 .

Tran sp os in g , x3 3 x2 10 x 24 0 .

F ac t
o ri n g , (x 2 ) (x 3) (x 4) z: 0 .

Hen c e t h e r e q u i r ed r oots ar e 2 , 3, an d 4 .

E XE RCI SE XX
F ac tt
h f ll
or e o ow n i g ex p ress i ons .

1 . x3 —7 x + 6 . 2 .

3 . x4 — 10 x3 + 3 5 x2 — 5Ox + 24 . 4 . x4 — 2 x2 + 3 x — 2 .

5 . 6 x3 — 1 3 x2 — 1 4 x — 3 . 6 . 2 x3 — 5 x2y — 2 xy2 + 2 y8

7 . 2 x4 — x3 —9 x2 + 13 x —5 . 8 . 4 x6 — 4l x4 + 46 x 2 —9 .

9 . 6 x5 + 1 9 x4 + 2 2 x3 + 28 x2 + 16 x + 4 .

10 . 5 x6 — 7 x5 —8 x4 — x3 l 7 x2 i 8 x —4 - - - -
.

Solve h e t f ll o ow n i g e qu at
i on s .

11 . x2 —4 x 12 . 6 x2

13 . x2 —5 x = l 4 . 14 . x2 +6x =2 .

15 . x3 16 . x4 + 2 x3 —4 x2 -
2x + 3 =0

17 . xi 18 . 10 x3 —9 x2
 FACTO R S O F I NTE G R AL E X PRE SSI O NS 1 95

E XE R CI SE XXI

Th e followi n g exp r essi on s c an b e fa c t or e d b y m et

h ods e x p la i n ed i n t he

pr esen t ch ap t er Carr y t h e fac t or i zat

i o n as fa r a s i s p os si ble wi t h ou t
in tr o du ci n g i rrati on al or i m agi n ary c oefii c i e n t
.

s .

1 . 6 xy 15 x 4y 10 . 2 . a 2bc a c 2d a b2d bc dz .

3 . a3 ( a —a ) . 4 . a5 — 8 1 a b4 .

5 . a4b a 2 b3 a 3b2 a b4 6 . 3 a bx2 6 a xy bxy 2 y2

7 . 3 x6 192 y e . 8 .
( x2 x 3 ) 8 .

9 64 x6 y 3 15
.
y . 10 . x2 (a b) x ab .

11 . x2 " 3 x" 18 . 12 . x x2 42 .

13 . 3 x4 + 3 x3 —2 4 x — 2 4 . 14 . x5 — 9 x3 + 8 x2 —7 2 .

15 . 2 xc — a 2 + x2 — 2 a b + c2 —b2 . 16 . x2 x2 (
17 . a2 —2 a b + b2 18 . x4 —1 0 x2y 2 9
+ y 4 .

19 . 6 x2 7 xy 5 y2 4x 2y . J 2O . x4 ( a2 b2 ) x2 a 2b2.

21 . 4 (xz i - -
uy 2 ) ( —
x2 2
y + z2 —u 2 2
) . 22 . 1 4 x2 19x 3 .

‘
23 . 1 19 y 66 31 2
. 24 . xy 3 55 x2 y
3 2 04 x3y .

25 a4 18 a 252c 2 8 1 b4c 4 26 x2 7 x 2 x2
. . .
( ) 6 42 x .

27 . 8 (x + y ) 3 — 2 7 (x — y ) 3 . 28 .
( —2xy) x3 -

(y — 2 x)y 8

29 . x2 + a2 —bx — a b + 2 ax . 30 . x5 — y5 —
(x — y )5 .

31 . x5 —x4 —2 x3 + 2 x2 + x —1 . 32 . b4 + b2 + l .

33 .
—5 . 34 . a4 +4 .

35 . x2 —xy —2 y 2 + 4 xz—5 y z + 3 z2 . 36 . 4 a4 + 3 a 2b2 + 9 b4 .

37 . x 2 —8 ax —4o a b — 2 5 b2 . 38 . x8 + x4 +1 .

39 x2
( +2x — x2 40 b
+ y) 2
.
( .
( ax

41 . x 3 —a x2 —bfix —
l a b2 -
. 42 . x4 + bx3 — a 3x — a 3b .

43 . a2 —9 b2 -
l 1 2 bc
- —4 c 2 44 .

45 . x4 — 2 x3 + 3 x2 —2 x + 1 . 46 .
— a y)2 .

47 . 4 x5 +4 x4 —37 x3 48 . x4 4x 3 .

49 . x2 + 5 ax + 6 a2 — a b — b2 . 50 . 1 5 x3 + 2 9 x2 —8 x — 1 2 .

51 . abcx2 52 . 2 as — c x2 — 5 a zx —2 a 3
 A COLLE GE ALG E BRA

( a 54 . s u l g s

x4 — 6 x3 + 7 x2 +6 x —8 . 56 . 4 x3 —3 x

57 . 3 x5 — l 0 x4 — 8 x3

58 . 5 x4 + 2 4 x3 —l 5 x2 — 1 1 8 x + 24 .

59 . a 2 bc + ac2 + a cd -
a bd —c d — d2 .

60 . x4 y
“ z4 2 xfiy 2 2 y 2 z2 2 z2x2 .

VI I . HI G HE ST C O MM O N FACT O R AND
LO W E ST CO M M O N M ULT I PLE

HI GHE S T COM M ON F ACT OR

Hi g h es t mmco o n fact
or Le tA B, de n o te ra t i o n al i nt e
ct
.
, ,

g r al f u n i o n s o f o n e o r m o r e va r i ab l e s, as x , o r x an d y
ct tt
t
.

I f A, B , h av e n o f a o r i n o m m o n , we s ay h a h ey c ar e

p r im e t
o on e a n o h er B u i f h ey h av e an yt om m on f a tt c ct
or

t t c a ll i t
t t
.
,

h y he av e o n e wh o s e d e g r e e i s h i g h e s ; w e he ir h i g h es
c om m on fa c t
or

Th u s pr im e t o o n e an o t h er
2 2
x y an d x y a re
Bu t h ave t h e c o m m on fa c t
.
,

4 xy z5 8 xz4 a n d 4 x2y z3 or s x z z2 z3 xz

h e i r hi g hest c o m m o n fac t
, ,

xz2 xz3 a n d t
v
, , , , ,

, , o r i s xz3 .

Not es 1 W e h e r e ign o r e c o m m o n n u m er ic al fa c t ors

2 It i s so m e t i m es sa i d o f t wo o r m or e fu n c t i on s which are pr i m e t
. . .

o n e an o t h er t hat t
.

he i r H C F is l
3 Th e n u m e r ic al val u e o f t h e H C F o f A an d B i s n o t
. . . .

n e c e ss ar i l y

t es t
.

c o m m o n d i vi s or o f i n t
. .

h e g r ea t
.

e g r al n u m e r ic al va lu e s o f A a n d B

Th u s t Bu t 4 t
.

h e H C F o f (2 x l ) x a n d (x l ) x is x wh e n x he
1 ) x a r e 3 6 a n d 1 2 an d t est
h e gr e a t
. . .
, ,
.

va l u e s o f ( 2 x l ) x an d (x c o m m on
d i vi s o r o f 36 a n d 12 i s n o t 4 bu t
,

12 , .

Th eorem 1 Th e H C F of A B . is th e p r od u c t of a l l t
he
d ifier en t ea c h r a i s ed to t
. . .
,

c o m m on p r i m e fa c t
,

fA B
'

or s o he
lo wes tp ow er i n w h i c h i t y of th es e fu n c t
, ,

occ u r s i n a n i on s .

Th e t
t r u h o f th i s t
h e o r em is ob vi o u s i f we su pp o se ea ch
of t
h e t
fu n c i o n s A B , , e x p re ss e d in t
h f e orm of a p r o du ct
of
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B RA

( sy n t
h t
ic lly ) w
e a e ti
ob a n Q1 x3 3 x2 3x 2 an d RI 0 ; d i vi d i n g

Q1 by x 2 we o bti Q
a n 2 x2 x 1 an d R2 0 . t
Hen c e h e H C F . . .

o f f (x) an d (x) is (x 2)

E x am p l e 3 . F in d t
h H C F
e . . . of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g .

1 . x2 + x —6 an d 2 x3 + 7 x2 + 4x + 3 .

2
2 . x2 +5x 6 an d x4 +6 x3 + 1 3 x 1 6 x + 12 .

3 .
(x l ) 2 (x 3 ) 3 (3 x an d x4 5 x3 x2 2l x 18 .

Th eorem 2 tA dB dLe ttw gi i tg l

anf c t
i en o e o ven n e ra un on s

y t
.

an d M and N wi tg l f ct
an i c tt Th o n e ra un on s or on s a n s en

f c t f A d B i f c t f M A NB
.

e ver y c om m on a or o an s a a or o .

F or l e t
F d n e t
o e a c o m m on f a c t or of A an d B .

Th e n A5 GF an d B E HF

wh e r e G an d H ar e in tg e r al .

H en c e M A NB E M GF + N -
EF E
( M G NH ) F
wh e r e Ag ? N H i s i n t e g r al .

Th e r ef o re F i s a f a c t or of MA NB , 4 24 .

Appli ca i on s t of hi t
t h
s By ai d of t h i s th e or em h e
eor em t
t t
.

p ro bl em O f fi n di n g h e H C F o f wo p ol y n om i al s i n x , h o se w
t tt
h tf f
. . .

de g r e e s ar e h e sam e , m ay be red u ce d o a o a c tor i n g a

si n gl e p oly n om i al of a l o wer d e g r ee .

E x am pl e 1 F i n d t h e H C F of A
. x2 2x . 4 an d B
. . 952 x 3 ,

ra c t
Su b t in g B fr o m A we o b t ai n A B x 1
1 is th e o n ly p o ss i b l e c o m m o n fa c t
, .

He n c e 46 1 x or o f A an d B

B ut s i n c e A d oes n o t 1 is n ot a fac t
, , .

van i s h wh e n x 1 x or o f A

Th erefor e A an d B ar e pr i m e t o o n e a n ot
, , .

h er .

E xa m p l e 2 . t
F in d h e H C F . . . of

A = 2 x3 —3 x2 —3 x + 2 an d B = 3 x3 —2 x2 -
7x —2 .

1 We b egi n b y m u l ipl y i n g t A an d B by n u m b e rs which wi ll give

t t t
.

r esu l s h avi n g h e sa m e lea di n g er m n a m el y , A by 3 an d B by 2

b tc t ti
, .

Th en su ra i g 2B f n rom 3 A , we ob a n

3 A —2 B — 5 x2 + 5 x + 10 — 5 (x2 —x —5 (x + 1) (x 4 2)

Hen c e h e t on ly p oss i b le c om m on fac t

o rs o f A a n d B a r e x 1 an d x 2 .
 HI G HE ST CO M M O N F AC T O R 1 99

By t
h e re m a n d er i t
h e or e m we fi n d t b t
h t h a o ar e fa c t
or s of A an d B .

Hen c e h e H C F t
A an d B is (x 1 ) (x of

t t
. . .

2 Or we m ay a d d A an d B h u s ob a i n i n g
.
,

A + B = 5 x3 — 5 x2 —10 x = 5 x (x2 —x
I i at c
t s on e ev t
i d en th at
x is no tf c t
a a or of A or B, so h tb
t a as f
e or e

we h ave o n ly ttt 1 d o es x an x 2 .

E xam pl e 3 Fi d t
. h H C F n e . . . of t
h f e o llo w n i g .

1 . x4 — x3 + 3 x2 — 4 x — 1 2 an d x4 — x3 + 2 x2 + 3 x — 22 .

2 . 6 x3 + 2 5 x2 + 5 x + 4 an d 4 x3 + 1 5 x2 —2 x + 8 .

Th eorem 3 t
If h e fou r i n tg l f cti A B Qe ra un on s R ar e so

R t
.

tt h t f ct f A
, , ,

A QB
r el a ed a 5 h c mm e o on a or s o and B are

f ct f B d R
,

t
h m th c mm
e sa e as e o on a ors o an .

We h ave A5 QB R, ( )
1
an d th e r e for e A QB R . 2
( )
I t
f ll fr om
o by
o ws 4 6 1 h a t ev ery c o m m o n f a c t or o f A t
t t
,

an d B i s a f a c t o r o f R an d h e r e f or e a c o m m o n f a c o r o f B a n d R

t
h at t
.

An d c o n v e r s ely , i f o ll ow s f r o m by § 4 6 1 ev ery

t t
, ,

c om m on f a c or o f B an d R i s a f a c t or o f A an d h er e fo r e ,

a c om m o n f a c t or o f A an d B

t t t t
.

H e n c e h e c om m o n f a c or s o f A an d B are h e s am e a s h o se
of B an d R .

Th e g en eral m e h od for fi ndi n g t t

h H CF e of t
w o pol y nom i al s
t t
. . .

in x W h en on e p o l y n o m i al i n i s d i v i d e d by a n o h e r , h e
x

tt t
.

di v id e n d , di v i so r , q u o i en , a n d r e m a in de r ar e c on n e c e d b y

t
h id e e nt i t
y A 5 QB R . t
H e n c e i f o ll o ws f r o m § 4 63 h a t t
Th e c o m m on fa c t
or s o
f d i vi d en d and d i vi s or are a lw y t
a h s e

sa m e as t
h os e o f d i vi so r a n d r em a i n d er .

By m aki n g u se o f h i s fa c , h e H C F o f an y wo p oly n o t tt t
t
. . .

m i al s i n x m ay al w ay s b e f ou n d Th e m e h o d i s a n al o g ou s
tth t m pl y d i i th m t i c tfi d t
.

o a e h g t t c m
o e n ar e o n e rea es o m on

di v i ftw i t
so r og Iti d c ib d i th f l l wi g
o n e er s s es r e n e o o n r u l e,

t t At
.

wh A d B
er e
p h giv p ly
an mi l h re r e se n e en o no a s, e o n e of

h i gh d g i f th i d g
er e t th
r eem e r e r e e s ar e n o e sa e .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

465 R u le . D i vi de A by B and c a ll t
h e qu o i e n t tq and t
h e

i
r e m a n d er R1
tdi t t tq t
.

Nex vid e B by R , and c a ll h e qu o i e n , an d h e

r em a i n d e r R2
t con t
.

Nex di vi d e R I by R 2, a nd so on , i n u a l ly d i vi d i n g ea ch
n ew r em a i n d er by h e t on e la s tbti o a n ed, un t
il a r em a i n d e r is
r e a ch ed w h i c h d o es n o ti n vo lve x :
tfi l m i d
If h i s na re a n er is no t0 A and B h a ve no c o m m on
ti t
,

fa c t If i t
i O t
or . h di s ,
e vi sor wh i c h y i eld ed i h HCF
s e . . . of
A and B .

F or s u p p o se , fo r t
h e sak e of d e fin i t e n e ss , t
h tt
h a e fin al
r e m ai n d e r is R 3 Th e n a cc or di n g as 1
( ) s
R z c, wh e r e 0

an t
c on st n ot
.

d en o te s a 0 ,
or
( 2) R3 0, w e s h al l h av e

( )
1 A q B RI 01
‘
(2) A qB RI

B q Rl —
l R2 -
B § —
q, , 4 R 2
R

RI 5
92 132 i
“ “
0 RI 5
Qs

( )
1 In t
hi s ca se A a n d B h a ve no c o m m on fa c t
or .

F or i tf ll o ows from h id t
t it
i e en es by 46 3 , t
h t
A a an d

B h av e
'
t
h e sa m e c o m m on f ct B a ors as an d R1 ; B an d R ,, as Rl
an d R z ; R, an d R ,, as R, an d c
t t
.

H e n c e h e p a i rs of fu n c i on s A an d B, B an d R 1, R 1 an d R 2,
R2 an d c al l h a ve t
h c e s am e om m on fa ct
o rs

t c c tt t
, .

Bu as is a
(
o n s an no R2 an d c h av e no c om m on

fa ct H
or . en ce A an d B h av e n on e .

2
( ) In t
hi s ca se R2 is t
h H CF e . . . o
f A and B .

F or Si n ce RI 5
g2 R 2, e ve ry f ac t fR or o c o m m o n fa c t
is a
or

tl f t om m o n fa ct
2

of R1 an d R 2, an d R2 i se is h c e o r of hi g h es t .

d eg r e e
t t t fR d R t
.

Bu h c as e om m on fa c or s o an ar e h e s am e a s

t d B t
h f ct f h ig h t
I 2

h o se o fA an d g e a or o es e re e c o m m on tR o

h f ct f h i g h t tA
,

t
,

an d R2 i l s a so d g c e a or o es e r ee om m on o an d B

R i t
.

H en c e h HCF
2 fA
s d B e . . . o an .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

f a c t or s an d t
h HCF f t
t h en
h lti ng pfin d
i n e o e re su ex r ess o s

ltt bti d m lt ch f t
. . . .

Th e r e su h i p li d b y
us h f ct
o a ne u e su o e a ors

d tt tt n tA d B wil l b t
,

r em ove h a c e ou h se a s ar e om mo o an e e

HCF of A an d B, 4 58
t t
. . . .

Th e sa m e c ou r se m ay b e f ollo we d wi h an y w c o n s e c u t i ve
o

fu n c t
i on s in t
h li tA e s B , R ,, R , , s i n ce e v e ry t w o s u ch
t t
,

fu n c i on s h av e h m e sa e H CF . . . as A an d B, § 4 67 .

Th u s —
A = x4 + x3 —
l 2 x2 2x an d B x4 2 x3 3 x2 2 i
x o b v ou s ly

h a ve th e c o m m on fa c t R e m o vi n g i t
,

or x we h a ve x3 x2 2x 2 an d
2 wh ose H C F we h ave j u s t fo u n d t
.

x3 2 x2 3x o be x 1 (see
He n c e t
. . .
,

§ 46 5 E x h e H C F o f A an d B i s x (x
Ag a i n i n E x 2 s i n c e x i s a fac t or of R I b u t n ot o f B it c an n o t
. . . .
,

be a
fact h e H C F of B an d R 1 an d is t h e r efo r e n o t a fa c t or o f t
, ,

or of t
.
,

he
Hen c e we m ay d i s c a r d t hi s fa c t
. . .
,

H C F o f A an d B o r x o f R I an d d i v i d e

B by t h e re m a i n i n g fac t 1 so le ssen i n g t
. . . .

or x h e n u m b e r o f d i vi s i on s ,
.

2 In an y of t
h di e v i s i on s we m ay m u l i p ly o r di vi d e h e t t
t t
.

d i v i so r or di vi d e n d o r an y in e r m edi a e r e m ai n de r b
y a n u m er

i c l f c t; f
a thi w ill ff t
a or t
h b q t m i d by
or s a ec e su se u en re a n er s

a nu m i c l f ct t t 4 03
er a d th f th H CF
a tor a m os an e r e or e e no

tll Th i d i c bl t id f ct
, , . . .

a a s i l c ffic i ts
ev e en a es us o a vo ra on a oe en

t c ffi c i t t
.

wh h gi
en e i l ven oe en s a r e r a on a

3 It tg t m pl y d t ch d c ffi c i t
.

i. d s a v an a e ou s o e o e a e oe en s .

E x am l e 1 p . Fin d h e H C F t . . . of

an d B : 2 x3 + 5 x2 —x —l .

Mu l t
iply i g A by
n 2 an d u s n i g d et
a ch e d c o efii c i en s ,tw e h ave
—1 4+
1 _ 1
1 + 5 +

2 + 5 1 -
1

1 + -
1 —l

Hen c e h e H C F t . . . oa nd B —1 3 — 1-

is x2 +3x+l .
—1 —3 — 1
 HI G HE ST CO M M O N F ACTO R

This re c k on i n g m a y b e m o re c o m pac t
ly arr an g e d , as follo ws
—1 4 + 6 +2 1 + l
1 — 1

2 + 5 1 —1

f l -
1

E x am pl e 2 . F in d h e H C F t . . . of t
h f e oll ow n i g .

an d 2 x4

T heorem If t
h e c oe fii c i en t
s o
f A an d R a re ra t i on a l so a r e

t
.

t if t h e c o efi i c i en t
,
‘ s of A a n d
h os e of h i e r and B a re

r ea l, s o a re th os e o f t
h i e r H CF . . .

F or t
h H CF
e f A d B o an c an be t fo u n d
h m th d f by e e o o

H c i tc ffi c i t t bi t ft
. . .

4 65 en e s oe en s ar e r a i l c i
on a h om na on s o e

t t t
.

c o effic i en t s of A an d B, an d a r e h f i l wh h
e r e o re r a on a en e se

ar e r a t
i o n a l , r e al wh e n th e se a r e r eal .

Th i s th eo r em h a s i m p or t an t c on s e qu en c es so m e o f wh i ch
t
ic d l t tw t
,

wi l l b e no e a er By ap p ly i n g i e c an o f en sh o r e t n
t
.
,

h w e or k of fin d i n g a H CF . . .

E x am pl e . Find he H C F t . . . o f x2 2 an d x3 x2 5x 6 .

Ei h t
t h er p o ly n o m i als ar e p r i m e t
e se o o n e an o t h e r or t he ir H C F is
h e fac t
for s i n c e t
, . . .

x2 2 it self or s o f x
2 2 n a m e ly x V2 an d x V2
h ave irr ati o n al c o effi ci en t s n ei t h er o f t h e m c an b e t
, ,

he H C F
Bu t by t r i al we fin d t h at 6 i s n ot e x a ct
. . .
,

x3 x2 5x ly d i vi s ibl e b y
x2 2 Hen c e t
. h ese p ol y n om i als ar e p r i m e t o o n e an o t her .

Th e H C F of m ore t
h n t
wa o p ol y nom i al s i n x Th i s m ay b e
t
. . . .

o bt ai n e d by h f e oll o w i n g ru l e .

F i rs t
fi nd
f tw t
hf t
h p y
el H CF o o o e o n om i a ls, n ex tt
h e

ft lt d t
h t
. . .

H CF . o h h i d p ly m i l
e r es u an e r o no a ,
a n d s o on . Th e
lt wi ll b t
. .

fin a l r es u h H CF q i d e e . . . re u re .

Th u s , i f D 1 i s t
h H CF f A e o an d B, an d D2 is t
h H CF e

t D i t
. . . . . .

of D1 an d C, h h H CF
en 2 s e . . . of A, B, an d C
'
.
204 A CO LLE G E ALGE B R A

F or D2 is a f a c tor of D1 an d C; an d D 1 is a f a c t or of

A an d B He n c e , 4 27 , D 2 i s a f a c to r of A, B, an d C
c o m m o n fa c t
. .

An d o r o f A B an d C
e ve r y is a c o m m on
o r o f D an d C an d t
fact
, ,

h e r e f or e a f ac t o r o f D 46 7 H en c e
D is t
1 2,

h e h i g h es t
.
,

2
c o m m on fa c t or o f A B an d C , , .

Th e sa m e c o n c l u si o n f o ll o ws f r om 4 58 .

E x a m p le . F in d h e H C F t . . . of A: x4 + x3 — x2 +x —2 ,

B : 2 x4 + 5 x3 — 2 x2 — 7 x + 2 , an d 0 : 3 x4 — x3 — x2 —2 .

By § 465 , we fin d h t
t th H C F
a e of A an d B is D 1 x2 x 2; an d

t
h tt
. . .

h HC F fD
’
a e o 1 an d C is x 1
H c t
. . . .

h H CF en e e . . . of A, B , an d C is x 1 .

Th e H C F of pol y n om i al s i n m ore t
h an one v ari abl e Th e
t t
. . . .

g e n e r al p ro bl e m of fin d i n g h H CF e of w o su c h p o l y n om i a l s
t c m pl i c td tb tt
. . .

is oo o a e o e c o n s i de r e d h er e h HCF
Bu e of

t n ct
. . . .

w p ly o i l wh i cho n om h o m og en eou s f u
a s ar e i f t
w von s o o ar i

abl e s , as x an d y , m ay r e a dily b e f o u n d b
y a id of t
h e ru l e

gi v en in 46 5 .

E XERCI SE XXII
F in d he H C F t . . . of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g .

1 . 1 0 x3y 2z5 , 4 x5 y z3 , 6 x4y 3z5 , an d 8 x4y4z4u .

2 .
( a b) 2 ( a b) , ( a b) ( a b) 2 , a n d a 3b a b3

3 .
y +y
4 2
+1 an d y
2 —y +1 .

a2 —1 ,

x3 —1 a n d x3 + a x2 —ax — 1 .

x4

x2 +5 x + 6, x2 + x —2 ,
a n d x2 — l 4 x — 32 .

( —x1 )( x — 2 an d 5 x4
) 15 x 3
+ 8 x2 +6 x —4 .

x3 — 1 a n d x3 — 4 x2 — 4 x — 5 .

10 .
(: a2 an d ( x3 5 x2 +7 x 3) (x2 —6 x
11 .
( x 1 ) 2 (x an d ( x2 3 x 2) (2 x3 5 x2 + 5 x

12 . 2 x3 — 3 x2 — 1 1 x + 6 an d 4 x3 +3 x2 —9x + 2 .

13 . x3 —2 x2 —2 x — 3 an d 2 x3 + x2 +x —1 .
206 A CO LLE G E ALGEBRA

Her e , previ ou sly we ign ore

as n u m er ic al fac t
or s an d assu m e t
h t a an

in t
e g r al fu n c t p r o du c t
,

i on c an b e e x p ressed in on ly o n e way as a o f p owers

of ys d iffe r en t p ri m e fac t
i
or s .

n di n g t
h LCM e by i n s pec i on t) I f we c an r e sol v eA B,
t tt tc
. .

t
.
,

f a c or s w e
'

h i e r p r im e m ay o b a i n h i e r L CM a on e

t t ttd
.
,
. .

by a pp l y i n g h e t h eo r e m j u s d e m on s r a e .

E x a m pl e 1 . F in d th L C M f3 e . . . o x5 z x
‘
4 3
y , y z , an d
3
2 x2 y z6

t
He r e h e d iffe re n tp i m f ct r e a or s , e a ch r a s edi h high t
tt o p w e es o er in
which tcc i
i o u rs n an y ft h f cti o e un o n s , ar e x5 , y
4
zfi

c t
.
,

Hen h L C M
e e . . . is x5 y 4z6 .

E x am pl e 2 . F in d t
h L C M e . . . of x2 y
2 4 xy
‘
2
-
4 y2 a n d xzy 4y .

We h a ve x2 y 2 4 xy 2 4 y 2 : y 2 (x an d x
2
y 4y y (x
t
He n c e h e L C M i s . . .
2
y ( x 2 2 x
) (
T h eorem 2 Th e L C M o f tw i t g o n e ra l fu n c t
i on s A a n d B,
tf t
h t id d by t
. . . .
,

is t
h p e r odu c w di o e o, v h i
e e r H CF . . .

F or l e t
D d tth H CF en o e e of A an d B, an d le tA an d B1
h q t
tt t
. . .
I

de n o e i t e uo en s o b a i n e d by d i v idi n g A an d B b y D , so th a t
A E AI D an d B E BI D .

Th e n i f M den o tt
h L CM
e e . . . of A an d B , w e h av e

M E Afi p E AB fl l
F or tly c
e v id e n ltipl fA d B tc ti n
a om m on m u e o an m us on a

( )
1 th p d c t
e f ll p i rof c t c u t A d B o a r me a or s om m on o an

ly D (2) t h p d ct f ct f A t
,

n am e f ll p i b l g
e ro u o a r me a ors o no e on

i g tB ly A ( 3 ) th p d c tf ll p i f ct f
,

n o n am e e ro u o a r me a or s o

tb l n g i g tA
1,

d t
,

B no e o ly B ; h l w t
n c o n am e an e o es om m on

i p l wi l l c t
lt f ct b i d t
, 1

m u i
e h on a n no a or s es es e se .

Coroll ary tt t f t
Th e p r odu c of wo i n eg r a l u n c i o n s, A and B,
tt tt t
.

is e
q ual o h e p r odu c of h ei r L C M a n d h ei r H C F . . . . . .

Genera l m t
h df e o or fi di ng t
h LCM
n f t
w p ly e o o o n om i al s in x

tf l l th tt f t
. . .

I o o ws f ro m 465, 47 5 h L CM
a w e o o su ch p o ly
bt d by t
. . .

n om i al s , A an d B , m ay al w a y b s i h e o a ne e ru l e

To fi n d t
h LCM f A
e o an d B, d i vi d e A by t
h H CF e . o f
d m lt
. . . . .

A a n d B, an ip ly t
h u e r es u t
l by B .
 HI G HE ST CO MM O N F AC T O R 2 07

O b ser ve th a t
thi s is e q u i va l e n t t lt ip ly i
o m u n g B by all t h o se
pr i m e f a c to rs of A wh i c h ar e n o tl dy p
a re a r esen t in B .

E x am le p . F in d t
h L C M e . . . of

an d 2 x3 —
F5x 2 —x — 1 .

By § 46 5 , w e fi n d h t
t th H C F
a e . . . x2 3x 1 .

Ag a i n — x —1 .

t
He n c e h e L C M is . . .

Th e L C M of m ore t
h n t
w a o p ol y nom i al s i n x Th i s m ay b e
t
. . . .

o bt ai n ed by h f e oll o w i n g r u l e .

F i rs t
fi nd tw f t t
h p ly
h e L CM . o
f o o e o n om i a ls, n ex tt
h e

ft lt d t
. .

L CM o h h th i d p ly m i l
e r es u an e r o no a , a n d s o on . Th e
ltwi l l b t
. . .

fin a l r esu h L CM q i d e e . . . re u re .

Thi s f oll o w s f r o m h e f a c th at ea ch s ep i n h e p r o ce ss i s t t t t
e q u i v al e n tt
o m u lt i p l y i n g h e L C M l a sto bt a i n e d b y th o s e t
t t t t
. . .

p r i m e f a c or s o f h e n ex t f u n c i on wh i ch ar e n o al r eady
p r e se n i t
n t h at L C M . . .

E x am p l e . F in d t
h L C M e . . . of Az x4 3 x3 2 x2 3 x 1,

B : 2 x3 +5 x2 — x — 1, an d C z 2 x3 —3 x2 +2 x —3 .

As we h ave j u st
s h o wn § 47 7 , ,
Ex .
,
t
h L C M e . . . of A an d B is

W e h ave n ex ttfi d th L C M
o n e of M1 an d C
h t
w fi d t tC
. . . .

B y d i vi s i o n e2 1 n a x is pr i m e o an d by § 46 5 we fin d
t
h t t
,

h H C F
a f e . . . o x4 3 x3 2 x2 3 x 1 an d C is x2 1 .

F t
h m ur er or e , C/ x2
( 1) 2 x 3 .

H c th L C M
en e e . . . of M1 an d C, an d t
h f
er e ore of A, B , C, i s

M : l ) (2 x — 1 ) (2 x
Ob ser ve h t
t w d tm ltipl y t
a h f ct e o no u e a ors o f M 1 tg t
ho e er b efore
p ro c eed i n g tfi d t
h H C F
o f M d C n e . . . o 1 an .

E XE R CI SE XXIII
F in d t
h L CM e . . . of t
h f e o ll o w n i g .

1 . 3x 1 , 9 x2 1, an d 1 .

2 .
( a b) ( a5 b5) an d ( a b) ( a
s
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

3 . a3 + a2 + a , a5 — a3 , an d a 6

963
( — 3
2 ) ( t
f — W ( 4 4 — 4
1 ) (
4 x — W a n d
, ( xz— f
y fi ,

x2 —3 x + 2 x2 — 5 x + 6 a n d x2 —4 x + 3
, ,
.

x2 y
2
a n d z2

2 x2 + 3 xy — 9 y2 , 3 x2 + 8 xy — 3 y2
,
an d 6 x2 — 1 1 xy + 3 y 2 .

x3 + x2 + x + 1 a n d x3 — x2 + x — l .

— 3 y 3) x .

8 x3 — 6 xy 2 , an d 8 x2 —2 xy — l 5 y z '

xs +y 3
, x3 —y3 , a n d x4 + x2 y 2 +y 4
.

x6 —l , 3 x3 —5 x2 — 3 x + 5, an d x4 —1 .

—6 .

x2 —2 a x2 + 4 a 2x — 8 a3

—b2x — a b2 .

an d —3x

x3
( an d x

x3 — 6 x2 + 11 x -
6 , 2 x3 — 7 x2 + 7 x -
2, an d 2 x6 + x2 —l 3x + 6 .

an d

2 x4 — x 3 + 2 x2 + 3 x — 2 , 2 x4 + 3 x3 — 4 x2 + 1 3 x —6 , an d

ON THE PR I M E AND I R RE DUCI BLE F ACT OR S OF F UNCT I ONS

OF A S I NGLE VAR I ABLE

In t
h f e oll o wi n g t
h eo r e m s A an d B d en o tp e ol y n o m i al s in x .

Fu n dam en tl Th a eorem If A is p rim etB t

w i t
g o o n e ra l fu n c
t
.
,

i on s M and N, can be fo u n d su h t
ch t a

M A + NB ~E I .

F o r i f we ppl y t
a he m eth o d o f § 465 to A an d B , we s hall ti
ob a n as

fin al r e m a i n d e r a c o n s t
an tc d iffe re n t
fro m 0 , , .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

F or i ce A is pr im e
s n tB o , we c an fin d M an d N ,
47 9, su ch t
h at

an d t
h f e r e o re MC A N BC 5 Co
.

He n c e , if A an d B C h ad a or it
c o m m o n fac t wo u l d be c on t
ai n e d in C,
t
t si n ce A i s pr i m e t
,

46 1 . Bu hi s i s i m p o ss i b le , o 0 .

Corol l ary . If A
i s p r i m e o ea ch t o f t
h f ct
i e u n on s , B, C, D,
a n d s o on , i ti s p r i m e o h e i r p ro du c tt tB , C D

F or , as j t
d m
us e tt
on s r a e d , A is p ri m e tB C o

tD i ti tt ct
.

An d i ce
s n A is prim e tB Co
’
a n d a lso o ,
s pr i m e h po e r od u

B CD ; a n d so on .

T h eorem 3 A c o m p os i t
e fu n c t
i on ha s on e a n d bu t on e s e tf o

p r i m e fa c t
.

or s .

F or le t
Pd fu n c t
en o e tt
i o n an d n i t
h gi e s d eg r e e
ve n

i ti t I f A in t i s c o m p os i t
e it
.

I f P i s c o m p os e a s s o m e fa c t or Ah u rn

h as so m e fa c t i n u in g t h u s we m u s t u lt
.

i m at
, , ,

or B Co n t e ly c o m e u p o n a

p r i m e fu n c t
.
,

i o n ; fo r t h e d eg r e es o f t h e su cc ess i ve fu n c t io n s P A B
ht h e fin i t d e c r e as e an d c an n o t
, , ,

b egi n wi t e n u m b er n fa l l b e l o w 1
Le t F d en ot e t hi s p r i m e fu n c t ion I t i s o n e of t h e p r i m e fa c t
.
, ,

o rs o f P .
,

42 7 a n d we h a ve P 5 F M wh e r e M i s i n t e g r al

Si m i l a rly i f M i s c o m p o s i t a p r i m e fu n c t i o n F e x i st s s u ch t h at
, , .

’
e

h er e fo re P F F M w h e re M is i n t
,

M E F M an d t ’ ’
e g ral
’ ’
,
’
.

in u i n g t h u s we r e a c h t h e c o n clu si on t ha t
,

Co n t a s e r i e s o f p r i m e fu n c

t s wh o se n u m b e r c a n n o t e x c ee d n su ch t h at
,

io n s F F F e x is t
’

, , , ,

P P
’
E -
F

He n c e P
h as a l eas o n e t t tf p i m f c t
se o r e a o rs

t ch tf f c t pp o s e t
ha t
.

M o r e o ve r c a n h a ve b u P o n e su se o a ors . F o r, su

w h er e G , G
’
G tp i m f c t
a l so i d en o e r e un on s

tb p i m t ll t
.

ct
,

Th e n G c an n o e h f r i e o a e un on s F, F
’
F fo r , i f
tw p i m tt h i p d ct ti fa c t
,

s o, i o u ld be r e P o 48 3 e r ro u , ,
wh e re as i s a or

of P
Su pp o se , t
h e r e o re ,f t
h tG atp i m tF f m pl
is Th
no r e o or ex a e en G
f ct B t p im f ct
, .

an d h ave a c o m m o n
F a G d F
or i u an a re r e un o n s , an d

t f c t i :b t t
.

wo p r i m e fu n c t i o n s c an h a ve n o h m l i c mm a or n a u e se ve s n o on .

He n c e G d i ffe r s fr o m F by m ic l f c t c t
a nu m t dw h er a a o r , as , a os , an e a ve

G E CF .
 HI G HE ST CO MMO N F ACTO R

Bu tb t itti gt
suhi s u n s valu e o f G t
i n h e i den t
it
y FF F
’ ”
GG G
’ ”

an d d i idi g b t
v h m mb n o e er s b y F , we h ave
F F CG G
I /l , /I
0 0

fr om t
which i
f ll w b y m p t
iti of o si gth t G d iff
a er e r e e on o o u r r e aso n n a
’
e rs

from ft h f
on e o ct
i F F by e mun ic l f c t t m
on s t ' ”
a nu er a a or a os

C t i i gt ch t cl i t h t t tf f c t
, , .

on h w nu n h c u s, h i
e r ea G e on u s on a e se o un ons

f m t t t t ic l f c t
,

d iff
” ’ ”
h F F F by
’
G G e rs m ro m e se a os nu er a a or s

i t i which t
, , , , ,

or hn d e or h y er g d n e a r e a r r an e .

Coroll ary tf c t
A c o m p os i i e un on ca n be exp r ess ed in on l
y on e

ct t fa c t
.

wa y as a p r od u fp wo f i td fi o ers o s i er en p im r e ors .

Thi s follo ws a t o n c e fr o m t it
h e i d en ty P5 F F
’
F
”
if we p la c e
re

e a ch se t or s i n t
o f e qu al fa c t h e pr o du c t t
h e c o r r es p o n d
’ ”
F F F by
i n g p o wer o f o n e o f th es e fa c t
ors .

I rredu c ibl e fact

ors By t
h i e r r ed u c i bl e f ac t or s o f an i nt eg r al
t c o e ffic i en t t
.

fu n c ti o n wi t h ra i on a l s we u s u all
y m e an h f e a c t or s
t t t filc i en t
,

of l owe s d e g r ee wi h i ra on a l c oe s .

Thu s whi le t
h p e ri m e fa c t
or s o f (x 1) ( x2 2) ar e x 1, x

t fa c t
,

x V5 ,
h i
e rr edu c i ble o rs a r e x 1 an d x2 2 .

F r om t h th e eo r e m s j u st d em o n str ated an d t
h th e e or e m of

4 6 9, itf ll w t
h t o o s a

A r edu c i ble i n t
g e ra l fu n c t
i on wi h t t i ra on a l c o e fii c i en t
s c a n be

d ct ower s of i t s d ifier en t
’

exp r es sed in on ly on e wa y as a
p ro
fp u o

i r r edu c i ble fa c t or s .

DI GRE SSI ON I N THE T HE ORY OF NUMBER S

Th eor em s an al o g ou s tth o ose j u st de m o n st rat e d h o l d g oo d

for i nte g r al num be r s
t t
.

We s h all em l
p oy h l e tt e rs a e b, an d so p r e se nt
on , o re

tg t t
,

in p o s i i ve or n eg at i v e a n d sh all m e an by a
e ers ,
( no

fac t
or o f a an
y i n te g er whi c h
‘
e x ac tly d i vi d es a .

A p ri m e nu m ber i s an in tg e er whi ch h as no o t
h er fa c t ors
th an i t sel f an d 1 .
21 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t
I f wo i nte g er s, a an d b, h a ve no c o m m on f a c to r ex c ep t 1,
a is sa i d tb o e pri m e tb o .

T h eorem If a i s p r i m e tb t
w i t
o g o n e er s , m an d n , c a n a l wa y s

tt
,
.

be f ou n d s u c h ha
m a uh 1 .

F or i c is p r i m e t
s n e a o b if we a pp l y t h e u s u al m e t h o d fo r fin d i n g t
he
g reate st c o m m on d i vi s o r we s h all o b t
a i n 1 as t
,

h e fi n al r e m a i n d er We
h eo re m fr o m this fa c t
.

m ay d e d u c e t
,

he t by t h e r e a so n i n g o f 4 7 9
Thu s l e t App ly i n g t he m et
.

a, 32 5 b 1 16 , h od fo r fin d in g
.

we h ave

2 32
r1 l 1
93 1 1 6 L i . e . 32 5 2 1 16 93 , or 93 325 2 -
1 16 ( 1)
93

[4
23 93 L or — 1 93 ( 2)
92
r3 1 23 + 1, or 1 93 — 4 .
23 (3)
He n c e , tti g wit
s ar h n an d s u bs t
i tt
i g
u n fi rs tt
h e va l u e o f
‘
23 gi ven
by an h t
d t h l
en e va u e o f 93 gi ven by we h a ve
93 4 23

5 93 4 116
— 5 32 5 -

Th erefo re 5 32 5 1 4) 1 1 6 -
1 .

Hen c e we h ave fo u n d two i n t

eg e rs m z 5 , an d n 1 4, su ch t
h at
m «
325 + n -
1 16 : 1 .

An d i m ilar ly i n e ve ry c as e
s .

E x am p le F in d in t
. e g er s m an d n s u ch t
h at
223 m 1 25 n 1 .

Coroll ar i es tl thFrom
m w m y d i t
hi f s un dam en a e or e e a er v e

fori t g l n be ra m l g
nu mtt h d iv d f
e rs t
h e o re s an a o o u s o o se er e or

i t
n g l
e f c t
i
ra i 4 8 1
un—48 5 d by t
h
on s m ning
n an e sa e r ea so

I p t th t
,

n ic l w m y p
ar u ar e a r o ve a

1 If . i p i tb d t
a h p d c t i di i i bl by b
s r me a an e ro u ac s v s e

t
, ,

h en 0 i s d i vi s i bl e by b
t
.

2 If i s p r im e
a a n d c, t
o b
h en a i s p r i m e tb o e

t
.

t
.

3 A c om p os i e n u m be r c a n be exp r ess ed i n on e wa y , and bu

f it
.

on e , a s a
p r o du ctfp o ow ers o s d
ifib r en t
p r i m e fa c t
o rs .
21 4 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

t
If he n u m e r a or o r t d en o m i n a tb or e a p o ly n om i al ch an gi n g i tig
s s n is
t
qu i valen to ch a n gin g t ttm
,

e h e s ig n s of a ll i s er s .

a +b —c c —a —b c —a —b a + b —c
a —b + c b — c —a a —b + c b —c —a

t
If h e n u m er a o r , td i
e n o m n a o r , or t s o f c er t
pro du c t a i n fa c t
bo ors t
h are

n s o f an even n u m b er o f t o rs ; b u t
h ese fa c t
,

t
,

we may ch a n g e h ig e s ch an g
ing th e s ig n s o f an odd n u m b er o f t h em wi ll ch an ge t h e s ign of t he
fra ct
i on .

— b c —d — — d
< — >< —
Th u s ( a >< > ( b >( a o ) _
b a d > c
,
— — h —f) ( h — 9) (f — —
) (g h )
(6 f) (9 ) ( e 6

R edu c i on t of fract
i on s ti
To i t c n c l ll
simp l i fy a fr a c on s o a e a

t wh i c h ti t t dd t
.

fac ors a re c om m on oi s nu m er a o r a n en om n a or ,

t
hi b i gs ch
e n a an g e in th f ft
h f ct
ei wh i c h will
or m t o e ra on no

ff c t i t
a e v l s a u e, 4 98
Wh t t
h f ct tb t
.

hi h en s as b e en don e i e ra on is s ai d o e in i s

lowes t
tm er s , or tb
o e i r r ed u c i ble .

We t
di s c o v er w h at
h c m f ct es e o m on a o r s ar e , o r sh o w t
h t a

th ere by t
ar e h t h d
n on e ,f Ch p t VI I e me o s o a er We l o ok
fi t i l f ct d t t
.

rs f c or om h c m
m on m on o m a a o r s an o er om on fa c or s

whi ch bv i by i p c t
ar e o i w h i ch b f
ou s ns e on or c an e ou n d b y a id
of t h i d
e thr em a n d wh th i pl
er eor e m an en e se s m er t
m e h od s
f i l w p p ly t t
,

a h g
e a l h d f § 46 5 e e n e ra me o o

w ill ill tt ft t
.

Th f l l wi g
e opl o n h
e x am es u s r a e s om e o e se m e h ods .

E xa mpl e 1 . Si m p l ify (a ec a de ) (bde ebc ) .

ade d)
W e h ave
aec (
ae c d) a (o a

bde ebc be (a tc ) b (c d) b

E x am p le 2 . Si m p l ify x3
( x2 x 6) 3x

By i n sp e c t
i on th f ct e a ors o f th d mi et 1 d
en o 2 n a or ar e x an x

t dd th f ct i t t
.
,

Hen c e i f n u m e r a or a n en o mi n a or y c mm m
a ve a n o on a or, us

be on e of t
h ese T ti g by
es n sy th tic d i i i
n ew fi d t h t t
h m v s on e n a e nu er

ti t b t 2 t i t
t
.
,

a or s no di vs i i ble by x 1, i d i i i bl b y
u s h q
v s b i g e x , e uo en e n

fi —x + &
x3 + x2 + x +6 xZ —x + 3
Hen c e
fi +3x +2 x +1
 R AT I O NAL F R ACTI O NS 21 5

E x a m p le 3 . Si m p l ify ( x3 7x 10) / x3
( 5x

Su b tc t
i gd
ra n i
e n o m n a or tf rom n u m e ra or , tw e h ave
x3 + 7 x + 10
Hen c e , if h e t c om m o n fac t
t
n u m e r a o r an d or i td en o m i n at
o r h a ve an y

m u st Bu t th e n u m e r at
or d o e s n o t
,

be x 2 46 1 van i s h wh e n x 2
Hen c e § 4 15 t i on i s alread y i n i t
h e fr a c t
, .

s l o we s t t
.

, , erm s .

a2 (b — b)
E x am p l e 4 Si m p l i fy
— — —
.

( b
a)( b c )( c a)

Her e t
h e o n ly p os si b l e c o m m on fa c tor s a re a b, b c an d c a

t
t t t
.
,

Se i g
n a b in h e nu m er a or , we h ave b2 ( b c) b2 ( c b) , or 0
t t
.

Hen c e , § 4 1 7 , h e nu i i i
m er a o r i s d v s b l e b y a b An d we m ay s h ow
t w y th t it
.

in h e sa m e a i di
i i ble b y b c an d c a
a s v s

t
Th e r efor e e n u era or s ex a c t ti h e d en o m i n a t Bu t
.

h m l y d i vi s i b l e b y t or

the t f t e r e e n a m e ly t i en t
Th e i r qu o t
.

wo a r e o e sa e h m d g h r ee i n a b c
m u st th er efo r e b e a m e re n u m b er ; a n d s i n c e t h e a2 t er m s i n t he t
, , , ,
.

wo ,

wh en ar r an g e d as p o l y n o m i als i n a ar e a 2 ( b c ) an d a 2 (b c) r esp ec
ti vely t
,

hi s n u m b e r i s 1
He n c e t h e gi ve n fr ac ti o n i s e q u al t
, .

o 1 .

E x am p le 5 . Si m pl ify (2 333 + 13 x2
By § 46 5 , we fin d t h at t h e H C F o f n u m e ra t
or an d d en o m i n a t or

An d d i vi d i n g b o t
h n u m erat t by
. . .

is 2 x2 —x + 1 o r an d d en o m i n a or

ob t
.

x l ,
we ai n

2 — 6
2 x3 + 1 3 x x +7 x +7
2 x4 + 5 x3 +8 x2 —2 x + 5 x2 + 3x + 5

E XE R CI SE XXI V
R e du c e h e t f ll o ow n i ons t
i g frac t o t
he ir l o wes tm
t er s.

x5y 3 4 $3115
x3 y 2 2 meg a

x2 4x 21 3 x2 — 8 x —3
x2 2x 63 3 x2 + 7 x + 2

18 bx 2 7 b2 5 x2 + 6 ax + a2

2 x2 1 8 b2 —
5 3132 1 2 ax
- — 3 a2

(x2 m 25 2 8 x 1 5) 1 5 x2 — 46 a + 35
2 — — 29 x + 2 1
( x 9 )(x2
7 x + 1 0) 1 0 x2
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

x2 — y 2 + z2 + 2 xz
—
'

x2 +y 2
z2 + 2 zy

2 mx — m y —1 2 n x + 6 n y
6 mx — 3 my — 2 nx + ny

2 x3 + 7 x2 —7 x 12 — 8 x2 + 1 9 x — 12
x3

2 — 14 x — 1 5 2 x3 — 1 3 x2 + 1 7 x + 1 2
:
1:
°

3
2 + 3 x

x3 — 2 x2 — x — 6

( x2 c? 2) 4b 2
<a — a>
s

x4 4 b 3
4 b2x2 — b) <
b — c ) (c — a
+ x + (
a )

OPE R AT I ONS WI TH FR ACT I ONS

Lowes t mm co o n den om i n a t or To ad d or su b tc tf
ra ra ct i on s
td c t t q iv l t f ct
,
.

w e fir s h re i uh i g e c em o e u a en ra on s av n a om m on

d n e i t om n a or

E id t ly t m lt ft
.

v h l w t c enm i pl h gi d e o es om on u e o e ve n en om i
t w il l b t
n a or s h c m d i t f l w t d g
e e om on en om n a or o o es e ree I t
c ll d th l w t t
.

i th
s f er e ore c d i a e e o es om m on en om n a or of

th giv e f ct i en ra on s

E x am p le . R ed u c e
0

a b
t l o a o we s t
c mm o on d en o m i n a t or .

Th e L C M ofth gi e ve n d en om i n a ti o rs s a bc

/b t t
f ct h avi n g t
h e d e n o m i n at
. . . .

To r ed u ce a e o an e q u i valen ira on o r a bc

t t ip ly b th i ttm b y
,

we m u s m u l o s er s a

tm lt h tm
iply b t h tm
t
.

Si m i l ly w m
ar e us u o er s of b / c a b y b, an d bo er s

of c / ab b y c .

a a2 b b2 c — c2
Thu s _ ’ ’
% lib dbb
,
bc c ca a bc

To r ed u ce t
w o or m or e i on s t
fr a c t o e qu i va l en t
fr a c t
i on s h a vi n g
a tc m m
l o wes o t fi d t h l w t
onc mm m lt
d en om i n a
i or , n e o es o on u

p le f
o t
h g i ed mi t ven en o n a ors

t t by t
.

Th en i c h f ct
n ea i pl h d mi hi l w t
ra on re a ce e en o n a or s o es

c om m on m lt
ip l d m lt
uip ly t
h m tby th wf t
e, a n u e nu er a or e ne a c or

t
h u s in td c d i t
ro h d umi t e n e en o n a or
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

1 x3 — 3x + 1
E x a m p le 2 . Si m pl ify x
1 x x2 1

t t
Si n c e h e fi r s d e n o m i n a ti
or s 1, an d th c e se on d is (x t
h l e o wes t
c o m m on d en o mi ti n a or s x2 1 . We t
h f e r e or e h ave
1 x3 —3 x + 1 x3 —x x + 1 x3 —3 x + 1
+ 2
l —x x2 —1 x2 —1 x —1 x2 — 1

x3 —x + x + l — x3 + 3 x —l
932 —1

1 2 2 1
E x am p le 3 Si m p l ify
—2 —l
.

x x +1 x x +2
Here i i s t s i m p l er tc
o om b n e i t
h f ct
i e ra on s by p a i rs . Thu s ,

1 l x + 2 — (x — 2 )
x —2 x +2 13 2 — 4

2 x — 1 4
2
55 2 —1 x2 —1
4 x2 — l — (x2 12
4
232 —4 232 —1 ( x2 —1
)(x 2 —4
) x4 —5 x2 +4
x2 — 1 2 x2 3x —2
E ma le 4 Si m p li fy
+ 3 fc — 2
.

w4 + x2 _ 2 3; 2 z3 + x2

By t
ai d o f
h m i d th m e re 41 5 w fi d t h t 1 i c mm
a n er eo r e e n a x s a o on

f ct f t h tw tm h fi t f ct i b t tf c t f t
, ,

a or o e ft o er i s o h c de rs ra on u s no a a or o e se o n

t W t h fi t f ct
,

den omi n a or h f i m p l i fy t e i b y c c ll i g
e re or e s l e rs ra on an e n x

i b t h tm t bt
.

n o h
er i i g (t 1 ) / (
s, us o 2 ) a n n i x3 x2 x

E y § 46 5 t
.

h H CF f +
,
e2 d 2
.
+ +3
. .2i o x3
+ +2 4132 x an x3 x2 x s x2 x ;
a n d x3 + x2 + 2 ) x, 2 x3 + x2 + 3 x — 2 = ( 2 x x + 2)
i n at i n qu i re wh e t
.

B efor e re d u ci n g t
o a com m on d en o m or we her 2 x 1
t t t W e fin d t it
,

i s a l so a fa c o r o f h e n u m e r a o r 2 x 2 3x 2 h at i s an d
c an c ell in g i tr ed u c e t h e s e c o n d fra c ti on t
.
,
‘
,
o (x 2 ) (x2 x

232 —1 2 x2 + 3 x 2
Hen ce
-

x4 + x2 —2 x 2 x3 + x2 + 3 x —2
x +1 x +2
x2 +x +2
x +1 + x2 +2x x2 + 3x + 1
x3 + x2 +2x x3 + x2 +2x

Mu l t
i pli t
i nTh e p r o d u c t o f wo o r m ore
ca o t f r a c ti o n s m ay
t
.

be fou nd by app ly i n g h e f oll o wi n g th eorem .

 R ATI O NAL F R ACT I O NS

t t m f t
Th e p r od u c of wo i i t
h f ti wh or or e ra c on s s e ra c on os e

t t tf t
h m t ft
n u m era or i s h e p r od u c h gi f ct
i o e nu er a or s o e ven ra o ns ,

an d itdsmi tt
h p d ctf
en ot
h i d m i
n a or t e ro u o e r en o n a or s .

a c ac

b d bd

t
F or h e p rod u c tf o ea ch m e m b e r b y bd i s a c (see
a c
E bd z ac ; an d g b gd z ac 2 54
w
r
.

b d b d

t
I n p ar t i cu l ar , o m u l t i p ly a f r a c t i o n by an i n t
g e ra l e x p r es

t t
s i o n , m u l i p ly i s n u m e r a or by t tt
h a e x p ressi on
t ti tl w
.

Th e fr a c i o n a c bd sh o u l d al way s b e r e d u c e d o s o es t
t e r m s b e o re f th
e c
m u l t i p li a i o n s i n di t c at
ed in i tns t u m e ra o r

a n d d e n o m i n at o r are a c t u ally p e r f o r m ed .

E x am p l e 1 . Mu l t
ip ly ( x3 l ) by (x
x3 —1 x +1 ( x3 x2 + x +1
W e h ave
x3 +1 x —l -
1) x2 —x + 1

E xam p l e 2 . Mu l t
ip ly 1 ( x 2) (:
a2 x 2) b y (x 2) / x .

W e h ave
'
a, -
2 2 4 2 x2 x +2
x2 + x —2 x x2 + x —2 x

I nvol u i on t . F r om 503 w e d e r i v e t
h e ru le

To i
ra s e a fr a c t
t y gi
i on o an ven p ower , r a i s e bo h t n u m er a or t
and d en om i n a orh t
t tt p w o a o er .

n
93
Thu s ,
( ) 9
b bn

a "
a a
t fac t
a -
a -
t o n fa c tors an

b b b
o n or s
b b - -
t o n fac tors b"

E xam p le . tc
F in d h e u b e of a b203 / fg e 4.

a b2 c 3 3 a 3bsc 9
We h ave
(
) _ _

Di vi s i on To i n ver tf c t
ai n ra o as a
/ s
b i ti nt
o er c h an g e i t
s

in t
.
, ,

n u m e r a or a n d
t d en o m Th
a or e f r a c t i on 6/a th u s o bt a i n e d
t
.

is c all e d h e r ec ip r o a l o f a
c / b .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

To d i vi de on e fr a c t
i on by ano t
h er , m u t t
l ip ly
h di e vi den d by
t
h e re c ip roc a l of t
h di e vi s o r .

a c a d ad

b d b c bc

t
F o r h e p r o du c tfo ea c h m e m b er b y c d is a b (se e
a c c a ad c a dc a
x 2 52 2 54 503
b d d b be d bed 6

t
I n p a r t i c u l ar , o d i v i d e a f r a c t i o n b y a n i n t
g e ra l e x r essi o n ,
p
t t
u l i p ly i s d e n o m i n a or by t t
h at ex p r e ssi on .

E xa m p l e 1 . D i vi d e
2
(
56 2
xv 21 ) by $2 112 v)
4
.

z
x —my a fl m4 + w2v2 + v4 xz —xy fl fl
We h ave —y —y4
mz 2 x4 x2 _ y
2

m2 y
2

x2 xv 2
21

E xa m p le 2 . D i vi de ( x2 5x l ) by x2 6x 8 .

x2 +5x + 6 x2 + 5x + 6

x2 + 5x +4

t
R a i onal ex press i on s i n g eneral Com pl ex a n d co nt i nu ed frac
t
h t t
.

t
i n
o s We h a ve sh o w n h
a e su m diffe ren c e, p r od u c t a n d

i nt f t
t t t t
.
,

qu o e w f o o ra c t i o n s ar e h m e s el v e s fr a c i on s I th e r e f o re
t be r edu c ed t
.

fol lo ws th at ever y r a i l
on a exp r es s i on , 26 7 , can o

t
h fe or m o
f a s im p le ra t
i on a l fr a c t
i on
tt t
.

No g e n er al r u l e c an
be g i v e n as o h e b e s m e th o d for r ed u
c i n g a gi v e n rati o n al e x p r essi o n o i s si m p l e st for m Seek o tt t
t t
.

a v o id al l un n e c e s sar y s ep s I n p a r t i c u l a r be o n h e w a t c h
O ppo rt un ities t o re d u c e f r ac t i on s t o t
.

for h e i r l o w es t t e rm s an d
r fo r m n o m u l t t u nt t
,

p e i p l i c a i o n s o f p o l y n o m i al s i l h e r e du c t i o n

c an b e c arr i e d n o f u r t h e r wi t h o u t so d oi n g
495 t h e f ra c t
.

As h as al r eady b e e n said i o n A B i s c all ed

c omp lex wh en A or B e it h er or b oth i s f ra ct
, ,

,
i o n al , .
 A COLLE G E ALGE BR A

E XERCI SE X XV

Sim pli fy h e t f ll o o wi n g ex p ressi o ns .

1 1 6b
'

2 a —3 b 2 a +3b 4 a2 —9 b2
1 1 1
—l
°

x +1 xL fi +1

1 1
+ +
—3x + 2 —5 x + 6
'

fi fi fi

x +1 x +2
(
x —l )( x —2) (2 — x) (x — 3)

l 1 1
a +b x + c x —b x

a b c
(a— b>(a — c ><
b —a ) (c — b)
y z (x + a ) zx y ( + a) ay (z + a )
( w — yfl x
— z) (y — fc )
( z — x)
(
z —v)

1 8 x4 — 3 3 x 2 x +6
8 33 +
—2 x 8 x3 — 2 7
.

3 4 x2 + 6 x +9

9 .

( a:
i f ( 90 — x + 1

a +b —c b + c c + a —b
352 —4 3 x2 — 1 4 x —5
:
c3 — 3 x — 2 x2 — 1 0 x — 3
'

2 -
x +6 3 x3

1 1 1
x4 —4 x2 —x + 2 2 x4 —3 x3 —5 x2 + 7 x —2 2 x4 + 3 x3 —2 x2 —2 x + 1

1 1 1 1 1
( a4
(1 4 ) a
a a2
+
a
( a4 a3 .

x2 x2 +x —6
—4 —8 x + — 4x —5
° '

x2 +3x x 2 15 x2

i: [
x
_
 R ATI O NAL F R ACTI O NS

a t+ x2
: 2 bx2 — c x3
— 2 2 + 2 y z)
18 (x2 31
2
— cx
.

2b ( a - J x 2
f
-

)
a +b
a —b a3 — b3 a —b

1 1 1 1
x y + z y x + z

1
1+ 1
+
1
x y + z y x + z

x —2
23 . x +

I NDE T ER MI NAT E F ORMS

Li m i t s Su pp o se t
h e v ari a bl e x tb tki ng
o e a su cc e ssi v ely
t t t d;
.

h v e al u e s an d so on wi h o u en

t
h n e nt
evi de ly x i s ap p r o a ch i n g h e v al u e 1 an d i n su c h a t
t t t
,

m an n e r h a t h e d i ff e r e n c e 1 x w i l l u l i m at e ly b e c o m e an d

r e m ai n l e s s t
h an e v e ry p o s i t i v e n u m b e r th at w e c an ass i gn n o
tt
,

m a tter h o w s m all h a n u m b e r m ay b e We i n d i c at e all th i s

tt t t
.

b y s ay i n g h a a s x r u n s h r o u gh h e n e v e r e n di n g se qu en c e o f -

v al u e s i ap p r oa c h es 1 a s l i m i t t .

An d i n g e n er a l, if x d en o e a v a r i a ble wh i c h i s s upp os ed o be t t
t
r u n n i n g h r ou h s o m e g i ven bu
g n ev er en d i n g s e u e n c e o
q f va lu es, t -

t
a n d if h er e be a n u m ber a s u c h ha h e d ifier en c e a x wi l l ttt
u im t
lt ly b c m
a e d e o e an r em a i n nu m er i a l ly c l ess t
h an
p os i
e ve r y

t
i mb
ve n u th t w er a e ca n a ss ig n , we sa
y t
h t a x ap p r o a c h es h is t
numb li m i t
er a a s .

To i n d i c a tthe a t x is ap p r oa ch i n g t
h li e m it a, we wr i t e
x i a, or a = l im x .

I t
wi ll be no t h t
ic d t et
h w a e o rd va r i a ble h as h er e a m ore tictd
r es r e

m e an in g t h an i n § 242
Wh e t h er or n ota var i ab le t c o n s i d er a t
.

of h e k in d h ere u n d er i on
a pp r oa ch es a l i m i td e p en ds o n t
h e se qu en c e o f val u es t
h rou gh which
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

t
i is su pp osed t o b e r u n n in g Thu s i f t
h e se q u e n c e b e 1 2 1 2
va r i a b l e w i l l n ot a pp r o a ch a l i m i t
, , , , ,
.

A fu ll d i s c u ssi o n o f va r i a b l es a n d l i m i t
.

s w i ll b e fo u n d i n 1 8 7— 205
which t h e st u de n t i s a d vi s ed to r e ad a tle ast i n part in this c o n n e c t
,

io n , , .

T heorem s r es pec t
i ng l i m i t s In 203 i t
i p
s r o ve tt t
d ha if h e
tt
.

v a r i a bl e s x an d y ap p r o a ch l im i h n th i
s, e e r su m d i ffe ren c e,
ctan d t ch li m i t
,

p r od u , q uo i t en a l s o a pp r o a s, a n d

lim ( x
y) lim x 11111 y .

l im ( x y) l im x li m y .

l im xy li m x .
l im y .

x ll m x
lim , u n l ess li m y 0 .

y 11m y

F rom th e se t h eor em s i f oll o w s t h a if F ( x ) de n o e an y t t t

g i v e n r at i on al f u n c t i o n of x a n d F ( a ) i s v al u e w h en x a t
th e n E ( x) wi l l app r o a c h F ( a) a s l i m i t
, ,

wh en ever x ap p r oa c h es
a a s li m i t ,
t h at i s ,

li m F x
xéa
( ) F
( )
a ,

wh e r e li m F is r ead l im i t of ch e s
( ) ( )
“
x F x , as x a
pp r oa a .

x éa

Thu s li m
( 2 x2 —3 a + 1 .
,
m= a,

I nfini y t t t gh t
E vi d en tly if x b e m ad e
h h o ru n rou e n e v er

t t t
.

en di g
n
q cse1 2 3 4 u eni w i ll
e l i l y b c u ma e e om e an d

tt h v y n b t h t
, , , ,

r em a ni g r e a er w an e ig er u m er a e c an a ss n .

A i bl
va r a w h i h wi l l t
he x lti t
ly b c c d us u ma e e om e an r em a i n

n u m er i c lly g a tt h y b
r ea e r t h t w ig
an e ver nu m er a e ca n as s n is
sa id t pp
o a r oa c h i nfi n i yt .

F or t
h e w o rd in fi it
y w
n
pl oy eh e sy m b ol
em t c o, an d ,

ti ndi c
o a e t th at x is app r o a c h i n g i n fin i ty , wr i t e x 00 , or

l im x 00 .

No t It
i i
e. an t
p or t t
so n ot
m ic e th at 00 as t h u s d efin ed d oes n o t den o te

a d e fin i t
e n u m b er an d t h at t h n u m b e rs d o n o t
h e r u le s for re c k o n i n g wi t
, ,

a pp ly t o i t I ll u s t
ra ti o n s of t
,

. hi s wi ll b e fou n d b el o w .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t
hi s f ra c t
i on al wa
ys ap p r oa ch e s t
h d e efin i e t li m i t 2 w he n x

app r o a t ch es 1 as li m i
N w w h v j th w § 509 t
.

o e h t F ( a e us s o n, a a
) F (x )
t t t
,

wh v F( )
en e p eri l f c i nx re r e s en s a ra on a un o an d F ( )
a ha s
a i g It
m e an i th f c v i t
n wh s er e o r e on e n en en , as h e r e, t
h e

t ig t
.

r u l e s of r e ck on i n g g i ve u s no m ea n i n g fo r F ( ) a o a ss n o

tt t tm t
,

al u e
l 1m F in h w d ak e h f
i h v e
( )x ,
o er or s, o e orm u l a

F ( ) l=
a
im F
( ) x ou r d efi n iti fF ( )
on o a

We t 1) t
.

h e r e fo r e g i v e ( x 2
1) ( h l
x e va u e 2 wh e n x _ 1
We t
.

al l v al u es
2
h e n h a ve ( x x 1 for of x ,

t
h e va l u e 1 i n c l u d ed
t t
tn
.

An d fo r a lik e re aso n , o e ve r y f ra c t i o n whi ch c an b e wr i e

in t
h f e or m
( x a
) ( ) (
f x x a
) ( )
4; x wh er e f (x ) an d t
( )
q x

t t
,

a re i n t e g r al an d 4) (x ) i s no di v i si bl e by x a, we assi g n h e

v al u e f ( a ) <; 1 ( a ) w h en x a , an d s o h av e

( x a
)M ) m M ) a?

for al l v al u e s o f x , t
h e v al u e a i n cl u de d
f rac t tk t
.

Th e form a 0 . Th e i on 1 x a h f es e or m 1 / 0 wh e n
x 0
can n ot
.

Wh il e we d i v id e 1 by 0, we c an di vid e 1 by a v al u e
of x w hi c h d i ffe r s as ttlli e a s we p l e a s e f r o m 0 M o r e o v e r we
t t pp t
.

h av e sh o w n , 512, h t if a x b e m ad e o a ro a ch 0 as l im i
t
,

h en 1 x w i ll app r o a ch 00

t t1 / 0 t
.

We h f
e r e o r e a ss i g n o an d i n g en e r al o a 0, wh e n
0 t w it
,
”
a h, e
“
v al u e 00 , i g
r n

CL

An d for a like r e aso n , t o e v e ry f r ac t

i on o f t
h f e or m

wh e r e f ( x ) an d m( ) x ar e in tg
e r al an d f( ) x is no t
di vi s i bl e by
x a, we as s i g n t
h e “
v al u e co wh en x a ; ou r m e an i n g
 R ATI O NAL F RACTI O NS

be i ng th a t t
h f e ra ct i o n w ill al way s app r oa ch 00 wh e n x is
m ad e t pp
o a r oa ch a as lim i t
tt frac t
.

Concl u s i on as h o e val u es of a i on Fr o m 5 1 4, 5 1 5
tf
.

we d r aw h e o ll o w i n g c o n c l u si o n s r e g ar d i ng a si m p le fr a c t i o n
of t
h f e o rm f (x ) d; (x)
tl t t
.

1 If f( )x ¢ ( x) i s i n i s o w es t e r m s, i w ill va n i s h for
it
.

v al u es o f x wh i ch m ak e s n u m er a t ( )
or f x v an i sh an d b e c o m e

i nfi n i t t
,

e fo r val u e s o f x w hi c h m ak e i s d en om i n a t x v a n i sh
or 4 ;
( )
t t t
.

F o r a ll o h e r fi n i e v al u e s o f x i h as a v al u e di ffer en t fr om
t
b o h 0 an d co
t
2 B u if f ( x ) an d d ( x) h av e h e c o m m o n f ac o r x a t t
t t t
.
,

an d f x
( ) c o n a i n s t h i s f a c t or m t i m e s an d ¢ x
( ) c o n ai n s i

n t
i m e s, t h e n w i l l v an i s h for x a when m n

be c o m e i n fin i t t
,

e wh en m n a n d h a v e a v al u e d i ffe r e n fr o m
t
,

bo h 0 an d 00 wh e n m n .

Thu s wh en x 2 , we h ave
x —2 x +1 ( x ( — 2)
cc (x 1
x +1
’
x —2 ’
x x ( — 2)
’
x x (
’
x (x 2

Th e form oo
/ oo ti ft i p tnt tk n w wh
I s o en m or a o o a t li m i t
t ct
.

h v l e a u e of a fra i n f ( ) 4 ( ) pp
o ch wh n ix ) x a r oa es e x s i n d efi
it
n ly i e n c r eas e d th t i wh n
a s, e x i 00

tf
,
.

Con si de r h e oll o wi ng e x am p l e s .

W e h ave s h o wn § , 5 12 , h t
t a 0, wh en x i -
cc .

x2 —a +3 1 3 / x2
i
-

Hen c e , wh en x
—4
00 ,
2 x2 + x 2 + 1/x — 4 / x2
l

x +2 1 + 2 / a:
x2 +x+5 x + 1 + 5/x
x2 + x —7 x +1 —7 / x
2x + 3 2 + 3/x

An d i n ge n er al ,
wh e n x co, t
h f ct
i
e ra on

l —1
( bl x
m m "
"
a ox alx

ap p r oa ch e s th li i t
e if m as in th d g e e r ee s o f n u m e r

n i t t t
h li it
,

a o r an d
t de h
o m n a or a r e e s am e ; 0 if
e m , ,
as in
22 8 A CO LLE GE ALGEBRA

t
h d ge e ree of th g t ; t h lim
t
h d it e if e n o m i n at o r is e r e a er e 00 ,

t ft ti t
,

as i n h d g h h ge t e r ee o e n u m er a or s e re a e r

th li i t i c ll d t wh i ch t
.

A d i nch c n ea h v l h
as e e m s a e e “
a ue e

f ct
ra i n tk wh
o t h tai wh th f c t i n i t lf
es en x c o,
”
a s, en e ra o se

a ssum t
h i d t i tf m
es / e n e e rm na e or 00 cc

A t ct
.

Th f m 0 e d or i
s l f i n f co y an co 00 ra on a un o o x ma

fth i d t i tf
.

t k
a e on e o 0 e f n e er m na e orm s 00 or 00 00 or s o m e

p ti
ar c l v l f B
u ar t
th p i a ue o th b d c d x u e ex r e s s o n c an en e re u e

t wh i ch wil l tk f t
.

o on e h f 0 / a e on e o e o rm s a , o r oo oo

al r e ad y c o n sid er e d .

1 . Thu s (as2 ,
1)
1
tk t
ah f es e or m 0 00 wh en x 1 . Bu t c pt
,
ex e

—l
wh en x 1 , we h ave (x2 l)
x
1
—l
fi
x —l
i an d t
h f
er e o r e

1
[
l im x2 1)
l ( —l w a —1 we !
x x

Hen c e we as s ig n tt
h gi
o e ve n e x p r ess i on t
h e val u e 2, w h en x 1 .

2 . Ag a i n ,
1 2
tk t
a h es e for m 00 00 wh e n x 2 0 . Bu t
,
x x x ( + 2)
c pt t
1 2 x
ex e wh en x 0, we h ave i an d h f
er e o r e
x x x ( + 2) x x ( + 2)
1 1
li m
x (x + 2 ) x i °
x +2 2

Hen c e we ass ign tt

oh gi e ve n e x p r ess i o n t
h e v al u e 1 2 wh en x 0.

General con cl u s i o n Th er e f o r e , i f a g iv e n fu n i o n o f a si n gl e ct
t t
.

v ar i abl e , as F ( ) x , as su m e s an i n de e r m i n a e f o rm wh e n x a,

p ro ce ed as f oll o ws :
R edu c e th p i ti t i m p l t
e f ex d t
h fi d r ess o n o s s es or m , an en n

wh a tli i t it lm pp c h wh is d t pp
va u e ach r oa es en x s m a e o a ro a

a as hi li i t
li m i t C ll t . th l ah f ct
w hi c h t i h s m e va u e e un on as

wh en x a .

No t Thi
e tic td tf c t si me f t
h d
i gl i bl
o is res r e o un on s o a s n e va r a e , as

t th t
th m t h d y i ld d fi i t lti t hi t
.

F( ) x F h or e r easo n h a e e o e s e n e r e su s s s e

t tt
.

l i m F
l
va u e of ( ) dp d l ly h l fx d h
e en l s so e on e va u e o a an no on e va ues

wh i c h m y t x k i pp chi g ; d t
a h lik i
a et t f f ct
n a i r oa n a an e e s no ru e o un ons

ofm t ho re i bl an o n e va r a e.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

ag r e em e nt w i th t
h p ct
ic e ra e e x p l a in e d in § 51 5 t o sa
y h t
t a

wh en ax b has th f O e o rm x b, i th t
h as e r oo t cc .

Ob ser ve t
h t
if w a e re t q t
g ar d i x 2 zx 3 as a ru e e ua on w h o se r oo t
is 00 , we td i
ar e n o tth b
r ve nd c cl i t h t
o 2 3 e a su r on u s on a F or i ce
s n

ti f t
igh t h tt l tf b tc t b ot
.

x z 00 we h ave n o r h o i g
n er a e r e su o su ra n x fr om h
m e m b ers i s a t q t i
ru e e 521 3ua on , , .

I nfini tlt
i n
e so u o s of s i m u l an eou s equ a t t
i no s I n lik e m ann e r ,
ttim pl q t
.

i n stead o f s ay i n g o f a sy s e m o f t i n c on si s en i s e e ua o n s,

§ 3 7 7 , 2, § 3 94, 2, h t
t ith
a as n o s o l u t
i n w
o m t
i y e so e m es sa

tith t t
,

th a a s an i nfi n i e s olu i on ; fo r f r om su ch a sy stem we
c an o bt ai n by el i m i n at i on a s i n gl e e q u a t i on o f h e f or m 0x t b,
a n d, by 5 2 2, thi s e qu a t
i n h
o t
h t as e r oo 00 .

Thu s we m ay s ay h t
t th p
a e i
a r of i n c on sist e q u at
en t i on s y x 0
e sol u t
in fin i t
,

y x 1 ( 2) h as an i on .

Ob ser ve t
h t
thi a s p ai r ( 2 ) i s t
h lim i t
i gc
e n as e , as m 1, of t
h p e a r i
y
—mx = 0 y
—x = l

Th e s ol u t
i on o f t
h p e a r i (2 ) is

x : 1 / (m y z m / (m —l ) ,

an d wh en m 5:1 , b o t
h 1 / (m pp ro ach i n fin i t
1) an d
y m / (m I) a

hi n g m ay b e s h o wn b y t h e g raphic al m e t
.

Th e sa m e t h od 38 6 3 8 7
F o r wh e n m i 1 t h t
h e gr a ph o f (3) a pp r oa ch e s p ar al lel i sm w i t h at
.
, ,

of

an d t h e p o in t e r se c t
of i n t he t
i on o f t wo gr aph s r ec e d es t o a n i n fin i t
, ,

dis tan c e i n th e p lan e .

E XE R CI SE XXVI
As s i gn h e t a pp rop ri at o t
e val u es t h e foll o w i n g ex p r ess i on s .

x2 _ 5 33 4—6 x 3 x2 2
wh en =2
x2 —6 x + 8
, x .

x3 —2 x + 1
352 —1 x2 _ 2 ax + a 2
wh en l wh en xz a
—2 x + 1 , . , .

x 2 x2

(3 x + 1 ) (x +
(x2

x3 — x2 —x +1
 R AT I O NAL F R AC T I O NS

3 x2 —x + 5 3x — 5)
wh en x
—6 )
7 a , z oo .
2 x2 + 6 x -
7 x x2 + 1

x —l —2
x
wh en x =3
—9 x (x — 3 )
, .

x2

l 2
wh en l
—1 — 1)
, .

x x x (
x +1
x —2
wh e n x =2 W h en x = oo
—l 7 7
. .

x —2

FRACT I ONAL E QUAT I ONS

On s olvi ng a frac i onal t equ a t

i n o An y g i ven f r a c t i on al eq u a

t t t
.

tio n m ay t r a n s f o r m e d i n o o n e w h i c h i s i n e g r al b y m u l i
be
l
p y i t
n g b o th i s m e m be r s b
y D h e l t
o w e s c o m m on d e n o m i n a o r t t
t t t
h e e qu a t
,

of a l l i s f r a c i o n s W e c al l hi s p r o ce ss c l ea r i n g t
. i on
o fr a c t i on s
f
t ttt
.

I foll o ws f r om 34 1 3 42 h a h e i n t e g r a l e q u at i o n
t t t t
,

whi ch i s h u s d e r i ve d w i ll h a v e all h e r o o s o f h e g i v e n
e q u at i o n an d t
if i h as an y r o o ts b e si de s h e se h a t h ey t t t
t tf t t
, , ,

m us b e roo s o h q i e e ua on D O an d so m ay r eadi l
y be
de te c te d an d re e j c te d .

6 x 13
E x am ple 1 . So lve
x x 1 x x ( 1)

Cl ear offrac t
i on s b y m u ltip ly i n g b y D x (x
W e ob t ai n 3 (x —1 ) + 6 x — (x + ( )
2

Solvi n g x 2 .
(3 )
There fore s i n c e 2 i s n ot a r oot of D x (x l) t
0, i is a rootf o

t t
,

an d h e on ly r oo .

3+ 6 x 5
E x am p le 2 . Solve
x x 1 (
x x 1)

Clear i n g of fra c t
i on s ,
3 (x 1) 6 x (x 5) 0 .

Sol vi n g x 1 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

As 1 i s a roo tf Do x x ( 0, i ti t tf
s no a roo o In fac t
t
h fi t t
,

wh e n x 1, em rs em b er of (1) h as h f e or m 3 an d by
5 1 8 we fi n d t it
h t a s v al u e is 8 , no t
0
t
.

He n c e ( 1 ) h as n o ro o .

We m ay su m u
p h m t
t h d t
h e e o us il l u st r a td i t
h
e n e ru l e

To s o lve a fr a c t
i on al e
qu a t
i on , i on s by m u lt
c l ea r of fr a c t ip ly
t t
i n g bo h m em be r s by D ,
h e l o wes t c om m on d en o m i n a t
or of a ll

t t
h e fr a c i on s
i g i t t
.

S l t h lt
o ve
g l q i
e r es u n n e ra e ua on .

Th tf thi
e r oo s
q t i — c pt
th o if s e ua on ex e os e, an
y, for whi c h
D i h
va n s th tf t es h gi q ti a re e r oo s o e ven e ua on .

N t W y l
o e tbl i h t
hi el f ll w
ma a so e s a s s r u e as o o s

tN p r ese n tt ct i n g all t tf c tm t
.

Le D 0 re he he r esu l o o ll e er s of h e

given e q u at i on i n o n e m em b e r a n d a dd i n g t hem t hen N i

0 w ll b e t
h e

in t
eg r al e qu a tio n ob t a i n e d b y c l ea r i n g o f fr a c t
i on s .

1 I f N / D is i n i tl w t
s tm t
o h tfN/D O d N 0
es er s, e roo s o an ar e

t i i i tl w t i h wh i t m t
.

h e sa m e fo r a fr a ct on tm n s o es er s va n s es en s nu era o r

va n si he s ,
an d t
h e n o n ly , 516 .

— N
3 6 8 l 2)
x
_

—l
-

— 1 — 1 D
x x x x ( ) x x ( ) .

He r e N D is i n i s l o wes t t
tm er s an d t
h e ro o tf N / D
o 0 is h e t sam e

as t
h e r oo of N t
0, n a m ely , 2 .

2 If N D is ti i tl w t
no tm N : 0 will h
n s twhich
o es er s, a ve r oo s

t m ly t tf which t h f ct c m m
.

N D 0 d o es n o a ve , h h na e e roo s or e a or o on

t
,

o N an d D va n i s h e s .

6 8 0 — 1) 3 N
x x —l x x ( — 1) x (x — 1 ) D

t t
He re N D i s n o i n i s l o we s e r m s , a n d h e r o o o f N 0, t
t t t n am e ly 1,
t t
i s n o a r o o o f N / D : 0 ; fo r wh e n x 1 , N / D : 8 , § 5 14 .

ly 1 i t
E id t v h g en . s e en er a l c ase an d 2 is . ex ec pt
i o n al .

Thu s c o n s i de r
, t
h e e qu a t
i on
—l
6 x

— 1)
a

x x x x(
He r e N / D [8 x (a (x an d t
hi s is i n i tl w t
s tm o es er s

ex e c pt
wh e n a 5 or 3 .
234 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Co m b in i n g h e t tm er s of e a ch m e m b er se ar a ely , p t
1 1
x2 +5 x +6 x2 + 1 3 x + 42
Clear i n g of fra c t
i on s , x2 13 x 42 x2 5x 6 .

So l vi n g , a :
Th e gi ve n e q u ati on m ay b e s o lve d b y c l ear i n g i tf f c t
io ra on s as i t
t
s an d s , but that m et h o d i s m u ch m o re l ab or i ou s .

Si m u l t a n eou s fract
i on al equ a t
i on s Th e gen er al m e h o d o f t
t i tcl t t
.

s ol v i n g su ch h
a sy s e m s o ear e s e ve r al e q u a i on s o f f r a c

t i on s d t
an h tfi d i f p i bl t
en h o n os s e, e s ol u ti f t
on s o h lt e r e su

y t f i t t l t t
,

in g s m s e g l q o i Th n e ra e ua on s e so u i h f
on s d us ou n

c p tt t i t
.

— ex eh if y w hi c h m
e s e, k an a e de n o mi h
n a or s n e

t ft q t
,

g i ve n q tie uav i h h
on s l ti an s ar e e so u on s o h i n e se e ua o s,

37 1
t
if t t
.

Bu h e equ a t i on s ar e o f h f e or m d es c r i b ed i n 3 7 9, or

if th ey c an be r e du c e d o h i s f o r m , h ey tt t sh o u l d be so l v ed by
t t
h e m e h o d e x p l ai n ed i n h a se c i o n tt t .

E xa m pl e 1 . t
Sol ve h e fo ll o wi n g p ai r of e qu at
i on s for x, y .

x —l x —3 1 1 2
0
—2 —4 —2 x —2 y 2
.

y y xy 4y xy

Cl e ar i n g b o t
h q t
i e ua on s o f fr a c t
i o n s an d s i m p l ify i n g , we ob a n ti
x x +2y
Sol vin g x z :2 , y z 3 .

Ther efor e s n i ce n on e t
of
h d e en o m n a o r si t i t
h gi q t
i n e ve n e ua on s

y z 3 t t t l t
,

van is h wh e n x 2 an d h , es e e qu a i h h
on s i : 2a ve e so u on x z
,

y 1: 3 .

E x am pl e 2 . Sol ve h e t f ll o ow n i g sy st
em for x, y, 2.

éy z

xy 6 y z 2

These e qu a t
i ons c an be re d u c ed tt
h f
o e or m , 37 °

1 1 5 l l 2 1 1 1
_
x y 6 y z S e x 2

Sol vi n g fo r l / x , l / y , l / x, we fi n d l / x 1 / 2, 1 / y l /z
t
Hen c e h e re qu i r e d sol u i o n i s x 2, y t 3, z 1 .
 RAT I O NAL F R ACTI O NS 23 5

E XE R CISE XX VII
tf
Sol ve h e i g e qu a t
o ll o w n i on s for x .

6 x —1 4x —7
3x +2 2x —5

6 x 8 1
+
5 x —1 3 -
l 5x 6

1 4
—2 —4
°

x x x2 -
6 x +8

3 1 8
2x +3 x —5 2 x2 — 7 x — 15

2 2 3
+
x2 —1 x2 + 4x —5 x2 +6 x +5

x + l 2x 5
+
3x + l 5 —6 x 5 + 9x — 1 8 x2

x + a x +b a +b x3 +1 x3 —1
b (x + b) a ( x + a ) ab x +1 x —l

x2 +2x+ 1

x —9 x +7 x +2
x —4 x +8 x +3

x +9 x + 10 x +6
+
i +6 x +8 x +9 x +5

x3 +2 x3 —2 15
x —2 x +2 232 —4

1 x —2 3 x2 + x
+
'

x —1 x2 —1 l —fl
3 2x 5 1
x3 —8 2 x2 + 4 x + 8 x —2
ax + e b3 + d
x —P 5
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

x2 + 7 x —8 x2 + x +3 2 x2 —x + 7
x — l x +2 x + 3

ax + 2 bx ~ 2 ab b2 — x2 3 c2
+
x —a x —2b x —2 c

( — ar x ( — b )
a
s ?
( — er
v
a

(as — b>(x — c
) ( m — ci c a)
o — ( o — a>
a (x b) -

3x +2 x — 5 x — 2

x2 + x x2 —1 x2 —x

a 2 x +6
—2 —4
'

x +2 x x2

t
Sol ve h e foll owi n g fo r x an d y, or fo r x, y, an d z .

3x + y —1 6 y
—2 x —y
—y +
,
x 2 7

x +9 x +3
y +4 y + 3 x2 —2 x xy — 2y xy

2174 7
y + z z — 3x 2

zx 2
'

z +x z —3 x x + 2y

PAR T I AL F RACT I ONS

I tf ll o ows fr om § 506 t
h t a e v e ry ti
ra l on a fu n c t i on of a

s in gl e var i ab l e a s x , c an be r e du c ed tt
o h f e o rm o f an in te
t t t
,

gr al f u n c i on ,
or a p rop e r fr a c i on , o r h e su m of an i n t e g ra l
fu n c t i on an d a p rop e r f r a c t i on
c er t ti tc t
.

F or ai n p ur
p o se s i s u se u l
f o ar r y th i s re du c i o n
fu r t
h er an d , w h en a p r op er f a ct
r i on A B is g i v en , fin d t
h e

si m p l es t tf se o f a ct
ri n s of o wh i c h A B is t
h e su m Th e
t dp t t
.

m e h od e en d s on h e f o l l ow i n g t h e o r e m s i n whi ch h e

le t
tA Ber s , ,
P , Q, an d so o n , d e n o t e r a t i on al i n t eg r al fu n c
t i on s of x.
23 8 A COLLEGE ALG EBRA

I f AM P an d AN Q a r e n ot p r op e r f rac t i on s redu ce them

t tg i o n s an d p ro p e r f r a ct
f u n ct t
i o n s an d l e t
,

o s u m s of in e r al he
tb
,

re s111 s e
AM
— B AN C
an d 2
P
I
P Q Q ( )

Su b st i tt
i g t
u h n e s e e x p re ss i o n s fo r AM P an d AN Q in
we h av e
A B C
P Q
(D

Bu ti s n ce A / P Q, B P , an d C/ Q ar e p r op er fr a c t i o ns i t
h t
t
,

f ol l o w s f r o m by 53 0, 5 3 1 , I a K5 0 an d

A B C
+
PQ P Q
as was tb o e de m on s ttd
ra e .

No t Th
e . e fra c t
i on A/ P Q c an be r edu c ed tb t
o u on e su ch su m

B P C/ Q .

A B C B
’
C
"

F or su pp ose + + ’
1 m P Q P 6
wh ere B
’
P an d C /
’

Q a l so d en o tp pe ro er fra c t
i on s .

Th en
B
P
B C C
, an d t
h f e r e or e
(B B ) Q C
"
C .

Q
Bu t(2)i m p oss i b le u n l e ss B B 0 an d C C 0 F or o t
is h er ’ ’ '

wi se (2) wo u ld m ean t hat B ) Q is ex ac t

.

ly d i vi s i b l e b y P an d thi s
’

(B
c an n o tbe t
h e c ase s i n c e Q i s p r i m e t
,

o P an d B B i s o f l o we r d eg ree
’

th an P 48 1 , .

t
Par i al frac i on s t W e c all t
h f e c ti on s B P an d C / Q wh ose
ra

tc t
.

p a rti a l fr a c t
,

e x i s en e we h a v e j u s p r o ve d i n of 4 P Q o s

t A / P Q i ti tp t
,
. .

To r e so l v e a h f g i v e n f ra c i o n o f e orm n o s ar

t
i l f ct
a i B P
ra d C / Q it i
on s t c y tc y t an s no ne e s sa r o ar r ou

t i di c t y ppl y t t
,

h p ce d i
r o e ss 53 2 ; w n h h d f
a e n e m a a e me o o

un d t i d c ffic i t 3 97
e er m n e i t h f l l wi g oem pl en s, ,
as n e o o n exa e .

E x am p l e 1 R e so l ve ( 2 x2 1) in t
o a su m of t
w o p ar t
i al
t
.

fr a c i on s .

This is a p r op er frac t
i on an d i td
s en o m n a or i ti pr od u c t
s a of t
w o

fa c t t ea ch o t
,

or s , x l an d x2 x 1, w hich ar e prim e o h er .
 R AT I O NAL FR ACTIO NS 239

Hen ec 53 2 2 1 ) (
3 1 ) is e q u a l t o a su m o f t wo p ro p er fra c
2 ( x x

t t 1 r esp e c t
, ,

i on s w oh se d en o m i n a o r s a r e x 1 a n d x 2
x i ve ly Th e
n u m e ra t or of t h e fi rs t h ese frac t i o n s m u st b e a c o n st
an t th atof t
.

of t he
s e c on d an ex p r ess i o n wh os e d e g r e e i s on e a t m o s t Hen c e we m u st
,

h ave .

2 x2 1 a bx c
x3 —1 x —l x2 + x + 1

wh er e a b an d c d e n o t e c o n st an t
s

To fin d a b c c l e ar ( 1 ) of fr a c t
.
, ,

, , ,
i on s .

W be o ta i n 2 x2
+ 1 E a 2
( +x
x (bx + c ) (x
— c) .
(2 )
As (2 ) i s an it
iden ty t
h e c o e ffici e n t
,
s o f l i k e p o wers o f x ar e e q u al
,
28 4.

He n c e + b = 2, — 0 = 1a
a a
(3)
or , solv n i g a 1, b 1, c 0 .

2 x2 1 1 x
Th erefor e —1 —l
x3 x x2 +x+1
E x am pl e 2 R es ol ve ( 5 x 4) / (x4 x3 x2 x) in t
o a su m of t
w o

p art fr ac t
.

i al i on s .

General h eorem t reg ar di ng p ar i altf t

i n rac o s F r om t
h t
h e e or e m

t
.

of 53 2 we m ay dr a w h e f ol l o wi n g c o n cl u si o n s
t t tt
.

1 Le A / P Q R de n o t e a p r op e r f r a c i o n i n w hi ch h e h r ee

f t t
.

fa c t or s o e e n o m i n a to r P , Q
h d R pr i m e o on e
are a n o t he r
t t
.
,

Th i s f r a c t i on c an b e r ed u c ed o a su m o f h e f o rm

A 2 E
P QR Q R

wh e r e B P, D Q, an d E R d e n o te p r e p e r fra ct i o n s .

F or s in ce P i s p r im e tQRo § 48 2, A / P Q R i s t
h e su m of

t t f t
,

w o
p r op e r fr a c i o n s o h f e orm B P C / QR , § 53 2 ; an d

si n c e Q i s p r i m e o R, C
'
t Q R i s i t sel f h e t su m of t
w o
p r o p er
f ra c t
i n o s of t
h f e or m D/Q E / R, 53 2
t t t
.

t ru e wh en h e d en o m i n a o r i s h e p r o du c t o f
Th e li k e i s
an y n u m b er o f f a c t o r s a ll p r i m e to on e a n ot
h er
t
.

2 Co n s i de r h e p r op e r f r a c t i o n A / P Q i n wh i c h P i s p r i m e
8

t t t
.

o Q By . 53 2 i c an b e r e s ol v ed i nt o h e su m
A B C ’

PQ s
E Q
8
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

W e c an n o t
app l y t
h t
h e e o r em tth f c tiof 53 2 o e ra on C Q
3

t t t t
,

sin ce
h f ct e a or s Q , Q, Q a re n o p i h r me o on e an o er

B ti n c C i t Q it
.

u s e s of l o we r d g h
e b
re e an
3
c an e re d u ced
4 22 t p ly Q ft
, ,

,
o a o n om i al i n h f o e or m

C E Cl 0 2 62 C3 ,

wh e r e C , , C 2 , an d C3 ar e o f l o w e r de g re e h an Q t
t t
.

D i v i di n g ea ch m em be r 3
o f h i s i d e n t i y b y Q , we h ave

C C1 C2
3 2 3
Q Q Q Q
He n c e h e t giv en fr a c t
i o n c an be r ed u ce d tt
h o e su m

A B C1 C2 C3

d d
“ “

“
P3 3
P 6 z

wh er e B i s of l o we r d eg r ee t
h n P a an d C l , C2 , O 3 ar e o f l ow er
t
,

d eg re e h an Q
t
.

An d so i n g e n e r al w h e n a fac o r, as Q, o ccu r s m o re th a n
on ce in t h e d en o m in a o r t
t t
.

We h f ere or e h av e h f e o l l o wi n g th eor e m .

th t
Supp os e t h d mi a t f g i p p f ct
e en o i h
n a or o a ve n ro er ra on as

b een p tsed i t f
a ra e c t — m n cc o i ga c m
or s i t m y so e o u rr n on e, s o e, a

b m e, t
h ore c wh i c h
a n on ll p i m t
e t
h a re a r e o on e a n o er .

Th f c t i
e i tlf
ra t
on h b sel d i t can d b t en e r es o ve n o on e a n u on e

su m fp p o f ct roi i wh i c h ( 1 ) f
er ra c h f c t P whi h
on s n o r ea a or , c

b tc t i g l f ct
,

c
oc u r s uh i
on e, i
e re ft h f m B P
s a s n d e ra on o e or an

t
,

( ) f
2 c horf c tea Q w h i c h a cc or ,t
i m h i g p o u rs r es , ere s a r ou

t t
,

of f r i ra cf h f m
on s o C /Q C /Q e or C / Q wh , 2
2 '
er e

t
r ,

0 O 1, O z, ll f l w r
d g
are a h Q o o er e r ee an .

S i m pl t p t i l f
es ti nar It b p
a rac d th to s
y p y l c an e rove a ever o

t l c ffi ci ti t h p d c tf f c t
.

n om i al i n x wi h re a f oe en s s e ro u o a or s o

b t h t h t
'

q wh
2
on e o r yp o d p e p des x a an x x ere a , an

l b t h f t
t
, ,

q ar e r e a wh fu p q h i gi
e re e ac o rs o x
2
x av e ma

t
,

n ary c ffi c i oe en s

it 46 9 5 3 2 th t if t t
.

M f ll w f
o r e ov e r o h o s ro m a e n u m e r a or

d t f c t i t wh i c h it
, ,

o f giva p p f c ti
en h ro er ra on an e a or s n o s
24 2 A C O LLE G E ALG E BR A

In t= 1
(2 ) l e x , an d w e h a ve — 1 = A (
n ex t l t: 2 e x , an d we h a ve 3 : B ( — 1) -
1,

fin a ll 1 t: 3
v e x , an d we h a ve -
2 -
1,

x2 + x -
3 1 3
Hen c e
(x—l )( x — 2 x —3
)( ) 2 (x — 1) x —2 2 (x — 3)

s s i m p le s t
o it
int p ar t
i al fra c t
+
E x am p le 2 . R esol ve
x 2
(
i on s
i

x + l A B C D
By § 5 36 we ,
h ave
—l — 2
x x ( x x ( l
x ) (x
an d t
h f
e re o r e 33 1 E A (x B x (x Cx (x 1) Dx .
( )
1

In ( 1 ) le tz 0x ,
an d we h a ve 1 =A ( 1 ;

n ex t tt 1 le i ,
an d we h av e 2 D, D 2 .

S b t
it
u tth s u e ese val u es of A an d D in t
r an s p ose tt
oh fi tm e rs em

b erth tm th e er s us fo u n d , n a m e ly (x an d 2 x , an d s m i p lify t
h e

result W b ti
. e o a n

'
x3 3 x2 2x 2 Bx (x Cx (x
D iv i d i n g b o t
hm em b ers of (2) by x x ( we h ave
x C .

E qu a t
i gcn o e ffi ci en t
s o f l i k e p o we r s of x in we h ave
1 =B an d —2 —B + C , an d C

Hen c e
33 + 1 1—
l
1 1 2
x x ( x x —l (x
Or w e m ay ar r an g e ( 1 ) acc or d i n g tp o o we r s o f x , o b a n i n ti g
— (3 A + 2 B —A .

E q u at
i n g c o e ffici en t
s o f l i k e p o we rs o f x, we h a ve
A + B : 0, 3 A + 2 B 3A + B —A = 1 .

An d fro m t
h ese e qu a t
i on s we fi n d , as b efo r e ,

A — 1, D : 2 .

—4 x +
in t s s i m p l es t
o it p art
5 x2 16
E x a m pl e 3 R es olve i al
— 3 + na e — 3
.

cc
frac t
ion s .
( )

Th e fac t
or s o f x2 x 1 b ei n g i m agi n a ry , we h ave , 536 ,

5 x 2 —4x 1
'
16 Ax + B Cx + D

( x2 —3 ) ( 3
19 — x 1
+ ) 2
xZ —x + l x —3
wh e re A, B , C D , E
'
,
ar e c on s t
an t
s ,
 RATI ONAL FRACTI ONS

Clear i n g of fr ac t
i on s ,

5 x2 —4 x + B) (x 3)
—x + l ) 2 ( 1)
We m ay fin d A, B , C, D , E b y gi n g ( 1 ) a cc o r d i n g t
ar r ano p o w er s o f

x an d t
h en i n g c o efii c ien t
e q u at s o f l i k e p o we r s bu t th e fo ll ow i n g m et hod
is s i m p l er .

In t 3 dw h
( 1) le x , an e a ve 49 49 E , E 1 .

Su i ttt
b t s hi l f E i
u e s va u e o n t ran s p ose t
h tme er (x2 x

us f d tt
ou n h fi tm mb o e rs e er , s i m p l ify an d d i vi d e b o t
h m em b er s
ti
,

a: 3 . We ob a n

t
Nex d i vi d e b o t
hm em b er s of (2) b y x2 x 1 . W e ob t
ain

—2 2x 3 Ax B
_ x _
Cx + D
—x +
.

x2 l x2

By 5 31 , t
h f ct
ei ra o n al p ar t
s an d th e in teg r al p art
s i n (3 ) ar e e q u al .

Hen c e x 2 E Cx D an d t h er efor e C
, 1 D , 2

an d 2x 3 Ax B an d t h er efo r e A
, 2 B , 3 .

5 x2 4x 16 2 x 3
Therefore

W h en th d i t ft
e h gi en o m n a or o e v en t
fr a c
i n h t
h f
o as e or m

( x iti b ttb gi by p
s es o e n ex r e ss n i g th ti e nu m er a or n

p o w er s of x a, 423 Si m il ar ly w h e n t
h d i
e th en om n a or as

t t
h f ct f
.

h f e or m
( x
2
p x e a or s o x
2
px q b ein g i m ag i
n ar y ,
we e x p r e ss t
h ti p w
e n u m e ra o r n o ers of x
2
px q .

x4 + x3 — 8 x2 + 6 x — 32
(x
frac t l on s .

By 423 , we fi n d
—8 + 6 x — 32 1 8 (x — 2) —2 8
x 4
+ x3 x 2
( x .

D i vi d i n g b o h m e m b e r s b y t '

(x we h ave
x4 + x3 — 8 x2 + 6 x — 32 1 9 22 18 28
+
(
x x —2 (x (x

I f g i v e n an i m p r op e r f r ac i on , w e m ay fi r s r ed u c e i o he t t t
tt
t
s u m o f an i n e g r al e x p r e s s i o n an d a p r o p e r f r a c i o n a n d h en t t
t tt t
t t
resol ve h e l a e r i n o i s p a r i al f r a c i o n s t .
 A CO LLE GE ALGE BRA

:
t h d tt
hi m t h f ct
93 x2 6x 21
E x am p le . App ly s ei o o e ra on
:
a f 4m 5

x3 _ 2 x2 _
6x 21 7x 11
W e h ave x +2 +
x2 —4 x —5

—x + 2 +

an d p ro c eed i n g as ab o ve we fi n d

7 35 — 11 3
—5 ) x +l x —5

E XE R CI SE XXVIII
t
R esol ve h e foll o wi n g in t h e s i m p l e st
o t p ar t
i al fra ct
i on s wh ose den om i
t
n a o rs h ave r eal c o effi ci en t
s .

2 x + 11 6 x —1
(a
s— 2m m ) —1 )
4x x2 +2x + 3
( — l ) (x
x -
2 ) (x —3) (x
x2 +2 8x + 2
l +fl x — x3

x3

x —l 6
2 x3 — 5 x2 — 1 2 x

2 x3 — 3 x2 + 4 x — 5 x2 +x +1
(r 1) ( x2 2)

3x — 1
—
( n
a va “ r
)
 A COLLE G E ALG E B R A

t
Th i s h e or e m wi ll i n d i c a tt h g elf e en er a or m o f a sy m ti me r c

fun ct
i f givon o e n de g r ee wi t
h p c t
t g i res e o a v e n se tf l t
t
o e er s .

Thu s t h e g e n er al fo r m o f a sy m m et i on o f t
r ic fu n c t h e fi rst d e gr e e

wi t h r esp e c t t z u ) b w here a an d b d e n o t
,

o x y z u i s a (x y e ,

an t
, ,

c on st
,

Ag a i n t h e m os t gen er al sy m m e tr ic a n d h om og en eou s fu n c t
i on s of t
.

he

fi r st s e c on d an d t h resp e c t
hir d d egr e es w i t t
,

o x y z ar e , ,
, ,

1 .
2 .

3 .

On ex pr es s i n g a s y m m e r i c tf t
i u nc on Th e tti
no a 2 on x
2
m e an s

t t h t
t
.

t f ll t i if z
2
h e su m o a e rm s o f h e sam e yp e as x ; a s, x,
y , ar e
h l t
t t d c
e e er s u n er on s i d e r a t
i on , 2x
2
x
2
y
2
2
2
. Si m il ar ly

E y
f z
y
f
x
2
x 7 : 2 x
2
y
f
z fig; an d s o o n

t
x x y
t t
.

An y g i ve n sy m m e r i c f u n c i o n t m ay be p re d b y l c r ese n e se e

in g fr o m tt i s e r m s o n e of e a ch t
yp e , an d w it
i g t
h y m
r b l 2 n e s o

b e fo r e t
h i m e r su .

Th u s ,

2 (2 x x3 y
2
) 2x 2y 2z x3y 2 y
3
x2 —x3z2 z3x 2 y
3z2 z3y 2 .

W h en t t
w r i i n g o u sy m m e r i c f u n c i o n s a l en g h , i i s b e s t t t tt t
to tt
a r r an g e h e e r m s i n a cc o r d a n c e w i h so m e fi x e d ru l e Th e t
t c i t l f t
.

f oll ow in g e x am pl e s w ill i n di c a e a h on ve n en ru e or e

ar r a n g e m en of i n teg r a l t sy m m e r ti c f ct
i un on s .

Su pp ose th tth l t
t a e e e rs u n d e r c on s i der at
i on ar e a , b, c d, an d by t
h e

h l t
ft t td t
,

n orm a l d
or er o ese e e rs u n d er s h
an e or d er a , b, c d
h ll th w i tZ b
.
,

We s a en r e a an d 2 a bc as follo ws :
Z ab ab ac ad be bd c d, 2 a bc a bc + a bd a cd bc d .

Ob se r ve t
h t
i a n ea ch tm
er w e wr i tt
h l tti t
e h i m l d e e er s n e r n or a or er

tk w it
t b c i t d ft it
t
.

I n for m i n g Z ab we a e ea ch l e er a , n u r n an a er r e ea ch
qu e n tle t
t Th e t
,

su b se er er m s o f 2 a bc a re d er i ve d i n a s i m i lar m an n e r
fro m t
.

h ose o f 2 a b
he t
W e sh al l arran g e t
.

e r m s of Z am b n
,
wh en m n , as foll o ws
2 3 2 ‘
’ 3
*
aa o a3
2
2 a 2 3
b a b b a c c 2 d3 d 2c 3
-
.

Ob se r ve th t
w k p t h a e ee e o rd er o f t
h e exp on e n s tfi x ed t
h d th en u n er e

ex p on e n s h l t
tw w i tt t e r e e e ers of t
h fi t
tm
e rs er of Z ab in b tht
ho d e or ers

a b an d ba , a n d so o n .
 Y
S MM E TRI C F UNCTI O NS

I n l i k e m an n e r we m ay wr i t e

2 a 2 b3c 4 a 2b3c 4 a 2c 3b4 b2e3a 4 b2a 3c 4 c 2a 3b4 c 2b3a 4

(t
er m s s i m i l a rly d er i ve d fr o m t
h
e re m a n n i i gt
er m s of 2 a bc ) .

A g en eral t
h eorem reg ardi n g sy m m e ry t Itf ll w f o o s ro m t
h e

t t t
h t ti c f c ti
.

d e fin i i on o f sy m m e r y , 5 4 0, a a sy m m e r un on w il l
r e m a in sy m me ti c
r wh e n i tf s or m is c h an g d by t
e h e ru le s o f

re ck o n i n g . I n p ar t i cu l ar,

Th e su
i
m , d lfer en c e, p r od u c t d an
qu o t
i tf t
w en o o sy m m e ri c t
fu n c t t ym m t
,

i on s are h m e s e lves s ic e r .

By aid o f tf b i
t hi s t
h e o r em w e m ay o b ti t
ha n e r e su l o c om n

i g giv
n
ym t ic
en s lg b i c p ti n wi t
me r h t f u n c t i on s b y a e ra o er a o s ou

actl ly c y i g t
ua th Op ti n
arr It i ly n c y t
ou e se era o s s on n e e ssar o

c mp t t typ i c l tm f t lt
.

o h v i
u e e h ar o u s a er s o e r e su .

E x am p l e 1 . F in d ( )
22a 2
(a b c
tt t
E vi d e n l y h e r e qu i r e d r e su l i s a h o m o g e n e ou s sy m m e r ic fun c t t
i on o f

t t t
h e se c on d d egr e e c o n si s i n g o f e r m s o f h e wo y p es a2 an d 2 a b tt t .

Hen c e (2 a 2 ) 23a2 2Z ab .

p
E xa m l e 2 i
F nd 2 x2 2 x
.
(x2
y
2 z ?
) (x y z) .

i ly ts r o d u t
E v d en t hi p c i s a su m o f te r m s o f th e two ty p e s x 3 an d
xz
y .

Hen c e 2x 2 2x 2x 3 23n x 3
21
3 z 3

2
x y y
2x x 23 2
2
9: y
2z z2
y .

E xa m pl e 3 . F in d ( E x) 3
(x v+ z 3
) o

Th e qu ire d r esu lt i s h om o g en eou s sy m m et r ic an d o f t he thir d

t
re ,

d egre e w i t h r esp ec t W e m u st t
,

o x y 3 ,
he r efo r e h a ve § 543
, . , ,

( 93 + v + z ) 3 b 2
( y 1
x + 1
2 3: + s z2x
+ W 2
2
10 + 033 W

To fin d t h e val u e s o f t h e c o n stan ts a b c a ss ig n an y t h r ee se ts of

val u es t 2 w hich w i ll y i e ld e qu at i o n s i n a b c an d s o lve t

, , ,

o x y h ese
e qu at
, , , , ,

i on s .

Thu s pu t
, ti n g x 1 y 0 z 0 we h ave 1 z a , , , ( 1) .

Ag ai n pu t , tin g x 1 y 1 z z 0 w e h a ve 8 2 a 2 b
, , , (2) .

F i n a ll y p u t ti n g x 1 y 1 z 1 we h ave 27 3 a 6 b c (3)
, , , ,
.

So lvi n g ( I ) w e Ob t
,
ai n a l b 3 C 6 ,
. .

Hen c e ( )
2 x 3 2 x 3 3 2 x 2
y 6 2 xy z .
24 8 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Cy cl e -
s
ym m e ty
r In t
h e e x p r e ss i o n x
z
y s fix h l t
t e e

t t
h t
.

e rs x , y z ar e i n v o l ve d i n su ch a m a n n er if w
a e r ep l a e x c
t t
,

b y y , y by z, a n d 3 by x, we o b ai n a n i d en i c ll y q a e u al e x r e s
p
s i o n , n am e l y , y z
f
3 x
2
x
2
y To i n di c a tt ehi w s, e th t
s ay a

t t tt
ct
.

z 2
x y y
2
z x x i s cy c l o s y m m e r i c, o r c y c l i c, w i h
-
r e sp e h o e

le t
t ers x , y, z, ta k en i n t
h e or d er x , y , 2
tb
.

An d, i n g e n e r al , a n e x p r e ss i o n is s ai d o e c y c l o s y m m et
ric

tc ti l t
-

t t
,

or cy c li c, wi h g d i
r e sp e gi ct o er a n e ers a r ra n e n a ve n

d
or er , if it
i t
f d i t id t
s i c lly q l
r an s o r m e
p i n o an en a e ua ex r e ss o n

wh n w e pl c t h fi tf t
e re h l tt by t
a e h c d t h e rs o es e e er s e se o n e

c d by t h t d th l t by t h fi t
,

se on hi d d e r an so o n , a n e as e rs

i tc h g ft h l tt i c ll d cy c li c i tch g
,
.

S ch u an n er an e o e e er s s a e a n er an e

v t h t th t t
.

2 2 2
Ob ser e f y y a h e l erm s o x z e x a re e m s e ve s

n g d c y c l i c ly ; t
arr a e h t i th t th fi t c h g i tt h a s, so a e rs an es n o e

c d t
se on h c d i tt
,
h t hi d
e se o n d th t h i d i tt h fi t n o e r ,
an e r n o e rs ,

wh e n w e re
p l a c e x b y y , y by z, an d z by x Cy c li c ex pr e s

tcc
ck on i n g wi t h t
.

s i on s a r e o f fr e q u en h em i s
o u rr e n ce an d r e

g r e atly fa c il i t
at ed by ar r an g i n g t h em cy cli cly
E vid en t l y e v e r y sy m m e t r i c f u n ct n ot
i o n i s cy c l i c b u t
.

e v er
y
cy cl i c ex p re s si o n i s sy m m e t
,

ri c .

Thu s x2 y +y 2
z t
h gh c y cl ic i
ou ty m m tic I t l s no s e r s va u e

tch g d T m k i ty m m tic w m t
, , .

ch an ge s if x an d y ar e in er an e o a e s e r e us

t tm
.

a dd h g e ro u p of er s y
2
x z2 y x22 .

t
As h e p l h e x am e s o ws , a cy c l i c f u n c t
i on wi l l o r d i n ar il y n o t
co nti n ll t
ah t a e erm s o f a g i v en t
yp e, bu t ch-

su o
f t
h tm es e er s

as i t
d o es c on t
a in wi l l h a ve h e t s a m e c oe fl i c i en t
s .

T h eorem Th e su m
'

d ifi er en c e, p r o du c t an d q u o i en t tf t
w o o

cyc li c fu n c t
, ,

t
.

i ons a re h em s elves c y c li c .

Th i s f oll o ws a tc on e f r om t
h d e e fin i t
i on o f cy cl o sy m m etry
-
.

t p d c t( y y
E x am pl e .
)( y F in d h e
) ro u x2 2z 2 2x x z .

ly t
t h p d cti c y c l ic b t ty m m t it
'

E id v en ic M e ro u s u no s e r o r e ove r c on

ti t h tm d tm ft t
.

a ns y y ye ch c
er s xh3
yp ly x2 2 x2 z, e a on e , an er s o e se es on

h p d ct
.

H c t
, ,

eni e e ro u s

way vz
a
zsx $2312 vz
2 2
z2zz xfiy z fi x
vz z2xv
25 0 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

a c y c l ic an d i o n of t
h o m oge n e ou s fu n c t h e fi rst d e gr e e an d t
h e refo re h a ve
t
h e form k (x y z) wh e r e it d en o tes s om e c o n s t
, an t Hen c e .

m3 (y —z) +y 3
( — )+ (3 x —Z ) (z — x) (x y + z)
x
Z 2
( 1)
T o fi n d k, ign ass t o x, y, 2 a n y se tf o va l u e s for wh ich t
h e c oe fii c ie n t
o f Itwi ll n o t
va n i s h

Thu s pu t t
.

ing x h a ve 62, y 1,
6 k or k zz0 1 we
Or we m ay fi n d Itb y e q u at in g th e c o e ffici e n t
, , , .

s o f l i k e p o we r s o f x

in t he t wo m e m b e r s o f ( 1 ) a rran ge d as p oly n o m i al s i n x Th u s t h e x3
ter m i n th e fi rs t an d i n t h e s e c on d m e m b e r it
.
,

m e m b er i s x 3 ( y z) is
We t
,

kx3 (y z) w h en c e as b e fo r e It
,
1 h e refor e h ave .

—y) = (y — Z W 2 003 + v + z) .

E x a m pl e 2 . F ac t(
or x y z 5 ) x5 y
5 z5 .

T h i s fu n c t
i on va n s i h es w h en x y , for
— vs —z5 5 0 .

t
Hen c e h e fu n c ct t
i
l y di vi s i b l e b y x
on is ex a y a n d for a l i k e re aso n i t

i s d i vi s i b le b y y z an d b y z x an d t h er efo r e b y (x y ) (y z) (z x)
As t h e d i vi d en d an d d ivi sor ar e sy m m e t
, .

r ic a n d h o m o g e n e ous a n d o f

t h e fift h an d t h ir d d e g r e es r es p e c t
i vely t h e qu o t i en t m us t b e of t h e for m
,

lc (x2 y
2 z? ) l (xy yz xx) , 543 .

Hen c e — x5 — y 5 — z5
2 2
3 + 2 )
Pu t
ti g n x 1, y 1, z 0, w e ti
ob a n 15 2k l .

Pu t
t
i g n x 2, y 1, z 0, we o bti a n 35 5k 2l .

So lvi n g for k an d l , we fin d k 5, l 5, an d t
h f
e r e or e h ave
-
x5 —y 5 — z5

E xa m ple 3 . F ac t or

—(v + z —w) 3 — (Z + w —v) 3 —(a> + v —z) 3 .

Thi s fun c t
i on van i sh es wh e n x 0 for ,

(21 + )
Z 3 —( z — y)
3 —
(y — e ) a5 0 .

t f ct
Hen c e h e i i ctly d i
un on s ex a i i bl e b y x 0 or x ; an d for a l ik e
v s

re as o n iti d i i ib l b y y
s v sd by z e an an d t h e refo r e b y xy z
ar e o f t he t hi r d d e g re e t i en t
h e q u ot
.

Si n c b t
e h d i id d d d i i
o v en an v sor is
c ttk H c
,

so m e o n s an , . en e

—(v + z —fc ) 3 —( Z
+ — v)
3 — x
( +v — z) 3 5 kwvz o
r

Pu t
ti gn x l, y 1 z l we fin d k
,
24 an d t
, h er efor e h ave ,

—(y + z —a) s —( z + x — y ) 8 —(x + y

 Y
S MME T RI C F UNCTI O NS

Th e m e th od j u st e x p l a in e d i s som e t i m e s u se fu l i n s i m p li fy i n g 553
cy cl i c fr a c t
i on a l e x p r ess i o n s .

b3
E x a m p le Si m pl i fy
0

(a b) (a C ) (b ) (b
C a ) (C a ) (C b)

This exp ress i o n is c y c l ic wi t h r esp e c t t o a b c

Th e lo we st c o m m on d en o m i n a t
.
, ,

or i s {b c ) (c a ) ( a b)
On r e d u ci n g t h e fra c t i on s t o t h is l o we st c o m m o n d en om in at
.

or we

ob ta i n as t h e first n u m e r at or a s (b c) Hen c e b y cy cle sy m m et ry

t
-

h e se c o n d a n d t hi rd n u m e r a t
.
, ,

o r s are b3 ( c a ) an d C3 ( a b)
Add i n g t h es e t hr e e n u m er at h e resu l t 5 5 2 E x 1
.

o r s a n d fa c tor in g t , , .
,

we h ave — c ) ( c — a ) ( a — b)
Hen c e t
.

h e gi ven e x pr ess i o n r e d u c e s t o a b c .

E XE R CI SE XXX
Fac tt
h f ll
or e o ow ni g ex p r e ss i o n s .

1 . x2 (y — y) .

2 — v) o

3 (y — v) 3

x (y — v) 3

m2 (y — y)3 .

x4 (y
2 — y 2) .

—x3 — y 3 —z3 .

(y —v) 5 o

—<
y + z —x) 6 — z
( + z — ar —c +v

10 °

11 — 4 xy z .

12 x5 — y)
.
(y .

Si m p l ify t
h f e i g fr a c t
o ll o w n i on a l ex p r e ss i on s .

(1 4 b4
—
< bl <
a a — c >(b —a >(o — b>
m+ a x +b x + c

(a— b) (a — c ) (b — a)
( —b)o
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

— bc az b2 — ca c2 — ab

( a —bn a — cl ( b — c nb — a) ( — c
a c —
) < b>
<
b+ >
c 2 <+ >
c a 2

— — o —b>
— c ) (b — a > ( c — a ><
( b>(
a a c) (b

l
( ab -
b) (
a —c m —a ) ( b —0 )( b — d)
( —xb) l
o — a
nc —b —
i e c)

X . THE B I N O M I AL THE O RE M

S tt
ru c u re of co i nu ed p rodu ct
nt s . To o b tin t
a h p e ro d u ct

we m ay m u l i ply t ea c h t e rm of a b c d b y e ach t e r m
of e f g th n e t p du c
m u l i p l y e v e ry rott t h u s O b a i n ed by
e se l a s t t tf t
,

ea ch t e rm o f h k, an d fi n ally add h e r e su l
s o h
m u lti pl i c at i o n s
H e n c e we sh al l o bt
ai n o n e t er m o f t h e p ro d u ct
.

i f we sel e c t
o n e te rm f r o m e a c h o f the t h r e e g i ve n f a c t
o r s an d m u l t

tt
i p ly
th es e t erm s o g e h e r An d we sh all o b ai n all t h e t er m s o f t
t t t tt
.

h e p r o du c t if we m ak e h i s s el e ct i o n o f e r m s f r om h e h re e
g i v e n f a c t o r s i n al l p o ss i b l e w ay s
t t t
.

Th u s se l e c t in g b f r om h e fir st f a c or g f om h e se c on d r

tt t t t
, , ,

an d h f r o m h e h i r d, we h av e h e t e rm bg h o f h e p r odu c ;
an d s o o n .

Si n ce w e c an s e l e c t a t e r m fr o m a b c d in fou r w ay s ,
a t er m fr o m c + f + g in t
h r ee w ay s, an d a t
e rm fr om h k
in t
w w o ay s , t
h n e um ber of t e rm s in t
h c e om l
p e tp e ro du ct
is
4 3 2,
- .
or 24 . An d so, i n g e n e r al ,

t t
Th e p r odu c of a n y n u m be r of p o ly n om i a ls i s
h m f ll e su o a

t ttt t t tm f m ch
h e p r od u c s h a c a n be ob a i n ed by s e le c i n g on e er ro ea

f ct d m lt
a ip ly i g t
or a n h tm t g t
uh n es e er s o e er

h fi t
A d if tn f c th tm t e h c d rsh t
t hi d p a or a s In er s, e s e on 11 , e r

f tm i t p d ct b f
,

an d th mb
s o on , h c mp l t
e nu er o er s n e o e e ro u e or e

l i k tm if
e y
er h b c
s l l
,
c td — i m p an ,
a ve ee n o e e s n
 A COLLE GE ALGEBR A

ever y t
w o of th ese l e tter s an d t
h fin e al t er m is t
h p e r odu c t
ll t
,

f
o a h r ee .

c oeffici ents ar e sy m m et
He n ce th e s e r i c fu n c t i o n s of b b b
as w as t
,, ,, ,,

o b e ex p e c t e d s i n c e (x b ) (x b ) (x b ) i s i t sel f
sy m m e tr i c wi t
h r e sp e c t t
, , ,

o b b 6
Ob s er v e al so th at
,, ,, 3.

si n ce
( x b ) ( x b ) ( x b ) i s s m
y
h r e sp e ct t b b w e m ay o b t a in t
,

m e tr i c w i t h e pr od u c t
, 3

o b

by fi nd i n g on e t e r m o f e a ch t
,, ,, ,,
3 z
y p e a s x b x b b x b b b an d
-

h t t
z ,

t
z g,

tll t
l l

t
, , , l

h n w iting
e r ou a e erm s o f h e s e s e v e r al yp es

By t t
.

h i g w e s am e r e as on n e m ay p r o v e h g e en e r al for m u la
b3) bu )
1
l B 1 3? l B
n “ -

x ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
u )

W h er e

3 2 2 61 62 61 62 61 63 l “ " ”
l 62 63
“
bn —l bn )

Ba 2 61 62 63 1 6253 61 6254 612 —b t— 6m

2 i 1

Bn 61 62 63 6n ,

th at th d B i t
i s, B 1 i s h p d c tf l l th l tt
e s u m , an s e ro u o a e e er s

d th i t di tc ffi c i t :B t
,,

b b an h e n er m e a e oe en s are e su m

fth p d ct f v y t f t l t
t; B t
,, ,, 2,

o e w
ro h u s o h f e er o o e se e er s e su m o

th p d ct f
3,

e y t
ro h u d s o ev e r r ee an so o n

bt t ft h p d c t ch t t
h t
.

Th w i u s, e o i
a n on e erm o e ro u ea me a

w l ctb
e se ef t
h f t h f ct’
s d fr om th t r ee o e a or s a n
’
x s ro m e r es

M ki g t l ct bt i t
.

h
a in i ll p i bl w y w
e se e h t on n a o ss e a s, e o a n e erm s

b1 b2 b3x " —3
b1 b2 b4x n '
3
an d t
h i e r su m i s B 3x " —3

tt td t c ien t
, , .

O b ser v e h a , as i n d i ca e a b o ve ,
h c e o e ffi s

B l ) B2 7 "
3 Bn

ar e s y m m e r i c tf un ct
i on s of h l tt b
t e e e rs ,, b, ,
I n l ike m an n e r, we h a ve

( x bl ) ( x b3)
" " 2
x l
n
B zx "'

wh e re B 1 , B2, B, h ave t
h e sam e m e an i n g s as in 55 8 . an d
 THE BI NO M I AL T HE O R E M 25 5

th ign c
e s s on n e c tin g t
h t e erm s a r e al e r n a e l y
t t an d t
h e

l ti g n t
as h t S ,
a of b ein g wh e n n is e ven an d

wh e n n is o dd

t t
.

We btai n h i s f o rm u l a by m er ely ch an g i n g h e s i g n s o f
o

all t t
h e l e ter s b, , b, , b i n h e f o rm u l a o f 5 5 8 F or th i s t
t
.

le av e s un ch an g e d e v er y B wh o s e t e rm s a r e p r o du c s o f an
e v e n n u m b e r o f b s a n d m e r e l y c h an g e s h e S i g n of e v e ry B
’
t
t
,

wh o s e t erm s are p r o d u c s o f an o dd n u m b e r o f b s ’
.

E x am p l e . t t
By h e m e h d o of 55 7 —559 fin d t
h f e o ll o w n i g p r od u c t
s .

1 . 2 .

3 . 4 .
(x
nu m ber of t
Th e erm s i n he t su m s Eb l , Eb l b z, t
Le n ,, n

tt
de n o e h e n u m b e r o f te rm s i n 2 b] , Ebl bz, r e sp e ct
i v ly e .

1 Si n c e 2 b, 61 62 b e v id e n t ly n1 n

t tb
. .

2 I f w e m u l t ip ly ea ch of h e n let ers b, , b by ch ea

t t t
t
l,

1 ) p r o d u ct
.
,,

of h h e o er n 1 le er s in t u rn we o bt ai n n
( u s

tth tt
,

al l t old Bu 1 r o du ct s ar e h
e se n
( u
) p e e rm s o f EbI bz,
td t t
.

ea ch c ou n wi c
e e . H en c e n , , h e n u m b e r o f t er m s i n EbI bg,
is n
( n or

Thu s , we h ave
bi bei (31 68 , bl bn ; 5251 , b23
33 , ‘
a bzbn ; bn bl a b,,bz, bn bn -
I

Th er e ar e n g ro u p s of t h es e p r o d u c t
s an d n 1 p r od u c t
s in ea ch
1 ) p r odu c t s all t
,

g r o u p h e n c e n (u ol d

Bu t t h e pr o d u ctb1 b2 h er e o cc u rs t t
.
,

wic e n a m el y ,
on ce in h f e orm bl bz
an d o n c e i n t h e for m bg bl a n d so o n .

3 t
i p ly ch f t
Ag ai n , i f we h t m f 2 b 6 by m ul ea o e n2 er s o

ch f t —2 l t t wh i ch d tcc i t
.
1 2

ea h o e n h t t m e er s o no o ur n a er

t t t
,

w bt i n
e o
( 2 ) p d
a c t l l l d
n2 B hn ( 2 ) ro u s a o u e se n2 n

th tm ch c t d t t
.

p d ct
ro u f 2b b b
s ar e he im er s o ea ou n e r ee e s.

t ft
1 2 3,

H nc e h n mb e u s, i 2b b b i e ( 2
u
) 3 er o e rm s n 1 2 3, s n2 n ,
or

na = nz
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

a b1 bzbn ; 51 53 172 , b1 b3 b4 a °
7 bi bsbn ;
bn —l bn bl i bn —l bn b2 i ‘
a bn - l bn bn —2

Th ere ar e gr ou p s o f t h ese p ro d u c t s an d n 2 pr o d u ct s i n e a ch

2 ) p r od u c t s a ll t
,

grou p h en c e 712 (n o ld

Bu t th e p r od u c t b1 b2 b3 h e r e o cc u rs t h re e ti m es n a m ely i n t
.
,

hr ee fo r m s
An d s im i l arl y e very t
, ,

b1 b2 b3 b1b3 b2 bg bg b1
° ° '
er m o f E b1 b2 b3 h e r e

o cc u rs th r ee t i m es o n c e for ea ch of t he t h r ee way s i n w hich a p ro d u c t

, , .

of t h ree le tter s m a y b e o b t a i n ed b y m u l t iply in g th e p r o du c t of t

,

wo o f
th e l et t
e rs b y t h e r e m a i n i n g le t t
er .

4 . By t
h e s am e r easo ning we c a n sh o w t h at

1 2 3 4
tt
-

an d, in g e ner al , h a

Th u s t
h e nu m b e rs of p rod u c t
s o f fo u r le t
tb er s b2 , b3 , b4 , tk
a e n on e ,

t
w t
1,

tt
,

h o, r ee , fou r a im a e , ar e

4 3 -
4 3 .
2 4 3 . .
2 -
1
n1 4 n2 6, ”3
1 2 1 2 3 1 2
Q
-

Bi nom i al t
h eor em . I f in t
h f e orm u l a o f 558 , n am e l
y,

( x + b1) ( x + b2 ) ( x o

we re
p l a c e al l t
h tl t
e n tb b di ffe r en e er s b,, b y t
h e sam e

t6
t th fi t
,, ,,

le er an d x by a, b b c e rs m em er e om e s ( a

ch f t t fB b
,

Ag ai n s in ce ea h o e n e rm s o c
e om e s 11, an d e a ch
t
, 1

of h e n2 te rm s of B2 b e c om e s b 2
, an d so o n , we h av e , 5 60,

n n 1
B1 = n b, B 2

Ou r f o r m u l a th e r e f o r e r ed u ces tt
h fo e o ll o w i n g

t t
i a — (
n n 1)
(
l
+ b)
2 2
i n
+ b+ n n
b
-

a a a
1

1 2 3
wh er e
25 8 A COLLE G E A L G EBR A

By c h an g in g t
h e si g n of b in t
h p e re c e di n g f o r m u l a
s i m p l i fy i n g , w e o btai n
2 2
( b) b
" ” " '

a a a

1 2 3 - -

wh er e h e t t whi ch i er m s n v ol ve odd
p o we r s of b h av e
an d t
h wh i ch i v l v
o se n o e e v en p o w e r s h a ve si g ns .

E x am pl e . F in d h e t ex p an s i o n of (2 x y
3 6.
)
titt
i g2
Su b s u n fo r a an d y a fo r b i n t
a h e fo r m u l a an d r e m e m b er i n g
t
h t
th l t t fi ci en t
s are th e sam e as t h e fi rs tt
, , ,

ah e as r ee c o ef hr ee in reverse
o r d er , 56 2 , we h ave
(a
3
2 2;
5
W (M — (w 2 w
1 1
( 2 00
6 6 (2 x>
5 3
y a)
g ?
( e r a
l

( )
2 x 6 6 ( 2 x) 5y 3 1 5 (2 x) 4 2 0 (2 x) 3 (g ay.

15 <
2 as) ? wr a 6<
2 x) «W W
6 4 x6 1 92 $5 313 2 40 x4y 5 1 6 0 xay 9 60 fi g ” 12 13 .
31

tm t t t
0

Th e g eneral er F r om § 5 6 1 i f ll o o ws th at h ( e r i) h
t
.

t e rm in h e e x p an s i o n o f b) is
”
( a

Thi s, wi th a m inu s sig n b ef o r e i t

wh en r is o d d, is al so t
h e

( r i ) t
h t erm in t
h e e x p an s i on o f
( a

E xam pl e 1 . F in d t
h e e ht
igh t er m in t
h p e ex i
an s o n o f
(x
He r e 11. 16 and r 1 8, or r 7 . Hen c e h e t re qu i r e d t
er m is

16 15 14 13 10
—1 1 440 x9y 7
- - - -

1 -
5

E x am pl e 2 D o es an y tm
er in t
h e ex p an s i on of
(x3 1 c on t
ai n

hi tm
t
.

I f so, fin d s er .

Le t r 1 den o tt h e mb e nu e r of h tm
t e er Th en s i n c e n 12 , a x3,

t
.
,

an d b 1 / x, we m h us ave

—b x8 l 2
— —4
( ) / 7'
$20
n r r r r
a x .
 THE BI NO MI AL THE O REM 25 9

Thi s c on d i t
i on is sati sfied if 36 4 r 20 or r 4
He n c e th e fift h t a i n s x20 an d su b s t
er m c o n t ut
it t
.
,

in g , in h f e or m ul a we

fin d t
hi tm tb s er o e
1 -
2 3 4
495

E XE R CI SE XXXI

E x p an d h e tf oll o w n i g by a id o f t
h bi e n o m al i t
h e orem .

1 .
(3 x 2 .
( a b) 8 . 3 .
(1 2 x2) 7 .

(2 1 / x) 4 . 5 .
( x 3 / x) 6 . 6 .
( /y
x y/ x 5.
)
7 .
(1 x 2 x2 4 ) . 8 .
( a2 ax x2 3 )
9 . F in d h e t i t h tm i ( 1 s x er n x

d t igh t h tm i (3
’

10 . F in h e e er n a 4

F in h m i dd l tm i (
d t
‘
11 . e e er n a2 2 bc ) 1°

12 . F in d t
h tw m i d dl tm i ( 1
e o ) e er s n x 9.

13 . F in d t
h c ffi ci tf i ( 1 )
e oe en o x5 n x 8

14 . F in d t
h c ffi ci tf i (3 2 )
e oe en o x4 n x 7 .

15 . F in d t
h c ffi ci tf i ( l
e oe ) en o x8 n x2 6 .

16 . F in h c ffici tf
d t e i (1oe 2 ) en o x3 n x 9 (1 2x 11

17 . F in d t
h c tt e tm i ( 1 / )
on s an er n x x 12 .

F in d t
h c ffi ci tf i (2 1 '
r
18 . e oe en o cz
;
-
n x x 15 ) .

19 . F in d (a: 2 y) (x 3 y) (x 5 y ) by i n sp e c t
i on .

20 . F ind ( x 2) (x 3) (x 4) (x 5) b y i n sp e c t
ion .

21 . is t
W h at h e n u m b er of tm er s in t
h p e r od u ct

22 . F in d t
h e su m of t
h c e oe f
fi ci en t
s in t
h f e o llo w n i g pr odu c t
s .

1 .
(1 x2 x3 x4 3 ) . 2 . 2x x2 2) (1 x 3 x3 ) 2 .

23 Wh atis t
h e su m of t
h c e oe s in t
ffi ci en t he fol lo wi n g sy m m e r c ti
t t
t
.

fu n c i on s of fou r le e rs a . b , c , d wh e n e x p a n d e d
1 . 2l a 2 Ea . 2 . E a3 2 a bc . 3 . Z ab 2 a bc .

24 . Sh o w th tt
h m ft
h c a e su o e oe f
fi ci en t
s in t
h e e x p ans i o n o f ( a b)" i s

25 Sh o w th ti t
h p i a n e ex an s on of ( a t m ft h e p it
b) " h e i su o os ve

ci en t tt ft g t
i c ffici t
.

c oe f
fi s i s n u m er ic all y e q u al oh e su m o h e ne a ve oe en s.
 A CO LLE G E ALGE BRA

x1 . EV O LUTI O N
Perfec t
p w o ers G i ve n a ra t
i n o al fu n c t
i n P o t
Ii p i bl
s o ss e

t i p f ctt t t
h t
. .

th a P s ah p w i h
er e w d n o er n o er or s, a c nd a se o

rati l f
on a ct
i Q i t ch t
un h t P on Q If ex s s s u a
"
so , t
hi t
i l
s ra on a

f n ct
.

u i Q wi l l b
on t
h tf P e an n r oo o

I t t ch p tw c n i d t
.

nh p e r e se n h p bl :A t i
a l er e o s er e ro em ra on a

f ct
un i P b i g gi
on iti q i d t
e n d t i wh th
ve n , s re u re o e er m n e e er or

not P i p f c
s a t th p w
er e d if i t i t fi nd it th tQ o e r , an s, o n s n roo

t t t t
.
,

W e su
pp d o se n g i v p i i o i g en o e a en os ve n e er

R t f m n L t t ti l
.

oo s i l
o P d o om a s mi l e en o e a ra on a m on o a

d c d ti t i p l t f p f c tt
.

re u e o If P i
s s m h p w
es orm s a er e n o er,

t tf P m y b bti d by t
.

an hn r oo o h f l l wi g l
a e o a ne e o o n ru e .

t
D i vid e
h p e ex on en s o tf th e se ver a l t l f ct f P by
li er a a or s o n,

an d m ltip ly t
u h e r es u lt
by t
h p e r in c ip a l t
h tf t
n h m r oo o e nu er i

fii i t
‘
ca l c oe fP c en o .

Thi s follo ws at o n c e fr o m th e ru l e for i n vo lu t ion 318 , .

Th u s a k b’c H c s an n t h r o ot
3 8 k bl m i
§ 1 / "
n
e n e a c

§ 56 6 a n d i t is ob t a i n e d b y d i vi d i n g t
,

h e ex p o n e n t
.
,

o f a k bl / c
n n mn
, , s of

by n .

Th e r oo t th u s obta i n e d is c all e d th p i c ip l t
e h tf P
r n a n r oo o

( c om p a r e We s h al l m e an t
hi t wh w
s r oo p k f en e s ea o

t
h t
h e n r oo t of P, or wh e n w e u se t
h y b l 47P
e s m o

E x a m ple 1 . F in d t
h c e u b e ro o tf o 8 a 3h6 2 7 x3 y9

W e h ave
2 7 x3 y 9 3 xy 8

E x am p l e 2 . F in d h e tf oll o wi n g roo t
s .

6 4 a 4 b6
1 00 6 9d 12

R oo tf ps o ol y nom i al s . Co n si d er h e tf o ll o wi n g e x am pl es .

E x am ple 1 De tm i
er ne wh e t
h er o r n o t
4 x4 4 x3 1 3 x2 6x 9 is
p erfe c t t tq t
.

a. s qu a r e , an d , if i is , fin d i s s u are r oo .
 A CO LLE G E ALG EB RA

r edu th ce c d m m b tt h f m f
e s e on l
p y n i l i e er o e or o a o om a n x,

an d t
h n q ti tc ffic i
e ttte h ft
ua eh lik p w s f oe en s o o se o e e o er s o

x i th fi t
n m e b W t h rsbt i y t f k q
em er e us o a n a s s em o n e ua

Th fi t f t
.

ti n i A A
o s n h h q ti w il l e rs o ese e ua on s

t d t tf
1, 2,

g i v i n
e a s
g l f l f A A e m A ; se hio va u e s or an s se o

v l sm t t i fy t tf t
1, 2, , ,c

a ue h us h q ti sa if s e res o e e ua on s a ox
m
am

i s tb o p f c tt
e a h p w er e n o er .

E xam pl e 3 . F h e c u b e r o ot
in d t of

8 x6 1 2 x5 18 334 1 3 233 9 x2 3x 1 .

Squ are roo s of t p ol y nom i al s If a p ol y n om i al P i s a p er f e c t

tq tm t t
.

s q u are , i s s u a r e r oo ay al so be o b a i n e d by he f o ll o win g
m e t
h d o

t ct tP d t p
.

As i n h e p r e c e di n g se ion ,
le en o e a o l y n om i al i n x

of e v en d eg re e an d ar r a ng ed i n d e s c e n d i n g p o we r s o f x
t pp t
.

Le th at P is a e r fe c s a e a n d th a t a , b, c
u s su os e
p q u r

tt
h t tq t
,

d en o e e er m s of i s s u ar e r oo a rr an g e d i n d e s c e n di n g

p ow er s o f x , so h a P E ( a b c tt
Th e p r o b l e m i s , k n o wi n g P , o fi n d t a, b, c,

Now, wh ate ver t

h v e al u e s o f a , b, c ,
m ay b e, w e h ave

z
( a + b)

( a -
b

2
( a +b l - -
c + d)

an d s o on , a n ew g r ou p o f t e r m s b ei n g a d d e d on t
h e r igh t wi h t
ea ch n ew le t t t
t er on h e l ef n am el , a
y g r oup or m ed bf
y a ddi n g
t t ttwi c t ft t t
,

h e n ew t
le h m er o e e su o he t
o ld l e er s a n d m u l i l i n
p y g
t
h e r es u by t
lt h w l tt e ne e er .

Th er e f o r e , sin ce by h y p o th e s i s P E (a b c we
h av e
P E a
2
+ ( 2 a + b) b :
c] c
 E VO LUTI O N 263

wh e r e t
h l
e e ad i n g te rm s of t
h e se ver al g r ou p s o n h e r i g h , t t
2
n am e l a , 2 a b, 2 a c, 2 a d, ar e a l l o f h i g h e r d e gr ee i n x
y,
t
h n a an y o f t
h t e e rm s wh i ch f ol low t
h em .

F r om
t h i s id e n t i ty w e b c as f oll o w s m ay fi n d a

t t tt t
, , ,

1 E v i de n ly a i s h e s q u ar e r o o o f h e l eadi n g e r m of P
t t t t
. .

2 Su b r a c t a f r o m P
2
As h e l ead i n g e r m o f h e r em ai n de r
t tt
. .
,

R 1 m u s e q u al 2 a b w e m ay fin d 6 by d i v i di n g h i s e r m b y 2 a
t t
.
, ,

3 H av i n g f o u n d b f o r m ( 2 a b) b an d s u b r a c t i fr om R I
t t t
. .
,

As h e l e ad i n g t er m o f h e r e m ai n d e r R 2 m u s e q u al 2 a c we , , ,

m ay fin d 0 by d i v i d i n g t hi s t e rm b y 2 a

t
.

4 Co nt in u e t h u s u nt i l a r em ai n der o f l o we r d e g re e h an a
.

is r ea ch e d
t
.

I f h i s fin al rem a i n d er i s 0, P i s, as was s u pp ose d , a p e r e f ct

s q u ar e an d i tq
s s u ar e r o o t is a b c
I f t h i s fin al r e m ai n d er ist0 Pno is no tp a er e f ct squ ar e ;
t d P tt
,

bu w e sh a ll h ave re du c e h f o e or m

P E R,

t h at i s, tt
oh e su m of a p e r e f c tq s u a r e an d a n i nt eg ral fu n c t
i n o

whi c h i s of l owe r de g r ee th an a
t t t
.

i I s c o nv e n i e n t o arr an ge h e re ck o n i n g Ju st des cr i b ed as in
t
h f ll
e o o wi ng ex am l
p e .

E x am ple . F in d h e t s qu ar e roo t
o f 4 x4 4 x3 1 3 x2 6 x 9 .

P = 4 x4 -
4 x 3 + 13 x2 —6 x + 9 2 x2

2 a + b = 4 x2 = R 1 = P — a2
( 2 a + b) b
—2 x + 3 R g z P — (a -
b) 2

—R —
__ P

Si n c e t
h fi e n al r e m a n d er i i s 0, P is a p erfe c ts q u are an d i tq
s s u ar e

r oo ti 2 s x2 x 3 . Co m p ar e § 56 9, E x 1 . .

Ob ser v e th a t a s ea ch n e w r em a i n d e r R 1 , R 2, is f ou nd we
di v id e i tl
s e a di n g tm by 2 er a an d so ge t
th t ft
e n ex h t erm o e

ro o t Th n e a h l f tf t
tt he e o e re m a i n d e r w w i ttw i c t
e rh e e e

t f t ti t
.

p ar h o e roo t p re v i ou sly o b a n ed l
p su h w t m
e ne f er o
26 4 A CO LLE GE ALG E B R A

t
h t W
e ro o lt
i pl y thi e m u s su m by t
h e n ew tm er of tt
h e r oo

btc tt lt t
.
,

su h ra f h e r e su rom e r e m a i n de r u nd er co n si de r ati on
d t bti t
,

an h h n tus o a n e ex re m ai n d e r .

E x am pl e . F in d t
h e s qu ar e r oo tf 2 5 o x4 40 x3 46 x2 24 x 9 .

Th i s m e t
h d i
o s app li a c bl e t p ly
o a o n om i al P w hi ch i n v ol v e s
m th n
or e tp
l t a on e e er , r ov i d d it
e b e a p e r e f ctsq u ar e We
fi t t
h l t
t
.

rs g P i d c di n g p w
a rr a n e n es en o ers of on e of e e e r s,

h c ffi c i n ti v l v i g t
wi t oe h t e s n o n e res an d t
h p c d en ro ee as in

§ 570 it td th t d n tth l t
,

b i g d e n un ers oo a x n ow e t
o es e e er of

t
,

ar r an
g e m en

t
.

Approx i m a tq e s u are r oo s We m ay al so a pp ly thi s m e th o d

t p t
.

o ly n o m i al in n g ed in a s en di n g
c p o w er s o f h i s
'

o a x a rr a

l t
et er Bu t a, b, c wil l t
h b en e a rr an g e d i n a s c e n d i n g

t ft
.
,

p o we r s o f x , an d h d e e g r ee s o h cc e ss i v e r e m ai n der s wi l l
e su

i n c r ea s e H en ce, 5 7 0, 4, i f P i s n ot
a p erf e ct s q u ar e b u t
h as
c o n st t
an t t
tt
.

a erm ,
we c an r e du ce i h f
o e orm

th a t
i tt
h s, o e su m of a p e r e f ct s q u a r e an d a o
p yl n om i al , R '

t
,

wh os e l owes tm er is f
o as hi g h a d eg r ee as we p lea s e
t
.

'
F or s m all val u e s of x we c an m ak e h v e al u e o f R a s sm all

as we ch o o s e by c arry in g th i s r e ck on i n g far e n ou g h He n c e
t t h e ap p r x i m a t
.

in h i s c ase we c all a b a b c e s qu a r e o

tt w t t t
, ,

t
r oo s o f P h o o e r m s, r ee e r m s, an d so o n

It dd d t
h t t t t
.

h ld b s ou h pp e a e a ese a r o x i m a e r oo s ar e foun d
m d i l y by t
o re re a h th d f 56 9 e me o o .

E x a m p le 1 . t
F in d h e s qu a r e roo tf lo x tf o ou r tm er s .

By § 569, we w it r e

Squ ari n g ,

Hen c e , § 2 8 4, 2p =l , p + 22
q = 0, p q + r = 0,

O r so l vi n g , p =l/2 , q
—l / 8 , r z l / l6 .

t qu i red resu l t
Th ere fo re he is 1 re x 2 x2 / 8 x3 / 16
t u d en t
h e st hi s b y t
ve r ify t h e m et
.

Le t h od of 5 7 0, 5 7 1 .

E xa m pl e 2 . Fi n d h e t s q u a re r oo tf 4o x x2 tt
h
o tm r ee er s.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Approx i m a t e s qu are nu m ber s

r oo stf Th e m e th o d j u s t
o

t t
.

ex p l a i n e d al s o e n abl e s u s o o b a i n ap p r ox i m a t e va l u es o f

t
h e s q u are r oo t s o f n u m be r s wh i c h are n o t p e r f e c s q u ar e s t .

E x am pl e F in d pp r ox i m at
an a e val u e th ofq tf e s u ar e r oo o c or

ct
t he t
o t
.

hi rd pla c e of d e ci m als
E id t
re .

ly f
v ch d c i m l fig
en or e a e a
7 3 4 20 00
i t tt t
’ ’
.

u re h n h w
e ro o ch er e ar e o su

fig i t
u r esh mb nH c w e nu er en e e

p tt d ci m l p tf t
.

4 7 3 34
se h
ar a e h e e a ar o e
Hen c e
—_ numb tp i d f t
er w fig
in o er o s o o

p c di g f m t
2 0 00 r 34 2
,
7
u r es , ro h d ci m l
ee n ro e e a

p i t tt i g h t Th i t
86 8 1
o n h o g l e r e n e ra

p tf t p ti t
.

33 19
ar h mb o w e nu er e se ar a e n o

i
p er o d s , a s in 5 73 , p r o c eed i n g from t
h d ci m l p i t
e e tt h l fta o n o e e .

O b s er ve t h at a d e c i m al nu m b er c an n o tbe a pe rfe ct s q u ar e

if i t
h a s an odd n u m b er of d e c i m al fi g u r e s
t
.

Cu be roo s oft p ol y nom i al s Th e r e i s al so a sp e c i al m e h d f o or

t
.

fin d i n g h c e u be r oo tf o a p o l y n o m i a l P , w h en P i s a per fe c t
cu b e an al o g o u s tt h t
j tgi fo r fi n di n g t
t
o a us v en a squ a r e r o o

t p ly i l i
,
.

Le P de n o e a o n om a n x wh ose d eg r ee i s s o m e m ul ti
l
p e of 3 an d wh i ch i s a rr an g e d in d e s c en di n g p o w er s o f i t
t pp th t t t
h t b
.

Le u s su ose P i a p s a er e f c cu b e an d a a, c,

tt f i tc b t
,

de n o h te e e rm s o s u e r oo a r r an g e d i n d es c e ndi n g
t
h t
,

p o we r s of x , so P a
( E a b c
Th e p r o b l e m i s , k n o w i n g P , tfi
o n d a, b, c
t t
,

Now, wh a ev e r h e v al u e s o f a, b, c, m ay b e , we h av e

( a b) = 3
)
a
8
a
2
3 ab b 2
b,
8 3 2
( a + b k c
) a -

+ ( 3 a + 3 ab + b
2
) b

+[ (3 a b)
2
3( a b) c c
z
j c ,

an d so o n a n e w g r o u p o f te r m s b e i n g add e d o n th e r i gh t
w it h
e a ch n e w l e tt
er o n th e l ef t
,

n am el
y a g r ou p for m ed by a ddi n g
t g t t t t
,

t
,

o he h i erh q f h r ee
fth ld l tt t
m es h e s u are o e su m o e o e er s , r ee

tim th p d ct
es ft h e ft h ld l t
t by t
ro uh w l tto e su m o e o e er s e ne e er ,

an d th q ft
h e s t dt
w l t h m lt
u a re o ip ly i g t
h lt e ne e er , a n en u n e r es u

by th t
w l t e ne e er .
 E VO L TI O N 26 7
F
h er e f o r e , s in ce by h y p ot h esi s P E (a b o

re t
h l e e ad i n g t er m s of t
h e s ev e r al
g r ou p s o n he r i g h , t t
e ly , a
3
3 a
2
b, 3 a o,
2
ar e a l l o f h i g h e r d e g r ee i n x h an t
t t
,

of h t e e rm s wh i c h f oll o w h em

t
.

r om t h i s i de n t i y we m ay fi n d a b c a s f o ll o ws

t tt t
, , ,

E v id e ntly a i s h e c u b e r oo o f h e l e a d i n g e r m o f P
t t t
.

Su bt r ac a f r om P
8
As h e l ea d i n g t e rm o f h e r em a i n
t
.

z
R I , m u s t e q u al 3 a b, w e m ay fi n d 6 b y d i v id i n g h i s t e r m
“
3 a

t
.

H av i n g f o u n d b, f or m ( 3 a
2
3 ab V) b an d s u bt r a c t i
111 R1 As t
h l e e adi n g t
er m of th ei r e m a n d e r, R 2, m u s t

g thi t
.

2 2
ml 3 w e m ay fin d 0 by di v id i n
a o, s erm by 3 a

t
L Con t in u e h u s u n il a r e m a i n d e r i s t re a ch ed wh i ch i s of

fe r d eg r ee t
h an a
2

t t
.

if hi fi s n al r em ain d e r h P i w i s 0, en s, a s as su p p o se d , a
r
f t
ecc b u e an d i tc b ti
s b cu e roo s a

if th i s fi n al r em a n i d i t 0 P i tp f er s no s no a er e ct cu b e bu t
d c d ittt
, ,

sh al l h av e re u h f me o e or

ere R is l owe r de g r e e h a n a
of t ”

t
.

[t is c onv en i en t o arr an g e th i s re ck o n i n g as fo ll o ws
Ex am p le . F in d t
h c e u b e ro o tf
o

x6 6 x5 2l x4 44 x3 6 3 x2 54 x 27 .

3a 2 = 3 x4 + 6 3 x2
+ 54 x + 2 7

3 (x )
? 2 3 x4
6 x3
26 8 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

Si n c e th fi l e na i
r e m a n d er i s 0, x6 6 x5 54 x 2 7 is a p erfe c t
cu b e an d itc b s u e roo t
i s x2 2x 3 . Co m p a r e 569, E x 2 . .

tt h w
O b se r v e h a ind R
as ea c R i f ne nd w r em a er s ou e

d i v id i tl di n g tm by 3 g t t tt f
1, 2, ,
2
e s ea d er h a an so e e n ex er m o

th e r oot Th n t th l f tf t he aind w w it
e eth om e r em a er e r e e su

t f t h p tf t
.

of th t ree h q i m es e s h t p
u ar e i oly e ar o e roo r ev o u s

obt i d t
a ne h t i t h p d
r ee c t f th i
m es p t by t h e w ro u o s ar e ne

d t f t w tm W m l t i p ly t
,

t m
er h an q h e s u ar e o hi e ne er e u s

m by t w tm btc t t lt t
.
,

su h e ne h er f hsu i dra e r e su rom e r em a n er

c n id t bt i t t id
,

un d er io s d th er a hon , a n us o a n e n ex r em a n er

t p p li c b l t p ly
.

Th i h di
s m e l o s a so a m i l wh i ch i v l a e o a o no a n o ve s

m oret h l tt i f i t
an o n e b p f ct c b (c
e e r, p e a er e u e om ar e

Th e t
h d me y l b o p p li d t p ly
ma a so i l i e a e o a o n om a n x

ar r an g d i ec d i g p n w f
a s ent hi l tt
n — if it do t
ers o s e er , oes n o

l ck c n tt t
a a o If t
s an h p ly mi l i
erm tp f c t c be o no a s no a er e u e,

bt tc b t( c p
.

w th i n pp i
’

e us o a a r ox m a e u e r oo s om ar e

C b u t f n mb
e roo s o W m y l fi d t u h c b
er s t f e a a so n e u e r oo o

by i d f t
.

a num b er h f m l a f 57 5o e or u as o .

E xam p l e . Ex tct
t
rah c e u b e r oo tf 1 248 7 16 8
o .

a b c
N : 12 ’ 48 7 ’ 30 232
8 000 000
1 20000 2 RI N as

1 8000
62 900
1 38 900 2
( 3 a 3 ab b?) b
3 ( a b) 2 1 58 7 00 R2 N ( a b) 3
3 (a b) c 1 380

1 6 008 4 [3 ( a b) 2 3 ( a b) c c2 ] 0
—R =N

In or der tfi o nd a, t
h g tt
e ign i fi c an t
re a es fi g u re
num b e r wi t
h on e s

wh ose c u b e is c o n t a i n e d i n N we b e gi n b y m a rk i n g o ff p e r i o d s o f t hree
figu r e s i n N fr o m r igh t to l eft
( al so fr o m t h e d e ci m a l p o i n t to t h e r igh t
,

w h en t h e re a re d e ci m al fi gu res i n N) t hu s :1 2 48 7 1 68 E a ch of t he ’ ’

p er i o ds 16 8 an d 487 c alls for on e 0 a t th e e n d o f a an d t

, .

h e r e m ai n i n g ,
27 0 A CO LLE G E ALGE BR A

8 . 49 84 x 34 x2 6 0 x3 25 334 .

9 . x3 + 2 x7 —x6 —x4 6 x3 + 5 x2 —4 x + 4 .

10 . x2
( 4 x (x2

11 . 4 x4 9 x2y 2 1 2 x3y 16 932 2 4 xy 16 .

12 . x2 /y 2 2 2 x2 x2y 2 .

F i n d app r ox i m at
e s qu ar e r oo s ttf o ou r tm
er s of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g .

13 . 1 —2 x . 14 . 4 — x + 3 x2 .

By 569 or 5 7 5 fin d t
h c e u b e r oo s o f t t
h f ll e o ow n i g .

15 .

16 . 27 x10 18 x8 1 7 x6 6 x4 3 x2 l .

17 . 36 a x5 90 a 2x4 1 35 a 3x3 1 35 a 4x2 81 (L533 2 7 a“ .

18 .
i
v / 33 : 6 y/x 7 .

19 . F in d t
h e a pp rox i m at
e cu b e r oo ttt
h tm o r ee er s of t
h e ex p ress i on
1 —x + fi

20 . By 569 or 57 8 fi n d h e tf t
h tf ou r ro o o

x8 4 x7 10 x6 l6 xs 1 9 954 16 x3 4x 1 .

21 . By 5 69 fin d t
h fift
hetf r oo o

z10 5 x9 1 5 x8 3Ox7 4 5 x6 5l xs

45 x4 3 o x3 1 5 x2 5x 1 .

22 T o m ak e x4 6 x3 11 x2 a t b a p erfec t
s qu a re wh a tl va u es

t t
.
,

m us be ass ig n ed o a an d b

F in d h e t q
s u are r o o s o f t t
h f ll e o o wi n g n u m b ers .

23 . 2 7 889 . 24 . 25 .

26 . 4 1 4936 9 . 27 . . 003203 56 . 28 .

F in d ppr ox i m at
a e s q u a r e r oot h e foll o wi n g n u m b ers c or r e c t
s of t to t
he
t
hi rd d e ci m al figu re .

29 . 2 . 30 . 31 .

F in d h e tc u b e r oo s o f t t
h f e o ll o w n i g n u m b e rs .

32 . 18 6 08 6 7 . 33 . l 6 728 4 1 5l . . 34 .
 I RR ATI O NAL F UNCT I O NS

XII . I RR ATI O N AL F UN C TI O N S . R AD I CALS

AND F R AC TI O N AL E X P O NE NTS

RE DUCT I ON OF R ADI CALS

R oo t s I n wh a t foll ows t
h l e e tt e r s a, b, wi ll de n o t e p os i
th
.

t
i ve n u m b er s or l i t e r al e x p r e ss i o n s s u
pp o s ed o av e p o s i ti v e
v al u es .

Ag ai n , { yd wi ll d e n o te th p i c ip l t
e h tf t
r n h t i a n r oo o a, a s,

th e p osi t
i ve nu m b e r wh o se t
h p w
n i i t
h ow d t h er s a n o er or s, e

p os i ti ve n u m b e r wh i ch i s d fi d by t
e h fne l ( W) e o rm u a
"
a.

w i ll d n t t h p i cip l t
n

F i n a l l y , wh e n n is odd, V a h e o e e r n a n

r oo t of a , n am e ly x /d
t t
.

An d wh e n we u se h w e o r d r oo w e s h al l m ean p ri n c i p a l r oo t .

No t Thi
e. s is t
h w d
a r es r t
tictd
; f y mb
e wh u se o f e or r oo or an nu er
-

ose

n t
h p o wer e q l i i tlf
ua s a th tfs d th
se lw y ch
an n r oo o a , an e re a r e a a s n su

nu m b e rs , as w i ll b p d b qe tly ro ve su se u en .

Th u s s i n c 2 e 4 d 2 4 b t h 2 d 2
an q t o an a re s u ar e r oo s

h ll i d ic tt t2 b y V4 t t t2
, ,

of 4 . We s a h p i cip l
n a e h h e r n a ro o , e o er ro o

by V4 .

Wh en n is odd an d a is rea l , on e o f t
h t
h tf
e n roo s o a is r e al an d of

t
h e sa m e s t i m gi y
ig n as a , a n d t
h e r es are a n ar

i p it t ft t tf
.

Wh i end i
n w h h
s even an a s os ve , o o e n r oo s o a a r e re al ,

eq l m ic lly b tf c t y ig
ua nu er d t
h t i m gi y
a u o o n rar s n an e re s a re a n ar

g t ll t t tf
.
, ,

Wh i d
en ni i h h
s even an i m gi a s ne a ve, a e n roo s o a ar e a n a ry .

I t m t h m t t y t tf t
n

h high
n eic l ly d er h a e a s a u su a e n o es a n n ro o o a, n o

t t ly
,

a h s h p i c ip l
er e , e r n a r oo on .

R adi c al s An y e x p ress i o n of t
h f e o rm
ii

x/ d or 6{
7d i s c al l e d
c alle d t t
.

a r a di c a l ; an d n is he i n d ex , a h e r a d i a n d , an d
c b
t
h fii c i en t
e c oe of t
h e r a d i c al
t
.

Wh e n b ot h a an d b ar e ra i on a l n u m b er s or ex
p r essi on s,
6{
7d i s c al l e d a si m p le r a di c a l .

t t
3
Th u s 5 V4 i s a s i m p le rad ic al wh ose i n dex is 3, i s rad ic an d 4, an d i s

c o effici en t5 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

Form u l as for rec k o ni n g w i t

h radi cal s Th e r u l e s for r e ck on i n g
t
.

wi t h r a di c al s ar e b ased o n h e f o ll o wi n g f o r m u l a s, i n wh i c h
m ,
n,
p d en o tp i t
ei i tg os ve n e er s .

t th tby 1 t
O b s e r v e i n p a r i c u l ar h l f di c l i a e va u e o a ra a s

t t d t tf i t di c d
, ,

no c h an g ed i f i s i n d e x h p an e ex on en o s ra an ar e

m lti p l i d by t
u h p i ti v i t
e g
—
if y f ct c m m
e sam e os e n e er o r an a or o on

tb th i c c ll d ; th 0 {V Th i il i t
o o s an e e y ft hi u s, a
s
a
2
e s m ar o s

l t t f ct
.

ru e h l f
o i m p li fy i g
e ru e i i b i
or s n a ra on s o v ou s

d f t fi it
.

Th f m l m y b d b i h d i
— es e or p y u as a e ro v e a o e e n on

( Vtt
) th
"
l w f a,
p t e a b s o ex o n en s a
m"
a
" ”

d t f q lit
, ,

an h l e y § 26 1 3
ru e o e ua , , ,

Two p os i i ve n u m bers t a re e u a
q l if
‘

an
y l i ke p o wers o f t
h es e

n u m bers a r e e qu a l .

Th u s,
” ”P

t
.

1 . Va ’”
Va mp
, si n c e th e i r n
p h p o w e r s a r e e q u al .

W
F or ( V a mp ) ” a mp ; an

d ( Vb t
" n

2 V ab x/ si n c e th e i r h p o w er s a r e e q u a l .

t
.
.
, n

V i f; V5
"

For ( i m ab an d b t /E
x/
( ) ( y ( y ab
" z
; .

{75
a
sin ce t h e i r n t
h p o w e r s a r e e u al
q .

WV
( a

M)
’
b " b

4 .
(d
n
Va
"
m
,
si n ce t
h i t
h p
e r n o w e r s ar e e u al .
q
—
F or ( Vt
1 ) am an d
m "
; aw .
274 A C O LL EGE ALG E BRA

On b ri n gi n g t
h e coef
ficie ntof a r adi cal u nder t
h e radi c al si gn .

Si n ce 6 %
"

Vb n
a, t
h c e oe ffic i en t o f a r ad i c a l m ay b e b ro u g h t
u n der t
h e r ad i al c si g n if i t s e x p on e n t t
b e m u l i p lie d by h e t
i n d ex of t
h e r ad i al c .

E XERCI SE XXXIII
R ed u c e ea ch of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g r adi c als t s s i m p l e st
o it for m .

3 .

2 . 7 .

9 . W . 10 . m .

3W W
3
13 . . 14 .

B ri n g h e tc o ef
fi ci en t
s of t
h e fo ll o w i n g u n d e r t
h e r ad ic al s i g n .

2
+
25 . 3 a \/ 3 a . 27 . 3 ax 4 a 3xa

Sh o w t
h t
th f ll
a e o ow n i g set
s o f r a d ic a ls a re s i m i l ar .

3 3 3
28 . VI S V50
, , an d VI / S . 29 . V2 4 V1 92
, , an d V

30 . V ( x3 y
a
)( x y) an d V x4y 2 3332
1
3 x2 y 4 .

OPE R AT I ONS WI T H R ADI CALS

Add i i on t an d s u b rac tt
i n o . We h ave t
h e r u le

To r ed u ce t
h eg ebra i c s u m of wo or m or e r a d i c a ls o i
al t tt s

si m
p l es t
f or m simp l
ify ea ch r a di ca l a n d h en c om bi n e s u c h t
t t i t
,

h me a s a r e si m i la r by a dd i n g h i
e r c oe fii c en s .
 I RRATI O NAL F UNCT I O NS

E x am p le . Add V 1 6 a 2 —V 9 a2 b ,
3 V2 , an d 2 VI / 2 .

We h ave V 1 6 a 2b —V 9 a2b + 3 V2 —2 V 1 / 2 .

4 a Vb — 3 a Vb l 3 V2 —V2 - -
z a b+2 V2 .

Ob ser v e th a t a s u m o f t
w o d i ss i m i l a r r ad i c al s c anno t be
r ed u ced to a s i n g l e r a d i c al .

Thu s we c an n ot
, h ave Vd Vy Vx y ex e c ptwh en x or y is 0
for s qu ar i n g we h ave x y 2 n x y, 2 n 0, xy 0,
eit
,

h er x O or y 0 .

R edu c i on t of radi cal s t o a com m o n i ndex . I tf l l o ow s f r om t

h e

f orm u la W W th a t
w e c an al way s r e du ce t
w o or m or e

r ad i c al s tq
o e ui v al ent r ad i c al s h av i n g a c o m m o n i n d ex Th e
t t t
.

l ea s c mm o on i n dex i s h e l e as t c om m on m ul t ip le of h give e n
i ndi c e s .

—
o t
VI) 3 t t
6 8
E x am p l e . R e d u c e V as an d h e ir l eas c mm o on i n d ex .

Th e l eas tc m m o on m ul t
ipl e of t
h gi e ven i n d ic es ,
6 an d 8 , i s 24 . An d

Com pari son of radi cal s We m ak e t

h e r e du cti on t
o a c om m on 5 88
tc
.

i nd ex wh e n we wi sh o om p ar e g i v e n r adi c al s .

I5 10 6
E xa m p le 1 . Co m p ar e V 1 6 , V6 , an d V3 .

Th e l eas t
c mm o on m u l t
ipl e of t
h gi e ven i n d ic es ,
1 5 , 10, 6 , i s 30 an d

15

15 6 10
Th erefo re ,
i ce
s n 256 2 43 21 6 , we h ave V 16 V3 V6 .

3
E x a m p le 2 . Co m p ar e 2 V3 an d V 41 .

B r i n gi n g th c e o ef
fi ci en t of th e fi r st r a d ic al u n d er t h e r ad ic al s i gn
d t u ci n g b o t o t
,

58 5 , an h d
e n re h ra d ic als t h e c o m m o n i n d ex 6 we h ave ,

3
Th erefor e si n c e , 1 72 8 1 6 8 1 , we h ave 2 V3 V 41 .

t t
Mu l i pli ca i on an d di vi s i on . F ro m t
h f e or m u l a s

an d

we d er i v e h e tf ol l o wi ng ru l e :
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

To m u l ip ly t or d i vi d e on e r a di a l c by ano t
h er, r ed u ce t
h m e

if c
n e es s a r y t di c l h i g t
o ra h l tc m m i
a s av n e ea s o on n d ex . Th en

fin d t
h p e ro d ct q t
u i t fth i
or fii i t uo en o e r c oe c en s a n d r a d i a n ds
c
tly
s ep a r a e .

t
3
E x am p l e 1 . Mu l iply 4 V xy b y 2 V x2 y 2 .

—
E x am p l e 2 . D i vi d e 6 n by 2 Vt
ay .

4 4 4
W e h ave
I nvol u i on t . F r om t
h f e o r m u l as
” i lp ”
an d
m mp m
Va v a V a

w e d e r i ve t
h f e o ll o w i n g r u l e

To r a i se a W tt
h mth p r a di c a l of t
h f e or m o e o wer , ca n c el
any f c t w hi c h m y b c m m
a or tm d th i a e o on o an e n d ex of t
h e

radi c l d t
a , h m lt
ip ly t
an h p tf t
h en u e ex on en o e r a di ca n d by
t
h e m i i g f ct f m
re a n n a or o .

tt
h 9t
6
E x am p le . R ai se 2 n 2
h p
o e o wer .

W e h ave
° 6

(2 x/ 29 ( Vx 2 9
y ) 12 8 (n
2 3
) 12 8 Vx3y6 12 8 xy 3 V5 .

E vol u i on t . F r om t
h f e or m u l a s

W =
n

% an d W W "

we d er i v e h e tf ol l o wi n g ru l e

To fi nd t
h mt
h tf e r oo o a ra di c a l o
f t
h f e or m V
n
‘
ai c a n cel
fa c t t d t tf t
,

or wh i c h
any y be c om m on o m m a an h e exp on e n h o e

r a di c a n d a n d m u l i l
p y h e i n d ex of h e t t t r a di ca l by h e t r em a i n i n g

fa c t
or of n .

tit tf w
5
E x am p l e 1 . F in d h e h s x roo o 4
.

W e h ave

E x a m pl e 2 . F in d t
h c e u b e ro o tf 54
o a V5 .

W e h ave
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

21 .
( V1 2
3 . 23 .
(2 7
x xy 2z3 6 .
)

Si m pl ify ea ch of t
h f
e o ll o w n i g as far as p oss i b l e .

33 .

35 . 36 .

37 .

39 . V a x3 + 6 ax2 + 9 ax —V ax3 — 4 a 2x2 + 4 a 3 x .

— C H y
40 (M y) (ao y) +

41 .
- V6 .

43 .

45 1 / 3 8 46
.
( + )
x .

FR ACT I ONAL AND NE GAT I VE E X PONE NT S

c ases r e ck o n in g w i t
I n m a ny h r a d i c al s i s g r ea l y tf a c ili tated
by t
h e u s e of fr a c t
i on a l exp on e ts n

Th u s fa r w e h av e a t t tt
.

ach ed a m e a n i n g h
o e e x p r e ss i on a

o nl y wh e n n d en o tes a p o s i t
i i tve
g n e er . Th e r u l es fo r re ck on
i n g wi th su ch e x p r e ss i o n s, n am ely ,

1 . a
m -
a
"
a
m ”
,
2 .
( a
m
)
"
3 .
( a b)
"
a
"
b
"
,

ar e a m o n g t
h e si m p l e s t i n al g e br a I t
i t
h s e r e o r e n a u r al
f t t o

t
.

i n q u ire :Can we fin d u se u l f m e an i n g s fo r a
"
in a g r eem en

tt tp
,

wi h h es e r u l es, wh e n n is no a os i t i v e i n teg er ?
 I RR ATI O NAL F UNC T I O NS

—
Th e defini i on t aP/ q VaP
{ w h e n ce
tfi
. .

i f p o ssi b l e, o nd a m e a n i n g for t hi s sy m b ol whi c h

agr ee m e nt w i th t
h e r u le s 1 , 2, 3
ttb
.

Bu ,
o e in ag r ee m e n t wi th 1 , we m /
us t h av e
1 l 1 1
+ é= 1
( )
2
a?
f ’ “
a -
a a a a,

t h at i s, a
i ’
mus tm ea n ei t
h er Vd or Vd
We ch o o se e or e c o nv e n i ent of th e se t
t
.

h m wo m ean i n g s an d ,

d efi n e a a s Vd
l
l

h e c o n di t
W e th u s fin d th at on e o f t
.

i o n s whi c h w e w i sh a
t ti fy
o sa s su ffic e s tfi i t
o x s m ea n in g
td fi
.

3 3
Vd V5
1

Si m l lar l e ad s s g
r e a so n l n g us o e ne a as a as .

t t t
19

an d i n g e n er al a7
1
as Va p
,
t h at i s, as h p e r n ci a l
ip q h r oo

o f a ”.

t
P pm P
”
Ob se r v e th a t s i n c e a q V
q
a? V a ? ”
a qm
h v e al u e
‘
of a 1

t
,

is no c h an g e d w h e n p g is r ep l a e d c by an e q u i v al e n t f r a c t i o n .

Thus , ag a3 a s; also a 2 ai ag .

Th e defini i on t a
°
1 . Ag ai n , tb o e in a g r eem e nt wi th 1,
we m u s t h ave

an d t h e r e f or e 1
m m
a a .

We a re th e r e fore l ed td fi
o e ne a
°
as 1
tb
.

Th e defi n i i on t a
"
s
1 /a s
F i n ally , o e in a g re e m en t wi th
t
.

1 , we m u s h av e , 5 95 ,
” "
” 3
a
o
1
a a

an d th er e fore 1 s
a .

We ar e th e re for e l ed td
o e fin e a
—3
as 1 a
s

t — 6
Th u s, b y d efi n i i on , a 3 z 1 / a3, a 5 1 / a8 1 Va 5 .

t tp t t
10
aa
°
I r em ai ns o ro ve th at h m e ea h fn in g s u s ou n d fo r a

c o m pl e t t h t
wi t t
, ,
—3
an d a ar e in e a g r e e m en h l e r u e s o f e x p on e n s .

Th eorem 1 . Th e la w a‘n
a
“
a
a
h olds g ood for
‘

a ll r a t
i on a l

va lu es o fm and n .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t
Le p , g, r, 3 d en o t e an y t
p o s i i v e i n t eg e r s . Th e n

1 . Wh e n m =p /g an d n r
/s , w e h av e , 5 8 2,
p
'
7

qs
x/a p + q
8 r

2 . Wh e n m —
p /g an d n r
/ s, w e h a ve, b y Ca se 1 ,

1 r
.

3 . W h en m =p /g an d u — r
/ s , an d w e h av e

w
1) T

— V ap q qs qs

/ / V ”
a q o
a
s
V a ps a q

GE
)

4 . W h en m =p /g an d n — r
/ s, an d we
h av e, by Cas e 3
p

aq -
a

T h eorem 2 . Th e l a w (
m
a
)
u
amll -
h o lds g ood for a ll r a t
i on a l

a n d 11
va lu es o fm .

F or , l e td t m en o e a n y r a t i o n al nu m b er . Th e n

1 . W h en n is a t tg
p os i i ve i n e er , we h ave , 597 ,

( a
m
)
n
a
m
a
m
to 7b fa c t or s u
m +m + tt
o n erm s

2 . When n p / g ,
w h e re p an d q a re
p o s i t
i i tve
g n e e r s, we
h av e, by Ca se 1 ,
p

s, wh e r e s is an y p o si i v e t t
i ra on al , we h a ve,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E XERCI SE XXXV
Ex p ress as s i m ply as h ou t
p oss i b le wi t r a d ic al s ig n s

12 3

3 . a5 / V ag

E x p r ess wi h tg t
t i
ou ne a ve o r i on al e xp one n t
fra c t s

5 . wi t 6 . c 7 .
( ) di
—6 .

3i —i
8 (c )
’

Ex h p os i t
p r es s w i t i ve exp on e n t
s an d wi h t d ic
t ou ra al s ig n s
3c 2
— 1
Vx 5 —
— 4
/b 10 x
9 l 11 (l / )
7
a
- - -

. .
y . .

—
—
_

12 . x 2
-
2 Vx 3

E x p ress as s i m p ly as p oss i b le wi h t
t d ou e n o m n a ors i t
b 1 1 —
b 1 —l b c
( c )
-

a a
"

be c
”
2 a
-
2
(b c) b
“

c
-
1

R e du c e ea ch of t
h f e o ll o w n i g ti ti m pl t p
o s s es ex on e n t
i lf a or m .

14 . 15 . 16 .

—Zi
17 18 a ga i a g 19 ai m ?1g
"

. . a

t
. .

— —
20 .
( ai b fia i bi . 21 . ab 2 / a 3b . 22 .
( a )?
23
—l —2 e3 —2
b 24 25 a6 b
.
( a ) . .

1
26 .

28 .

30 .

xy

32 33
—i
34 .
( xi gi n/ (ac W) .

35 . Mu l t
iply xi xi y é 3
y b y xi xi x
/
5
y
} .

36 . D i vi d e a2 b3 b y a il bi .

—
37 . E x p an d (xi y
i zi
)
4. 38 . Si m p l ify [ (e e z
) 2 4 m .

39 F in d s q u are r o o tf o x2 4 23331 5 4 xy 6 x§ y i 12 y 2 9r l
y
8.

—
.

40 . F ind c u b e r oot of a s 3x 2 6x 7
—
6z 1 3 45— 2 z s
 I R R ATI O NAL F U NCTI O NS

THE BI NOMIAL T HE ORE M F OR NE GAT I VE AND

FRACT I ONAL E X PONE NT S

I f in t
h bin e om i al e x p an s i o n, 56 1 ,

—l b fl —— l) —2 62
( b)
iE
" " n '
x
a a na a

we ass i g n fr a c t i on al o r n eg at i ve v al u e o n
a t we s h a ll h av e
t r i g h t a n e v e r e n d i n g o r i nfi n i t t
,

on h e -
e se ri e s ; for non e of h e

c o e ffic ie n t t
, ,

s n n
(n 1) 2, w ill h b en e 0
twill b h w t h t
t t t
.
,

I e s o n fu r h er on if ba a h e su m of h e

firs t tm f thi
m er s o s s er i e s w ill app r o a ch t
h e v a l u e of ( a b) "

as li m i t
wh n i i e m s n d e fin i tly i n c
e r e a se d ; in t
oh w er o r d s, t h at
tn t
h t f t
,

by a ddi n g a s u fli c i e n um b er of e er m s o hi s s er i e s, we
m ay o b ti
a n a re su l t app r ox i m a t
i g n as c l o s e ly as we p l ea se t o

t
h v e al u e o f
(a
Th i s i s wh at i s m ean t wh en i ti s s ai d t
h tt
h bi a e n om i al
t
h eo r e m h o l d s g o o d fo r ( a b) "
wh e n n is f r a c t i o n al or nega
t i ve an d b a.

E x am p le 1 . E xp an d (8 tf tm
o ou r er s .

Pu t
t
i g n n a 8, b x
- l
l’
i t
h f m l
n e or u a, we h ave
1 2
—3 3
-
8 x 8
2
3
(1 . “

2 3

a: 23
.- 1
5 33 3
-

12 2 88 2 07 3 6

E x am pl e 2 . F in d t
h h tm
i te s x er in t
h e ex p an si on of 1 (
d,é mg) ? or
é § —
( d x 2
)
Pu t
t
i g n n 2, a a} b mg, r 5 in t
h f e or m u l a for t
h ( e r t
l) h
t
,

er m , 56 5 , we h ave
—6 )
( a ) 2 5 0g
0 V 6 0 :
a
1 -
2
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E x a m pl e 3 . E x p an d V1 cc tf o ou r tm er s .

Si n c e V 1 +

{ l 1
Hen c e
2
_
2 2 ( 2 2
+
2 2 -
3

a : x2 x3

Th e r esu l t
i t
h s e s a m e as h tb t
t i a o a n ed in 5 7 2, E x . 1 .

E x a m le 4 p . F in d an a pp i m tro x a e valu e o f V 10 .

We h ave Vi c ( 32 + 9 1
77

1 I
5 07 )
1 1 1 2

()
3
1

2 9
1 l 3

( J
5
3 3 3

1 1
6 2 16 3 88 8

3 . 1 6 66 6 . 0046 2 . 0002 5 n ear ly

E XE R CI SE XXXVI
E x p an d ea ch of fo llo wi n g t
o fou r tm
er s.

5 2 aa
1 .
(1 2 9 . .
(
1
5 1 5 —
V ) 4
(a
‘

4 ( am m) m .
. .

10 . F in d h e h tm i
t tt en er n (l (5 )
—3 .

11 . F in d t
h th tm e s e ve n er in 2

12 . tt i
F in d h e i g i er m n vo l v n n
(1 xi
‘
’

fi .

Fi d t
h tm i
—
13 . n l i g e er n vo v n x 2 in :
3 x a
)
' -
3

14 By t h d i ll tt
h m t e d i e o u s ra e n 6 0 1 , E x 4, fi n d a pp r ox i m at
e val u es

t
. .

h f
e oll ow n i g .

1 . V7
99 .
2 86 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

t t f
R a i onal i zi ng fac ors o bi n om i al radi c al ex press i o s n . Th e
t i n l i i n g f ct f
ra o a z a or o an e x pr e s s i on of t
h f e o rm

m y b f
a d e i t
h f ou n as n e o ll o wi n g e x am ple .

t t i i g fa ct
3

E xam l e p . F in d h i e ra on al z n or o f V5 V5 .

W? (t
3
V5
l 1
W e have )?
1

af bf a2
( ) 3 s
(1 )
Bu t§ 438 a2
( )
i é
( ) w i ll
a3 exa ct
ly d i vi d e t
h t
i e ra on al ex p r ess i o n
i t
,

t t
,

a2 b3 , h q e b i g ( )3
uo en e n a? (2 )
He n c (2) i t
e h t i l i i g f ct
s e ra on a z n a or of

On ra t
i on al i zi n g t
h d n m in t
e e o a or of a frac t
i on An y i rr ati on al
t
.

e x p re ssi o n of h f e or m A B , i n wh i c h B i n v ol ve s si m p l e r ad i

c al s o n ly , m ay be r e du c ed to an e q u i v al e n tp ex i
r e s s on h avi n g
a ra t
i on a l d en o m i n a t byor m ul t
i p ly i ng bo t
h A an d B by t
h e

ra t
i o n ali zi n g fa ct
o r of B .

t t t
4

E x am pl e 1 . Ra i o n al ze i h d e i
en o m n a or o f 1 Va 3 .

1 1 af af 4
We h ave Va / a .

E x am p le 2 . Ra t
i o n al ze i t
h d e i
e n o m n a or o f t
We h a ve

In c om p u t
in g an ap p r o x i m a e v al u e o f a t f ra c t
i o n al n u m er i

c al e xp r e ss i o n w h i ch i n v o l v e s r a di c al s o n e sh o u l d b e g in b y
t t t
,

ra i o n al i zi n g h d e e n om in a or M u c h u n n e c e s s ar y r e c k o n i n g
t
.

is h us a v o ide d .

E x a m pl e pp ro x i m at
F in de val u e o f ( l
an a VB) (3 V2 ) which i s
c or r e c t
to t
he t
.

hi rd d e ci m al fig u r e .

W h e ave
—1 V2 = 2 414 .

—V2
.

3 (3
 I R R AT I O NAL F UNC T I O NS

Di vi s i on of r adi c al ex p ress i o s n To d i v i d e o n e r ad i c al ex p r e s

t tt i t i t
t t
.

s i on h
by an o er, w e wr i h q e h f e uo en n e or m o f a fr a c i n
o

an d t
h n t
i e ra o n al i ze t
h d e in t ft
hi fen o m a or o s ra c ti o n .

E x am p le . D i vi d e 4 2 V5 by 1 V2 V5 .

W e h a ve

( Vi — I NVE H )

General res u l t I tf ll
. o ow s f r om 5 92 an d 6 07 t
h tv a e e ry

e x p re s s i o n whi c h i n v o l ve s sim p l e r ad i c a l s o n l y c an be r ed u c ed
to an al g e b r ai c su m o f si m ple r a d i c al s .

E XE RCI SE X X X VH

F in d ra t
i i i g fac t
o n al z n ors of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g .

3 . 035.

8 . V5
11 . ci
s —y .

13 .
H e n
/
i . 14 .

3
19 . x/ 1

R ed u c e ea ch ofth f l l wi g t
e o o n o a frac t
i o n h avi n g a ra t
i o n al n u m b e r

ex p ress i on for itd s mi t

en o n a o r.

a + V5
—V5
0

a 2 V§ +3 V§

1 + x/2 + V8 1

1 + V2 + xf + xf é é
 A CO LLE G E AL G E BR A

n -
l y
-
fi
V5 + Vz
7+vx + y
F in d app r ox i m at
e val u e s of t
h f lle o ow n i g ex press i on s c or r e c tt
o t
he
t
hi d r d e ci m al figu r e .

I R RA I ONAL E QUA I ONS

T T

On sol v i ng an t
i rra i on al equ a t
i on Th e g e n e r al m e h o d t
t t t
.

so l v i n g an i rr a i o n al equ a i on is d e s c r i be d i n h e f o ll o wi n g
ru le .

tt
F i rs i li
ra th q t
i
on a ze e e ua on

t lt t
,
.

N tl ex h s o ve i g t i l q i
e r esu n ra on a e ua on

l t
.

t bt i d i t
,

Fi lly ttl l t
na h esi h a h gie so u
q on s us o a ne n e ven e ua

t d j ct t tt i fy i t
,

i on a n hre e wh i c h d os e o no sa s .

F l t
or, P 0 d
e tt h gi
z
q t i n d PR
en o e O th e ve n e ua o an e

t l q t bt i d by m l t i p ly i g b t
,

ra i on a i e ua on oh m mba ne f u n o e e rs o

P 0 by R t h t
i l i i g f ct f Pe ra By 3 41 t
on ah t z n a or o e r oo s

t
.
, ,

o f PR O h f Par e O d R O j i tl y
o se W di
o an o n e s

wh i ch f t t t f P 0 by t t
.

c ov e r h m h o e i g th m
are e r oo s o es n e

i t
n hi q t
s ei ua on .

p le Sol ve a; 7 V a: 5 z 0
E x am . .

Mu lt iply i n g b ot h e r at
h m e m b er s b y t i on al i zi n g fa c t:
or a 7 Va: 5
.

we o b t
ai n
— (CC
i m plify i n g
or s x2 ,
1 5 a: 5 4 O .

So l vi n g b y § 45 5,
a; 9 or 6 ,
.

Su b st itut i n g 9 fo r a:in z — 7 — V x we h a ve 9 — 7 V9

which i s t ru e He n c e 9 i s a r o o t
Bu t ut
.

su b st
.

it i n g 6 we h ave 6 7 V 6 5 z 0 which is false . Hen c e

t t
, ,

6 is no a roo

B t t
h t tf t q t z 0 ob t
.

b u 6i
o se r ve a s a r oo o h i e e ua on a : 7 V a: ain ed

i gt t g f c t tO ; f 5 z 0 is t
,

by q te h iua n e ra o n al z n i i a or o or 6 7 V6 ru e .
 A CO LLE G E ALGE BR A

tn i t i n l q t
Si m u l i n T
a eou s l y t m f c h
rra o a e ua o s o s o ve a s s e o su

t w m y fi tt ch q t t
.

e
q i ua i n li
on s ie h l a rs ra o a ze ea e ua on , en so ve

t
h lt
i g t
i
e r esu l y t m d fi lly t t
n th ra lt t
h on a s s e an na es e re s u s us

ti d i t t
,

o b a ne h g i n e v e n sy s e m

B tif t t t
.

u h q ti e e ua h f m d c ib
on s ar e o f e or es r ed in 3 7 9, h ey
sh o u l d be d by t h d t
h m t h pl i a n ed
’

so e e o e re e x .

E xam ple 1 . So l ve V x —5 + V y + s -
l
- Vg , ( 1)
x +2y z l7 .
( 2)
Squ ar i n g — 5
( 1) , x y

Sq u ar i n g ( 3) an d s i m pl ify i n g ,
: yz5 a .
( 4)
So l vi n g a: 9 y z
, 4 ,
(5)
Su b s i tt
t ui g n 2 9, y z 4 in we h a ve V; V5 V5 VI which
t h e so l u t
t
,

is ru e . He n c e cc 9, y z 4 is i on o f
E x am p le 2 . So lve Va; 6 2 z 4, ( 1)
(2)
_
Sol vi n g fo r V 2: 6 an d l / Vg we fi n d V m+ 3, 1 / V (3 )
ti t t
,

An d fro m (3) we ob a n a :z 3, y 4, which i s he sol u ion of (1)

an d

E XE R CI SE XXXVIII
Sol ve h e tf oll o w n i g e qu at
i o n s fo r re .

— r1
1 . 2 . t
. z a 3 . a§ z 8 .
 I RR ATI O NAL F UNCTI O NS

Solve h e t f ll o ow n i g for a:an d y .

Va — 2 y + 2 Vx + y

17 th t Sh o w a wi ll r e du ce
t t i l q t fth fi t
.

o a ra i on a d g e ua on o e rs e ree .

1 8 Sh w t h tV : b V : d —V + f = 0
o a ail ca ex wi ll re d u ce t o a

i l q t
t h fi t
ft
.

ra on ai e d gua if V V Von o e rs e ree ii b b 0 .

QUADRAT I C S UR DS

Su rds N um er i c al r adi c al s l ik e V2 an d V5 i n w h i c h h e ’
t
t
t t t
.
,

q p d i s r at i o n al b u h e r a di c al i se l f i s i rr a i on a l ar e c all e d
r a di a ,

s u r ds A su r d i s c all e d qu a dra t ic , c u bi c , a n d so o n a cc or d i n g
t t
.
,

as i s i n dex i s wo , th re e, an d so o n .

Th eorem 1 . Th e p rod u c tf t
w di
o o ss i m i l a r qu a d r a i c t s u r ds

is a
q u a dr a t
ic s u rd .

Su pp o se th at w h en t
h e su rd s h av e b e en r e du c ed tth
o eir

si m l
p st
e f orm s t
h i
e r r a di c al fa ct
or s ar e Va an d Vb Th e
tf V
.
,

p r o du c o 5 an d Vb is V5 ,
an d th i s is a su r d u n l e ss a b is
a p er fe c t sq u a re
t
.

Bu a b c ann o t b e a p er e f ct s q u ar e , si n ce b y h y p o t h e si s a

an d b ar e i nt eg er s n on e of wh o s e fa ct
or s a r e s q u a re n u m b ers
tl t t tf
,

an d a e as on e of h f e a c to r s of a i s diffe r e n r om e v e ry

fa c to r of b.

Th u s
T h eorem 2 Th e su m and t
h d ifi
e
'

er en c e o f t
w o u ne ua
q l qu a d
t
.

ra i o s u r ds a r e t
i r r a i on a l nu m ber s .

Th i s i s o bv i ou s wh e n t
h e su r d s a r e s im il ar
tV Vb d en o t
.

He n ce l e a an d e d i s s i m il a r su r d s .
2 92 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

Su p p ose , if p os si bl e, th at V; Vb c,

wh e r e c i s r a i o n al t
i ng b t t
.

Sq u ar h m of 1 an d o si
o em b er s ( ) r an s
p ng ,

2 V ab = 2 —b,
c -
a
( )
2

wh i ch i s i m p o ss i bl e si n ce 2 V a b i s i rr a i o n al , § 6 1 4 t wh il e
0
2
a b is ra t i on al .

T h eorem 3 If a Vb c Vd wh er e Vb and Vd a re

t
.
,

su r d s , h en a c and b d .

F o r , b y h y p o th e si s, Vb Vd c a

tt
.

Bu h i s i s i m p o ss i bl e u n l e s s Vb Vd O an d c a 0,
si n ce t
h wi
o er se Vb Vd wo u ld b e i rr a i o n al, t 6 1 5, a n d e q u al

t o c a, wh i ch i s ra t
i o n al .

H en c e b d an d a 0 .

Squ are roo s of t bi nom i al s u r ds . We h av e

( Vd n
fi x +g t
2 n
z .

He n c e i f a 2 \/ b d e n o t gie a ve n b i n o m i al s u r d , an d we c an

fin d t
w p it
i t
io os ve r a on a l n u m b e r s a:an d g su ch t
h t a

x +g = a an d xy z b,
—
th en Vaz V;i w i ll b e a s q u ar e r o o tf o a 2 Vb a n d V5; V3;
tf t
h t t
_

wil l b e a s q u a r e r oo o a 2 Vb , an d bo h e se s q u a r e r oo s

w il l be b i n o m i al su r d s

tt
.

W h en s u c h num b e rs 23
,
y ex is h y e m ay be f ou n d by
i n sp e c t i o n .

E x am p le 1 . F ind t
h e s qu are roo tf 37
o 20 «a
R e du ci n g tt
oh f e or m a 2 Vb , 37 20 V3 2 37 2 V 300 .

Bu t 300 z 25 12 an d 37 z 25 12 .

Hen c e

E x am l e 2 p . F in d h e t s qu ar e r o o t
o f 13 12 V5 6 .

13 13 V 30 1 3 + 2 V 30
we h ave +
12 12 6 12
 2 94 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

2 . Sy m b ol s of t
h f e o rm a i, wh e r e a is r e al
,
ar e c alled p u r e
i m a g i n a r i es
t
.

Sy m b ol s
3 . of h f e or m a bi , wh e r e a an d b ar e r e al , a r e

c alled c omp lex nu m ber s .

4 Two c om p l ex num b er s are e q u a l wh en , a n d o n ly w h en ,

t t t
.

h i e r r eal p a r s an d th e i r i m a g i n ar y p a r t s a r e e q u al , so h t
a

If th e n a c an d b= d .

5 Th e d ifi er en c e, p r odu c , o r qu o i en o f wo c o m p l e x
su m,
'

t tt t
t
.

n u m b er s i s i s el f a c o m p l e x n u m b e r ( i n sp e c i al c a ses a
n u m b er o r a p u r e i m ag i n ary ) wh i ch m ay be f ou n d by
th e or d i n a r y r u l e s o f r e c k on i n g a n d h e r e l a i o n i 2
t t
l ik e i s tr u e o f an
y p osi ti ve i n t e g r al p ower o f a c o m p l e x n u m b e r,
sin ce by d efin i i on t ( a bi ) "
( a b i )( a bi ) o n f a c to r s t .

E xa m p l e 1 . Add 5 3 72 a n d 2 4i .

We h ave 5 + 3 i + (2 -
4) i = 7 -
i .

E x am pl e 2 . Su b tc t
ra6 2i fr o m 3 2 i .

We h ave 3 +2i —2 ) i
E x a m p le 3 . Mu l t
iply 2 3 i by 1 4 12
.

We h ave -
l 4 i)
-

-
2 +3 i +8i —12 —10 + 11 i .

E x am p l e 4 . E x p an d (1 i) 2

We h ave —1 =2 i .

E x am p le 5 . F in d r e al va l u es o f a , y sat h e e qu at
i sfy i n g t i on
(x + yi) i — y i ) (1 + i ) .

Carry i n g ou t
th i e nd ic at
e d o p er a t
i on s ,
we h ave
— u) i
E in g t
qu a t h e r e al an d t
h im e a gi n ar y p a r t
s , 6 19, 4 ,

and —y ,

o r , sol vi n g ,
'

:
a 6, y 4 .

— t t
i

In §§ 2 38 241 w e h ave g i ven a m e h o d fo r r ep r es en i n g

t
c om p l ex n u m b e r s b y p o i n s c all ed h e ir g r ap hs , an d r u l es fo r t
o bta i n i n g f r o m t t
h e g r ap h s o f wo c o m pl ex n u m b er s h e g r ap h s t
 I RR AT I O NAL F UNC T I O NS

of th eir su m an d p ro du c t L tt
h td ntppl y th
e e s u e a e s e ru l e s

tE
.

o xs . 1 , 3, 4 .

Conju g a ti me ag i n a r i e s Two c om p lex n u m b e r s l ik e a bi

t h e s i g n s c on n e c t
in g t
.

an d a bi , wh i c h di ffe r o n ly in h e i r r e al
an d i m ag i n ary p ar t s , are c al l e d c onju g a e i m a g i n a ri es t
tt t
.

Th e p r o du c of wo c o n j u g a e i m a g i n a r i e s i s a p o s i t i v e re a l
num b er .

‘2
‘
Th u s , ( a bi ) ( a bi ) a 2 b i
é
a2 b2 .

He n ce a f ra c t i o n as
( a bi ) (
d i ) , m ay b e re d u
c ce d t
o

t t tt
,

h f e or m of a c om pl ex num ber b y m u l t i p ly i n g b o h i s e rm s

by t
h c e on u g a e o f
j t i td s e n om i n at or .

E x am pl e . D i vi d e 5 7 i by 2 4i .

5 +7i
W e h ave —4 i
2 (2
18 3 4 73 9 17
— i
20 10 10

Th e p owers of i F r om t
h e equ a t
i n i
o
2
tf ll w
1 i o o s t h at
t d t
.

h e ev e n o we rs of i ar e ei th e r 1 or 1, an h dd p e o ow e r s
p
ei th e r i or i .

Th us jt:
3 i2 i
o —i ; t
4
'

To fi n d h e t l va u e o f i n fo r an y g i ven v al u e o f n , d i vi d e n by 4 Th en
t t
.
,

a cc or d i n g as e r em a i n d er i s
h h e v al u e of i i s 1 0, 1 , 2 , 3 , "
,
i, 1, i .

Thu s i ,
24
( i ‘
4 6
) 1 7325 i 24
i z i ; an d so o n .

E ven root s of neg at i ve nu m b ers Th e n u m b e r 4 h as t

h e

t t2 i
.

2 2
2 i ; for ( 2 i ) an d
2
w o s q u ar e r oo s 2 i 4 , an d
2 i) 2 zz
2) i 4 We se l e c t 2 i a s h e p r i n c ip a l sq u ar e
’

t
t t
.

r o o , a n d wr i e V2 7 1 2 i an d V 4 2i
t c ip a l s qu a r e r oo t
.

Si m i l arl y h p e ri n o f an g iven n eg a t i v e
y
num be r a i s Va i th a i s V a t
Va i
t it
t t
, .
,

Fr om thi s d e fin i i on o f p r i n c i p al s q u ar e r oo f ll o ows h t a

a an d t
b ar e a n y w o n e g a i v e n u m b e r s t ,th en

V —a V
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B RA

Th u s, wh i l e h e p r o d u t of t
ct h e p r i n c i p al s qu ar e r oo s of t t w o

t
n e g a i ve n u m b e r s a, b, i s on e o f t
h e s q u a r e r oo s o tf t h i e r

p ro d c tb i t
u i t t a c s no as in he ase o f r e al n u m b er s t
h p i c ip l
e r n a

tf t t
, , ,

sq u a r e r oo hi p
d c o s ro u

ck i g w i t t tt
tb
.

Wh h i
en r e gi on n m a n ar i e s , i is im
p o r an o e ar in
mi d th i m difi c t
n i ft h s o a on o e ru le V; Vb Va b Al l ch an c e
tt ttw
.

of c o n fu s i o—n is av o id e d
— if a h e ou se e re
p a ce
l e v e ry
sy m bol V a by Vct
i .

—
E xa m l e 1 p . Si m p l ify Vi 2 (V
W e h ave V (M y .
z V2 i
2

1 12 5 fi t.

E x a m ple 2 . Mu l t
iply 2 m by 1 m .

We h a ve +V (2 + 3 i ) ( 1 i) 1 +5i .

Th e h i g h er e v en r oo s o f n e g a i v e n u m b e r s t t ar e c om p lex
n u m b er s Th i s will b e p r o ved su b se q u en ly
. t .

Thu s , o n e of t
h f t
h tf — 4 i
e ou r roo s o s 1 i ; fo r

—6 —4 l + ’
1

Squ are roo s of c om t pl ex n u m ber s As will b e p r o v ed fa r he r t

t t
.

o n , all r oo s o f com p l e x nu m b e rs ar e h e m se l ve s co m p l ex num

b er s . We m ay fi n d t
h i e r s qu a r e r o o s a s t fo l l o ws .

We h a ve fi fi s (fi fl z

Hen c e i f a bi d e n o t
e a gi ven c o m p l e x n u m b e r i n w hich b i s p osi i ve, t
wo p o s i t
an d we c an fin d t i ve n u m b ers a:a n d y su ch t ha t
,

x —y z a, ( 1) an d 2 xfs § = b, ( 2)
t
h en V; i V3; w i ll b e a s q u ar e r o o t
of a bi , an d V5 i VZ / will b e a

q
s u a re r o o tf o a bi .

We m ay find su ch nu m b er s a an d : y as fo llo ws .

By hy pot
h es i s
an d

Mu l t
ip ly i n g (3 ) by a :y V a2 b“ .
 A CO L LE G E AL G E B RA

X I II . Q UAD R ATI C E Q UATI O N S

General form of t h e equ at

i on t
E v ery q u a d r a i c e q u a i o n i n t
u nk n o w n l e t t tt
.

on e e r a s x m ay , ,
b e r e d u c e d o h e f or m
2
ax bx c 0,
wh e re a, b, an d 0 de n o tk e n o wn n u m be rs
t t
.

I f, as m ay h ap p e n , b 0, h e e qu a i c al l ed a
on is p u re
q u a d ra t
ic ; if 6 q t0 i ti s c all ed an a ed q u a d r at
fi ec t ic
tf t t
,

tf t
.

The roo s ou nd b y i n s pec i on Th e r oo s h o e e qu a i n

o

t t
.

ax
2
bx c 0 a re h o se p ar ic l u ar v al u e s of x fo r wh i ch
t
h p ly
e i l o n om a ax
2
bx c va n i sh es § 3 32 Th e r e a re t
w o

ft t
.
,

o h e se r oo s

If t f ct t tf
.

2
h e a ors of ax bx c ar e k n o wn , h e roo s o

ax
2
bx c z 0 a re al s o k n o wn , fo r t
h y e are t
h l f
e va u es o x

for whi ch t
h f ct e a ors of a x
2
bx c v a n i sh , 2 53 , 341 If
t
h f ct t t
.

an d x 8 h an d
e a o r s ar e x a
, ,
e r o o s ar e a
B .

E xam p le 1 . Sol ve h e t q t
i e ua o n x2 x 6 z 0
.

We h a ve x2 + x

fac t
Th e or x 3 van i sh e s wh e n x 3 an d t h e fa c t
or x 2 van s i h es
Hen c e t h e ro o t
,

wh e n x z 2 . s a re 3 an d 2 .

So l ve a bt ( a2
‘
E x am p l e 2 2
b? ) x 2 b
.

( a ?
) 0
F act
.

o r i n g b y § 443 , [ax (a b) ] [bx (a b) ] , 0

He n c e t h e r o ot
.

s ar e
(a b) / a an d (a b) / b
t
.

I n p a r i c u la r , si n c e x
2
q (x Vb (x V5 ) t
h tf e r oo s o

t t
,

h p e u re
q u a d ra c i x
2
q 0 a re Vq an d V5
t t
.
,

Ag ai n , Si n c e 2
bx ( b) h e ro o s o f a t ic
q u ad r a
ax ax x,

of t
h f e o rm ax
2
bx 0 ar e —b a an d 0 .

t t
.

Thu s h e r o o s o f 4 x2 -

9 ar e 3/2 an d t
h t
e r o o s o f 2 x2 —x =0
t
,

a re 0 an d h e roo s of t 5 x2 0 are 0 an d O

t b ti t
.

Co n v e r s e ly , o h q o a n e u a d ra t
i c wh o se r oo s t ar e t
w o

g i v en n u m be r s , a s a an d ,8 , w e f o rm t
h p d ct
(e ro u x a
)( B)
tt
x

t
t
,

an d e q u a e h i s
pr od u c o 0 .

Th u s ,
t
h q e u ad r a t
ic wh o se r o o s a r e t 2 an d is (x 2 ) (x 0,
or 3 x2 + 5 x
 Q UAD R AT I C E Q UAT I O NS

E xam p le 1 . Solve h e tf oll o wi n g qu adrat

ics .

1 . x2 +2x 2 2 xz —7 x + 3
. z o ,

3 .
( 2 x — 1 x
)( 4 (x —1 ) (x .

E x a m p le 2 . F in d h e tq u ad r a t
ic wh
s t
os e r o o s a r e

1 . 2 . a, 3 .

Gen eral form u l a for t

h t e roo s Bu t ax
2
bx 0 m ay al way s

td;
.

be fa c ore fo r, as wa s s h o wn in 444
2
ax bx c

2 a

Th e r e f or e, si n ce t
h e r oo s o f t
2
= 0
ax + bx + c
( )
1
a re t
h v e al u e s of x fo r wh i c h t
h f e a c tor s of a x
2
+ bx + c

v an i sh t h e se,
r oo s t ar e

an d x
2 a

o r , as we u su all y t
wr i te h em ,

2 a
( )
2

Th i s f o r m u l a ( 2) sh o u l d be c are fu l ly m em o r i ze d , fo r i t
en a b l e s o n e by m e r e su b s t i i n t bt
tt
u oi th o o a n e r o o s o f an y t
twh i ch h d c d tt
.

g i v e n q u a d ra i c as be en r e h f u e o e o rm

E x am p le . Sol ve 4 x2 105 2: 8 1 .

R e d u ci n g t
o t
h e for m 4 x2 105 3: 8 1 0 .

He r e a 4, b 105 , an d c 81 .

Hen c e a : s t
h ti a s,
3
or 27 .

Wh en b is tg
a n even in e e r , a an d 0 al so bein g in tg
e e rs, i t
i s 6 32
m o re c onv en i e n tt th f
o u se e orm u l a

3
( )
3

Wh i ch i s o b ti a n ed b y di v i d i n g t
h e n u m er a or an d t d e n om i n a tor

of 2 b 2
( ) y .
300 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

E x am p l e . So lve 3 x2 56 x 2 20 z 0 .

Her e b / 2 28, an d s u b s it
t t
i gi
u n n
(3) we h ave

t
h tia s, 1
9
3
or —22 .

An y g i ven q u adr at i c m ay al s o b e s o l ve d by app ly i ng di r e c tl y

ti tt
o h p e ro c e ss of c om p l et
in g t
h e s qu a r e, § 44 4, as in t
h e

f o l l owi n g ex a m l
p e ti Bu s n c e th i s m e t h od i n vo l ve s n ee dl es s
ti ttb r e c o m m e n d e d — e x ce t wh en t
.

re ck on i n g ,
i s no o e
p he
fo r m u l a of 6 3 1 h as b een f org o tte n .

E x a m pl e . So lve 3 x2 6x 2 0 .

Tran s p osi n g t
h k e n o wn tm
er an d d i vi d i n g b y t
h c e o ef
fi ci en t
of x2 ,

x2 2x 2/ 3 .

Co m p l e i gt
t hn e s qu are of t
h fi t
me rs em b er ,
x2

Ex tct
i gt
ra h n e s of b o t
qu ar e r oo t h m em b ers ,

a: 1 z
i V3 7 3 wh e n c e it (3 i V3 ) / 3
, .

Th e m e th o ds j u s t e xp l ai n e d e n abl e o n e t lv
o so e an y fr a ctio n a l
e qu a t
ion wh i c h y i el d s a qu ad r a i c wh en t clear ed o f f r act
i on s
t
.

Bu s ee 5 24—5 27 .

1 1 1
E x am pl e 1 So lve + +
+4
.

x +1 x +2 x +3 x

Clear i n g of frac t
i on s an d s i m pl i fy i n g , 2 x2 1 0 2: 1 1 O.

5 4; V3
Sol v in g , a :
2

Bo h ft
t h o ese va l u es o f x ar e r o o s tf t
h gi o e ven e qu at
ion for t
h y e

td tt
,

c au se n o n e of i s i
e n o m n a or s o van s i h .

x 3 x 3 a : 2
E x a m p le 2 Solve + +
.

x2 —1 x2 —x x2 +x
Cle ar i n g f ct i on s b y m u l t
of r a h e l o west
iply i n g b y t c o m m on den om i n ator

x (x2 an d s i m pl i fy i n g we o b tai n ,

3 232 + 2 x 5 0 wh e n c e x : 1 o r ,

But I c an n o t b e a ro o t of t h e gi ve n e qu at i on s i n c e it s fi rst two

d en o m i n a t 5 / 3 is t h e o nl y r ootof t
,

o rs va n i s h wh en x 1 Hen c e his
e qu a t
.

ion .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E XER CISE XLII

F i n d wo tc on se u e g er s wh o s e p r o d u c t
ive in t
c t i s 506 .

F in d t
w c o o n se u i ve i n t
c t eg e r s t
h e su m of wh os e q
s u ar es i s 48 1 .

F ind t
w c o on se u c t
i ve tg t h d i ff
in e e rs e e r en ce of wh os e cu b es is 91 .

4 . Fin d t
h r ee c on s e c u i i t
t g
ve t
h n e e rs e su m of wh ose p ro du c t
s by

p a i rs is 5 8 7 .

5 Fin d a nu m b er of t
w d igi t f m t
o h f l l wi s ro e o o g d at
n a :th e p r o du c t
t d igi ti d if t d igi tb i tch an g ed t
.

of h e s s 48 , an h e s e n er h e n u m b er i s
d i m i n i s hed b y 18 .

6 tTh e n u m e r a or o f a c ert a i n fr a c t
i on ex s d e n o m i n at
c e e ds i t or b y 2

dth f ct
i i tlf e x c e ed s i t F in d t h e f ra c t
.
,

an e ra on se s re cip r o c a l b y 24 3 5 . ion .

7 A c tt
l d l a e e a er b o u gh t c ti mb f t f
a $1 260 er a n nu er o s e er s or

ld t tf $10 h d m t h t
.

t
.

Ha vi n g l os 4 of t
h m e he so h h y
e r es or a ea o re an e

c ost by t t
i t ct y t
,

h im ,
an d m a de 82 6 0 h i H wm e en re r a n sa on . o an s ee rs

did h e b u y

8 A m an s ol d s om e t t
go o d s fo r $
48 an d h is ga i n p er c en was e qu al o
h lf th c t ft Wh t w t tt
.
,

on e a h g d i d ll
e os o e oo s n o ars . a as h e c os o f h e g o o ds

9 If $ 4000 m tt3441 0 wh p tt a c mpou n sd i t t f t

ow en u a o ou n n e r es or o

i t t l l y wh t i t tfi t t
.

y e ar s , b i g c
n ere sp d d e n h om ou n e an n u a , a s e ra e o n er es

10 A m i h it an b tft n c t
eri p c ts g h b u a er a er a n e r en a e as een

d d ct th i h i tc t a d t p c tg f f t t
.

e ud f e or h e n er an e ax n en a e r en a e or e es a a ra e

on eg tt h t h tf t
re a er h i h i tc t h
an c i
a ly
o e n er an e ax , e r e e ve s o n

Wh t i t
a
h tf t
s h i h i tc t
e ra e o e n er an e ax

11 Am b gh tc t i
an mb ouf 350 h f 345 00 wh
a th y
er a n n u er o s ar e s or en e

t c ti d i c t L t h ld ll b t1 0 f t
.

w ere a a er a n h m f 8 58 50
s oun a er e so a u o e or

t th t im t tt which h b gh t
.

wh h p mi m w
en e re h di c
u as t
h m
r ee es e s ou n a e ou e .

Ho w m a n y sh ar es did h e b u y

12 ci rcu m fer en c e o f a hi n d wh eel o f a wag on ex c e e ds t

Th e h at of a

for e wh eel b y 8 i n ch es a n d i n t r a ve l i n g 1 m i le t
.

hi s wh eel m ak e s 8 8 less
re vol u t h an a fo re w heel F i n d t
i on s t
,

h e ci r c u m fe r e n c e o f e a ch wh e el
. .

13 A s qu ar e i s su r ro u n d e d c k s 1 i n ch of
by a b o r d e r wh ose wi d t
h l a

b e i n g o n e fo u r th of t h o f a s i de o f t
.

h e le n g t h e s q u ar e an d wh os e are a i n
s q u ar e i n ch e s e x c e e d s th e l e n gth of t h e p er i m e t
er o f t
,

h e s q u are i n i n ch e s
by 64 . F in d t h e are a o f t h e s qu ar e an d t hat of t h e b o r der .
 Q UADR ATI C E Q UAT I O NS 3 03

14 c orn e rs o f a s qu ar e t
Th e h e l e n gt
h o f wh os e S i d e is 2 ar e c u t
o ff

i n s u ch a way t h at a r e g u l ar o c t Wh at is t h e l e n gt
.

agon r e m ai n s h of a
s i de of thi s o c t
.

a gon

15 i t d ra ws a c er t
A v n n er a i n qu an tity o f wi n e fro m a ful l c ask c on
t Havi n g fill e d u p t h e c a sk w i th w at er h e d r a ws t
.

a i n i n g 6 3 g a ll o n s he
sa m e q u a n t ity as b efo re a n d t
h en fi n d s t h at
.
,

on ly 2 8 g al l on s o f p u r e W i n e

r e m ai n i l l t
h e c ask Ho w m an y g allo n s d id h e d ra w e a ch t
. im e
16 A m an t r a v els 50 m i l e s by h e t ti ra n A, an d t
h ft
en a e r a w ai t of 5

t t tt a n h ou r faster t
.

i
m n u es re u rn s b y 5 m il h e ra i n B , w hich ru n s es h an
t h ti A
e ra n Th t
i j y cc pi 23 h
e en re ou rn e o u es ou r s Wh at ar e t
h e r ates

ft h t w ti
. .

o e o ra n s

17 A p d t i w lk d 6 m i l i
e es r an c t i i t l ft a im H d
e es n a er a n n erva o e a

t h t t tw ld h b 2 m il p h
. .

e im b 1 2 h
e l e enh ou r es s, e ra e ou a ve een es er ou r

g t R q i dt
r e a er . h tim ed t
u re e e an ra e.

18 A p d t i w lk d 1 2 m i l
e e s r ant c ti t d t a h 6 m il
e es a a er a n ra e an en es

f t t t1 2 m i l p h g t H d h w lk d t t
.

ar h er a a ra e h e i er ou r rea er . a e a e e en re

d i tc
s an tt h g t th i t
e a i m w ld h
e b
r e a er r a e ,20 m i tl s e ou a ve e en n u es ess

H w l g d id i t tk h im tw lk t
.

o on h 1 8 m ila e o a e es

19 F m t h p i tf i t c t ft tigh t d which c
tightgl t
ro i e w o n o n er s e on o o s ra roa s ro ss

t ti m lt ly A t
.

a r w man A d B
es, o en , h an se ou s u an e o u s on e on e

d t t t f 3 m il p h B t t t t t f 4 m il
, ,

r oa h a e ra e o h h h es er ou r , on e o er a e ra e o es

p er h Afth w m y h
ou r . wi ll t
er h y b 30 m i l
o p t an ou r s e e es a ar

20 I f A d B w lk th an d j t d c i b d b tt
a thon tf e ro a s us es r e u a e r a es o

p ct d A tt2 h
,
.

2 an d 3 m il p h es i ly er o u r r esb f B h w e ve an s ar s o u rs e or e o

g ft B ttwi ll t p t
, ,

l
on a er h y b 10 m ils ar s ? e e es a ar

21 If f m h igh tf f tb dy b t
ro a h w
e tic lly p w d wi t
o a h ee a o e ro n ve r a u ar

i it i l l ci t y fbf t c d i th igh tt t d f tc
.

an n a ve o
p o h ee d er se on s e a e en o se on s

by t bt 16 t T h c
,

i gi
s ven h f m l h z e or p di g f m l
u a a 2. e o r res on n or u a

wh t
enh b dy i t h w
e otic lly d w w d i h
s ro bt 1 6 t
n ver a o n ar s a 2

(1) I f b dy b t t ic lly p w d f m t d wi t
.

h w a o e h g ro h
n v er a u ar ro e ro u n an

i it
n i l l ci t
a y f 32 f t
ve o p c d wh wi ll i t
o b th ightf 7 f t
ee ?
er s e on en e a a e o ee

f 1 6 f t Wi ll i t ch h ightf 1 7 f t
,

o ee e ve r re a a e o ee ?

( 2) A b d y i t h w f m o h igh tf 64 f t t
s ro i l ly d w w d
n ro a e o ee
'

ve r ca o n ar

wi t h i iti l l ci t
an y f 48 f t
n a p c d Wh will i t ch t
ve o o h ee e r se o n en r ea e

h igh tf 36 f t
.

e o ee

( 3) If b d y b d pp d f ma o h igh tf 36 f twh wi ll i t ch
e ro e ro a e o ee en r ea

t
,

h ge d r ou n
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

XIV . A D I SCUSSI O N O F T HE Q UAD R ATI C

E Q UATI O N . M AX I M A AND M I N I M A

Ch arac t ft
h
er o t e roo s Th e di sc ri m i nan tL t e a an d 3 den o t
e

t tf t
h t 631
. .

2
h e roo s o ax bx c 0, so a , ,

a
2 a
B 2 a

Th e r ad i c an d b 2
4 a c is c alle d t
h di e sc r im in a n tf
o

ax
2
bx c 0
.

W h en t
h c e oe f
fi ci e nt
s a b, c a r e r ea l , t
h ch e a ra er o f t
ct h e r oo ts
t t t Th
,

Bi s i n di c ated by h e s i g n of h di e c
s rim i n an . us

1 Wh en b 2
4 ac t t t
i s p os i i ve, h e r oo s a r e r ea l a n d d i s i n c tt
t t
. .

2 Wh en b
.
2
4 ac i s O, h e r oo s a r e r e a l a n d e qu a l

g t t t c onju g a t
.

3 . Wh en b 2
4 ac is ne ai h ve , e r oo s a r e e i m ag i

n a r i es .

I th s o u l d al s o be o b se r v e d t
h t a

1 W h en b 2
4 ac 0, t
h en a x
2
bx c is a p e r e f c tq s u ar e .

t tt
.

2 Wh en a i s p o s i i v e a n d c i s n e g a i ve, h e t
r oo s a r e a l wa
y s

t t
.

r eal , si n ce b 2
4 a c i s h e n p os i i v e
t l t t
.

3 If a, b, c ar e ra i h
on a ti e roo s ar e r a o n al wh e n, an d

t
.
,

o n ly wh e n , b 2
4 ac i s a
p f c q er e s u ar e .

E x a m p le 1 . Sh o w h t
t t
ha t
e r o o s o f x2 6 x 10 0 are i ma g i n ary .

Th ey are i m agi n a ry s i n c e b2 4 ac 4 1 10 4 .

E x am p l e 2 . F o r wh a tl va u e o f m are t
h e roo s of t m x2 3x 2 0
e q u al
We m us t
h a ve 32 t
h t
i a s, m = 9/ 8 .

E x am pl e 3 . fac t
I f p o ss i b le ,
or y ? xy 2 x2 11 x y 12 .

h e p o ly n o m i al a cc o r d i n g t
Arr an gi n g t o p o we r s of y an d e q u at t
in g ito

0, we h ave 312 (x + 1 ) y ( 2 x 2 12 ) z 0 .

— (x + l ) i V 9 x2 — 42 x —
l 49
-

7
2
—2 x + 3
 A CO LLE G E AL G E BR A

t
rai o n all
y i n t f th t w f ct
e rm s oio B d fi d e se o un n s, a an a an

t t lly i t fth c ffic i tf t t

, ,

h f e r e ore ra i on a hnq i er m s o e oe en s o e e ua on .

F or e ve r y su ch fu n c t
i on c an be re d u c ed tt
h f
o e o rm o f a n in t
g e r a l sy m

me tic f c t
ri un on or ion s If an

i tg l ym m t t t
.

n e ic
ra s e r P HI i m us

h tm B t
,

l
a soc ti t on a n e er ka p +<
I P
B u

t t
,

c BP ( a mp , m y d i ly b
an d i a rea pl ic a i f
on s o

t
h bie nom a i l t
h m t
h t [3
eo r e a aq 9 c an be ex p

of a Ba n d a fi .

Thu s s i n c e ( a BF: a 2 we h a ve er? B =(a

? 2
2 ex p B) 2dB
t
.
,

Si m i larly w e fi n d a 3 B
3
(a m 3 3 cu l (
-
a

E x am ple Th e t
r o o s o f x2 p a; q z 0 b ei n g a B, e x p r e ss 1 a

tm
.
,

a n d a 3B 5 in s of p an d
3
a er q .

We h ave —
p / q3
an d a 3 B a ,8 3
( a2 B)
? —2 a fl] q (p
2 —2 q) .

I n fin i t t e roo s Su p p o se h a tti td n s ea b e i n g c o n s tan s h e

of tt
c oeffic i en t We c an t
,
.
,

2
s of ax bx c z 0 a re v a r i a b le s h en
t
h t t t twill
.

Sh o w if a a app r o a ch e s 0 as li m i on e of h e roo s

t tt ch 0 b t
,

a pp r o a ch 00 ; an d if bo h a an d b ( bu c) no a pp r o a h o

twill
,

r oo s ap p r o a ch cc .

F or t
h f e or m u l as for h e t r oo s a r et

tm
er s of t
h f ct
i e ra o n ,8 by b V b2 4 ac . We ob a n ti
2 6
a = i

b + Vb2 — 4 a o

By 2 03 , 205 , if a i o, t
h en V b2 4 ac i b .

Th e refo r e if a i O, t
h en c /b an d 8
, co ,

an d if a i O an d bi O, t
h en a
'

oo an d fli oo .

I t
i c s t
u s om a r
y tttt
h
o s a e ese c o n cl u s i o n s as f ol l ow s , 519

On e r oo tf b o ax
2
x c 0 be c o m es i nfi n i tw h
e en a va n

i s h es , an d b th tb c o r oo s e om e i nfi n i twh e en a a nd b ( bu tn ot
0
)
va n i s h s i m lt ly
u a n eo u s .
 A DI SCUSSI O N O F Q UADR AT I C E Q UATI ONS 307

Max i m a and f u n c ti o n o f x , § 2 7 8 I
m i ni m a Le ty b e a t
t
. .

may h app en t h at, as x i n c re a ses y wi ll i n c r ease o a c er t ai n

t t t
,

val u e, m an d h e n b e g i n o d e c r e a se or th a y w ill d e c rease

t an d t t t
, ,

o a c e r ta i n v a l u e m
'
h e n b eg i n o i n c r e a se
, ,
We h e n .

c al l m a m ax im um v al u e o f y an d m
’
a m in im u m v al u e .

Th u s y (x 4 h as a m i n i m u m val u e wh e n x z 1 t his valu e

o star t
fro m a valu e less t
, ,

b e in g 4 F or i f t h an 1 an d i n c r ease (x
wi ll fi rst d e c r ease to 0 an d t
.
,

h en in c r e ase .

Si m i l ar ly y 4 (x h as a m ax i m u m val u e 4 wh en x 1 , , .

tt
E ve r y q u ad r a i c r i n om i al a x bx 2
c wi h t c o e ffic i e n t
r e al s

t
h a s e i h e r a m ax i m u m o r a m i n i m u m v al u e whi c h m ay b e
t
,

fou n d as in h f e o ll o wi n g e x am l
p es .

E x a m ple 1 . F in d he mt i
ax m u m o r m in im u m va l u e o f y x2 6 x 7 .

By c o m pl e t
in g t
h e s q u ar e ,
6 x 7 (x 16 .

Hen c e wh en x z 3 y h as , a m in i m u m val u e , n am e l y 16 .

E x am p l e 2 gi ven l i n e segm en t
D i vi d e a in t o two p ar t s wh ose re c t an gl e

s h al l h a ve t h e g r e ates t
.

p ossi b le ar e a .

L et 2 a d en o t e t h e l en g t
h of t h e gi ve n se g m e n t 3:
an d 2 a x t h e l en g t
hs
of t h e p ar t s y t h e a re a o f t he ir re ct
,

,
an gl e .

Th en —x 2 a — x : 2 a: — 2 2 — a —x 2
( ) c x a ( )
-
.

Hen c e y h as a m ax i m u m val u e w h e n x a t h at i s wh e n th e gi ve n se g
m en t i s b i se c t
ed a n d t h e re c t
, ,

a n g l e i s a s q u a r e W h ose a re a i s a 2 .

Th e m ax i m u m an d m in im u m v al u e s of q u a d r at i c ti r n om i al s
an d o f ce r t
ai n m o re c o m p l ex fu n c t
i on s m ay al so b e f ou n d by
t
h f e o ll o wi n g m e t
h d o .

E x a m p le . F ind t
h e m ax m u m i an d m n mum i i valu e s , if an y , of

y = (4 x2
Cl ear i n g of fr ac t
i o n s an d s ol v n i g for x, we h ave

By hy p o t
h es is 9:i s r es t r ic t
ed t
o r ea l val u es He n c e y c an tk
o n ly a e

valu e s fo r which t t t
h t
i t
.
,

h e ra d ic a n d (y 1 ) (y 2) i s p os i i ve ( o r h a s, e

va l u e 1 an d lesser val u e s a n d t
h e val u e 2 an d g r ea er va l u es t
t h at
hi s t
fr o m t
.

I f ll o o ws 1 is a m ax m i u m an d 2 a m i n i m u m val u e

of y .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

F or ob s e r ve h t
t a as y i n c r e a se s o h t
t1 t w , e o valu e s o f x, n am ely

(y V 312 3y 2) 2 an d (y V y2 3y 2) 2, pect
r es i vely i n cr ease
an d d e c r e ase t1o 2 He n c e , c o n ver sely as x i n c r eases t h rou gh 1 / 2
ti c t1 t
.
, ,

y fi rs n re as e s o an d h en d e c r ea se s .

Var i a i on t of a qu adra i c t ti n r om i al Gi ve n y ar
z
bx c,

t c o m pl e t t ti n
.

wh e r e a i s p o s i i ve . By in g h e s q u ar e , we o b a

y a

H en c e y h as a m in im um v al u e wh en x b 2 a, t hi s m in i
(
? 7
m um v al u e b ei n g ( 4 a c b ) 4a
t
.

As x i n c re a se s fr o m co o 00 , y w ill fi r s t d e c r ease fr om
co t(4
o ac b ?
) 4 a an d t
h en i n c r e as e t o 00 .

Thu s t
le y z x2 — 2 x — 3 = (x —4
i n c reas es fr om co t 3; firs t
, .

As x o 00

d e c r eases fro m 00 t 4 an d t
,

o h e n i n c r e ase s
fr om 4 t o co .

M o r e over y 0 wh en x2 2x 3 0,
t
h ti a s, wh e n x 1 or 3
t t
.

Un i l x rea ch es h e valu e 1 , y i s p osi

ti ; it
vet
h en re m a ns i g at i ve ne u n il xt 3,
wh i tg i en a a n b e c o m e s p os i t
i ve .

Wh en
(I) —3 1 _ 21 _ 13 0, 19 5i ' ”

we h ave
y 1 2, 5, 0, —3, —4, 12 , - u
.

W e m ay Ob t
ain t
h e g raph o fy =x2 2x 3
pl o t
-
3)t ing t h e se p a i r s o f val u es a n d p assi n g
by
a c u r ve t h r ou gh t h em as i n 389
O b ser ve t to t h e zer o val u es o f y t
.
,

h at h ere
he poin t
c o r re sp on d t s wh e r e t h e g r aph c u t s th e x a x i s an d t h at t o t he
h e l o wer m ost p o in t
-

m i n i m u m va l u e o f y t h e re c o rresp o n d s t of t
,

h e graph
which is a lso a t u r n in g p oi n t of t
,

hi s c u rve .

E XE R CISE X LIII
1 . F or wh a tl va u es o f m a re t
h t
e r oo s o f (m + )
2 x2 2 m x + 1 =0 e qu al ?

2 . Wh a ar et t
h e ro o s o f t ( m 2
m ) x2 3 mx 2 0 wh en m 1?
wh en m z 0
31 0 A COLLE G E ALG EBR A

Hen c e x4 x2 1 0 is e t
qu i valen to t
he t
wo e q u at
i on s

E x a m pl e 2 . So l ve x4 x3 5 x2 7x 12 0 .

F ac ti or n g by h m t
t h de e o of 45 1 , we fin d h t
t a

x4 — x3 — 5 x2 — 1 ) (x
Hen c e x4 x3 5 x2 7 x 12 O is e qu i val en t
to t h r ee e q u at
he t i on s
x x — 3 0, an d

Wh ose t
r oo s ar e l , 3, an d 3 z}; i V7 ) / 2 .

E x am p le 3 . Sol ve h e tf o ll o w n i g e qu at
i on s .

1 . 6 x3 — 1 1 x2 + 8 x — 2 = O . 2 . x4

t
E qu a i on s of h t
t yp e e au
z
bu c 0 , w h ere u den o t
es s om e

fu n c t
i n f
o o x If t
h t
e roo s of a u
2
bu c 0 wh en so l v e d

t h t
tt
.

fo r u ar e a an d 8, t hi s equ a i on is e q u i v al e n t wo e o

t
,

e qu a i on s u a an d u 8 , fo r , § 6 3 1 ,
,

2
au bu c a
( u a
) (u
t
H en ce o s ol v e a n
2
bu c 0 for x, w e h av e o n ly t
o so l ve
t
h t
w e
q o e ua t i on s u a an d u ,
8 fo r x .

E x a m ple 1 . Sol ve 3 x4 1 0 x2 8 0 .

Solvi n g for 232 , x2 2 3 or 4 .

Hen c e x z
i V6 / 3 or + 2 22

E x a m p le 2 . Sol ve x3 3 10 0 .

Mul t
ip ly i n g by xi , a? 3si t 10 0 .

So lv i n g fo r x 3, x3 2 or 5 .

Hen c e x = + 2 V2 or i b i N/ b .

E x a m pl e 3 .
( :So l ve
3 x 4)( x 2 a2
3x 6 .

We m ay r ed u c e t
his e q u at ion t
o t h e fo r m

x2
( 3 x) 2 9 (x2 3 x) 14 z0 .

So l vi n g fo r x2 3 x, we ob a n h t
ti t w e o equ a t
i on s
x2 + 3x —2 ,
and x2 + 3 x —7 ,

W hose ro ot
s are l, 2, an d 3 i
 E Q UAT I O NS SO LV AB LE BY Q UAD R AT I CS

E x a m p le 4 . Sol ve (x 1) (x 2) (x 3) (x 4) 1 20 .

By m ul t
ip ly i n g tg th t
o h fi t d f
e t h f ct
er e rs an ou r a o rs , an d t
h c
e se on d

an d t
hi d
r ,
we re d u c the q ti tth f m
e e ua on o e or

which m ay b e so l ve d i n t
h e sa m e way as t
h e e qu at
i on in E x . 3.

E x am p l e 5 . Sol ve x4 10 x3 3 1 x2 30 x 5 0 .

By c o m p le t
in g t
h e s qu are of h fi t
t tw tm
e rs o er s, we ob a nti
( x2 +6 ( x2 + 5 x) 5 =0 .

Sol vi n g fo r x2 5 x , we ob a n ti t
h t
w e o eq u at
i on s
x2 + 5x —5 an d x2 + 5 x —1 ,

wh ose t
r oo s a r e 5 x VE) / 2 an d 5 4 V2 i ) / 2 .

E x am p l e 6 . Solve 8 11 0 .

x2 1 x2 2x

Ob se rvi n g h t
t th a e se o n dfr ac t
c ion is t
h e r e cip ro c al o f t
h e first we m u 1~
ip ly b t
t h e e qu at
of t i on b y th e fi rs t fr ac tion t hu s ob t
,

hm o e m b ers ai n i n g ,

x2 +2x 2 x2 +2x
8
( 932 — 1
_ 11
( x2 —1
Sol vi n g for x2
( 2 x) ( x2 we ob a n ti t
h t
w e o e qu at
i on s
x2 +2x x2 +2x 3
l an d ,
13 2 -
1 x2 — 1 8
Wh o se t
r o o s ar e an d 3,

All h e t val u e s o f x th f d tf t
h gi us ou n a re r o o s o ven e q u at
i on s i n c e
t
e

h y c
e au s e n on e o f itd mi tt ih
s en o n a ors o van s .

E x am pl e 7 . S l t
h f ll wi g q
o ve t
i e o o n e ua on s .

1 . 3 x4 2 . x4

3 .
(x
4 .

R ec i p rocal equ a t
i n o s Th e s e ar e e qu a t
i n
o s w hi ch r em ai n
t
.

un c h an g ed wh e n w e re
pl a ce x b y 1 x a n d c l e ar o f f r a c i o n s
t h t
.

I f we a r r an g e e e r m s o f s u c h an e q u at i o n i n d e s c e n d i n g

po w f th
ers o fi t x,d l tc f
fi c i t w iell b th rs an as oe en s e e s am e ,

l
a so t
h c d d n t
e se on tl t d ; an ch f t
h ex o as an SO o n o r ea o es e

t t t b t
,

p i
a rs f c ffi c
o i n w i ll
oe h v h b le v l s a e e sam e a so u e a u es u

c ontr ary Si g ns .
31 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

Thus ,

an d x6 —2 x4 + 4 x3 — 4 x2 + 2 x
cip ro c al e qu at
t
ar e r e i on s .

R e c i p r o c al equ a i on s of t
h f t
h d g
e ou r e r ee m ay be r edu c ed
tt
h q
o e u ad r a t i c form an d s o l v e d as f oll o ws .

E x am p l e 1 . Sol ve 2 x4 3 x3 4 x2 3x + 2 0 .

G r ou pi n g h e t tm er s which h a ve l ik e c o effi ci en t
s an d d i vi d i n g b y x2 we
h e gi ve n e qu at
ce t t
o t
,

red u i on h e for m

+ l2
2
( x2
x x

Si n c e x2 1 x2 ( x l x 2
/ ) 2 , we m a y re d u ce t
hi s equ at
i on tt
h
o e

form
1 2 1

Solvin g for x 1 x, we ob a n h t
ti t w e o e q u at
i on s

1 0 an d x 1 g ,
x x 2

wh ose t
r oo s a r e i, an d (3 j; i fi 4 .

E v e ry c ip r o c al e qu ati o n o f od d de g r ee h as t
re h e r o ot 1 o r
1 ; an d if t h e c o rre sp o n din g f a c t or x 1 or x 1 b e s ep a
r at ed t h e d ep r e s se d e q u at i on w ill al so be r e c i p ro c al Hen ce
“ ”

r e c i r o c a l e qu a t i on s o f t
he t h i r d an d fift
, .

p h d eg re es c a n b e sol v e d
by a id of qu adr at i cs .

E x am ple 2 . Sol ve 2 x3 3 x2 3x 2 0.

tm
G rou pi n g er s, 2 (x3 1) 3 (x2 x ) 0
.

h tm
Si c b t
n e o er s of t
hi s e q u at
i on ar e d i vis i bl e b y x 1 , i ist e qu i valen t
tt
oh tw q t
e i o e ua on s

x +1 =0 an d 2 x2 —5 x + 2 =0
wh o se t
r o o s ar e 1, an d 2, 1 / 2 .

E x am pl e 3 . So lve x5 5 x4 9 x3 9 x2 5x l O .

G r ou pi n g tm
er s, ( x5 l) 5x ( x3 1) 9 x2 (x O .

D i vi d i n g b y x 1 , we fi n d t
h t
thi a s e qu a t
i on is e qu ivalen t
to

x —1 = O a n d x4 — 4 x3 + 5 x2
wh ose t
ro o s a r e l, an d (1 i i V3) 2, (3 3; V5 ) 2 .
3 14 A C O L LE GE ALG E BR A

T ran sp os i n g ,
—
Sq u a r i n g a n d s i m p l i fy i n g ,
x — 5) 1 .

Squ ar i n g an d s i m p l i fy i n g ,
6 x2 19 x 14 z0 .

Sol vi n g ,
x 2 or

Te s t
in g t
h ese val u es o f x i n t
h gie ven e q u at
i on we fin d t
h t
2 i a s a roo t
bu tt 7 6 is n ot
,

h at a ro o t .

We m a y a lso ra ti li t
on a h gi ze e ve n e q u ati on b y t h e m et h od of § 6 03
t
h t 4 (6 1 4) i s i d e n t t
.

We t
hu s d i s c ove r a 19 x2 x ic a l ly e q u al o

(m f s + x/ 5 x —3
Th e re ar e bu th p d ct
tt
w o va lu e s o f x fo r which e ro u 19x + 14
c an h Th fi t
van i s f ct t
h igh t i h f
e rs a or on e r va n s es or on e of t
h es e

2; t c d f t t H c t
.

l
va u es , h h h
e se o n h i or e o er , en e e re s n o val u e o f x

which t
h thi d f t h f ct
,

fo r e i h r or our a or c an va n s .

E x a m p le 2 . So l ve V 4 x + 3 + V J2 x + = V 24 x + 10 .

t
So m e e qu a i o n s wh i c h i n v ol v e a s i n gl e r a di c al c an be r edu c ed
tt
o h e f o rm o f a q u a d r a i c w i h r e s p e c t t ttt
hi o s r ad i al c We
t
.

the n b eg i n by s o l vi n g f h di c
or e ra al .

E x a m pl e 3 . Solve 2 x2 —6 x 5 V x3
’

3x

O b se r vi n g t
h t
thatm e x ti d t
er h s ou s e e r ad ic al a re wic t
t h e o s e u n d er

t
h e r ad ic al , we ar e le d tw i tt
o h q t
r i e e e ua on in t
h f e orm

2 (x2 — 3 x — 1) — 5 V x2 —3 x
Solvi n g fo r s 3 x 1 , we ti t
ob a n h t
w e o e qu at
ion s

Th e c
se on d o f t
h e se e i on s m u s t
qu at b e r ej e c t
e d s i n c e a cc o r d i n g t
o the
c o n ve n t
i on m ad e i n h e fo r m “ 5 c a n n o t
5 7 9 a rad ic al o f t h ave a n egat i ve
va lu e

t tq t ti
.

Squ ar i n g h e firs e i ua on , we ob a n

x2 3x 1 9,
wh os e t
r o o s ar e 5 an d 2 .

Te st
in g 5 an d 2 in t
h gi e ve n e q u at
i on we fi n d t
h tb t
h ft
a h m o o e

t
,

a r e r oo s .

E x am p l e 4 . So lve 2 x2 14 x 3 V x2 7 x + 10 18 =O .
 E Q UATI O NS SO LVABLE BY Q UAD R AT I CS 31 5

So m e t i m e s an e q u a t
i on m ay be re du ce d t
form
o a i n w h i ch
bo t
h m em bers ar e t
p er f e c s q u a r e s o r on e m e m be r i s a p er fe c t
s qu a r e an d t
h t e o h e r i s a c on s a n tt .

E xa m pl e 5 . So l ve 4 x2 + x 2 x V 3 x2 x 9 .

We m ay wri tt
hi e s e q u at
i on in t
h f e or m

Th e fi rs t
m em b er is p erfe c t
a s q u ar e a n d e x t
r ac t
in g t
h e s qu ar e r oo tf o

t a in t he t wo e q u a t
,

bo hm em b e r s , we ob t io n s

So lvi n gt
h ese e qu at
i on s , x 1, or
(5 i V 97 ) / 4 .

T es i gt
t nh ese resu l s , tw e fin d h t ly 1
t a on an d 9/ 2 ar e r o o s of t t
h e

gi ve n eq ti
ua on .

So m et i m es t all
h t e e r m s, wh e n p r op e r ly g r ou p e d, h av e a

c om m o n i rr a t
i l f ct
on a a or .

E x a m ple 6 . Sol ve V x2 — 7 ax + 1 0 a 2 — V x2 + ax —6 a 2 x —2 a .

Her e t
h fi t w tm
t e rs o er s a n d a ls o x h ave t h e fa c t
2 a or V x 2 a.

Se p a ra t hi f c t w
i gt n s a or , e fin d hat
t th e e q u at t
i o n i s e q u i va l e n to

So l vi n g t
h e se e qu at
i on s , x z 2a , 10 a 3, or 6 a .

T es tin g we fin d h t ly
t a on 2a an d 10 a 3 ar e r oo s o f t t
h gi e ve n

e qu at
,
,

i on .

E x am p l e 7 . Solve V3 x2 5x 1 — V 2 x2 — 1 1 x + l 5 = x —3 .

If on e or t
h
m or e o fq ti f ct i n t
h t e e rm s o f e e ua on ar e ra o s

t
wi h i r r a t
i l d i
on a t iti ftn b tt ti n li
e n om n a or s , s o e es o ra o a ze

i t t tt
-

t
h dese e n om n a or s a t
h e ou se .

ple 8 So lve ( x55

E x am . 3) 2x 5 .

R at i on al i zi n g t
h e d e n om i n at
or in t
h fi tm e rs em b er an d s i m pl ify i n g ,

we h ave

Solvi n g , x 3 or 4 .

Te s t
ing , we fi n d h t
t b t
h3
a o an d 4 ar e r o o s o f t t
h gi e ven e q u at
i on .

E x am p le 9 . Solve V
( x —l —3 .
316 A C O LL E G E ALGE BRA

E XE R CI SE XLI V
So l ve h e tf i g e qu at
oll o w n io n s .

1 . 4 x4 2 . 3 x3 4 xi =7 .

3 (fl -
4 Mfi —4
hz 7fi . 4 (h
fl —x

a xh wfi + fl + 3x 6 fi
z — mfi + fi + 2 x

7 .
6 fi — 2 x + 1fl & fl — 2 x — fl +d 2 =0

8 . x4 —12 x3 + 33 x2 + 18 x
9 . 4 x4 + 4 x3 — x2 — x

m . fi —2 fl +2fi —2 x + 1 =0

l L
Hfi + 2 fi + x + 1 2 0

12 . x5 — 1 1 x4 + 36 x3 — 36 x2 + 1 1 x

13 . x5 —243 = O . 14 .
(2 x
15 .
—x) 3 . 16 .
(x

— fl L — —xfi z
1& (
a Q m — b a +b
fl

x2 +3x +1
 A CO LLEGE ALGEBR A

'
a x b ’
is a f a c t or of t
h g e r ou p of s e o c n d d eg r e e t er m s in
t
-

f( x, y) n a m el
y xx
2
bx y wh i l e ¢ (x , y ) i t sel f i s no a

t t t
,

fa c or o f f ( x , y ) h e re w i l l be o nl y on e fin i t e s o l u i o n or n o

t t
,

su ch so lu i on An d i f <1; (x y) i s a fac or o f f( x, y) t h e r e w i ll
it t
.
, ,

b e i n fin ly
e m an y s o l u i o n s .

E x am p le 1 . Solve 1
11
2 x2 2x 2 31 4 0, (1)
y mx 0 .
(2 )
El m i i n at
in g y , ( m 2 1 ) x2 2 (m 1) x 4 0 .
(3 )
If m 2 1 tw fi it ta d (2) t
0, (3) h as w fi it l ti o n e r oo s , n o n e so u on s

B t h t 4 1 t
.

u if y m i f ct f y t
x s a i if m a h m 1
or o0 ? x2 , a s, ; en 2

t tw fi it t
,

an d ( 3) d h
o es n o a ve o n e r oo s

Th if m z 1 (3 ) d c t 1 0 wh ich h b t fi i t t
.

u s, re u es o x as u on e n e roo

t th b i g i fi i t § 6 38 A d i f m t4 0
, , ,

he o er e n n 1 (3 )
n d ce, n re u es o

fi it tb t tb i g i fi i t § 6 38
.
, ,

which h as n o h n e ro o o roo s e n n n e,

t z0 t (2) h b t fi i t
.
,

H c if (2) h
en e h f m 31 h p i
as e or x e a r as u on e n e

l t th b i g i fi i t A d i f (2 ) h t 0 t
,

so u i th
on , e o er h f m y
e n h n n e n as e or x e

fi it l t h l t
b t b i g i fi it
.
,

p i
a r (2) h i
as n o i n e so u on , o so u on s e n n n e .

E x a m p le 2 . Sol ve y 2 x2 2x 2y 0,

y x 0 .

E li m i n atin g y x2 x2
,
2x 2x 0 .

Bu t ( 3) i s a n i d e n t
ity a n d i s sa t i sfie d b y ever y val u e of x
a i s a s o lu t
.

He n c e e ve r y p a i r o f n u m b e r s x a y i o n of
T h e r e as on for t hi s r esu l t
is t h at t
,

y x i s a f a c o r o f y
? x 2
2x 2y

t
.

W h en A B, C ar e in tge r al t
fu n c
i h p o n s, e ai r o f e q u a ti o n s
h t
ttt
,

AB O, C 0 is e q u i v al e n w p i
o e o a rs A 0, C O
an d B 0, C O, Th i s p r i n c i p l e an d
37 1 6 4 9 en a b l e u s
t t
w i t t
.

o so l v e o n e g r al e q u a i o n s f x , y)
( 0 ¢ ( x, y
) 0 w h en

t t t t
,

ev er f (x , y ) c an b e r e sol v ed i n o f a c o r s o f h e fir s o r se c on d
deg r ee s an d ¢ (x , y ) i n tf ct f t
o h fi t d g a ors o e rs e r ee.

E x am p l e . So lve x3 + xy 2 -
5 x = 0,

(2 x
Thi s p a i r of e qu a t t
i o n s i s e q u i valen to t
h e fo u r p a i r s

2 122 — 11 2 0,
x +y
x2 +y 2
2x — y = 0,
x2 + y2 x +y
 SI MULTANE O US Q UAD R ATI C E Q UAT I O NS

ol vi n g t
h p e a rsi we fin d h e t s ol u t
i o n s Of ( 2) tb
o e
—1 —2 ; ,
2, -
1;

t
p a i r o f i n e g r al e qu a t i o n s i n x , y c an be so l v ed by m ean s
u ad r a i c s o n l
yt w h en i h as on e t of t
h f e o rm s d es c r i b ed i n
651 or wh en an e q u i v ale nt p a i r wh i ch h as on e Of t
h e se

c an b e d e r i v ed fr om i t .

s, t
h p e qu a t
ii o n s of t
a r of e h e sec on d d e g r e e 312 x 1 0 y x2

b e so l ved b y q u ad r at ic s F o r t h e re is n o s i m pl er m e t
, , ,

h od o f
his p a i r t
t h an t o el i m i n a t
.

e y w hich gi ves x4 x 1 z 0 a n e qu a
h e fou r t
t h d e g re e which c an n o t b e so l ved b y q u a d ra t
, ,

ic s .

c edi ng se c ti o n s ill u str at e t

h t e ru th Of t
h f e o ll o wi ng
th e o r e m :
A p a i r of i n t
g e ra l e u a
q t
i f(
on s x, y) 0, <1) ( X , y ) 0, wh ose
7r ees a re In a n d n r esp e ct
i ly h ve ,
a s ru n t
s o l u i on s .

Th u s , t
h p e a r i x3 -
l -
xy2 —5 x : 0, (2 x — y ) (x + 31 0 h as
6, solu t
i on s, § 65 1 . See § 38 1 a ls o .

Ith ld b s ou e a dd e d, h o we v er , th a t
i f h e grou p s t of t er m s of

gh td g
es e r ee in f (x y) (
an d gb x , y , b u
) no tt f ( y) d x, an

n f ct t t
,

x, y) t h e m se l ve s h av e a c om m o h a l h n
or, e r e ar e e ss a

ft
,

Lfi n i t
e s ol u t i o n s Th u s , for e v y f ct
er h fi t d g
a or o e rs e r ee

tt
.

i ch i s
r c o m m on h go e r ou
p s o f t e r m s o f h i g h e s t de g r e e i n
x, y) an d t t
¢ (x , 31) t h e r e i s a t l e as t o n e i n fin i e so l u i on ; for
ary ch f c t whi ch i l c
su a tt h g or
p f tm s a so o m m on o e r ou s o er s

n ext h i gh t d g t
h t l estt w i fin i t l t
ei ; r ee e r e ar e a eas o n e so u on s

1 so on Iff ( y) d ¢( y) t h m l h v c mm n
x, an x, e s e ve s a e a o o

tt i fi it ny l t
.

a o r,h ly
e r e a re i n n n e ma so u o s

t
Th u s
h p i y y e y y a r x3
0 y 1 0 ( 2) c t
x 2 x 2 x2 2 z an n o

th t h fi it l t t l t
,

m
re ore i ; f
an h 3 2 ree 6 i n e so u on s or ere are or so u on s

tld d tl t f t i i fi it i c
, ,

o an h a e asy i c mm on e O e se s n n e s n e x s a o on

t ft p f tm f high t
,

orh g O e d g
r ou i (1) d s o m ly er s o es e r ee n an na e

y x 2 an
d 11 d tl t t
w t
x2h i fi iti c 2
y ian a e as o o e rs a r e n n e s n e x s a

f ct f t p f high t d high t
t
,

m
u on h g a or o d g e i ro u s O es an n ex es e ree n

ch e ly x3 xy 2 , x2 ? an d x 2
0 (x y)
'

y y 21 ,
.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E XE RCISE XLV

Sol ve t
h f e oll o w n i g p a i rs of e qu at
i on s .

7 x2 — 6 xy =8 ‘

xy z

2x —3 y z 5 . 3x —5 y :

3 x2 — 3 xy —y 2 — 4 x — 8 y I—3 -
2 0,

3x — y — 8 : O .

x2 5
+ y 2 —8 x —7 y : 0, 2 xz —xy — 3 y = 0,
x +3y z 0 . 7x —6 y

x2 + 3 x 2
y + y
2

8 .

x +y : 0 .

l / y —3 / l
{7 — 1 / y2
,

L / xy z l2 .

x2 +y z x2 —

i(
xy

13 . De tm i
er ne m so h t
t th t
w a e o s o lu t
i on s Of t
h p e i
a r y
2 4x 4 0,
y h
m x s a ll b e e q u al .

14 . De tm i
er ne m an d h at
c so t bot ion s o f t
h s ol u t h e pa i r

x2 + xy y mx +c
h a l l b e i n fin i t
z

s e .

15 . By t
h m t
h d
e e o of § 6 50 E x 2 , , . s how t
hat
2x y 4 is a fa c t
or

Of 2 x2 + xy

16 Sh o w t t
h th p
a e i
a r xy 1, xy x y z 0 h as no t
m o re h t
t w
an o

tl t t t
.

fin i i
e so u o n s, an d h t
t h p i
a e a r x2 y xy I, fl y y
2 2 h as no m ore

t
h an fo u r fin i t e s olu t
i o ns .

PAI R S OF E QUAT I ONS W HI CH CAN BE S OLVE D BY

F ACT OR I Z AT I ON, ADDI T I ON , OR S UB T RACT I ON

W h en b ot h equ at i on s are l inear wi th res pec t t

o s om e pai r of

fu n cti on s of x an d y W e b e g i n by sol v i n g h e e q u a i o n s fo r t t
th i s p a i r o f f u n c i on s by h e m e tt t
.

ho ds O f 3 7 4—3 7 6 .

E x a m p le 1 . So l ve 2 x2 3 y? 58 ,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

t
h gi q t
Wh en i n m y b em bi ven e u a o s a e co n ed by addi t
i n o or s u b

tt
irac ty i ld q t i
on s o as whi h o e an e u a on c c an be fact
or ed Th i s i s
t
h t t t
.

a l way s p o ss i bl e whe n bo h gi e ve n e qu a i on s ar e of h e
2
f or m ax bx y d .

E x am p l e 1 . Solve 6 x2 xy 2 y? 56 ,

5 x2 — xy y
2 z
49 .

W e c o m b i n e ( 1) an d (2 ) so as t o e li m i n a t h e c o n st
e t an t
term s .

Mu l t
iply ( 1 ) b y 7 42 x2 7 xy 1 4 y ? 3 92
,
z .
( 3)
Mu l t
iply (2 ) b y 8 40 x2 8 xy 8 y2 z 392
, .
( 4)
ra c t
Su b t ( )
4 fro m 2 x2 x y 6 y
? z 0 .
(5)
Solve (5) for x , x z 3y/2 , (6 )
x 2y .
(7 )
Sol vi n g (6) an d we Ob t
a in a ll t
h e so l u t
i ons Of
na mely a:3 V3 5 / 1 0 , 4 V3 5 / 5 ; 4 2 V2 1 / 3, r x/ zi /s .

An d, in g e n e r al , w e o bt a i n an e q u a i o n w h i h c an b e f a t or e d t c c
wh e n t
h e t O
g i v e n e q u at i on s a r e f h e se o n d d e g r ee , an d c an b e c
c om b i n e d by addi t
i on or su btc t
i ra on t lim i t( 1 ) ll
so a s o e na e a

t e rm s of t
h e se o n d c d e g r e e ; ( 2) a ll t
e r m s ex c e
p t th f th o se o e

c
se o n d d e g re e ; ( 3) a ll t e r m s w h i c h i n v o l v e x
( or y
) or
( )
4 a ll

ter m s wh i c h d o n o ti n v o l ve x ( o r y ) .

p
E x am le 2 . So l ve 2 x2 + 4 xy —2 x (1)
3 x2 + 6 xy (2)
Here we c an el i m in a t
e a ll tm
er s of t
h c
e s e on d d e g ree b y m u l t
iply i n g
( 1) b y 3, an d
( 2) b y 2 ,
a n d su b r a tc t
i g n . We t
hus O b ai n t
4x + 9y (3)
Solvi n g we Ob am t 3 2; 2, an d t
h e se a r e all t
h e

tlt
,

fin i i
e so u on s o f Se e § 6 54 .

p
E x am l e 3 . Sol ve x9 ( 1)
2 x2 (2 )
Her e a ll h tm
t e er s w hich i n vo lve i m i n at
x c an ed b y be el m ul t
ip ly i n g
( 1) by 2 an d t
h en ra c t
su b t in g We t hu s Ob t ai n

3 112 4y 1 z 0 .

Solvi n g we Ob t a i n a ll t
h e fo u r s o l u t
i on s of n a m e ly

7 a:V57 ) / 2 , 1 .
 SI MULTANE OUS Q UADRATI C EQ UAT I O NS

t
Con si der h e f ol l owi n g e x am l
p e al so .

E x a m p le 4 . So lve x? 2 xy 2 312 3x 0,

Mu l t
ip ly (2 ) by 2 an d add to We ti
ob a n

(3)
So lvi n g 2y —l ,
x
(4)
x 2y 2 .
( 5)
Sol vi n g (4) an d we Ob t
ain all t
h e sol u t
i on s o f

n a m ely —3; t
E x a m pl e 5 . tf
So l ve h e ol l o w n i g p a i rs of e q u at
ion s .

2 2
y
-

y +y
— x —1 .

W h en t
h e equ a t
i
on Ob ai tn d e by el i m i nat
i ng x
y can b e
or

fac t
ored F r om an y p ai r o f e qu a t i o n s o f t h e se c o n d d eg ree
t t
.

we c an e l i m i n ate x o r y b y h e f o l l o w in g m e h od Th e r esu l t
t t t t
.

in g e qu a i n w i ll
o o r di n ar ily be h f of e ou r h d e g r ee an d n o

bl e b y m e an s O f
s ol v a q u ad r a t
ic B t if w
s u e c an r e s o l ve it
t t t td
.

i n o f a c t or s o f h e fir s c
o r se o n d d eg r ee s, w e c an so l ve i an

tt
so o b a i n h e sol u t i o n s of t
h gi e ve n p ai r .

E x am p le 1 . Sol ve l o x2 5 y2 27 x 4y 5 z0 (1)
x2 + y —3 x —y = 0
2 .
( 2)
F i r stel i m i n a t
e y2 by m ul t
iply i n g (2 ) by 5 a n d su b r a tct
i gt
h n e r esu l t
fr om W e Ob t ain

5 xz or y
— 5 x2 + 12 x —5 .

Su b s it
t t
i g ( 3) i
u n n

5 x4 24 x3 40 x2 27 x 6 0.

F ac ti
or n g ,
by 451 ,

1) — 2 ) ( 5 x2 — 9 x + 3 ) = 0
(x (
x .

Sol vi n g § 6 43 , x 1, 2, (9 4 / 10 .

Su b s it
t t
i g (6 ) i
u n n y 2, 1, 7
( 4 3 x/ 2

Th e p a i rs Of c or r es p o n d i n g valu e s (7 are t
h e s ol u t
i o n s Of

E x am pl e 2 . Sol ve x2 — 3 xy + 2 y 2 + 3 x — 3 y : 0,

2 x2 + xy —y 2 + x
 A COLLE GE ALGEBRA

E XERCI SE XLVI
Solve h e t f ll o ow n i g p ai rs of e q u at
i on s .

x2 3
+ y 2 z 31 ,

7 x2 — 2 y 2 = 10 . l /y 2 — 4 / x2 z 8 .

x2 +y 2 -
3x + 2 y — 39 0.
3 x2

y
z — x2

x2 + 5 xy
3 x2 + 1 5 xy

x2 — 1 5 xy
5 xy + y 2 —3 y : — 21 .

2 x2 + 3 xy 4 y 2 = 2 5,

15 x2 + 2 4 xy —3 1 y 2 z 2 00 . $2 — 5 y2 z 4 .

x2 3 mo 3 212 $22 2 ,

7 x2 —1 0 xy + 4 y ‘
xQ

x2 —y ) , x2 +y
xy = 20 .
y
2
+ 1 5 x — 4O = O .

PAI R S WHI CH CAN BE S OLVE D BY DI VI S I ON

In so l vi n g a t t t t
p ai r o f e q u a i o n s i i s s o m e i m e s ad van ag e o u s
tc m bi t
o o ne tct t c t
h e m b y m u l i p l i a i o n o r d i v i si o n ; b u ar e m u s

t h en b t k e tti td c t
a en no l tio t
n ro u e e x ran eo u s so u on s n or o

l tl
o se a c u a
( 3 6 2on e s se e

f t
,

I f gi p i
ven a h f m AB CD
a r o B D whe or ere

A B C D d ti t g l f ct
i
eno e Of w n
y e
pl B
ra un on s x, 7 e ma re ac e

t Ob t i i gt
, ,

by D i n h h p i AD
us CD B D wh i h i
a n n e a r c s

v id t ly q i l t tt h t
,

e en e w p i
u A
va e n C B D d D
o 0 e o a rs an

W m y Ob t i t
, ,

B 0 e h p i A a C B D by di i d i g
a n e a r v n

f ( 1) by t b t
.
,

e ac h m mb e h c
er op di g mb f e o rr e s on n m e er o u

if w th e m ly en lv t hi p i A
e re C B D w l
so e m s a r , ,
e o se s o e
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

S YM ME T R I C PAI R S OF E QUAT I ONS

A p ai r o f e q u a i o n s i n t x, y is s ai d tb y ti
o e s mme r c if i t
r em a i n s u n c h a n g e d w h e n x an d _
1
/ ar e i tc h g d
n er an e .

Thu s ,
t
h f e oll o w n i g p a i rs (a ) ,
an d
( b) , ar e s y m me tic
r .

x2 z 2 x + 3 y,
2
y z 2y + 3x .

t
Sy m m e r i c p ai r s ar e O f wo y p e s , h os e l i k e ( a ) i n wh i chtt t
t t
h e i n d i v i d u a l e q u a i o n s r e m a i n u n c h a n g e d w h e n x an d y a r e
t
i n t e r ch an g e d, an d h o se l ik e ( 6) i n w h i ch h e wo e q u a i on s tt t
c h an g e p l a c e s w h e n x an d
’

y ar e in tch er an g e d .

t
Sy m m e ri c p ai rs of h e firs y pe t tt
Th e s i m p l e s p a i r o f sy m t
tc t
.

m e ri e qu a i o n s i s x y : a x z 6
y T h i s p a i r m ay b e

tt tc
.
,

s ol ve d as i n § 6 49, b u h e f o l l o wi n g i s a m o r e s y m m e r i
m e t
h d o .

E x am p le . Solve x y 5,
xy 2 6 .

Squ a r e x2 2 xy y
2 z 25 .

Mu l t
iply (2 ) b y 4 , 4 xy 24 .

Su b tc t (4) f m
ra ro x2 2 xy y
? z 1 .

Hen c e x y 1,
x —y —L
F rom x 3, y 2; an d fr o m x 2, y 3 .

I f g i ve n a m or e c o m p li c at
ed
p a i r O f s m m et
y r i c e q u at i o n s

t e a c h e q u ati on i n t o a n e q u at
,

w e m ay r an s o r m f i on i n x y
an d x y , 63 7 , an d t
h en so l v e fo r t
h es e fu n c t
i on s ; or in t h e

t
g i ve n e q u a i on s w e m ay se x n r,
y n v an d t t
h en

s ol ve fo r n an d v Th e s e on d m e h od i s e s s en i al ly h e c t t t sa m e

t t
.

a s s ol v i n g h gi e v en e q u a i on s fo r x
y an d x y ; for, sin ce
1 : u + v
, y z u — v, we h a ve u

E x am p le 1 . So l ve ( 1)
(2 )
In ( 1) an d ( )
2 for x2
31
2 su b s it
t t( u e x y)
2 2 xy .
 SI M UL T ANE O US Q UAD R AT I C E Q UATI O NS 3 27

t tm
Colle c in g er s, 2 (x y)
2 xy (x y) 1 0,

E l i m in a t
i g n xy , 3 ( x y)
2 1 0 (x y) 8 0 .

So l vi n g , x y 4,

x y 2 3 .

Hen c e , fr o m (3) xy 37,

xy 11 9 .

An d so l v ni gt
h e p a irs (8 ) an d (9) for x, y , we h a ve

E x a m pl e 2 . Sol ve x4 y
4 97 ,

x y 5 .

—v .

W ti
e ob a n ( tiv)
4
( u v 4 ) z 97 , (3)
an d 2 u 5 .
(4)
E l i m in a t
i g n u, 16 v4 6 00 v2 1 51 ( 5)
So lvi n g , v i1 2 or (6)
Su b s t
itt
i g
u n u 5 / 2 ( 4) an d t
h f e ou r va l u es (6 ) of v in t
h f
e o r m u la s

x =u + v , y z u — v, we Obt
ai n

x, y = 2, 3 ; (5

t
E v i d e n ly i f x a,
y z
B is on e s ol u t i on of a sy m m e tr i c
p ai r , x B, y a is an o t
h er so l u t i on U n l e ss a
B t
h ese

t t ty t
.
,

w o sol u i o n s ar e diffe r e n t ; b u sa an d x y h av e h e sa m e

v al u e s fo r x a ,
y B a s fo r x
B , y a , an d he tc o r re

sp o n d i n g v al u e s of x y ,
n am e l
y a
B an d
B a
,
di ffe r on l
y
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

No te Th e m e th d j t gi
o s us ve n ar e a ppl ic ab le tp
o q u at
i
a rs i on s
Of e

tic wi t t y or so m e o t
.

which are sy m me r h p ct re s e o x an d h e r p a i r of
fu n c t
i on s of x an d y . Th u s ,
x4 + 31 4 a, x — y = b m ay b e wr i t ten

x4 +( — y>
4
a. x +(

t
Sy m m e r i c pa i rs of t
h e s ec o nd t
yp e Su c h a p air m ay so m e

t
.

i m e s b e s ol v e d a s f oll o ws .

E x am p l e . Solve x3 7x 3y ,

y
3 z 7y 3x .

Add i n g ( l ) an d ( 2) x3 y
3 l 0 (x y) .

Su b tct
rai g (2) f n ro m x3 y
3 4 (x y) .

By 34 1 , ( 3) is e t
qu i vale n t he t
o t wo e qu at
i on s
x +y =Q
an d x2 xy y
? 10 .

Si m i la rly ( 4) is e t
qu i val e n t wo e qu a t
he t
o t i on s
w— y : Q (D
an d x2 xy y
? z4 .
(8)
An d so l v n i g we Ob t
ai n 0, 0 2, 2;
—2
-

, 2; i x/ l O;
1

E XE R CI SE XLVIII
Sol ve h e t f ll o ow n i g p ai r s of e q u at
i on s .

+y 5, 232 ? 2 93 ,

{
x z
y
xy + 36 = 0 . x +y z l2 . xy 34 .

x2 +y 2
8 5, x3 y
3 z 468

i
z

—y l
°

x z l x +y : 9 x2y xy 2 42 0

2 7 x3 + 6 4 y 3 = 65 , x4 + y4 z 8 2,

3 x +4y z x —y z 2 .

+ 21 4
ou t)
?
72. x2 2 s
tart
/
2 : 30
,

1/x + 1/y

fl
z =5m

y
3 =5x .
3 30 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E XE R CI SE L

t
So lve h e foll owi n g sy s tm
e s of e q u at
i on s b y an y o f h m t
t h d e e o s Of t
h e

pre se n t
ch p t
a er .,

7 x2 — 6 xy = 8 , x —y z a,

2 23 — 3 21 b2
a2 )/4
‘

5 2 . xy ( .

a b x + y =a +a
2

4 . a b
x2 +y =0 2 . x +b y + a

1 1 1 001
x2 2
+ , +2
”
x3 y
3 125

1 1 11
x —y
x y 5

(
a x y) b (x y) xy . 11 . 40 xy : 2 1 (x2

4 x2 — 25 y 2 z 0, x2 + 3 xy — 9 y 2 = 9,
2 x2 —10 y 2 —3 y z 4 . x2 — 1 3 xg/ + 2 1 y 2

x2 — 7 y2 x/ y
—
l
x2 —6 xy + 9 y 2

x2y z a, x2y + xy 2 =a , x

xy 2 z b . x911 — xy 2 z b .

3 (x3

(2 x —2 y ) —1 1 0 a2 {—x y z l .

x4 +y 4
a t
x +y =a .

24 . x2 —y2 .

x2 + y +y
m zz 2
h 4 x2 — 3 y 2 = 1 2 (fv — y ) .
w+ V fc y +y =7 { xy : 0 .

x2 +4x -
3y = 0,
y + 1 02
x — 9 y =0 .

xy —x/ y z a,

x +y z 2 . xy
 SI M ULTANE O US Q UADR ATI C E Q UATI O NS 33 1

x +y z 2 .

y
2 —xy — y z z 3,

33 .

35 .

E XE R CI SE LI

1 Th e d i ffe r en c e Of t h e c u b es Of two nu m b er s i s 21 8 an d t
h c e ube c f

t F in d t
.

h i
e r d i ffe ren c e i s 8 . h e n u m b er s .

2 qu are o f t
Th e s h e su m O f t wo n u m b er s l ess t h e i r pr o du c t
is 6 3
t
h e d i ffe r e n c e o f t
h ei r c u b es is 1 8 9 Wh at ar e t
.
,

an d h ey .

3 Th e su m of t
h tme er s of a a i n fr a c t
c ert ion is 1 1 , an d t
h p e r o du ct
t fr ac t t t c t
.

Of hi s i on by on e wh ose n u m e r a or an d den o m in a or ex eed i s

n u m er a o r t an d d en o m i n a t by 3
or an d 4 re s p ect
i vely is 2 / 3 F in d t
h e

t
.

fra c i on .

4 t3 7 i tt
Se p a ra h e n o ree p ar ts w h ose p r o d u c t h at
i s 1 440 an d su ch t
t c tf t ft hr e e t
e x c ee d s t im e s t he t
.

h p
e r odu w h m
O o o e hi r d b y 12 .

5 Th e d i a go n al Of a r e ct
an gl e is 1 3 fee t l on g I f e a ch S i de were 2
feetlon g er th an i t t 3 8 s qu ar e fe et g r e at
er t h an it
. .

is h e ar e a wou ld b e is
Wh at ar e t
, .

h e S i des

6 p e r i m et
Th e er O f a r igh t an gl e d -
ti r an g le i n ch es lon g an d t
i s 36 he
of t
he t t
h e le n g th s of t
.

ar ea r i an gl e i s 5 4 s qu a r e i n ch es . F in d h e s i d es .

7 h y p ot
Th e an gl e d t
en u se o f a r igh t r i an g l e i s l o n g e r t
-
h an t he t wo
p er p en d icu lar s i des b y 3 an d 24 i n ch es res p ec t i vely F i n d t
.

h e s i d es o f
the t
.

r i a n gl e .

8 . t
F i n d h e d i m en s i o n s o f a roo m fr om t
h f ll
e o ow ni g da t:i tfl
a s
’

oo r
3 32 A CO LLE G E ALG E B RA

10 I n b u y i n g c oal A g e t3 ts on s m o r e for 3 1 35 th Bd an oes a n d p ays

t t d t
.

37 less for 4 on s h an B p ay s fo r 5 R e qu i r e h p ic e r e e a ch p ay s

t
.

per on .

11 c ert a i n p r i n cip al a t
A a c er t a i n ra te am ou n t s to $1 2 48 i n o n e y ear
at s i m p le i n t
e re st W e r e t 1 00 g r ea t h e r at
.

h e p r i n cip al $ e r an d t e 1; t i m es
a s g r eat t h e a m ou n t at t Wh at is t
.

h e e n d of 2 y e a rs wou ld b e 3 145 6 he

p r i n cip al an d wh at is t h e r at
.
,

12 A m an l e ave s th i
child ren a n d gr an d chi ld ren seven i n
o s

which i s 32 000 m o r e a pi e c e th an t
.
,

al l Th e chi ld re n r e c e i ve 4 o f i t he
gr an d child r en g et How m an y chi ld ren ar e t
.
, .

h e r e an d h o w m a n y g r a n d
c hi l dr e n an d wh a t
.

, d oe s e a ch re c e i ve

13 A h ist u su al r a e a t h ou r s
m an c an r o w 1 5 m l es d o wn s i tm
rea in 5
l es s tim e t h an i tt o r et Cou l d h e d o u b l e h is r a te h is t
.

ak es h i m t u rn im e
d o wn st r e a m wou l d b e o n ly 1 h ou r l es s th a n h is t i m e u p st Wh at
,
.

r e am

is h i s us u al r ate i n d ea d wa ter an d w h a tis t e of t h e c u rr en t

.

h e ra t

14 Th re e m en A, B , C tg t
ho e er c an do a pi e c e of work i n 1 h ou r
t t t tk C t
.
,

20 m i n u es. TO d o h w e or k a l o n e i w ou ld wic
a e e as long as A
an d 2 h o u r s l o n g er t
h B an . Ho w l on g wou tk ch m
ld i t a e ea an td t
ho o e

wo rk al on e

15 Two b o d i es A i g at
an dc on st
B an tr at
e s an d i n t
are h e sa m e
m ov n
d i rec ti on arou n d t h i s 20 fe e t
h e ci r c u m fe r e n c e o f a ci r c l e wh ose l e n g t
.

A m ak es on e ci r c u i t i n 2 se c on ds l e s s t im e t
.

h an B a n d A an d B are
tog e t h er on c e e very m i n u t Wh at ar e the i r rat
,

e es.

16 On t
w tight li
o s ra n es which m e e ttigh t gl t
O t
h p i t a r an es a e o n s

i g t tc tt t A i w 2 8 i ch
.

A an d B arem w ov n o ar d 0 a on s an r a es . s no n es

fr o m O an d B 9 i n ch es 2 se c on ds h en c e A a n d B wi ll b e 13 i n ch es ap ar t
h en c e t w i ll b e 5 i n ch es a p a r t At wh at rat
,

an d 3 c
s e on ds h ey es ar e A .

an d B m ovi n g

17 Thr ee m en A, B , an d C se t tt
th
ou a e sa m e t
i m tw lke o a a c e rt
ai n

h o u r an d fi n i s h e s t
.

d is tc an e. A walk s 4 2 i
m l es an h e j o u r n ey 2 hou rs
b efor e B B walk s 1 m il e an h ou r fast er t h an C an d fin i sh es t h e j o u r n ey
h ou rs l ess t Wh at
.

in 3 im e . is th e d i stan c e

18 Two c ou r i e rs A an d B tti m lt
s ar s u an e ou sl y fr o m P an d Q r e sp e c

t t l tw d ch t Wh t h y m t t ld
.

i ly
ve an d r ave h o ar ea A h o er en e ee as r a ve e

h t h B Aft t h i m t tw d Q t
.

12 m i le s t
fa r er an i g Ac t i er e r ee n on n u es o ar a

t tP
.

h e sa m e ra e as t bf i i g i 43 h Si m i l l y B
e o re , ar r v n i n o u rs . ar a rr ves a

in 7 ; h ou rs ft t
ah m i g Wh t
t
er i t
e h d i tc f m P tQ
ee n . a s e s an e ro o
334 A COLLE GE ALG E BRA

E x a m p le 3 . Fin d h e tg ra ph of

y
2 — 2 xy + 2 x2 (1)
So l v n i g for y , w e h a ve y z x 1 i V4x x2 .
(2)
Th e va l u es O f y gi ven by (2 ) ar e r eal wh en t
h d ic d
e ra an 4x x2 , or

x (4 x ) pis
o siti ve ( o r th at i s wh e n x l i es e e en a n d 4 (o r i s 0 b t
w 0
He n c e t h e g r aph o f ( 1 ) l i es b e t we e n t
, ,

or h e l i n es x : 0 a n d x : 4 z z

Wh en x 0 an d wh en x 4 t
.

h e va l u e s o f y gi ve n b y ( 2 ) ar e e q u a l
n a m e ly 1 1 wh e n x : 0 a n d 3 3 wh e n x z 4
z T h i s m e an s t hat the
g raph o f ( 1 ) t ou c hes t 0 at
.
, , , ,

he l in e x
t h e p o in t (0 1 ) an d t h e l in e x z 4

at th e po i n t
,

(4 Se e E x 2 2 Th e
hr o u gh t
. .

1 p asses t
, ,

4 3 ) l in e y z x hes e
s of t
,

p oi n t an ge n c y fo r w h e n 4 x x

va n i s h e s ( 2 ) gi ve s t
,

h e s a m e val u es fo r

y t h at
,

y z x 1 gi ve s
F or e a ch val u e o f x b e t
.

we e n 0
an d 4 t h e e qu a t i o n (2 ) gi ve s t wo r e al
a n d d i st in ct val u e s of y Ob t a i n ed b y

i n c r easi n g a n d d i m i n i shi n g t
,

h e val u e

of x 1 by t h at of V 4 x x2 He n c e
fo r ea ch o f t h ese va l u e s o f x t
.

h er e are
t wo p o i n t s of t h e g ra ph o f Th ey
a r e m os t r e a d i ly O b t ai n ed b y d r a wi n g

th e l i n e 31 z x 1 an d t h en i n c r ea s i n g a n d d i m i n is hi n g i t s o r d i n at e fo r

th e val u e o f x i n q u e s t ion b y t h e val u e o f V 4 x x2 .

Th u s , wh en x O, 1, 2, 3 , 4,

we h ave t
fo r h e l i n e y 1, 0, 1 2 , 3,

an d tg
for h e ra ph Of (1 ) y z 1, i“3 ,
1 j
; 2, 2 i V3 , 3 .

Th e fig u r e h o ws t h e o val S h a p e d c u r ve w hich t
s -
h e po in t
s t
h u s fou n d
dete rm i n e It i s c al l e d an e l l ip s e
B y so lvi n g ( 1 ) fo r x an d a pp l y i n g t h e m et
. .

h o d O f § 6 41 w e m ay sh o w
that th e high e s t an d l o wes t p oin t s Of t
,

h e c u r ve a r e (2 V2 1 2 V2 ) ,

an d 1

E x a m pl e 4 . F in d t
h g e ph o f y
ra x? 2x 2y 4 0 .

So l vi n g fo r y an d fa c t
orin g t
h e r a d ic a n d in t
h e r es u l t ,

( 2)
Th e ic a n d (x 1 ) (x 3) v an i sh es wh en x
r ad 1 a n d whe n x z3 ,

an d in b ot
h c as es (2) gi ves e q u al val u e s O f y n a m ely 1 1 , ,
. Th i s
 SI M ULT ANE O US Q UAD R AT I C E Q UAT I O NS 33 5

t
m e ansh tt
h g ph f ( 1) tch
a t
h li e ra o ou es e ne x 1 a t
th p i t
e o n 1, 1)
and t
h li 3 tth p i t
e
(3 ne x a e o n Th e l in e y z 1 p ass es t
h r o u gh
t p i tOf tg c y
_ ,

h ese o n s an en

p osit
.

Th e r ad ic an d (x 1) (x 3) is i ve wh en an d on l y w h en x 1
or x 3 F or eve r y su qu at
ch i on (2 ) gi ve s t
va lu e wo r e a l
of x t
h e e

an d d i s t in c tva l u es o f y a n d t h er efo r e o p o i n t t
.

s of t h e g r a ph o f w
The s e p o in t s m ay b e O b t a i n e d b y d r a wi n g the l i n e y 1 an d t h en
i n c reas i n g an d d i m i n i s h in g i t s c on

st an t o rdi n at e 1 by t h e v al u e O f

He n c e , i n d ic a t
as is
ed in t he
fig u r e t h e gr aph O f ( 1 ) c on s i st s of

t wo i n fi n i t e b r a n ch e s t h e on e t
,

o u ch

in g t 1 an d ex t
,

h e l in e x en d i n g

i n d efini t el y t o t h e l eftt h e ot her

t ou chi n g t 3 an d e x t
,

h e l in e x en d

i n g i n d e fin i t e ly t o t h e r igh t .

Thi s c u r ve i s c all e d an h y p erb ol a

Th e r e ar e t wo s t r a igh t
.

l i n es c al l e d
as y m p t ot es wh i c h t h e i nfi n i t e

b r a n ch e s O f t hi s h y p er b ola t en d t o t a n d which t t
,

ou ch h e y ar e sa id o

t ou ch a t i n fin i t Th ese l in es are t h e gr a ph s o f t h e e qu a t
,

y i on s y x 2
x which w e O b t
.

an d y a i n as fo llo ws Co m p a re 6 50 E x 1
E l i m i n at i n g y b et wee n ( 1 ) a n d t h e equ at
. . .
, ,

i on y m x c
we O b t a in ( m 2 l ) x2
+ 2 ( m c + m + 1 ) x ( c 2
+ 2 c + 4) = 0 .

Bot h roo t s o f (4) ar e i n fi n i t e 6 38 , ,

if m2

t
h t
i a s, if m : 1, c —2 , or if m

He n c e b o t
h so lu t
i on s of (3) are i n fin it
e i f (3) h as o n e of t
h f
e or m s

y z x —2 or y
—x . 0

Th e r efore ph s O f t
h g
an de ra ea ch m ee t
th g e ra ph o f ( 1) in t
w o

ely d i st
i nfin i t ant
c oi n c i den t
p oin t
s .

E xa m ple 5 . F in d t
h g
e ra ph of y
2 4 xy 3 x2 6x 2y 0 .
( 1)
Sol vi n g fo r y , we h ave y =2x +1 i V x2 —2 x + l , (2 )
t
h t
i a s,

He n c e h e tg ra ph of (1) c o n s i st
s of t
h e p ai r of r igh tl i n es y 3x an d

y =x + 2
E x c e p wh e n t th e r ad ic an d van si h es t h at Is wh e n x 1 0, h e t e qu a
t d i st
in c t Bu t t
,

t
,

i on (2) gi ve s w o r e al an d v alu es o f y wh e n . x 1 z 0 i
336 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

gives t
w q l lo e f yua va u es o n am el y 3, 3 He n c e t
h li e ne —1 = 0
x

tt ci d e n t poin t s at Of c o u rse t
.

h g ph f ( 1 ) i t
,

m ee s e raw c i o ii o o n (1 his
o u ch es t It
,

can n o t
m h t
t t
h li
e an 1 a e ne x Ot h e g r aph o f ( 1) a t (1
whic h t 0 m e et
,

m ea n s t t
h th p i t
a c i ci d i
e o n s o n e n h e lin e x 1 s the t wo
li n es y 3 x an d y z x 2 which
t og e t her c o n st it e t
,

ut
,

h e g ra ph o f

E x am ple 6 Fi nd t h e g ra ph s a n d
t e r se c t
.
,

h e i r in t i on s o f ,

2
x2 y 25, ( 1)
(2)
Th e g ra ph
ci r cle wh ose of (1) is a

c en t er i s at th e o r igi n 0 a n d wh os e , ,

r ad iu s i s 5 Th e g r aph o f (2 ) is an .

el l ip s e

Th ese c u rves i n t e rs e c t at t
.

h e fou r
poin t s (4 —4 —4
t p o in t
s b e in g th e g r aph s o f t
,

h e s ol u t
, ,

(4 h ese i on s of
E x am pl e 7 . F in d t h e g r a ph s a n d t h ei r i n te r se c t
,
i on s o f ,

—3 y
xy ( 1)

F r om ( 1 ) we Ob t
ain y 2 (x (3)
Her e t
h er e is on e r e al val u e O f y, an d hen ce on e point
Of t
h e graph ,

fo r ch re al val u e o f x
ea .

Wh en x so —1 , , O, 1, 2, 2 g, 3, 4, oo ,

we h a ve y = 0, —1 —2 , , 0 .

An d p lo t
ti gt
h n t
ese so l ui on s , we O b t a i n an h y p er b o l a wh o s e t
wo i n fi n i t
e

b ran ch es ar e i n d ic a td b y t
e h e u n b r o k e n c u rve d l i n es i n t h e fig u re an d
pt
ot
,

w h os e as y m e s a re y z 0 (fo u n d
as in E x . an d x 3 z 0 ( si n c e
t
,

wh e n x 3, h en y z
In i m i la r m a n n e r we fi n d t
a s he
gr aph o f (2 ) t
,

o be t h e h y p e r b ol a i n d i
c at ed b y t he dot te d c u r ve an d h a vi n g X
t h e asy m p t ot es y z 0 a n d x 2 O
Th e e q u at ( 2) h ave t
.

ions he
s i n gl e fi n i te s o lu ti on x 1 y 1
t h e re m a i n i n g t
, ,

h r e e s ol u t i on s b e i n g
i n fin i te 6 54
Th e h y p e r b o l as which ar e t
.
,

he

g ra ph s o f
(2) m e et i ll t e po i n t
h e s i n gl e fi n i t ( 1 ,
Bu ti c t
h y
s n e e
3 38 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

If h 2
ab ct 3
( ) i
O, s posit t
i
h p
v e wh e n a n d o n l
e r od u
y
w h e n x l i es b e t wee n an d B H en c e t h e g r aph O f ( 1 ) w i ll b e
a

a c l ose d cu r v e ly i n g b e t
w e en t
.

h e li n e s x 0 an d x B 0 a

wh i c h i t t It is t
,

ou c h e s h e r efor e an el l ip s e ( or c i r cl e)
. Se e .

66 7 , E x 3
ct s p osi t t
. .

3 i i ve w h en an d o n l y
h p r o du
( )
2
If h ab > O, e

wh e n x < or x B H en c e t
a h e g r aph w i ll c on s i st Of two
i n fin i t t ou ch i n g t
h e on e t
.

e b r an c h e s h e l in e x O an d a

e x t e n di n g to it s l ef tth e ot
her t ou c h i n g t
,

h e l in e or: B : O
t ti t i gh t I t
,

a n d e x end i n g o i th
s r . s f
er e o r e an h yp er bola . See
6 67 E x 4 . .

2 2
If h ab 0, w e h a v e R 2 ( hf bg) x ( f be , wh e r e
) -

hf by i O, an d t
hi s i s p o s i i v e w h en t a n d o n l y w h en w e h a ve

x
(f
2
be) 2 ( hf by ) t
H en ce
h g e ra
p h w ill c on si s t
tb t i ly t t
.

Of on e i n fin i e r an c h l y in g en re o on e si d e o f h e l in e

2 ( hf by ) x
(f
2
be) 0, wh i c h i t
t ch ou es . It
i t
h f s er e o re

a a r a bo l a Se e 66 7 , E x 1
p . . .

3 . Wh en ( hf bg ) 2
( h 2
ab
) (f
2
bc ) O .

In t
hi s c ase t
h e tf R
roo s o 0 ar e c o n j u g at
e i m a g i n a ri e s

ll t A at
,

6 35 , an d if w e ca h m A e u i an d we c a n r ed u c e R
tt
, ,

h f
o e orm R (h
2
a b) [ (x A) 2
i
f
]
t t t
,

2
If h ab 0, h e p r od u c 4
( ) i p os i i ve fo r a l l val u e s o f x
s

t t t t
.

Hen c e he g r ap h o f ( 1 ) w ill c o n s i s O f wo i n fin i e b r an ch e s
wh i ch l i e on O pp o s i t
e s i de s of t
h li e ne by ( h x +f
) I t
i s

t
.

h f
e r e o r e an h yp er bo la Th u s , y x
2 2
1
t ct t
. .

2
If h ab < 0, h e p r od u 4
( ) i s n ega i ve fo r a ll v al u e s

ofx . t
H e n c e h e g r aph o f ( 1 ) w i ll b e wh o l ly i m ag i n ary . Th u s,

In t
h p e re c edin g d i scu s s i on i ti s a ss u m e d th t 6 a 0 Bu t
i td
.

if b 0, w h il e a 0, an d we so l v e 1
( ) for x
y, we
n s ea Of
a rr i ve a ti S m i l ar c o n c l u s i on s . If bo t
h a : 0 an d b : 0
,
he t
g rap h o f ( 1 ) i s an h y p e r b o l a, a s i n § 6 6 7 , E x 7 , o r ap ai r O f
t t tt t
.

s r ai gh l in e s o f wh i ch on e i s p a rall e l o h e x ax i s, h e o th e r
tt
-

o h e y ax i s -
.
 SI MULTANEO US Q UADR ATI C E Q UATI O NS 339

E XER CI SE LII

F in d h e tg ra h e fo llo wi n g e qu at
phs of t i on s .

1 .
y
2 —8 x . 2 . x2 + y =9 2 . 3 .
(y
2
4 . 5 .
y

6 2
7 2 — 2x
.
y .
y y

8 . 2 x2 3
+ y 2 9 .
y
2 — x2 — 3 x + y

10 .

11 . 4 x2 —1 2 xy + y + 3x — 6 y : 0
9 2 .

tg
F in d he ra phs of t
h f ll
e o ow n i g p a i r s of e q u at
i on s an d t
h ie r po in t
s

in t ct
i
ers e on .

xy z
,
x2 —y 2 z l ,

3x —5y : 2 . x2

y
2 — xy — 2 x2 2x —2 y

y
2 — xy

(
x —3 y = 0 ,

( w — 2 u) (m — 6
y =0

17 in d th e g r aph o f
F x2 y
2 6 x 2y 1 O an d i tp i t f
s o n s O

in t
er se c t h t
i o n wi t
.

h e ax es o f x an d y .

18 . Sh o w t t
h th g
a e ra ph of (x y)
‘
2 2 (x y) 1 0 tuch t
o h es e x

an d y ax es .

19 Sh o w th t
th li a e ne y
—3 x + 5 t
ou ch e s t
h e g r a ph of 1 6 x2 + y 2
t
t t
.

a h p e o n i
20 . F or wh t l a va u e s o f m t
will h e l i n e y mx 3 tch t
h g
ou e ra ph of

£8 2 2 y2 z 6

21 . F o r wh a tl va u e s Of c w i ll t
h e
“

li n e 7 x —4
y c 0 tch t
h
ou e

graph of 3 x2

22 Sh o w t
h t
th li
a e n es y z 0 an d x 2y 1 0 ar e t
h e a sy m pt
ot
es

t
.

of h g
e ra ph O f xy — 2 y2 + y + 6 : 0 .

23 . F in d t
h e a sy m ptes o f t
ot h e gr a ph of t
h e e qu at
i on
2 x2 + 3 x y

24 . F o r wh a tl va u e s O f x is t
h g e ra ph O f x2 Axy y
2 x an e ll ip s e
a p ar ab ola an h y p erb o la
 A COLLE GE ALGE BRA

X VI I . I N E Q UALI TI E S

Si ng le i n equ ali i es t An a bs ol u ti e n eq u a l i t
y i s on e li k e
t
.

x
2
y
2
0 w h i c h1 h o l d s g o o d fo r all r e al v al u e s o f h e

t
t t
l e e r s i n v ol ve d ; a c o n d i i o n a l i n e qu a l i y i s o n e li k e x 1 t O
t t t
wh i ch d o e s n o h o ld g o o d fo r all r e al val u e s O f h e s e l e t e r s,

b t t
u h c t y im p
on e ti ct
on r a r i p n t h m ose s a r e s r on u o e

wh i c h c tl t ck i g w i t q li t
, , .

Th p i c i p l
e r n h es h i on r oi e re on n ne ua es

ar e g i i 26
ven 1 F m nth p i n c i p l i tf ll w t
ro h t t h e se r es o o s a e

ct i g t h t i q li t
.

sig n c or w m mb on n e Of n
y e o e ers an ne ua

wi l l i ch g d i f w t
re m a n un
p ant m wite h it ig e r an s o se a er s s n

tt t if w m lt i p ly b t
,

ch g d f m
an e m mb ro h h on e e er h o e o er , o r e u o

by t it b t th t t
,

m mb e h ers m p i mb e sa e h ig
os willve n u er u a e S n

b ch g d t
e an ice i f w m lt
o i p ly b t
or v h m mb
e ve rs a , e u o e er s

by t h m e sag t i mb e ne a ve n u er .

E x a m pl e 1 . Pro ve h t
t a a2 b2 2 ab .

W e h ave ( a b) 2 0,
t
h tia s, a2 2 ab b2 0,
d th f ‘
an er e or e a b2 2 ab .

E x a m p le 2 . Prov e t
h t a a2 b2 C2 ab be ca .

We h a ve a2 + b2
>2 a b, b2 + c2 > 2 bc ,
Ad d i n g t
h c e o r r es p on d i n g m em b e rs of t
h t
h ese ree i n e qu al i t
ies an d

d i vi d i n g t
h e r esu l tb y 2 , we h ave a
2
b2 c3
‘
ab be ca .

E x a m pl e 3 So l ve t
h i e ne q u al i t
y 3x 5>x 11, h t
t i a s, fin d w h a t
tic t t
.

res r i it im p
on oses 0 11 h e va l u e o f x .

T p i g tm
ra n s os n er s, 2x 6,
wh e n c e x 3 .

p
E x am le 4 So lve x2
. 2x 3 0 .

F ac tori n g
(x 1 ) (x 3) 0
,

t
.

TO sa t i sfy t y o n e fa c t
hi s i n e qu al i t or m u stb e p os i ti ve an d h t
h e o er

n e g at
i ve He n c e we m u st
. h a ve x 1 an d 3 t h at is , , 1 x 3 .

Si m u l tn
a eou s i n equ ali i es t A sy s e m t of on e or m ore in e
t t
.

q u al i i es Of h f e o rm

ax by o 0
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Pr ove h t
t a a3 b3 c3 > 3 a bc .

Sol ve x + 7 > 3 x/ 2 8 .

Solve 2 x2 +

Sol ve (x l) (x 3) (x
So l ve y x 2 < 0, x y 1 > 0 by t
h g e ra phic al m et
h od .

Also y
—x > 0 , y
—2 x < 0 .

y —2 x
Pr ove h t
t a x2 2 x 5 > 0 is t ru e for all va l u es o f x .

Solve x2 y
2 1 0, y 2 4x 0 by a g raphic al me t
h d o .

X VI I I . I N D E TE R MI N ATE E Q U ATI O N S O F

T HE FI RST D E G R E E

Si n gl e equ a t
i on s in t
w o var i abl es . G i v en an y e q u a tio n of t
h e

f or m
ax by c
wh e r e a, b, 0 d en o t e i n tg e e r s, o f wh i c h a an d b h av e no c o m m on
fac tor We s e ek an e x p r e ss i o n for al l
pairs of in tg e ra l v al u e s

t t t t
.

o f x an d y w h i c h w i ll sa i s f
y h i s e qu a i on ; a l so s u ch of h e se

p a i r s as t
a r e p os i i ve a s we ll a s i n tg e r al .

Th eorem 1 All e qu a t . i on s ax + b y = c o
f t
h e ki n d ju s t
eg r a l s o l u t
d es c r i bed h a ve i n t ion s .

For s n i ce a an d b arepr i m e t o on e an o t
her b y t
h m t
h d
e e o ex pl a i n e d
t gat s u ch t h at
,

in § 491 we c an fin d wo i n te g e r s p a n d q p os i t
i ve or n e i ve
t hi s p ro ves t
t h at
, ,

ap bq 1 an d h f e re or e a (p c ) b ( g o) 0 , an d x pc,
y qc i s a so l u t
i f
on o ax by 0 .

Th eorem 2 If x x 0, y = y O be tg
on e in e ra l s ol u ti on of
s u c h a n eq u a t f i ti t t
.

i on a x by c a ll o g s n e r a l s o lu i on s a r e

t
,

g i ven by h f e or m u las

x x0 +b ty = y
, 0
-
t
a

wh en a ll
p oss i bl e in t
ge r a l va l u es a r e a ss i n ed
g tt
o .
 I ND E T E RM i NATE E Q UAT I O NS 34 3

F i rs t ,
x x0 b ty , yo a t
i s al way s a s ol u t
i on o f a x by c .
(1)
F or, su bs t
i tt
i gi u n n a (x0 b t
) b (y o a t
) c ,

or , s i m p lify i n g , o xo by o c ,

which i s t ru e s i n c e b y h y p ot h e s i s x : x0 y y o i s a so lu t i on of r

Se c o n d e ve ry i n t e g r a l so l u ti o n O f ( 1) i s gi ve n b y x x0 bt at
, , ,

y yo
y l den ot e an y se c o n d i n t e g r al s ol u t
.

F o r l et
, ,

x x1 y ,
i on .

Th en ax l by l c an d axo by o c ,

wh en c e su b t ,
ra c tin g b (y l
, y o) a (x1 x 0) ( 2) .

F r o m (2) i t fo ll o ws t h at b i s a fa c t or o f t h e p ro du c t of t h e in t
e g er s a

a n d x1 x0 Th er efor e s i n c e b i s p r i m e t o a it m u st b e ex ac t ly c on
t 492 1 a n d i f we c all t h e qu o t ien t twe h ave
.
, ,

a in e d i n x1
’
x0 , , , ,

xl x0 b t ’

,
o r xl x0 b t’
.

An d su b s t
i tt
i g (3 ) i
u n n
(2) an d S i m pl ify i g n , we al so h ave .

yl yo a t
’
.
(4)
F r om 6 7 3, 6 7 4 i t
f ll o ows h t
t a e ve r y e q u a t
i on ax by c
Of t
h ki e n d jus td es ri c b ed h a s i nfi n i tly
e m an
y i n t eg r a l s o l u

t
i on s . Wh en a an d b h av e con t
r ar
y s i gn s t
h er e ar e al s o

i n fin i tly e m an y p os i t
i t
ve s o l u
i b t wh on s u e n a an d b h av e t
h e

sa m e Si gn t
h ere i s bu t l i m itd n m b f
a e u er o su ch so l u t
i on s o r

n o su ch s ol u t i on .

Th u s o n e so l u t i on o f 2 x 3 y 18 is x 3, y 4
Hen c e t t t
,

h e g e n e r al s o l u t
.

io n is x 3 3 y 4 2
ive so lu t
Th e p os i t tt 1
.
,

i on s c orr es p o n d o ,
0, 1 , 2 a n d ar e x , y O, 6
3, 4 ; 6, 2 ;

Th e t
h e or e m tw itd w t
of h g l
6 74 en a bl es on e o r e o n e en er a

i t
n g l
e l ti n f
ra
q t
so ui f th k
o i d d co id an e ua on o e n un er on s era

ti o n a s so o n
p t
i c l l ti i
as ak w A p ti
arc l u ar so u on s no n ar u ar

l t t t t
.

so u i y onf b f d
mab y i p c o i T
en h l i e ou n ns e on u s , o n e so u on

Ap t l t
.

Of 1 0 3y x 12 i 0 y 4 ic l i y
s x ar u a r so u on ma

d by t t h d i di c t
.
,

alw y b fa s h e ou n d i § 67 3 ; l by e m e o n a e n a so

th m t
e h d ill t t
e d i t o h f ll w i g u s ra e p l n e o o n e x am e .

pl e F i n d t h e in t e gr a l s o l u t
i on s o f 7 x 1 9 y z 2 13 ( 1)
'

E x am . .

So l vi n g for t ht
h e var i ab l e w i t h e s m a ll e r c oeffi ci e n th e re t
o an d r ed u ci n g , , ,

we h ave
2 13 — 19 y 3 5y
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

He n c e i f x i s tb o e an in t
e g er w h e n y is on e, (3 5 y ) / 7 m us tb e an

in t
e ge r Ca . hi i t
ll t g s n e e r u so t hat (3 ,
5 y) 7 i t.

Th en 5y 7 u 3 .

Tre at i n g (3 ) as we t
h a ve j u s tr e at
ed ( l ) , we h ave
3 7u 3 2 u
u
5 5

Se t
(3 2 u) / 5 , which m us b i t
t g e n e ral , e q u al t
o v .

Th en 2 u 5 v 3 .

T re at
i n g ( 5) as we h ave al r e ad y t td ( I )
re a e and we h ave
3 5 v 1 v
~
1 —2 v 6
2 2

Wh en v h e fra c t
t i on al ter m ( 1 — v) / 2 van s i h es an d n h as t
h e

in t
e g r a l va l u e 1
Su b st it we O b t
.

ut in g u 1 in ain y 2
we O b t
.

Su b s t ut
it i n g y 2 in ain x 25
Hen c e t h e g e n er al i n t
e gral s ol u t
.

i o n o f ( 1) i s

Th e re are t wo p os i t
i ve so l u t
i on s c orresp o n d i n g tt o 1 an d t
: 0
re sp e c t
i vely n am ely :x y , ,
6 , 9 ; 25 , 2 .

h t
t
Ob se r ve i t h f ct i l tm f
a n
(6 ) t
eh mra ic l l on a er s o e nu er a va u e s

of t h c ffici
e tf y
oe m ly 5 2 l
en s om ly th cc i
u v, n a e a re e re e su e s s ve

cc i g i t f fi di g t g ttc m m
, , , , ,

rem i d a n e rs h op c u rr n h n e r o ess o n n e re a e s o on

di i ft
v sor oh gi c ffici t7 d 1 9 W fi l ly O b ti t
e ve n oe h m i d en s an e na a n e re a n er

c ffici t1 b c c m m f c t Th l i k w i l l
,
.

or oe en7 d 19 h e au se an a ve n o o on a or e e

b t if w pp ly t h m t h dt y q t
, .

e ru e e a i bye c i which e o o an e ua on ax n a

an d b h c m m f ct H c t
a ve n o h m t
o h d wi ll l w y y i l d
on a or en e e e o a a s e a

l t q t
.

so u i f onch o isu an e ua on

B t i p ct ic i t y tc m p l t t
.

u n i ld m
ra c e h
s se ck i g b o n e ess ar o o e e e re on n a o ve

i d ic t
n d Th h i g b ti d
a e w m igh t
u s, h Ob
av n dt h t o 1 a ne e a ve se r ve a u

2 ) 5 i t t c gi
.

w i ll m k ( 3 a e g l which w ld h
u n e y 2 ra ou a ve a on e ven u s

d t
,

an h f 25 b y
e r e ore x ,

Ob s e r ve tt
ha an equ a t
i on ax + by
"

c wi t
i

h i nt e gr al c o e ffi
'

t f whi ch
c i en s o d b h v c mm o a an a e a o n f ac t
o r a s d c a n h ave

i t f to f c
, ,

no g l n l ti e l d is l
ra so u F if on u n e ss a so a a c or or x an d

i t f ct O f
.
. , m

y w e re
g d w ld b n e by
er s, d th ou e a a or ax an f
er e or e

int t
‘

l
.

fc Th 4 6y 7 h a l i
“

o u s,
’

x as n o e r so u on .
g
.
.
34 6 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

Th en 3y +4z =5 u
—z
.

2 u
Solvm g fo r y , y u
3

Se t
(2 u z ) / 3 , w hich m us b e t i tg n e r al , e qu al t
o

Th en 2 2u 3v .

Su b s t
itt
i g ( 5) i u n n y u 4v .

Su it
b t t
i g (5 )
s u n an d 6
( ) i n

x = l O —6 u + 5 v .
( 7)
Th e fo r m u l as i n which i tv m ay h ave an y in tge r al val u e s

t c on s t h e g e n e r al so l u t
,

wh a so e ve r , it e t
ut i o n r e q u i re d
ut in g u 2 v 1 i n t Ob t
.

Su b s t it h e fo r m u l a s we a in a

i ve s olu t
p os i t
,

i on o f n a m e ly x 3 y 2 z 1 , , .

E XERCI SE LI V

tg
F in d h e en e ral int
e gr al sol u t
ion s o f t
h f e i g;
ollo w n al s o t
h p it
i
e os ve

in tg l l t
e i ra so u on s .

1 . 6x —l 7 y : l8 . 2 . 43 x — l 2 y = l 58 .

3 . 16 x + 39 y : 1 . 4 . 72 x + 2 3 y z 8 45 .

5 . 49 x — 27 y : 28 . 6 . 47 x — 97 y = 5 01 .

2x + 5y — 8 z = 27 , 5 x + 2 y = 42 ,

3y —7 z: 2 .

9 . 10 .

11 . Find he t nu m b e r Of h e t p it
i i tgos ve n e ral so lu t
i
on s O f t
h e e qu a t
i on
3 (D 7y z 1 043 .

12 ce t
R ed u h e fra c t
i o n 4 1 / 35 t
o a su m Of t
w o p osi t
i ve fr ac t
i on s
d en o m i n a t
.

wh ose ors a re 5 a n d 7 .

13 . A m an b u y s c al ve s a t$7 a h e ad an d la m b s a t$6 a head . He

s p en ds in a ll 3 1 10 . Ho w m an y d oes h e b u y o f e a ch C ’

14 Se p ar a t23 i tt
e h n o re e p ar t
s s u ch t
h at th e su m o f t i m es t
h re e t he
t
p tt p ar tan d fi ve t i m es the t hi r d p ar t
.

fi rs wic t
h ar , e e se o n d c , wi l l b e 7 9 .

15 F ind t
h e s m a ll es t mb
nu er which wh e n d i vi d e d b y 5 , 7 , 9 w i ll gi ve
t
.

h e r e m a n d e rs i 4, 6 , 8 .

16 Two r o ds o f e in t
q u al len g t
h
o 25 0 a n d 2 5 3 e q u al d i vi
ar e d i vi d ed
i ve ly I f o n e r o d is lai d a lo n g t
s i o n s re sp e c t he o th e r so t h at t
.

h e ir en ds
c o i n ci de which d i vis i o n s wi ll b e n e ar est o ge t
.

, t h er
 R AT I O AND PR O PO R TI O N

X IX . R ATI O AND PR O PO R TI O N . VAR I ATI O N

RAT I O AND PR OPOR T I ON

R a io t In ari th m e t i c an d al g e b ra i t
i c s t
u s o m a ry t o ex e t nd
t t t 21 5 t
.

h h w d
e u se o f i b
e ; d if
or d b ra o, o n um ers an a an

t yt td fi t t tb t
, ,

d e n o e an w n b h io f um h e r s, o e ne e ra o o a o as e

q ti
uont e b (C p a om a re

t i f tb i d n t
.

Th e ra d by
o o b by a b o s e o e a or a

I t t tc d t d b t
.

h n ti b w c ll
e ra h o a h c q et a a e an e e en an e on s e u en

P p t t t
.

i
ro er f i Si c es o i ch b
ra f c ti n
os n e ra o s su as a ar e ra o s,

th p p t f f ct
.

th i p p t i
e r ro er i i n
e s a re H nc e ro er es o ra o s . e e

Th e va l u e o f a ra t
i i o tc h
s no
g e d w h en bo h
an t f i ttm
o s er s

are m u t
l ip li ed or d iv id e d by t
h e s a m e n u m ber .

Thu s ,

On t
h t
h e o er h an d, ex c ep t wh en a b, t
h v e al u e o f a zb

is ch an g e d when b o t
h te r m s a r e r a i s ed tt
h o e sa m e
p o w e r or

t tb
,

wh e n h e s am e n u m be r is a dd e d o o th . I n p a r t i c u l ar,

If a, b, and In a re
p os i i ve, t t
h t
i e ra o a zb i s i n c r ea s ed by
a dd n i g In tb t
ho o a a n d b w h en a b ; d e c r ea s ed, wh en a b .

F or
a +m a m (b - ~
a )
b -
m ~ b b (b + m )

an d m (b a ) / b (b m ) is i ve o r n e gat
p os i t i ve a cc o rd in g as a b or a b .

Pr opor i on t W h en t
h t
i e ra os a zb an d o zd ar e e q u al , t
h e

tb t tb
.

fo u r num be rs a ,b c, d ar e sa i d o e in p ro
p or i on , or o e

t
,

p r op or i o n a l .

Th i s p r op o r t i o n m ay b e wr i tt en i n an y o f t
h w e ay s

a
/ b = c
/ ,
d or a :
b = c :
d or a :b zzc zd .

t I is r e ad
“
a istb o as c tdis o

I t t d t
h t
.

h p n e ro
p o r i on a b c: e e rm s a an d d are c a ll e d
t t t t
,

h e ex r e m es , a n d b an d c h Ag
e m ea n s ai n , d is c al l e d h e

h p r op o r t
fou r t t
.

i on a l o a, b . an d c .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

T h eorem In a ny t t
p r op or i on h e p r odu ctof t
h tm e ex r e es is
tt
h tft tt
.

e
qu a l o h a o e m ea n s ha is,

If th en ad = bc .

F or fro m a b c d we ti
ob a n ad be b y m e r ely c lear i n g o f fra c t
i on s .

E x a m pl e tc d df t h tm
Th e fir s se on an ou r er s of a p r o p or t
i on ar e

i ly ; fi d t
p ct h t
hi d tm
.
, ,

1 2, 3 d 5
,
an r es e ve n e r er .

Ca n h t
ll i g t hi d tm 1 2
e 3 :5r er so, a .

He n c e 5 —3 -
x,

o r , s ol v n i g fo r x ,
:
a 5 6 .

Con vers el y , if t
h p e r odu ct
o
f fi rs a
p a ir o
f t
n u m ber s be e q u a l

tt
h tf
o a o a s e on d c p a i r, t h e fou r n u m ber s wi ll be i n p r op o r i on t
wh e n a r r a n g ed in an
y o r d er wh ich m a k es on e o f t
h p e a i rs

m ea n s and t
h t
h e o er t
ex r e m es .

F or , le t ad bc .

D i vi d i n g b o t
hm em b e rs b y bd , we h a ve a /b c /d . Hen c e
a :
b: C :
d (1) an d C zd z a zb. (2)
Si m i l arly b y d i vi d i n g b o t
h m em b e rs of a d bc b y ed , a b, a n d ac in
tu rn , we o b a i n t
a :
C = b :
d ( 3) an d b zd z a zc , ( 4)
d zb z c za ( 5) an d c za z d zb, (6 )
d :
c = b :
a (7) an d b za
I
I
d zc .
(8 )

All owabl e
‘
r ear ra n g em en s of t t h tm f p p t e i er s o a ro or on Fr o m
t th t i p p t
.

6 8 3, 6 8 4 i f ll o ow s ifa b c d a, i ar e n ro or on wh en
ft t
, ,

ar r an g e d in an y o n e o h d ( )
1
e or h y w i
er sl l l e a so b e in

p r op o rt
i on wh e n ar ran g d i e y th f
n th an d o er o es e or er s In
t
.

p ar ic l u ar ,

1 . In any
p r op o r i o n t t
h tm e er s o f bo h t t
i ra os m a
y be i n t er

c h a n g ed .

T h us , i f a :b z c :d , t
h en

2 . In a n
yp r op o r t
i on ei t
h t
h m er e ea n s or t
h tm e ex r e es m a y

be i n t er c h a n g ed .

Th u s , if t
h en a zc z b zd .
35 0 A COLLE GE ALG E BRA

E x am ple 1 . If z:
(b
t
h en x2 y
2 z2 O .

F or m u l t h tm
iply i g t n e er s of h fi tt
t e i by t h
rs ft
h c d by
ra o as, o se o e se on

y, an d t
h ft h thi d b y
o se o e r z, a n d t
h pp ly i g t
h m w h
en a n our e or e , e a ve

x2 y
2 22 m2 y
?
z2

c ) scy z (c a ) xy z ( a
(b b) a y z 0

which e vi d en t hat
ly r e q u i res t cc ? y
? z2 z 0 .

Th e d e v i c e e m p l oy e d t h p f j t gi in e r oo us ve n wi l l b e f o u nd
u se u l f in d e ali n g w i t
h c p l i c td p b l m om a e ro e s i n p r o p or t i o n .

E x am p le 2 . Pro ve t
h t
if a a b a:y ,

t
h en a3 + 2 b3
za b
2 z z3 2
+ y 3 2
za y .

Se t a /b z x/ y z r, so t
h t a a z rb an d a z ry .

Th en ( a
3 2 b3 ) a b2 (r 3 b3 2 b3 ) / r b3 ( r3 2) r,

an d

t
Con i nu ed propor i on t Th e num ber s a, b, c d, a r e s a id to

c on t t
.
,

be i n in u ed
p r op o r i o n if a b b c d c
t
I f h r e e n u m be r s a , b, c ar e i n c on i n u e d p r op o r i on , t t sot h at
a zb b: t
c , h e n b i s c all e d a m e a n p r op or i o n a l o a t t an d c ,

an d c is call ed a t h i r d p rop r t i on a l to a o an d b.

If a, b c a r e i n c on t
, i n u ed p r op o r t
ion , t
h en b 2
ac .

F or s n i ce a b b c , we h ave b2 ac , 683 .

E X E RCI SE LV

1 Find a h p ro p ort
fo u rt i o n al t1 5
o 2 4, an d 20 ; hi r d p r op o r t
at ion al
t1 5 t
.

t
,
'
o an d 24 ; a m e an pL op o r i o n al b e we e n 5 a 3 2
b an d 2 0 a bz;
'

a m e an
p r op or t
i o n al t
b e wee n an d V 75 .

2 . If 3 x —2 y : a al so a +y x —y
: .

3 . I f 2 a2 — 5 xy a ls o y zx .

4 . If az + by + c z = 0 an d

t
h en x zy zz = bc ’
—a b '
.

5 . If a b c ( 1, t
h en ab cd is a m e an pr o p or t
i o n al b et
ween as c2

an d b2 d2 .

6 . If t
h it
h en e e r a zb z c zd or a zb z d zc .
 R ATI O AND PR O PO R T I O N . VARI AT I O N

7 .

3 3 3
8 . 1f
x
—y
a b c b3

9 t
I f h e n u m b e rs a1 , a2, [n posi
ar e al l

t
i t t e rm ed i at
.

h i l
ve , e ra o l al lza z ln a n l l bl lg bg is i n t e

in va lu e tt
h g
o e rea e s tt d l an ea s tf t
hot
i e ra os al bl , az bz, an

10 . If a — b zk z b— c zl z c —a zm ,
an d a, b, c ar e u n e q u al , t
h en

k l m 0 .

11 . If a zm z —n y z
y zn a — lz z z zly —mx , t
h en lx + m y + nz =0
a n d cc
2
+y + 2 z2 =0

12 . If al bl az l
1
bg ag t
bg ,
t
h en ea ch of t
h es e rat
i os is e qu al to

(h a ? lg a g 1g a 3 ) :(11 b; 1
lg b "
. lg bfl

13 . By a id o f 68 6 s o l ve e a ch of t
h f e o llo w n i g equ at
i on s .

x2 + ax — a 2 m2 + a
(1) — ax + —a
xfi a 2 xz

2 x3 — 3 x2 +2 x + 2 3 m3 — a 2 + 1 0 m — 26
2
2 x3 — 3 x2 — 2 x — 2 3 x3 — a 2 — 10 x + 26

14 . Se p ar a t h t520 i tt
t
i 2 3 5
e h n o r ee p ar t
s in e ra os .

1 5 Tw c k A d B fill d w i t
o ht
w ki d
as f h
s y mi d i an a re e o n s o s err xe n

Ai t t t i 3 7 Wh tm tm t b t
.

h n i 3 5 i Bi t
e ra h o k n n e ra o a a ou n us e a en

ch c k tf m m i t which h ll c i tf 6 g ll
.
,

f m
ro ea as o f
or a x u re s a on s s o a on s o on e

ki d n d 12 g ll
an ft
h t
h ki d a on s o e o er n

VARI AT I ON

On e i n dep enden t variab l e If t

w o v ari ab l e s y an d a :ar e so

t th w t t t
.

r el a e d th a h i o e ve r e r v al u es m ay c h an g e h i e r ra i o

r e m ain s co n s an en ttt h y i
s s ai d o v a r y a s x o r y an d so a r e t
t
, ,

s ai d o v ary p r op o r t i on al l
y
t
.

M or e br i efl y y i s said o v a r v a s a: wh e n y / a: c o r y cx

t t
, , ,

wh e r e 0 d e n o es a c o n s ta n
t
.

Th e n o t a i o n y 00 a m e an s y var i e s a s at
“

tt t t
.

I f g i v e n h a y v a r i e s a s a w e m ay a o n c e wr i e y ex ; ,

an d i f al so g i v e n o n e a i r o f c o r r e s o n d in
p g v al u e s o f a:an d
p
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A
‘

y w e m ay fi n d 0 Th e equ a t
i on c on n e c t
in g y an d a:i s h e n t
t e t
com p u t
,
.

k n own , a n d f r o m i w e m ay he va l u e o f y w h i h c
c o r r e sp o n d s t o an y g i ve n va lu e o f 93 .

E x am ple . If y i
va r e s as a , a n d y 12 w h en a: 2, w is t
h at h e valu e
of y w h en z = 20 ?
W e h a ve y ex ,

an d, by h y pot
h es i s t
hi s e q u a t
,
i on is sa t
i fi s ed wh e n y z 12 , a: 2 .

He n c e 12 c 2, t
h ti a s cz 6 .

Th er efor e y z 6 as .

He n c e wh e n a:z 20 we h ave y z 6 20 z 120 .

Ins td
ea o f v ar
y in g as a :i t
s el f y m ay v a r
y a s so m e fu nc t i on
t
,

o f ac , fo r ex am p l e a s 33
2
o r as so 1, or a s 1 / x I n p ar i c l u ar ,

h t
t
.
,

if y v a r i e s as 1 / x, we say y a v a ri e s i n ve r s ely a s 90 .

E x a m p le G i ve n h t
t y i t
a h m s e su of a c o n st
an tan d a tm
er which
h t
.

i
v ar e si n ve rsely as a; a so a l t
en f
cy z 1 wh 1, an d y 5w h en a: 1
F in d th e e q u at
.

i on c o n n e c t
i n g a:an d y .

By h y p ot h e s is y z a b / a:wh ere a a n d b are an t

c o n st s

Sin c e thi s e q u a t
, ,

i on is s a t
.

i sfie d b y a:z 1 , y z 1 a n d b y a:
, l, y 5,
w e h a ve — b
1 z a an d 5 a +b .

He n c e a z 3, b 2, an d t
h e re q u i re d e q u at
i on is y z 3 2/x .

More t
h an on e i n dep en den tvari able Let ac an d y de n o t e

tf t t
.

v ari a bl e s wh i c h ar e i n d e p e n de n o on e h
an o er If a hi d r

t cty t
h t
.

v ar i a bl e z v ar i e s a s h p e ro d u x so z a cr
y , w e say
t t t tt
,

h t a z va r i es a s x a n d
y j o n i ly an d if z v ar i e s a s h e q u o i en
x y, so t
h tz a c a: y ,
we say t
h t a z v a ri es d i r ec ly t as x an d
i n ve r s e ly as
y .

Th u s t h e area o f a r e c t a n gl e va r i e s a s th e l e n gt hs o f it s b ase a n d a l t
i
t u de j oi n t
ly ; a n d t
,

h e le n gt
h of t h e al t itu d e va r i e s d i r e c t
l y as t h e are a an d
i n ver sely as t h of t
h e le n g t h e b a se .

Th eorem If w h en x i s c o n s t ant 2 v a r i es a s n d w h
y a en
y
i s c on s t
.

a nt 2 v a r i es a s x t
h e n w h en bo t
,

h x a n d y v a r y z v a r i es
as t h e p r od u c t
, ,

xy .

For se l e ct
an y t
h r ee p a i r s : y
o f va l u es o f a a n d su ch as x1 , y 1 ; x2 , y 2 ;
t za d e n o t
e t h t
t
,

yz ; an d le zl , 22, h e c orres p o n d i n g va l u e s o f z, so a
 A CO LLE G E ALG EB R A

XX . AR I THM E TI CAL P R O G R E SSI O N

Ari t
hm t
i l e ca prog res s i on . Th i s i s g i v en
n am e t o a se q u e n ce
of n u m whi c h m ay b e
be r s d e r i v e d f r o m a g i v en num be r a by
r e e a e dl
p y t
a ddi n g a g i ve n n u m b e r d , h t
t i t a s, o an y se q u e n c e

wh i ch m ay b e w r i e n i n h e f o r m t
t t
— 1) d I
.
( )
Sin c e d is t
h d i ff
e c btw eren e e ee n e v er y t
w o c o n s e cu t
i ve
te rm s of
( ),
I iti c ll d t
s h c a e e om m on d if er en c e of t
hi s ar i t
h
t
c
m e i al p r o g re ss i o n .

Th u s '

2, 5, 8 , 1 1 is an ith m et
ar ic al p r o gr ess i o n i n which d 3, an d

arit
hm et
,

2, 1, 4, 7 is an ic al p r og ress i o n i n which d 3 .

Th e n t
h tm er tt
Ob se r v e h a i n (I ) h e tc o e ffi c i en t
o f d in ea ch
th t t t
.

of e d 2d i l h
er m s a , a h b a s on e e ss an e num er

ft H c t t
h t i
, ,

d w c ll t
o h t m e h g n ler
( 1 ) d en e e e e ra or m er m s a m

d if t t f t h l t
.

an h i b i e en re nu m er o e rm s s n an e a e as

t l w h
erm t
h f m l
,
e av e e or u a

l = +( — 1) d
a n .
( )
11

E x a m pl e Th e s even t
h tm er of a n a r it
h m et
ic al p r ogress i on i s 1 5 a n d
ttt h tm i 2 1 ; fi d t
h fi ttm a an d t
.

i s en er s n e rs er h e c o m m on d i ffe r e n c e d ;
an d if th ti mb f tm i 2 0
e en re n u er o . er s s ,
fi nd I .

We h ave a + 6 d = 15 an d a + 9 d = 2l .

Solvi n g fo r a an d d, a 3, d 2 2 .

Hen c e I: 3 41 .

Th e su m E v i d en l ytth n t tth l t t e ex o e as e rm of I
( ) m ay

tn t tm b f th t t
.

b e wr i t e l —d , h e l —2 d
er e ore a , ,
h e fi r st
t er m l (n 1) d
tt t
, .

H e n c e , if S d en o h
e e su m of h t e e rm s o f ( )
I ,
w e h ave

S = l + (l —
( n
 AR I T HM E TI CAL PR O G R E SSI O N

t
Addi n g he c o rre sp o n d i n g m em b er s of th e se t
w o e qu a ti on s,
We o bt ai n 2 S (
n a l) Th er e f or e .

E x a m pl e F in d t
h e su m o f an ithm et
ar ic al p r o gress i o n o f s ix tm er s

tm
t
.

w h o se fi r s er is 5 an d wh o se c o m m o n d i ffe r en c e is 4 .

Sin c e n = 6 , we h ave
Hen c e S g( 5 2 5) 90
.

Ap pli c a t
i n o s I f in an a ri t
h c
m e t i al p r o g r e ssi o n an y t
h ree

t t
.

of h fi
e ve n u m be r s a l, d , n, S ar e g i ve n , h e f o r m u l a s ( I I )
an d I
( )I I en a b le us tfi o nd th t t e o h er wo Th e o n l y r e s r i c t
t t i t h tt d t
.

i n o onh gi e v en n u m be r s s h y b a e e su ch as w i ll l e a o

pos it
i i t
ve g n e r al v al u e s o f n .

E x a m p le . G i ve n d = 1: S fin d a an d n .

it
t t 1
2
n
Su b s i gi
u n n
(I I ) , (I I I) , a
g a

15
r
2 2

E li m i n at
in g a, n2 In 30 z 0 .

So l vi n g n 10 or 3 .

Th e val u e n is i n a d m i ss i b l e Su b s it
t t
i gu z 10 i n
n n we
ti h m et
.

ob a n a 3 . He n c e n z 10 , a 3, an d t
h e ar i t ic al p r o gre ss i o n
is — 3, 2, —1 ,

Ari t
hm t
i l m e ca ean s If t
h re e n u m be r s f o rm th m e i c al
a n ar i t
t c all e d t h m et
.

a ri t
p r o g r es si o n , h e m i ddl e n um ber is he i c a l m ea n
t tt
of h e o her wo .

Th e t
arihm t
i l e ca m ea n f
o an
y t
w o nu m ber s a and b is on e

h a lf o
f t
h i m e r su .

F o r i f a:
be th it
hm tic l m e ar e a e a n o f a an d t t
b, h enh e se q u en c e a, a, b
is an ar hm t
it ic l p g
e i a ro r e ss o n .

He n c e z ; a : b —a ,

an d t
h f
e r e or e : (a
a b) 2 .
356 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

In an y th t
ic l p g
ar i mei h i nt m d i tt m
ll t a ro re ss on a e er e a e er s

m ay be c ll d t
a h it
e h ti l e f t h
ar fi t d l t me ca m e an s o e rs an as

te rm s It i lw y p s i b l ti
a a t i tp l t y
s os s e o n s er or “
n er o a e
”
an

b t t
.

n u m b er of ch su w w gi
m e an s b d b e e en o ven n u m er s a an .

E x am pl e . In tp l tf
er hm t
it
o a e ic l m ou r ar e a ea n s b e we en 3 t d 5 an .

We ar e ask e d tfi dt
o h i tm d i t
n tm e n er e a e er s of an a r it
hm t
ic l p e a r o g res

i
s on hich a :
in w 3, l = 5 , an d n =4 + 2 or 6
Su b s t
it
ut
.

in g l 5, a 3, n z6i n ( I I ) we h a v e
,

5 z 3 5 d , wh en c e d : 2 / 5 .

Hen c e h e t re qu i r e d m e a n s a r e 3 g, 3 g, 4g .

E XE R CI SE L VI I

1 F in d w t
h t
t eh tm
i t en e er an d t
h e su m of t t
h fi tw t
y tm e rs en er s of

of — 3, — l
% ,

2 . F i n d a fo r m u l a for t
h e su m t tmo n er s o f 1, 2 , 3, of 1 , 3, 5,
of 2, 4, 6 , - u
.

3 F in d h e t su m of t
h fi t e rs n num b er s of t
h f e or m 6 r 1 , wh er e r

t0 p os i t
i ve i n t
.

d en o es or a eger .

4 Fin d t
h it
h m et
e aric al p ro gr ess i on of t tm
en er s wh ose fif h tm
t er is
ht
.

1 an d w h ose e igh t er m i s 2 .

5 . I n se r fi ve t ar it
h m et
ic al m e an s t
b e ween 1 an d 2

6 .

7 . G i ven n = 7, l 7, d fin d a an d S .

8 . G i ve n n : l 2, a

9 . G i ve n a z 2, l S 55 9 ; fi n d n an d d .

10 .

11 . G i ve n a z 4, d 9g ; fin d n an d S .

12 . G i ve n n 9, d 4, S 1 3 5 ; fin d a an d l .

13 . G i ve n n = 1 0, l : 2 , S : 1 1 5 ; fin d a an d d .

14 . G i ve n d 5, l 47 , S 3 57 ; fi n d n an d a .

15 . G i ven a :

16 . Sh o w t
h tif a a2, b2 , c 2 are in ar hm et
it ic al p ro g ress i o n , so als o ar e

n o a ) . l / (a b) .
35 8 A C OL LE G E ALG E BR A

Th e su m . Le tS d e n ot e t
h e su m of t
h g e eo m e r i al t c p ro~

g r e s s i on
( )
I .

l
Th e n " '

-
ar

2 —2 l
an d
" " ‘
"
rS ar ar ar ar ar .

Su btr a c tin g h e t se o c nd of th ese e qu a t i o n s f r om t

h fi e t we
rs ,

o btai n ( 1 r
) S a ar
"
. Th e re f or e

In app ly i n g thi s f or m u l a o an i n c r easin g g eom etri c al t pr o

g r ess i on we m ay m or e c on ve n i e ntly wr i e i th u s : tt
S = a
( r
"

F r om ( ) we
I I o bt ai n rl ar
"
H en c e ( I I I ) m ay al so be
t
t n t
.
,

wr i e h us :S = ( a r
) ,
or S ( rl

E xam p le In t
h g e eo m e r tic l p a ro gressi on 2, 4, 8 , 16 , t ight
o e

tm
.

er s, fin d l an d S .

Her e a = 2, r

Hen c e, b y ( I I) , I 2 256 ,

1 51 0
an d a b Y (111 S =2
1 _ 3

Appl i ca t
i n o s I f in a g eom t c
e r i al p r og ressi o n an y th ree of

t t
.

h fi e ve n u m b er s a, l, r, n , S ar e g i ve n , h f e or m u l a s
( )
I I an d

( )
I I I d e t er m in e t
h e o t h er t
w o . M o r e o v e r t h e se wo n u m b e r s t
c an be a c tu ally fou n d b y m e th od s al r e ad y e x pl ain e d , e x c ep t
wh en t
h gi
e n n um be r s ar e a n , S or Z n S I f o n e of h e
ve t
t t
.
, , ,

un k n ow n n u m be r s i s n i m u s t be f ou n d by i n s p e c t i o n ; b u
,

t h i s i s al way s p o ssi bl e if adm i ss i bl e v al u es h ave b ee n assi g n e d

tto h e g i v e n n u m b e r s s i n c e n wi l l h en b e a p o si t i v e i nteg e r
, t .

E x a m pl e 1 . G i ven r 3, n 6, S 7 2 8 ; fin d a an d l .

Su b s t
itt
i gt
u h gi n e ven va l u es in (I I ) an d (I I I ) we h ave,

36 l
l = a -
35 = 2 43 a , an d 72 8 = a 36 4 a .

Solvin g t
h es e e qu at
i on s , a 2, l 48 6 .
 G E O M E T R I CAL PR O G RE SSI O N

E x am p le 2 . G i ven a 6, n 5, l : fin d r an d S .

By (I I ) , 2 / 27 = 6 r4 , wh en c e r4 = 1 / 81, or r z
i l/S .

Therefore , b y (I I I i fr =1 3 , t
h en s =6
1 2 42
27
,

an d if
l 1 3) 27

Hen c e t
h e re a r e t
w g o e om e r tic al p ro gr ess i on s i n which a 6, n 5,
an d l

E x am p l e 3 . G i ve n a 3, l 468 7 5, S 39063 ; fin d r an d n .

Su b s t
iti gi t
t uh f n n e or m u l a S (a ri ) (1 r ) , 7 01 , we h ave
3 46 8 7 5 r
3 906 3

Th erefore b y ( I I ) 468 7 5 3 1 -

or 5)“ l 1 56 2 5
Bu t b y fa c t
.
, , ,

or i n g 1 56 25 we fin d 1 56 2 5 56

Hen c e n 1 6 t h atis n , 7 .

E xa m p le 4 . G i ven a 3, n 5, S 93 ; fi n d r an d l .

f
1 _
By (I I I ) ,

Hen c e r4 + r
3
+ r2 + r

Thu s t his p r ob lem i n vo lves solvi n g an e qu at i on o f t h e fou r th d egr ee ;

an d i n g e n e r al wh en a n S a r e t h e giv en n u m b e rs t o fi n d r we m u st

s ol ve an e q u a t i on o f t In t hi s p ar t
, , , , ,

h e d e gre e n 1 ic u la r c as e h oweve r
we m ay fin d on e va lu e o f r b y t h e m et h o d o f § 455 I t
.
, ,

is 2
Su b s tut
it
. .

i n g r 2 i n ( I I ) we h ave l 3 24 48 , .

Geom e ti l
r ca m ean s If t
h ree n u m be r s f o rm g eo m e ri al
a tc
t t t
.

p r o g r e ss i o n, h m iddl
e e n u m be r is c al l e d h e g eo m e r i c a l m e a n
of t
h e o th er t
w o .

Th e g eom tc e ri a l m ea n f any o t
w o nu m ber s a and b is a

s qu a r e r oo tf t
h i o e r p r od u c t .

For if x be t h e ge o m e t r ic a l m ean o f a a n d b t h e s e q u en c e a, a, b is
g e o m et
,

a r ic a l p ro gr ess i o n .

Hen c e a:a b N:a n d t h er efo re a: i xfdb .

In an y c
g eom e t r i al p r o g r e ss i o n al l h e i n t er m edi at e t e r m s t
m ay be c t tc
all e d h e g e o m e r i a l m e an s o f h e fir s t an d l as te r m s t t .
 A C O L LE G E ALG E B R A

We m ay i n se r ty an nu m b e r o f s u c h m e an s be t we e n t
w g iv
o en

num be rs a an d b, as in t h e f o ll o wi n g e x a m p l e .

E x am ple I n se r t
. fou r g e o m e t r ic a l m e a n s b e t
we en 1 8 a n d 2 2 7 .

It i s r e q u i r ed to fin d t h e in t e rm e d i at e t er m s o f a ge o m e tr ic al p r ogr es

s i on i n W hich a = 1 8 l = 2 / 2 7 a n d n : 4 2 z 6 r

Su b s tit ut
.
, ,

in g t h e gi ve n va lu e s i n ( I I ) w e h a ve ,

1 8 r 5 wh en c e r ,

He n c e t h e m eans a r e 6 2 , ,

I nfini td
e ec rea s i n g geom e ri c t s eri es . W e c all an e x p r essi o n of

t
h f e o rm
a ar ar
2
ar
" ‘
l
( )
1

su pp o se d c on t
i n u ed t td
wi h ou en an i nfi n i tg
e tc
eo m e r i s er i es

t t t tm
.
,

of h fi i
By h f e o rm u l a I
( )I I h m ,
e su e rs t n er s of
( )
1 s

a
(1 r
)
tt tly
.

Su p p o s e h a r 1 n u m er i cally Th en , as n i s i n de fin i e

t 7 24 t
.

i n c re as e d, r
"
w i ll ap p r o ac h 0 as li m i an d h e r e or e f
it W
, ,

a
( 1 r
) w il l app r o a ch a / ( 1 r
) as l im e c all
th i s l i m i t
t t t
.

he s u m of h i e n fin i e se r i e s H en c e, if S den o te
t
h e su m of w e h a ve
a

1 r

E x am pl e 1 .
- o
.

Her e a z l an d r : 1/2 .

He n c e S : 1 / [1

E x a m p le 2 . F in d t
h e va l u e o f th c i g d ci m
e re u rr n e al . 7 2 32 3

Th e p a r w hicht re c u rs m a y b e w itt
r
23
+
23
en + ’
an d , b y “2
1000 100000

t
h e su m of th t
i s i n fi n i e se ri es i s
1
. 023

01 fl
23

)
Add i n g 7 , . h p t
t wh ch
e ar i

d o es no tc
re u r , we ob a n ti fo r h e t val u e o f t
h gi e ven d e ci m al
3 58
495

E XE R CI SE LVI II

1 Fin d t
h h tm
fift e er an d t
h e su m of t
h e fi rs tfi tm ve er s of t
h e

g e om e t
.

r ic a l p r o g r es s i o n 2 ,
6 , 18 ,

2 F ind t h e fou r t ht er m an d t
h e su m of h fi t
t f e rs ou r tm er s of t
h e

g eo m e t
.

r ic al p r o g r ess i o n 4 6 , , 9,
 A CO LLE G E AL G E B RA

XX I I . HAR M O N I CAL PR O G R E SSI O N

Harm oni c al p rog res s i on Th i s n am e t

i s g i v en o a se q u e n c e of
t t
.

n u m b er s wh o se r e c ip r o c al s f o rm an a r i h m e i c al p r o g r es s i o n ,

t
th a i s t o a n y s e q u e n c e w h i c h m ay b e
,
ti t
w it r h f en n e or m

l / a, + (n
Th u s 1 , ,
an d are h ar m on ic al
p rog r essi on s .

E x am p l e . Pr o ve t
h tif
a a, b, c are in h ar m o n ic al p rogr ess i o n t
h en ,

a :c :=a — b :b —C .

Si n c e 1 / a , 1 b, 1 c is a n ar h m et
it ic al p r o gr ess i o n ,
we h ave
1 /b —l / a z l /c 1/b .

Hen c e c ( d -
c ) , t
h t
i
a s a zc z a — b zb —c .

To fin d an y t
p a r i c u l ar te rm o f an h ar m i c al p r o g r e s s i on ,
on

we o bt
ai n th t cc p i t
e e r m w h i ch
h o u es e s am e p o s i i o n i n t he t
c o r r e sp o n di g it
h t
ic l p g
n i
ar me a ro r e ss o n an d in v e r t
it .

E x am pl e . F in d t h tm
h tte en er of t
h h e a rm on ic al p r og ress i on 3 / 5,

By 6 95 , t h tm
h tte en er of t
h c
e orres h m et
p o n d i n g ar i t ic al pro gress i on
is he t
Hen c e t en t ht erm o f

is 3 23 .

Harm on i c al m ean s I f hree t num b ers ar e i n h ar m on i c al p r o

t t
.

g r e ssi on , h e m i ddl e n u m b e r i s a ll e d c h e h a r m on i c a l m ea n
t t t
o f h e o h er wo Ag ain , i n an y h ar m c
o n i al p r o g r es si o n all

h i tm di ttm
t t
.

e n er e a e er s m ay be c all e d h h e a r m on i c a l m ea n s

ft
o h t tm e ex re m e er s .

E x am p l e 1 . F in d th h e ar m o n ic al m e a n o f a an d b.

If t
hi s m ean b e a , t
h 1 en a, 1 / c 1 b is
,
an a r h m et
it ic al progressi on .

He n c e 1/a —1 / x , or

Th er efo re a: z 2 a b (a b) .

E x a m pl e 2 Pro ve t h at th e ge o m et r ic al m e an o f t wo n u m b e r s a an d b
i s al so th e g eo m etr ic al m e a n o f t h m et
h e i r ar i t
.

ic al an d h arm o n ic al m e an s .

Le t A G an d H d e n o t
, e r es pe c t
, i vely t h e ar i thm et ic al geo m et ric al an d , ,

h ar m o n ic al m ean s o f a an d b .
 HAR MONI CAL PR OG RESSI ON 36 3

a +o
Then ,
2

— a +b 2 ab
Hen c e Ali .
ab z GZ
'

2 a +b

E x a m p le 3 . Pr o ve t
h t
wh a e n a an d b a re p os i t
i ve A , G H .

a b 2 ab ( b) 2
A —H
a
W e h ave
2 a +b m+ m 2

Th f
e re or e , s ni c ( e a b) 2 2 (a b) is p os i t
i ve w e h ave A H
in t
er m e d i at tA
, .

An d sin ce by E x, . 2 , G is e in val u e o an d B , we
A G H .

E XE R CISE LI X

1 Co n t
i t
h
nue e h ar m on ic al p r o gr essi on 3 / 5, 3 / 7 , for t
w o
tm
.

er s .

2 . F in d h e th ar m o n ic al m e an of 3 4 an d 5 .

3 . I n ser t
f ou r h a r m on ic al m ean s b e we e n 1 0 t an d 15 .

4 Th e c
se o n d a n d ht
fou r t e r m s o f a n h ar m o n i c a l p ro g r es s i o n a r e 4 5
tt hi d tm
.

an d 4 . F in d h e r er .

5 Th e arit
hm t ic l m f t
ew a ean o o n u m b ers is 4 an d t
h i e r h arm on ic al
Fi d t
.

m ean i s 1 5 4 . h mb n e nu er s .

6 . Th e g m t
eo ic l m e rftw a e an o o nu m b e rs i s 4 an d t
h i e r h ar m o n ic al
m ean i s 1 6 / 5 . F in d t
h e nu m b ers .

7 . Sh o w t
h tifa a, b, c ar e in h ar m o n ic al pr ogr essi on ,
so als o ar e

a/ ( b + c) ,
b/ (c a ) ,

8 Th re e n u m b ers ar e i n h arm o n ic al p rog r ess i on Sh o w t h at i f h alf

of t h e m i ddl e t e d fro m e a ch t
rac t
.

e r m b e su b t s w i ll b e i n g e o m e t
h e r e su lt
.

r i c a l p ro gr ess i o n .

9 . Sh o w h t
t if a :is
a t
h h e a r m on ic al m e an t
b e we e n a an d b, t
hen

1/ (x
10 th t ic l gl 0 f t
Th e b i se c h t i gl AB C m t
t
or of e ve r a an e o e r an e ee s

t AB t d t
h b i ct f t ti gl t tA B
.

’
h b
e D
ase h a C m
an e se or o e e x er or a n e a ee s

p d c d t Sh w th t
,

ro uE e AD AB A E
a i h m
. ic l p go i a , ,
’
ar e n ar on a ro r ess o n .

11 Th p i t P li ti d f ci cl wh c t i O d t
e o n h es o u s e o a r e o se e n er s an e

tg tf P tch t tT d T I f t tt
.
,

h ci c l h li PO m h ’
an en s ro m ou e r e a an e ne ee s e

i cl t d TT t 0 h wt PC i t
h t
.

c r A
e a d B an h h m an ic l m ’
a s o a s e ar on a e an

b t
,

e w PA
e en d PB an .
 A CO LLE GE ALGE B RA

XX I I I . M ET HO D O F D I FF E R E N CE S . AR I TH
M E TI C AL PR O G R E SSI O N S O F HI G HE R
.

O RDE R S . I N TE R P O LAT I O N

ARI T HME T I CAL PR OGRE SS I ONS OF HI GHE R OR DER S

Differen ces of v ari ou s orders I f in an y g i v e n s e q u en ce of

bt
ra ct tm f m t t t
.

n u m b e r s we su e a ch h
er ro e n ex f o l l o wi n g er m

we o b t ll d t
h fi td ft
,

ai n a se q u en ce c a e f d ifi e rs or er o
’

er e n c es o h e

g i ve n se q u en ce ; i f we t tt hi
rea w q c i s ne se u en e n a si m il ar
m an n e r , w e o b a i n tt
h c
e s e o n d o r d er o f d ifi e r en c es
'

of t
h gi v
e en

se q u e n ce ; an d s o o n .

Thu s ,
t gi
i f he qu e n c e b e 1 3 2 3 3 3
ve n se , , , we h ave
gi ve n se qu en c e 1 8 27 , , , 6 4, 12 5 , 2 1 6 ,
fir st d i fferen c e s 7 19 37 , , ,
6 1, 91 ,
se c on d d ifi e r en c es 1 2 1 8 24 , , , 30,
thi rd d i fi er en c es 6 6 6 , , ,

Th e fou r t
h an d all su b seq u en t d i ffe r en c es ar e 0 .

Ari t
hm t
i l p e ca i
rog res s on of t
h t
h e r or der Th i s n am e i s given
t t
.

o a se q u e n ce wh o s e r h d i ff e re n ce s ar e e q u al , a n d wh o se

su b s eq u e n td i ff er en ce s ar e th e re o r e f 0.

Th u s 1 3 , 2 3 , 3 3 , 43 , it h m et
is ic al p r ogressi o n of t
an a r he thi r d o r d e r
s h o wn i t s t
,

fo r as j u s t
,

hi rd d iffer e n c es are e q u al
h m et
An o r d i n ar y a r i t h e fi r st
, ,

ic al p r o g ress i o n § 694 i s o f t
.

o r d er e a ch

s fir st
of i t d iffe re n c e s b e i n g t
, , ,

h e c o m m o n d i ffe re n c e d .

Th e n t
h tm er of an ari t
hm t
i l e ca p rog res s i on of t
h t
h
e r order

t t t t
.

G iv en an y ar i h ic lme a p r o g r e s si o n of h h e r o r de r

an “ 2; a s; “ 47 a
( )
1
an d le td l, d 2, d, de n o tt
h fi t t e e rs e rm s o f i t
s su cc e ssi v e
t b ti
.

o rd e r s o f d i ffer e n c e s . W e ar e o o a n a f or m u l a fo r a ,, in
t erm s o f a ,, d ,, d z, an d n

td
.

Th e fir s or er o f d iffe re n ce s of
(1) is
— (l l ,
aa — a z, “ 4
 A COLLE GE ALG E BR A

F or m t
h e s eq u e nce of wh i ch ( )
1 i t
s h e fi r st or der of differ
en c e s, n a m e ly :

Th e n S, i s t
h ( e n ttm f 1) h er o an d si n c e ( 2) is an

t
ari
h tic l p g me a ro r e ss on i f t
h ( o e n 1) h t o rd e r w h o se fir s t
t i 0 dt
er m h fi s ,
an e rs t t f it erm s o s s eve r al o r de r s o f di ff e r en c e s
a re a l , d1 , d2 , dr , w e h a v e , b y ( ),
I

“ 1 +
1 -
2

E x am p le . Fin d t
h e su m o f h e fi rs t fift tm
t e en er s of 1 3, 23 , 3 3 , o .

He re § 7 08 ,
, n = l 5, a1 d 2 : 12 , d 3 = dr 2 6

He n c e 8 1 7 6 1 4400 .

Pi l es of s p eri c al sh o h t1 To fin d t
h e nu m b er o f sh o t wh e n
t t ti
. .

h p il
e e h as h f e or m of a r an u l ar
g py r a m i d .

Th e tp co o u rs e con t
ai n s 1 s ho tt
h e n ex t
l o we r c o u r se 1 2 s h o tt
he
t
, ,

n ex 1 2 3, a n d so on

t t is t
hot tm
.

He n c e , if h e r e a re n c ou rses h e n um b er of s h e su m of n er s

t
,

of h q e se c e 1 3 6 10 1 5
u en

fi rst
d i ffe r e n c es o f t
, , , , ,

Th e hi s se qu en c e are 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , an d t
h c
e se on d
di fi ere n c es ar e 1, 1 1,
He n c e 1 , 3 , 6 , is a n ar h m et
it ic al p rog r essi o n of t
h c
e s e on d o r d e r in
which al z l , d 1 : 2 , dz z l .

( — 1) —
Th er efor e , b y ( I I) , z n
n u n ( u -
1) ( 2)
n

1 -
2 -
3

Th u s ,
in a pile of w t
t y c en o u rs es t
h ere ar e 20 21 22 6 z 1 540 sh o t .

2 To fin d th e nu m ber o f sh o t wh e n t
h p il e e h as t
h f e or m

id wi t
.

of a r am h b as e
py a s q u a re .

E n u m er a t
i g t
h n e s hot
b y c ou rses as b efo r e , w e ob a n ti t
h e se qu en c e
1 2 , 2 2 , 3 2 , 42 ,
Th e fi rs t
d i ff er en ces ar e 3 , 5, 7 , an d t
h c
e se o n d a r e 2 , 2,
He n c e 1 2, 2 2, 32 , is a n ar h m et
it ic al p ro gress i o n of t
h c
e s e o n d or d er
i n which al : 1 , d 1 : 3 , dz 2 .
 ME THOD O F D I F F E R E NCE S

n ( n —l
) n ( —ul )( n — 2)
Th erefore , b y (I I ) , Sn n 3 +
1 -
2 1 2 3

1 -
2 -
3

Th u s ,
wh e n n 20, t
h pi l
e e c on t
ain s 20 2 1 41 6 2 8 70 s hot .

3 To fin d th e num b er o f sh o t wh e n t
h p il
e
'

e h as a r e c an t
d t tt
th t t
.

g u l ar b ase an e r m i n a es a p i e o n a r o w of sho
p .

Ag a i n en u m e ra i g t
t h
n e s h otb y c ou r ses , we ob a n ti t
h e se qu e n c e
19,
Th e firs t
d iff e r en c es are p 2, p 4, p 6, an d t
h c
e se on d d iffer
e n c e s are 2, 2 ,
Hen c e p , 2 ( p 3 (p is an ar it
hm et
ic al pr o g ressi o n of t
h e

c
se o n d o r d e r i n which al p , dl p 2, an d d2 2 .

n ( u — l ) (n — 2)
1
— 2
)
1 -
2 -
3

Th u s ,
wh e n n 2 0 an d p z5 , t
h e num b er of s ho t
i s 20 21 53 / 6 37 10 .

A t
heorem r es pec t
i ng ari t
hm t
i l e ca p rog res s i on s An e x am in a
t t t t
h t thm t
.

i on of h e for m u l a fo r h e n e rm of an ic l
a ri e a

p r o g ress i o n of t
h t
h e r or d er , 7 1 0, ( I ) will s h w th t
o if w a e

c ar ry o u t t i p li c at
h e i n di c a t e d m u l t g t lt
,

i o n s an d a r r a n e h e resu

a cc o r di n g t
o d es c e n di n g p o w e r s o f n w e c an r e u e ,
d c it tt h o e

f or m
”‘ 1
a ,, bon ’
bl n b

wh e r e t
h c e oe ffi c i e n t s b, , b, , b, . ar e i n d e p e n de n t of n .

Th u s , wh en r 2 . we h ave

a1 + (n
d2 3
n
2
+ (a1 am ( a1 dl d g)
5
.

Th er e f o r e t
h e t erm s of an y ar i t
h t
ic l
me a p r o g r e s si o n of

t
h th de r or er , a , , a , , a 3 , ar e t
h e v al u e s for n z 1 , 2, 3 ,
f
o c ti a er a n o
p yl n om i al bon ”
bl n r "
l
b, wh o se d eg r e e
t th
.

wi th r es
pe ct o n is r . We ar e g oi n g o s ow c o nv e r sely th at
 A CO LLE G E ALGE BR A

T h eorem If d ( x ) d e n o t e a ny ra t
i on a l in tg
e ra l fu n c t
i on of
t
.

h t
h d e r eg r ee, a s

( P0 ) 1 : boX r "

t “
bI X r -
l “

i
“
by

t
h q e se u en c e of nu m be rs <) 1 d; t by
o b a i n ed

t
set
i g n x 1 , 2, 3, su cc ess i v e ly in is an ar it
hm t
ic l e a

p r og r es s i o n ft
ohe r t
h o r d er .

He r e h e t gi v e n se u e n
q ce of n u m b er s is

M 1), M 2) , M 3) ,

an d we ar e tp t h tll o r ove a a of i tt
h d i ff
s r e re n c es a r e e qu al

ly t
t h fi t
.

E v id e n di ff e rs e r en ce s of n am e l
y

M ?) M 1) , M 4) ( )
2

ar e th v l e a u e s of ¢ (x 1) 1 (at
<)
) for x 1 , 2, 3
B t( u
'
qr x 1) m ay be r ed u ced t
o t
h e f o rm of a
p o ly
n om i al i n 90 . t
Cal l h i s p ol y n o m i al I td g
s e r ee is r 1 .

F or , b y t
h eb i n o m al i t
h eo r em ,
5 6 1 , we h ave
l
v ) +
’ -

t
bo a + Tb0x
_ l
+ b1 x
—l —l +
(6037 + bl x
" r r o r

r bOx
T —l

Si m il arly , i f w e wr i t e

4 (
31 a ‘
t
1) ¢z ( w) a 1)

an d th v l
so f ¢ ( )
on ,
( ) e a u es o x cc fo r a 1,
wi ll b t c d t
2

t
, ,

2 3 h hi d h diff ec e se on r r e re n es of I
( )
B t tt d t t
, , , , .

ui c h h d i ff cs a on s a n an e r er en es of
( )
1 a re

th f q l
er e o r e F th d g e f 6 ( ) i (
ua or e e r ee o 92 x s r 1) 1, or

2; t
h tf y t
.

i —3 fi
r
( ) a
; d ll oh t a s r an na a of is
r r, or 0 .

F or e x am pl e , if a : 1 w e h ave ,

—( 2 x3

+ 12
37 0 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

5 F in d th mb e nu e r of s ti
h otin a r an gu l ar pi le of fou r t
e en c ou r se s

h t t i t h l w t
. .

Ho w m an y s ho are e re n ce o es o u rs e

6 I f fro m q u ar ea s pi l f fift c
e o e en o u rs e s s i x c ou rs e s b e re m o ve d ,

shot
.

how m an y r e m a in ?

7 Ho w h ot ar e t
m an y sh e re i n a r e c t
a n gu l a r pi l e of t
w l c e ve o u r s es

if t a i n s 5 sh o t
.

h e u pp e r m o s t
c o u rs e c o n t
8 Ho w h ot
m an y are t
here s in a ti
r an g u lar pile wh ose l o we r m o s t
a i n s 2 53 s ho t
con t
.

c o u rse ?

9 Th e nu h t i n a c e rt
ain t
m ber o f s o r i a n g u l ar pi l e i s fo u r se ve n t
h s of
th e n u m b e r i n a s qu a r e pi le o f t
.

h e s a m e n u m b e r o f c o u r ses Ho w m a n y
s h otar e t
.

h e r e in e a ch pi le
10 Ho w m any s h e re i n a r e c t
h o ta r e t a n g u l a r pi l e wh ose tp
o ro w

c on t a n d wh ose b o tt
.

a i ns 9 b a lls o m c ou rs e c o n t
a i n s 240 b al ls ?

11 . Sh o w h a tt
1 +2 3 3
+

12 .
—l ) .

13 Wh at is th e o r d e r an d w h a t t h e fi rs t
h e su m o f t n term s of t
h e

p r o g ress i o n wh ose n th t
.

2
e rm i s n n 1 n (n 1 ) (n 2) / 6

14 I f we w r it
e d o wn it t
hh m et
e ar ic al p ro g r e ss i ons o f th e fi r st or d e r

re sp e c ti ve l y an d t h e n s u m e ach p ro gres s io n t
.

i n which d 1, 2 3 o

we o b t ai n t
, ,

one, t
w t
h o, re e , fo u r te rm s h e fo l lo w i n g s e q u en c es o f
r e sp e c t
i vel y t he t r i a n g u la r q u a d ran g u l ar p e n t
, ,

num b e rs , c a l le d ,ag o n al , ,

num b e rs
1, 3, 6 , 1 , 4, 9, 1 6 , 1,

th t
Sh o wi t h f t
h kt h a n e o e se se q u e n c es t
h h tm
t e n er an d t
h e su m

o f t
h fi t tm
e (k
rs n er s ar e u n 16 an d n (n 1 ) ( kn h:
r es p ec t
i ve ly .

15 Sh o w h t
t th a h m et
it ic al p r og r ess i on o f an y o r der is
e or d e r o f an a r

n otch an g e d b y a dd i n g t o its t er m s t h e c or re s p o n d i n g t
.

e r m s o f a n ar i t
h
m et
ic al p ro g res s i on o f a l o we r o r d e r .

16 th t Sh o w
if i p ly m i l f t
a h t
h d g f( ) w
n a b t
it
o t no a o e n e ree , x e su s u e

: cc i tm f y i t h fi td
.

hm t ft
,

for a su e s s ve ic l p g
er i s o an ar e a ro re ss o n o e rs or er,

w bt
e o i ithm t
a n anic l p g i
ar ft h th de ; d i g
a l
ro r es s o n o e n or er an n e n er a

th t b ti ttf : cc i tm f y i t hm t
, ,

aif w e su s u e ic l p g
or a su i e ss ve er s o an ar e a ro r ess o n

ofth th d
e r w bt
or i ithm t
e r, ic l p g i
e o ft h t
h d
a n a n ar e a ro r ess o n o e nr or er.
 ME THO D O F DI F FERE NCE S

I NT E RPOLAT I ON

In tp l t
i
er o a on . th at y i s k n own o dep e n d on x i n
Su pp o se t
su c h a m an n e r t h a t fo r ea c h v al u e o f a tb e twee n a an d b y h as
t
,

a d e fi n i t e v al u e Su p p ose al so th at h e v al u e s o f y wh i ch
t
.

c o rr e sp o nd o c er t ai n of th ese v al u es of a:ar e a c t u al ly k n own

t t
.

Th e n f r om h e s e k n o w n v al u es i i s p o s si b l e, by a p r o c ess
c al l e d i n ter o l a t
p i o n ,
o d e t
r i v e v al u es o f
y c or re s o n di n g
p o t
o t h er v a l u es o f 2:b e t we e n a an d b

t
.

Th i s p r o c e ss i s e m p l o y ed wh e n h e g e n e ral e x p r e s si o n for

y i n e t
r m s o f a: i s u n k n o wn , o r i f k n o wn i s o o c om p li c at e d t
t t
o b e c o nv e n i e n ly u se d fo r r e ck o n i n g o u p a r t i c ul a r v al u es t
of y
t t t
.

Br i e fl y t t h e p r o c e ss i s as f o ll o ws :we s e y e qu al o
s a e d,

th e s i m pl e st i n t eg r a l e x p r ess i o n i n a:wh i ch wi l l t ak e h e g i v e n t
t t
v al u e s an d h en d e r i v e h e v al u e s o f y wh i c h w e s e ek f r o m t h i s

e qu a t i o n t
Of c o u r se h e v al u es t h u s o btai n e d wi l l or di n ar ily
t
.

b e o n l y a p p r o x i m at e l y c o r r e c
erm i ned coefli c i en t
.

Met h od of u ndet s W e m ay p r o c ee d as i n
t
.

h e f o l l o wi n g ex am pl e .

E x am p l e . F or a : 2 , 3 , 4, 5 i ti k s n o wn h t
t y a 5 , 4, 7,
fin d y wh en a z 5/2 .

Si n c e t
h i p l est
e s m p oly n om i al i n a which will t ak e gi ve n valu e s fo r
fou r gi ven ; w i ll o rd i n ar i ly b e o n e o f t
val u es o f a he thi r d d e g r e e we
assu m e th at
,

y 00 bl a: bn Z b3x3 ,

an d t
h en fin d h e tc oe ffi ci en t
s bo , b1 , b2 , bs as follo ws .

Si n c e y = 5 w h en x = 2, 5 = b0 + 2 b1 + 4 b2 + 8 b3 .

Si n c e y = 4 wh en 4 = b0 + 3 b1 + 9 b2 + 2 7 b3 .

Si n c e y —7 w h en a = 4, 6 4 b3 .

Si n c e y —34 wh en m = 5 ,

Sol vi n g t
h ese e qu at
i on s , bo z 1 , b1 —2 , b2 = 4, b3 —1 .

Hen c e y =l
—2 :
c + 4 a2 — a 3 .

Th er efore , wh en x we h ave y =1 5 25
37 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

An d i n g e n e r al , i f r 1 v al u e s of y ar e k n ow n , say t
h e

v al u e s y y a,
" '

yr c orr e sp on din g to “5 = x1, 932 , “

W

t
a -
l D
-

a,
+1
r es
pe c t i v e ly , we a ssu m e h t a

+bx ( )
1
r
- n

r ,

fin d b, , b, b y t
h e m e h odt jus ti ll ttd u s ra e an d t
h en

co m pu t
,

em p l oy ( 1 ) as a f or m u l a for in g y for v al u e s o f a :i n t er
m ed i a e o tt x l , x 2,

Me t
h d o of di fferen ces Wh e n x2, ac,
H ar e c o n s e cu t i v e
tg t tt
.

in e e r s, h f e or m u l a
( )
1 of 7 1 8 , m ay b e redu c ed h fo e orm

wh er e d l , d2 , d, d e n o tt etm
h fi t e rs er s of t
h e su cc e ssi v e
o r de r s o f d i ffe r e n ce s of y1, y2 ,
u

y, + 1 .

For i ce
s n a, “ a re i ve i n t
c o n se c u t e g er s t
h c e orr es p on d i n g
t
,

va l u es o f bo bl c n a m e ly y 1 , y2, y r + 1 , for m an ar i hm t e

ic al pr og ress i on o f th e rt
h o r d er § 7 14 H e n c e we m ay al so o bti y
a n 1,

b y s u b stit
ut t
.

y2 ,
in g n l 2 , ,
in h f e o r m u la , 7 1 0, (I ) ,
n a m e ly

( — l l m — Ql ( — 1
) — T)
y = y 1 + (n —1 ) d 1 +
n
d 2 +
n

1 2 r

Bu ttt
i g
se n n 1, 2, 3, in t
hi s fo r m u l a w i ll gi ve i d en t
ic ally t
h e

sa m e resu lt s as se t
ti g n a; z xl 332 , ma, 1, 2, in
t th tf
,

Th e refo r e h c
e se o n d m e m b e r o f ( 2) an d a o 7 18 , h ave e qu al
‘

val u es fo r r 1 val u e s o f i t Bu t
b t
h o a re o fth th d e r e gre e Hen c e th ey
i de n t
. .

ar e ic ally equ al 421

t
.
,

Th u s as i n 7 18 fo r a:z
, , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , le y z 5 ,
4 7, 34 . W e h ave
211 1 y 2 a y 3 y y 4 5, 4, _ 77

t
F i r s d i ffe r e n c es —
1 , 11, 27 .

Se c o n d d i ffe r e n c es 1 0, 16 .

Thi rd d i ffe re n c e 6 .

it
Su b stut
i n g in 931 z 2 z ,
3, as 4, y , 5 , d1 1 , dz 10,
da — 6 we h a ve y : 5 —( x — 2 ) — 5 (a: — 3) — 2 ) (x —3) (x
ty
,

which m ay b e r ed u c ed o 1 2 :
a 4 x2 as in 7 18 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E XE RCISE LXI

1 . F or a: —3 ,
—2 ,
—1 , 0i t
i k s n o wn h t
t y a —20 , 6, fin d y
wh e n x al so wh e n x

2 G i ven th tf (4) 1 0 f (6 )
a 12, f ( 7) : 20, f (8 ) 18 ; fi n d
h c m p tf
t
.
,

f (x) an d en o u e

3 .G i ve n th t25 62 5 26
a 67 6 2
,
2 z
,
2 72 7 2 9 ; fin d t t
h d
by he m e o

o f d i ffe r e n c es .

4 G i ve n t
h t2 a 3 : 8, fin d by t
h e

t
.

me h d o of d i ffer e n c es .

5 G i ve n t
h t a 04546 , 04348 , 04 1 67 , an d

t m t
. . . .

1 / 25 z . 04 ; fin d 1 by h h d e e o of d ifferen c es .

6 G i ven h tV432
t a V43 3 V434
h m t
t
.

V43 5 V43 fin d V43 5 . 7 by h d

e e o of d i ffer
e n c es .

Lag r an g e f or m u l a fin d t p i h t
t hi d
’
7 . By ai d of s h e ol y n o m a l of e r

d egr ee wh ose val u es fo r a : —2 , 0, 4, 5 are 5 , 3, 2, 4 .

XX I V . LO G ARI THM S

PRE LI MI NARY T HE ORE M S R E GAR DI NG E X PONE NT S

T h eorem 1 . If t y l a d en o e an r ea nu m be r g r e a tt
h
er an 1,

tp i t i t t
p

an d p , q d en o e i g h os ve n e er s , en a
(1
1 .

q p

For a > 1, aP > 1, V a p > 1, aq > 1, § 26 1 .

Th eorem 2 If 3 d en o t e an
y r ea l nu m ber g r ea tt
h
er an 1,
t t t
h t
.

a n d r, 8 a ny w i o ra on a ls su ch a r t
s, h e n a
lp
a
s
.

For r a r — s
>l a r — s
as > (1 8 , ar > as ,
,

T heorem 3 . If a 1 and n be i n tg e ra l, t
hen li m a
“

For s n i ce a 1 , we m ay wr e i ta 1 d , wh e r e d i s p os i t
i ve .

Th e n a "
(1 + an d s n e ( 1 i c d) " 1 n d, 56 1 , we h ave a n
> 1 +n d .

)z
Th erefo r e si n c e li m we ha ve li m
,
n éw (1 nd 00 ,
ni w
an 00 .
 LO G AR I T HM S

Th eorem 4 . If 0 a 1, and n be i n t
g e r a l, a
“
O .

F o r le t a z l / b, wh e re b > 1 , s i n c e a < 1 .

l i m b"
Th e n a" =1 11m bn _ 0
/ , §
n
5
=w
1 2 , s i n c e
n = cx:
so , § 723 .

T h eorem 5 . If n be i n t
ge r a l, 11111 {75 11111
n éoo
1 .

1 l

1 Wh e n a 1 we h ave a 5 > 1 72 1 , so t
h t a an 1 d n , wh e r e a,, i s
p os it
i ve n u m b e r d e p e n d en t
.
, ,

so m e on n .

Th en a ( l d ) a >1 nd u
n
, n, dn < (a l) /n .

Th er efo r e si n c e l i m ( a l ) / n
,
0, 5 1 2 , we h ave 11111 da 0.

Hen c e li m an
11111
(1 dn ) _ 1 .
_
n =w

2 . When 0< a < 1 le t a z l / b, a <1 .

l 1

Th en 11111 /
a" _ l 11111 b" r .
1, s n i ce bn _ l by 1 .
,
n z co

t
:
T h eorem 6 If b be a ra i on a l n u m be r a n d X be a va r i a bl e

t
.

wh i c h app r oa c h es b t
h r ou g h ra t
i on a l v a l u es , h en 11 1
1 a
"
_ a
b
.

1 Th e th m h ld t wh
e or e o s ru e en b, t
h l i m i tfe o x, is 0
t tk in t
. .

F or i n hi c ws l ct
a se e c an se e a var a b l e n i w hich a es e g ral val u es

o n ly a n d s u ch th tw h ll l w y a e s a a a s h a ve 1 n a : 1/n an d t ha t wh en
ai0t
: hen n co .
1 1

Th en a wi ll “?
al way s li e t
b e we en a71 an d a § 7 22, an d s n i ce
1
— 1
71 1, 7 2 5, we h ave 11111 1 do
an
n = ao
a § dx _ _ .

2 . Th e t
h e or em h ol d s t
ru e wh en b 0 .

F or i ce
s n ax a 1) ax 5
, we h a ve 11111a m I : )
_ ab
30
11 1 W“
1 ;
b ab , by 1 .

T h eorem 7 If b be a n i r r a t
. i o n a l n u m ber a n d x be a va r i
a bl e w h i c h a
pp r o a c h es b t
h r ou g h r a t i on a l va lu es , th en a w i l l x

a
p p r oa c h a li m i t as X i b and t h e v a l u e of t h i s li m i tis
i n d ep en d en t f t h e va lu es whi c h x t
,

o a k es i n a
p p r oa chi n g b .

Th e r e a so n n i g th is e s am e wh e t
h er a >l or a 1, bu t
tfi t
h id o x e e as

we s h all su pp o s e a a 1 t
h t
fi it
an y se q u en c es o f r a ti on al val u e s t
.

Th er e a r e i n n e ly m h rou gh which
a: m ay r u n i n a ppr o a chi n g b as l i m i t F r o m am o n g t h e m sele c t so m e

p ar t ic u lar i n cr eas i n g se qu e n c e an d r e p r ese n t b y x w h e n s u pp o se d t

.

a:
’
o

ru n t h r ou gh t hi s se qu en c e Th e n as m i b t h e var i ab l e a c o n t
,

i n u a l ly ’ x
'

i n c r e a s es 7 2 2 b u t re m a i n s fi n i t l ess fo r i n st an c e t h an a i f c d en ot
.
,

C
, , e e , , ,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

a n y rati l g tt h b H c on app r ea er an en e um a
'

r oa ch e s a li m i t 1 92 Call
t
hi l i m i t
.
, .

s I
I t ly tp t
h t wi ll pp ch this sam e l i m i t
.

m i on re a ns o r o ve a a ac a ro a L i f a:
pp ch b t
a h gh y t
r oa h q c f t i rou an o er se u en e o ra on a ls t h at
h an t thr ou gh which
B t dt
h f li m ' '

li m
' '
’
az ru n s u a x
a x
a x x
an e r e ore a x
a x
li m a x Z
L,
-

—x
s n i ce li m a x
'

1, 726 .

I rra i onal t ex p on en s t We em p l oy t
h e sy m bol atd t
b
o en o e

th l im i t t pp ch
.

e w h i ch a
“B
wi ll ap p r o a ch wh e n a:i s m ad e o a r oa

bt h gh ro u
y q an se u en c e of ra t
i o n a l v a l u es H e n c e by a
b
wh e n
t
.
,

b i i s i l w rr a on a e s h al l m e an 11111 a
x
.
,

H i g t t
'

:i s i rra t
z z b

h av n us a ss i g n e d a m e an i n g o a
“
wh e n a i on al
tt
,

11111 a:a
ppr oa c h e s b
b
we c an r ea d i ly p r o v e ha a
“8
a wh e n
t t
zi b

h rou
gh a se q u e n ce of i r ra i on a l v al u e s .

F o r le t a
’
x, x
”
d en o t
pp r oa ch b as l i m i tx an d i
e va r ab les al l o f which a
’

h rou gh s e q u en c es o f r at
,

a:t i on al valu es an d a:t

,

h ro u gh a s e q u e n c e o f i rr a
ti o n al va lu es a n d s u ch t h at t It t h e n fo llo ws fr o m ’ ”
ac <x o 7 26 7 2 7
h at a l i es b e t an d t
.
, ,

t we e n a a n d a
x
h erefor e s i n c e 11111b a
x
'
11 111 a ab
x
"

,
x
'
x
,

th a t: a
'

b x fi

ab x
.

38

T h eorem 8 . Th e l a ws f
o e xp on en s t a r e va li d
for i r r a ion a l t
exp on en s t .

F o r le t
b an d 6 de n o ti ti e r ra o n al n u m b e rs , an d a an d :y var i ab l es which
a pp r oa ch b an d c as l i m it W s . e su pp ose ; an d
a yt ak e r at
o t i on al valu es
o n ly .

1 . ab ac

F or s n i ce a wa y ax fl l , we h ave li m awa y lim

Bu t l im axa '
J l im ax li m av a ba C ,

an d li m a” ll a 1i m (x+ 2 0 ab C
.

2 ,
( ) ab c
ab c

F or a x” .

Hen c e
i3 ab v
1
y ( ) aby .
1) ( ax ! a xy , o r
‘

He n c e 11 1
3 a b”, ab
( ) a“
c
or .

11 0

3 .
( ab ) c
a Cbc .

F or ( ) ab v a vby .

He n c e li m ( )
a b y li m a "by-
l im a !’ l i m by .

Th at
is , ( ab ) c
a
C
bC .
37 8 A C O LL E G E AL G E BR A

T h eorem 3 t
Th e l og a r i h m of a n y p owe r of a n u m be r i s t
h e

t t t t t t
.

l og a r i h m o
f h e n u m ber m u l ip l i ed by h e exp o n en of h e

p ower .

F or i f m z a
“
,

we h ave mr

t
h at
is , l o ga m r ru r l o ga m .

T h eorem 4 t
Th e l o g a r i h m of a n y r o o of t a nu m be r i s t
h e

t t t
.

l og a r i h m t o
f h e n u m ber d i vi d ed by h e i n d ex t o
f h e r oo .

F or i f m a
“
,

s S
i t
we h ave \/ m V a“ a
s
,

h t
t
8

a is, l og a V171 11 .
/s

t
Th e p r a c i c al u se f u ln e s s o f l o g ar i h m s i s d u e o h e p r op e r t tt
t
ti es e s abli s he d i n 7 3 6 —7 39 L o g ar i h m s o f n u m be r s o h e t tt
com p u t tbl I f w
.

'

b ase 1 0 h av e b e e n e d a n d a rr a n g e d i n a es e

su ch a t t
.

a v ail ou r s el ve s of ab l e w e c an fi n d h le f va u e o a

t t t tby bt t
,

p r o d u c by an a dd i i of
on , a q u o i en a su i h fr ac o o

lt
ip l i c t tby
,

a p owe r by a m u i a on , an d o f a r oo a d 1v 1 8 1 o n .

( f? 0 v e 1

log v5 l o g x/ 6 l o g 325 7 36 , 7 3 7

l
( o g 5) /7 (l o g 6 ) / 8 25 log 3 . 73 8 , 7 39

He n c e , t b ti t
o oh a n e va l u e o f tl k pt
395 , we h av e
h o n ly o oo u e

va l u e s o f lo g 5 , l o g 6 , an d l og 3 gi ve n i t h t bl th
n tr k t e a e, en
'

o ec on
'

ou

t
h l
e va u e o f (log 5) / 7
( lo g 6 ) / 8 25 l g 3 d fi lly tl k p i t
o h an na o oo u n e

tb l t hich t i t h l g it
,

a h e e nu m b er o f w his valu e s hm e o ar .

E XE R CI SE L XII
1 . F i n d l og 2 4, lo g 4 2 , l o gv é8 , l og 5 6 2 5 , l og 3 7 2 9, log 1 0 . 001 , log 2 1 / 64,

V a —2 , l o g 3 1 2 8 , l og a 2 a 3
3
l o g 2 1 2 5 , l o ga
.

tg
.

2 . If lo g 1 0 2 . 301 0 an d l og 1 0 3 . 47 71 , fin d h e lo ar it
hm s tt
h o e

base 10 of 12 , V2 ,

3 . E x press l oga 6005 i n tmer s of l og , 2 , loga 3 , an d l o ga 5 .

 LOG AR I THM S

4 E x p r ess t
h l eg ith m s o f e a ch
o ar of t
h f e o llo w n i g e x p r es s i o n s
t
.

bas e a in er m s o f l o g b l o g e l o g d a , u , a .

( )
1 bio -

é
/ d f .

h t
t
8 4
/ 2
5 . Pr ove l g
a o 3\ 8 1 V 729

6 . Pro ve t
h t
l g
a o a 2 log , ( o
s V x2

COMM ON LOGARI T HM S

Com pu tt
i n
a o of c om m o n l og ari h m s t t
F or
h p p e ur o se s of

it tt
.

n u m er i c al re ck o n i n g we em p l oy l o g ar ms o h h b e as e 10
t
.

Th e s e ar e c al l e d c o m m o n l og a r i h m s I n wh a t . f o ll o ws l og m
will m ean l o g 10 m .

W e h av e
—1
10 2
1 00, l o g 1 00 2, al o s 10 . 1, log ;1 1 ;
01 , l o g 01 2,
t
.

H e n c e, fo r h e num b er s w h o se c om m o n l o g a r i th m s are in t e

g er s we h av e t
h t e a ble
Th e n u m be r s 001, . 01 , . 1, 1, 1 0, 1 00, 1 000,

th eir t
l o g ar i h m s — 3, — 2, 0, 1, 2,

Ob ser v e th at i n th i s tbl ta h e e num b e r s c o n s t i tu t e a g e om t e

r i c al
p r og r e s s i o n in wh i ch t
h c e
-

om m on ra t
i io s 1 0, an d t
h e

l o g ar i h m t s an ari t h m e t i c al p r o g r ess i o n i n wh i c h t
h c e om m on

d i ffer e n c e i s 1
t t
.

Th e num b er s in his t ab l e ar e h e o n ly ra t i on al s wh o se
c om m o n l ogari h m t s ar e ra t
i o n al , fo r all fr a c t
i o n al
p o w e rs of

10 are t
i r r a i o n al Bu t as w e p ro c eed th
o s o w , e v e ry p os i i v e t
t t
.
,

n u m b er h as a com m on l o g ar i h m , a n d h e v al u e o f th i s l o g a

ri t
h m m ay be o bt ai n e d c o rre ctt o as m an y p l a c es of d e c i m al s
as m ay b e d es i r e d
tctt tf 1 0 t tf t
.

I f we e x ra h e s q u ar e r o o ho e s q u ar e r oo oh e

bt t
,

r esu l t th u s oi d a ne an d s o o n , c o nti nu i n g h e re ck o n i n g in
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

ch ca se h fi ft
tt c im al ti t
t
ea o h d e e fig u r e, w e o b h f
a n e
-

oll owi n g

a bl e
101 10
10 2

12 1
10 10 2

1 10 10 1“
10 3

1 10 1“
10 1
10 1

an d so on , t
h e r esu l s t o bt ai n e d a pp r oa ch i n g 1 as li m i t as

w e p r o ce e d ( c o m p ar e Th e e x p on e n s t1 2, 1 4, on

th e l e ft ar e t
h l e o g ar i t
h m s of t
h c e orr e sp o n di n g n u m b er s on

t
h e r ig h t
t t
.

By a id of hi t abl e We m ay c o m p u t e h e c o m m on l o g a
s

ri hmt o f an y n u m be r be twe en 1 an d 1 0 a s i n h e f oll o wi n g t

e x am l
p e .

E x am ple . F in d tc
he om m o n l o ar g it
hm of

D i vi d e by t
h e n ex tm s all e r n u m b er i n t
h tbl
e a e,

Th e qu o t
i en t
is He n c e x

D i vi d e by t
h e n ex tm
s al l e r n u m b er i n t
h tbl e a e,

Th e qu o ti en t is He n c e x

Co n t
in u e t h u s al way s d i vi d i n g t i en t
h e qu o t las t ob t
a i n ed by t
he n ex t
t h t
,

s m all e r n u m b er i n
bl e a e

tt ti t i t t ain b y t
h all ob t
.

I f qn d e n o e h q he h di i i
uo en n e n v s on , we s his
t
m e h o d a n ex p i f i
re ss on t
h f m or n e or of a pr od u ctof n n u m b er s

tk f
a en ro m t
h t ble d Q t
a h ltb i g
e an ”, e res u e n

x x x qn
1 02 1 05 1 02 58 Qn q no

As 77. i n c re ases t
h e ex p on en t
l /2 l /8 l / 2 56 t tmo n er s al so

t
it m h an 1 s i n c e i t
a i n s l es s t is a l way s a p ar tof t
,

i n c r e ase s B u re he i n h
n it
.
,

e se r i e s wh o s e su m i s 1 7 04 E x 1 Hen c e
it app ro a ch e s a l i m i t which i s so m e n u m b e r l es s t h an 1 192 R ep re s en t
, , . .

t his li m i t t
, .

hu s : +l /8
Aga i n a s 71 i n c re as e s q app r o a ch e s 1 as li m i t F o r e a ch q u o t ien t
l i e s b et w ee n t h e d i vi s o r u se d i n o b t ai n i n g i ta n d 1 a n d as t
, , " .

h e p r o c es s i s
i n u ed t h e d i vi so rs a pp r o a ch 1 as l i m i t
,

c on t .

He n c e an d t here
fo re . 6 2 94 - u
.
38 2 A COLLE G E ALG E BRA

I n l i k e m ann er, i f i n n u m b er n whi ch h as bu o n e

a t figu r e
in i ti nt g
s p ar t wee r al shi ft t
h e d e ci m al p oi nt ,tpl ac es tt
o he
t
l ef , th at i s, i f we m u l i pl y n by we add p t tt
h 0 ch
o e ar

tt
.

ac e r i s i c of l o g n Th u s , l o g 42 6 1 l og
. .

l o g 042 6 an d s o o n , 7 45
t tc i t tw i t th
. .

I n p r a c i c e w e fin d i o n v en e n o r e es e n eg a ti v e
tt t
c h ar a c e r i s i c s 1 , 2 ,
h f in
9 10 8 10 m e o rm an d t o

t t t t t t
, , ,

p l c
a eh p i i v p 9 8 b
e f h osi e ar e ore e m an ss a, an d h e

1 0 ft i t Th i td f w w it
, ,

a er u s, n s ea o e r e 10
H c t
. .

en h l e e ru e

If t ch cti t
n ic f l g n i
1, he g t i T bti ita ra er s o o s ne a ve o o a n

ft
.

btct f m 9t i gh t
,

i tly tt
’
su ra h mb f 0 i m m
ro d h he nu er o s e a e o e r o e

d ci m l p i t
e i t
h
a w i tt h o nltbf th m t
ni n, en r e e r esu e or e e an ssa ,

and 1 0 ft i t a er .

Thus , l o g 00426
. 1 0, l og 000000426. 10 .

I f m or e th i b t l th an n ne u ess i t o s i m m ed i at
an n n e e e n ely fo ll o w t
’
he
d e ci m a l p i t b tc tt
h i
o n mb su ra e r nu e r fr o m 1 9 an d wr i t h e r esu l t
e t b efor e
t t 20 ft i t
,

h m e an i d ssa an ; d a er an s o on .

E x am p l e . G i ve n log 2 z . 3010, fi n d t
h e nu m b er of d igi t
s in 225 .

A tbl
a e of l og ari t
hm s Th e a cco m p a ny i n g t
ab l e p p 3 8 4, 3 8 5,
c on t t h l g it
t t
.
,
.

a in s h he m a n i ssa s o f e o ar ms o f all n u m be r s o f

th fig
r ee c p t d tt h f th pl c
u r es f d ciom l u e o e ou r a e o e m a s an d

arr ang d i w i t eh d ft h i
n ro g itd t h d ci
s n e or er o e r ma n u e, e e m al

p i t
o n b f ths ti b i g
e or e ittd e m an s sa s e n om e

t
hi t t
.

F ro m bl w y l d i si fa m be e m a a so e r v e m an ssas or n u er s

ofm th th
ore fig by i d f t h p i cip l
an ree u re s a o e r n e

Wh en a num ber i s c h a n g ed t
by a n a m ou n w h i c h i s ver y s m a l l
in c om p a r i s on wi h tt
h e n u m ber i s e t t t
lf, h e c h a n g e i n h e log a
ri t
hm o
ft
h e nu m ber i s n ea r l
y p rop t
i l tth
orc h g i t
h
on a o e an e n e

nu m ber .

Nu m er i c al t bt i d by
r e su l s o a ne ai d of hi t
t bl s a e ar e n o tt o

be t td b
ru s e ey o n d t
h f t
h fige ou r u re W h en t cc
g r ea er a u ra cy
t t bl i t t
.

is r equ ir e d we m u s u se a es n wh i ch h m ei an ss a s ar e
 LO G AR I T HM S

g i ven
'

t o m or e t h an f o u r p l a c e s o f d e c i m al s Th e s u d en
t t wi ll
tp t
.

ii n d i t e asy o ro cu re a fi ve s i x o r s e ve n p l a c e -
able

t
hi t
.

To fi n d t
h l e og ari t
hm of a nu m b er from bl s a e We p r o c e e d
t
.

as in h f e ol l o wi n g e x a m p l es .

E x am th l g it
p le h m f 0058 9
1 . F ind e o ar o . .

W l k pt eh fi t oo t wo ig i fic
u t fig 58 i t h c l m
e h d d
rs s n an u r es , n e o u n ea e

Ni t h t bl t gt w tt igh tf 58 t il t
,

n h e l a h e, h h c l m
en r u n a o n e ro o e r o un e o u n

i ch d which i h d d b y t
s re a e h t h i d fig 9 W t h s fi d 7 7 01
ea e e r
i
u re , e ere n

h a d ci m l p i t ) i t t ght Th ch
. .

Thi ( wi t
s b f it h m
e i a o n e or e s e an ssa so u e ar

ti t
.

i i 7
ac e r s 10 7 49
c H c
s ,
. en e

l og 005 8 9 . 10 .

E x am pl e 2 . t
F i n d h e l o g ar i t
hm s of 8 an d 46 .

Th e m ti
an ss as o f t
h es e l o g ar it
hm s are t
h e sa m e a s t
h ose o f 800 an d
46 0 re s pe ct
i ly ve . He n c e , p ro c eed i n g as in E x . 1 , we fin d

lo g 8 . 903 1 , l og 46

E xa m p le 3 . F in d t
h l e g ar i t
o h m o f 46 73 4
.

t
i i t
Th e m a n h ssa It m t t
h fs li e sam e a s t h at o f l og us e re or e e

b tw e m tl g 46 7 d m tl g 468
e en an o an an o

F m t h t tl g 46 7 z 6 6 93 d m tl g 468 6 702
. . .

robl w fi d m e a e e n an o an an o

d t b t t t
. .
,

an h d ifi e w h m i
e r en c ei 9 e ee n ese an ssas s

Th if w dd 1 t467 w dd 9 tm tl g 46 7 H c i f w d d
.

us e a o e a o an o en e e a

3 f1t h ld dd 3 f 9 3 pp i m t ly t tl g
. .
,

'
46 7 w
o o e sm ou a o or a r ox a e o an o

tl g d t
.
, , , .

H c m en e 6 6 93 3
an 6696 h
. f o , an e r e or e

l o g 46 7 3 . 10 .

Ob s er ve th at un t il t
h ch e a ra ct
e r i st
ic is in td ro u c ed we om it
t
h d e e c i m al p o i n twh i c h p r op e r l
y t
b el o n g s b e f o r e
h nt i e ma ssa

d il l tt fi di g t t
.

Th e m e th o d i
u s ra e n Ex 3 f h i f
or n n e m an ssa o

t t th n t
.

h l e og a r i h m of a nu m b er of m or e h fig y b a re e u re s m a e

de s c r i b e d as f o l l o ws
F r om t
h tbl t
ob a i n m t
h m t
i c or r esp on di n g tt
hf
t
e a e e an ss a o e

fi r st
t t b t d t
,

h r ee fi g u r es d,
'

a ls o h difie w er en c e e een in an h e n ex

t t
,

g r e a er m a n i ss a
t t m i i g p tf t
.

Jll u l ip ly d by h e h mb it
wh re a n n ar o e nu er a

tf t d dd t
d ec i m a l p oi n be or e i ,
"

h i t g lp tf th p d ct an a e n e ra ar o e ro u

d by 1 if t
(i n c r ea s e h d im l p ti 5 m
) tm e ec a ar s . or or e o .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

To fi n d a n u m b er w h en i tl s og ar i t
hm i s g iv en We h av e
t t t
.

m e r ely o r e ve r s e h e p r o c e ss d e s cr i be d in h e p re ced i n g
se ct
i on .

E x am l e 1 p . F in d t
h mb wh l
e nu er ose o gar it
hm is 10 .

We fin d t
h m e an t
i 95 5 2 i t
ss a h tbl n e a e in t
h e r ow m ar k e d 90 a n d i n

t
h c e olu m n t q i d q c
m ar k ed 2 He n c e h e re u re se u en e o f fig u r es i s 902
B ti c t ic i 5 10 t
c ti t t
. .

u h ch s n e h mb e a ra er s s e nu er is a d e ci m al wi h
t igh tf th d ci m l p i t 7 49 t
,

9 5 4 o
,
t
h
or ,
’
s a e r o e e a o n , . Hen c e h e re q u i re d
n u m ber i s 0000902
. .

E x a m pl e 2 . F in d t
h e num b e r w h o se l o g ar i t
hm is

Lo o k i n g i n h t
t bl e a e we fi n d h t
t th gia e ve n m an t
i ssa 5 520 l i es b e tw ee n
t
h m t
i
e an ss a s 55 1 4 an d 552 7 c o r res p on d i n g t
o 3 56 a n d 357 res p e c t
i ve ly
Th e l e ss e r t
i of t
h m an 5 51 4 d i ffers fr o m t h e g re at 5 52 7 , b y 1 3
'

es e s sas , er

d f m t
, ,

an h gi
ro m ti 5 5 20 b y 6
e ven an ss a ,

Th i f w d d 1 3 tt t tt
.
,

u s, h m i 551 4 w
e a o e an ss a e a dd 1 h
o e num b e r 356
dd 6 tt t
.
,

H c if w
en e h m i e a55 14 w h o e an s sa e s o u ld a dd 6 13 of 1, or

pp i m t ly t3 5 6
,

a r ox a e o

t t
, .

He n c e h e qu i re d re se qu e n c e of fig u r es i s 3 5 65 , an d t
h f ere or e by h e

r u le e r i st
fo r ch a r ac t ic , 7 48 , t
h e re qu i r e d num b er is 3 56 5 0000 .

h e r e f o r e h ave t
We t t
‘

h e f oll o w in g ru l e fo r fi n di n g h e s e qu e n ce
of fig u re s c or r e sp on d i n g t o a g iv e n m a n i s sa wh i c h i s t no ti n

t
h tble a e

F ind f om r h t
t bl t
eh a e e n ex tl ess e r m an ti m t
h t
ssah e e re

t dt
,

c o rresp on d i n g fi g u r es d, h d ifi b t
fi
and e er en c e we m heen an e

t tm t
, ,

nex g i r ea er an ss a .

S btct m f m t
u h gi
ra m t
i d di i d t
h ro e v en an ss a a n v e e r em a in der
by d i g t
h lti g fig tth t h fig u r es a lr é
a dy
'

a n n ex n e r es u n u re o e r ee

obt
,

i d a ne .

C l g it
hm
o o arTh c l g i thm f n m b i th l s e o o ar o a u er s e og ar i t
hm
t t
.

of h c i p r o c al
e re of h e num b er .

Si n ce c o l o g m lo g 1 / m log 1 log m l og m 7 33 ,
t c o l o g ar i t
,

7 37 we c an fin d h e hm of a nu m ber by m e re ly
c h an g i n g t
h e sign o f i tl o g ar i t
hm Butt il o u r se l ve s o f

t
s o a va

h t tk t p t f ll
.

ble a e we m us ee
p h d e e c i m al ar s o a l o g ar i t h m s
t
pos i i v e . We t
h f er e or e pr o ceed as f o l l o ws
 LOGARI THMS

E xam pl e 1 . F in d c olog
W e h ave l og 1 10

an d l og
He n c e c ol o g 10

E x a m p le 2 . F in d c o lo g . 92 9 .

W e h a ve l og 1 10 10
an d l og 92 9
. 10

Hen c e c olo g . 92 9 . 0320

He n c e w e t h c l g it h m f
ay b ffin d it e o o ar m o a num er r om s

l g it
o har by b g i m i g t th ch cti t e ic d nnbtc t i g n a e a ra er s an su ra n

each fig f 9 u retil th l ti g n i fic
ro m t fig i un ch d e as s an u re s re a e

t b tc t T t lt
,

wh i c h fi g b u re d f m 10 us hi w
e su ra e r om o s r es u e

tffi 1 0 cc di g t i ffi d
.

do or d o no a 10 i x a or n as s no or s a xe

it I t t t
/
/

t th l
o e h og a r h i w y wh h m b h n s a en e n um er as n o m or e

t t t
. .

th n t h
a fig ree w y bt i i c l
u re s
g i h d i c ly fe ma o a n s o o ar m re rom

th t abl
e e .

Com pu tt
i na o b y l og ar i h m s t Th e f ol l o w i n g e x am p l e s wi ll
th w h w t t
.

se r ve o s o o e x p ed i i o u sl a pp r o x i m a e v al u e s o f p r od
y
tq t
u c s, i n tp w uo e s, o e r s, a n d r o o s o f n u m t b ers m ay be o b ti n
a ed

by id f l g i t
a h o o ar ms ( c om pare 7

E x am p l e 1 . F in d t
h e val u e o f . 032 5 x . 6 42 5 x

Log x . 6 425 x lo g 032 5 . l o g 6 42 5

. l og

Bu t lo g 0325
. 10

l o g 642 5
. 10

l og . 7 2 10

Hen c e l og p rod u c t
of 20 10
Th er efore h e p ro d u c t
t is . 1 099 .

p
E x am l e 2 . F in d t
h e val u e o f . 0998 .

Lo g . 0998 ) log l o g 0998 . .

Bu t log 10

l og 0998
. 10

Hen c e l o g qu ot
of ie n t
Th erefo re h e qu ot
t i en t
is
388 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

We tl g wr i th ti e i th f
o a s n e or m 10 in or der

tm k itp i t
o a i p t
e g tt h t
s h tf
os ve ar r ea e r an a o 10 w hich is tb
o e

b tc t
su d f m it
ra e ro .

E m pl 3
xa Fi d t
h l f 2 95
e 05 63 1
. n e va u e o x . 8 06 .

L o g (2 95 x 0563 1 . 8 06 ) log 295 l og 05 6 3 1

. c ol og 806 .

Bu t l o g 295

lo g 056 3 1 . 10

c ol og 806 10

Hen c e l o g of r equ i r ed r esu l t 20 10

Th erefo re t
h e r e qu i r e d r es u lt
i s . 0206 1 .

E x am p l e 4 . Find t
h e s x i t
h p o wer of . 792 9 .

L og 6 x l og 7 92 9 . .

Bu t l og 7 929 . 10

He n c e log 60

Th er efo re . 248 4 .

E x am l e 5 p . F in d t
h e se ve n t
h tf r oo o . 00898 .

Lo g 9 008 98
. 2
(l o g . 00898 ) 7 .

Bu t lo g 008 98 . 10

70
Hen c e
1
Ther efor e V 008 98 . . 510 .

O b s e r ve t
h at
wh e n h ave o cc as i o n t o d i vi d e a n e gat
as h er e i ve log a
we
h m b y s o m e n u m b er we a dd t
r it o its p os i ti ve a n d n e g a t i ve p ar t
s su ch a

m u lt hat
ip le o f 10 t t i en t
h e qu ot of t i ve p ar t
,

h e n e g at w i ll b e 10 .

Ne g a i v e t num ber s do no th av e r ea l t tt
lo g a r i h m s h b o e a se

1 0 s in ce al l re al
p o we r s o f 1 0 ar e p o s i i ve n u m b e r s I f ask ed t
t t t
.

o fin d h e val u e o f a n e x p r es s i o n wh i h i n vo l v e s n e g a i ve c
f ct
a o r s , we m ay fi r s t t t
fin d h e a b so l u e v al u e o f h e e x p re s s i o n t
by l g i t
ho ar m s an d t
h ttc h t
h pp en a a e a ro
p ria t ig tt
e s h n o e

lt
r es u .

Thu s if he t gi ve n e x p re ss i on wer e 456 x h ou ld first

we s fin d
t b y l o g ar i t
h m s an d t ta ch t s ign t
o t
,

h e va l u e o f 4 56 x hen at he he
r esu l t.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E xa m p le . t
F i n d h e l og a r i t
hm of . 58 6 tt
oh b e ase 7 .

lo g 1 0 58 6 —10 2 32 1
2 7 46
.

Lo g 1 5 8 6
-
. . .

i og m 7 . 8 45 1 8 45 1

W e re d u c e 9 76 7 9 10 tt
oh f e o r m of a s n i gl e n e g a ti ve n u m b er na mely

b y l o ga r i t
.
,

. 2 32 1 , an d p e rfo r m t
h fi e n al d i vi si o n hm s .

W h en m a t
h f e or m u l a g i v es l o gb a 1 / l og a b .

Th e o n ly b ase b e s i de s 10 of whi ch an y a ct
u al u se i s m ade
is a c er t
ai n t
i r r a i on al num be r d en o td by t h l tt
e e e er e wh o se
app r o x i m a e t v al u e is L g it
o hm tt
ar hi b s o s a se ar e

c all ed n a t u ra l log a r i h m s t . We sh ll c
a id th em ion s er n an o th e r
c on n e c t i o n
t t
.

E x ponen i al t an d l og ari h m i c equ a i n o s E q u at i o n s i n wh i c h

t t
t t
.

h e u n k n o wn le er o ccu r s in an e x p o n e n or in a l o g ar i th m i c
e x pr ess i o n m ay s o m e t
i m es be so l ve d a s f o ll o w s .

E x a m p le 1 . q u at
i on 1 3 2 + 5
Solve h e t e x
1 4x + 7

h m s o f b ot
T ak i n g l o g ari t h m em b ers (2 x , 5 ) l og 1 3 ( : 7 l o 14
a) g .

7 log 14 5 l o g 13
So lvi n g ,
2 log 1 3 l o g 14

E x a m pl e 2 . Sol ve h e t e qu at i on l og V a: 2 1 1 l og 3: 1 .

By 736 , 7 3 9, we c an r ed u c e t i on t
hi s e qu at o t
h e for m

Hen c e x2 21 a : 1 00 .

So l vi n g , cc 25 or 4 .

E x am p l e 3 . So l ve h e t e q u at
i on $2 10 “ 1 0 23 .

Tak i n g l ogar i t
hm s ,
2 ( l og log a : 1 .

So lvi n g for l og c ,
l o g a: 1 or 1 2 .

Hen c e a
; 10 or 1

Com pou n d i n t tS
er es u p p ose t
h t a a su m of P d ol l a r s i s p u t
tc m p t t
.

ou n d in fo r
a o e r es t a p e ri o d o f n
y e a r s, i n e r e s t b e i n g
c om pou n ded an n u al l
y an d t h e i n te r e s t o n o n e d o ll a r fo r on e

y e ar b e in g r.

Th e n t
h e am o u n ttt
h a e en d of th fi t y e rs e ar wil l b e
P + Pr or P (I r
) tt
h,
a e en d o f t
h c d y e se o n ear i twill
 LO G AR I T HM S 3 91

be P ( 1 r
) ( 1 r
) or P (I an d so on H e n c e , if A
t ttt t t
.

d en o t e h e am ou n h a e en d of h h y e n e ar , w e h av e

I f i n te re s b e tc om p ou n ded se m i an n u a l l ,
y A P (1 r

i f q u ar tly er A P (I a n d s o on

t
,

t
w t
.

W e c all P h p e r es en h fAor o I f A, n an d r b e g i v en ,
t
.
,

we c an fi n d P by m e a n s of h f e o rm u l a P z A(1
E x a m pl e 1 F in d t
h e a m ou n tf $2 500 i
o n e igh t
ee n y e ars a t c om

p ou n d i n t
e r est
.

W e h ave l og A l og 2500 1 8 lo g

Hen c e A $
5 05 7 , a pp ro x i m at
el y .

E x am le 2p A t
gi n n i n g o f ea ch o f t
th b e en su cc es s i ve y ear s a p r e m i u m
e

120 i s p a i d on a c e r t Wh at h e wo r t h of t
.

of $ a i n i n su r an c e p o l ic y is t he
su m o f t h ese p r em i u m s at th e en d of t he t h y e ar if c om pu t
en t e d at
.

4%
c o m p ou n d i n t e r est
?

Th e re qu i r ed val u e i s 1 2 0 l -

t
h t
ia s, by 7 01 ,
1 O4 1
gar it
B y lo h ms
Hen c e t t
,

h e re q u i r e d valu e i s 120 x x 479 04 ; an d hi s , c om

od b y l o g ar i t
pu t 1494 app r o x i m at
. .

h m s gi ves $ ,
e ly ,
.

An nu i t
i es A su m of m o n ey wh i ch i s tb o e p aid a tfi x ed

t
.

i nt e rv al s , a s a n n u al l y , is c all ed an ann ui
y
t tfi d t t
w t t
.

I i s r equ ired oh p n e re se n h f or o an an n u i y f A o

dol l ar s p ay ab le an n u all y fo r n
y e a r s, be g i n n i n g a y e a r h e n ce,
t tt
h e i n e r e s o n o n e d o ll a r fo r on e
y e ar b e i n g r
t t t t
.

Th e p r ese n t w o r h o f h e fir s p ay m e n i s A ( 1 t h at
t
o f h e s e c o n d p ay m en t i s A 1
( r
)
‘
2
an d so o n

t t tft
.
,

Hen c e h e p r ese n w o r h h wh o e ol e i s, 7 01 ,

1 1 1
_
i
1 -
r -

t n i ty b p p t tt
I f he a nu e er e ua , l h a i s, i f n 00 , t h e n
(1 r
)
”

an d t
h f m l fe th p t w th
or u a or e r e se n or re du ces tA o r.
392 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

E x am p l e Wh at
su m s h ou ld p a i d for an an n u i t
be y of $
-
1 000 p ay ab l e
t
w t m o n ey b e i n g s u pp ose d to b e wo r t
.

an n u a lly for y y en e ar s , h 3 % p er
an n u m

w or t
p r e s en t
I
22[
1 0
Th e h P , , 18 I

B y l o g ar i t
hm s, we fin d h t
t a

pp rox i m at
1 000 1 1 000 X 8 03
J
.

Hen c e P 1 1 148 45 a e ly
. 03 . 03 x

E XE R CI SE L XIV
1 . F i n d l o g s 555 , l o g 10 g 1 00 47 .

2 . Sol ve h e tf oll o w n i a l e q u at
i g e x p on e n t ion s .

2 90 :
a“ 3
“
(1) 3
ac
7 29 .
(2) a af r
.
( )
3 2 1 5 16

3 . Solve h e tf i g l og ar it
h m ic e qu at
ol l o w n i on s .

( 1 ) l :
og a l o g (a: 3 ) 1 ( 2 ) l og z . l o g ic 2 .

l og ( 3 x 3 10 “
( 3) l o g ( 1 2 x) 3 ‘ ) 6 .
( )
4 x 2 .

4 F in d t
h e a m ou n o hi t
tf $7500 i t y fi n r -
ve y ear s a t5% c o m p ou n d
in t
er estt e r es t
h e in t
.

, b e in g c o m p ou n d e d an n u all y .

t m tf $5500 i t
5 F in d h e w t y y a t37 c m p
ou n di t t o n en e ars a o ou n n er es

t
0

h i t t
.
,

e b i g c mp
n e r es d d mi e n lly o ou n e se an n u a .

6 Sh w th t m fm o y w i ll m at
h d b l i tlf i fift
a su o on e or e an ou e se n e en

d th t it t h d d f ld i i t
.

y ea r s an wi ll i c m a h y fin r ease o re an a un re o n n ne -
ve

y t5% c m p d i t t
e ar s a o oun n e r es .

7 Wh t m wi ll m
. t
a t$1250 if p tt
su c m p d i t tt
a 4% ou n o u a o ou n n e res a

fo r fif t
een y ear s ?

8 A m an i n vest s $200 a y e ar i n a sav i n gs b a n k which p ay s 3 17 p e r

d e p os i t d u e hi m a tt
,

Wh at wi ll b e t
he t otal a m o u n t
.

an n u m o n al l s he
tw t
.

en d o f y fi y en -
ve e a rs

9 Wh t m h l d b p i d fa it
suy f $ 1 200
s y ou tb e a or an an n u o a ea r o e

p id f thi t
.

a y y orm y b i g
r pp d tb w t h 47 p
e ars , mon e e n su ose o e or e r an n u

Wh t m h ld b p i d w t y tb p p tl ?
it
;

a su s hi ou e a ere s an n u o e er e ua

10 If d .tth l gt 0 h ft h hy p t
en o ef igh t gl d t
e i gl
en o e o e n u se o a r -
an e r an e

and bth la, gth ft h t

h t
e w id b V (
en ) (c
s o ) Gi e o er o s es , c a a ve n

ft
h t i g l g it
.

0 fi d ba d t
h i gl n hm an e area o e r an e, u s n o ar s.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t
wi h i n a p e rm u tt
i
a c on or om t
b in a ion i s tll no a o we d Th i s
t d tdi g t tth ch p t cep t
.

wi ll b e h e un e r s an h n r ou gh o u e a er e x wh e r e
t
h c e ty i
o n r ar ttd
s s a e

t
.

A p r el i m i n ary th eorem We h av e al r ead y h ad o c c as i o n o

t
.

app ly h e f oll owi n g p r i n c i p l e ,

554

If a h i n g c a n be d on e i n m w a y s a n d if wh en i t
a in t
c er t has
been d on e a c ert a i n ot h er t
,

h i n g c a n be d o n e i n 11 wa ys th e en t
,

i re
n u m ber of w a y s i n w h i c h bo t h t
, ,

h i n gs c a n be d on e i n t
he o r d er
tt i
s a ed s ru n .

W e rea son t
h us th fi tt
:Si n ce
hi g fo r ea ch way of doin g e rs n

th w y
er e ar e n fd i g b t h thi g f
a s o w y fd i g th o n o n s, or m a fs o o n e

fi t
rs t
hi g th n w y fd i g b t h thi g
e r e ar e m n a s o o n o n s .

M gor e lly i f fi t thi g

en e r a b d i w y th a rs n c an e on e n m a s, en

c dt t t
,

a se o n hi g i w y h nhi d i p w y
n d
n a s, en a r n a s, a n s o on ,

th t
i
e en n b ref w y i w h i ch ll t
u m h t hi g
er o b d a s n a e n s c an e on e

i t
n h d ttd i
e or er s a e
p s m -
'

n -

E x am p l e Ho w m an y num b ers of t
h re e d i ffere n tfig u res e a ch c an be
t h d igi t1
.

f or m ed w i ht e s ,
2 , 3, 9

We m ay ch o ose an y on e of t
h e n in e d igi tf t
h fi t
s fig or e rs u re of t
h e

num b er , t
h en a n y o n e o f i i g ei g h t d igi t
t
h s fo r i t s se c o n d fig u r e
e rem a n n

s st s t
i ll r e m ai n i n g fo r i t
,

an d fi n al ly an y o n e o f t
h e se ven d igi t hi r d fig u r e
Hen c e we m ay fo rm 9 8 7 or 5 04 n u m b ers o f t
.

h e k i n d r e q u ir e d
, ,
.

Th e n u m ber of r -

p erm u tt
i na o s of n di ffereh tl t
t e ers By t
h e

t
.

r eas o n i n
g em p l oy e d i n h e p r e e d i n g e xam p l e we c -

r e adi l
y p rove

t t
h thia s n u m ber i s g i v e n by h e f o r m u l a t
( ( P : tn u 1
( ) 1) n 2) t o r fac ors .

F i f
or i g
n
p m t
o rmti fn l tt w an r
y c h er u a on o n e e rs e ma o ose

ft
-

an y h
one o l t t f i tfi t l ttt
e n h ye f
er sth or s rs e er , en a n on e o e

i i g
rem a n n 1 l t t f it c d l t
71 tt h e
y er s f or s se o n e e r, en an on e o

th e n 2 l t t t ill i i g f
e it thi d l t
er s s t d rem a n n or s r e e r , an s o on

7 62 t t
.

H e n c e, h i b f w y i w h i ch w m y
e en re nu m er o a s n e a

i tfi t c d t th l tt i t
,

ch o os e s hi d rs , se o n h w d ,
r ,
r e e r s, n o er or s
 PE R M UT AT I O NS AND CO M BI NAT I O NS 395

t
h e en t i r e n u m b er of w ay s i n w h i c h w e m ay f o rm an r -

p e rm u

tt
i
a on wi h tt
h e n le t
t e rs , i s n n
( 1 )( n 2 ) tf o r a c tors .

Th u s t
h e num b e rs of p er m u t
at
ion s of t
@ l t
t e er s a , b, c d, 3 on e , t
w o,

t tt
, ,

h r ee , fo u r , fi ve a im a e ar e

Pi z 5, q 5 -
4 3, Pi - z 5 -
4 3 ' v
2, -
1 .

E v i d e n ly h e tt t tr t r h fac o in h e p r o du c ( n
7

1) ( n 2)
t
,

is n
( r or n r 1 . He n c e h orm u l a 1
( ) m ay b e

wr i tte n
P¢= — 1 n
n
( 7b
>< j ( )
2

W h en r n, t
h f e a ctor n — r +i is n — n + 1, or 1, an d

we 1) -
2 1, .
or 1 2 — ( n l) n . Th e c on

ct c al le d fa c t
t
t i nn e d r o du 1 2 is o r i a l n a n d i s d e n ot e d
p n
-

Hen c e t
- n

by t
h e sy m b ol n ! or h e en i r e n u m b e r o f o r d e r s
i n wh i c h w e c an ar r a n g e n le ti
t er s n a r o w, u s i ng a ll o f t
h em

in ea ch arr an g e m e n t
,i s g i ven by t
h f e o rm u l a

n '
( )
3

F or a r easo n wh i c h w i ll a p p e ar l at e r , 7 75 t
h m e e an i n gl e ss
sy m b ol 0 !i s a s s i gn e d t
h e v al u e 1 .

E x am p le 1 Ho w m an y d fe r en if tsig n als c an b e m a d e w i t
h fou r fl ags
tc l oget
.

of d i ffer e n o ors d i s pl a y e d s i n g ly o r o n e o r m o r e t
,
h er o n e ab o ve ,

an o t
h er

Th e r e wi ll b e ig n al for ea ch arran g em en t
on e s of t
h e fl ag s t
ak e n 1 , 2 , 3,
or 4 a tt
im
a e. Hen c e th e n u m b e r i s P : P; P; P1 o r 6 4 , .

E xam p le 2 Of h e tp erm u a tt
i on s o f t t
h l t e e ers o f t
h w e or d fa n c i es
tk tt
.

a e n al l a im a e,

( 1 ) Ho w m an y b e c on son an t
gi n a n d en d wi t
h a

Th e fi rst p l a c e m ay b e filled i n 4 way s t h en th e l as t p la c e i n 3 way s

t
h en th e in t
e r m e d i at Hen c e t
, ,

e p l a c es i n 5 !way s h e r e q u i r e d n u m b er i s
.
.

4 -
3 or 1 440
t t
.

(2 ) Ho w m an y h ave pl a c e s
h e vo we ls in h e e ve n

Th e vo we l s m a y b e arr an g e d i n e e ve n p l a c e s i n 3 ! way s t h e c on t
h
s on an ts in th e o dd p l a c e s i n 4 way s a n d e a ch a r r a n ge m e n t
,

o f vo we ls m a y

b e ass o ci at
e d wi th every arran gem en t of c o n son an t Hen c e t
,

s h e r eq u i r e d .

n u m b er i s 3 I 4 1, or 1 44 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

( 3 ) Ho w m an y d o no t
h a ve c t
ash i e r i
m d d le l e t
t er

i
E v d e n lytc i th m i dd l l 6 ! f t
h p m t
s ti f eth e e ti
t er n o e er u a o n s, or e

re m a n ni i g t
le tm yb g d i ll p i b l
e rs d Th f t
a h e a rr a n e n a oss e or er s e r e o re e

h p m t
ft t tt ti 7 l 6
h m i dd l l t
.

nu mb er o i i which c ie er u a on s n s no e e e er s
v
or 432 0 .

E x am p l e 3 . Sh o w h t
t P2 a 4 P l, an d h t
t a
16
P3

2"
E x am ple 4
2”
. If P 4 12 7 P 3, fin d n .

E x am p l e 5 Ho w m an y p ass en ge r t ic k ets wi ll a r a i l wa y c o m p an y

o n w hich t h e r e ar e t
we n ty st at
.

n ee d fo r u se o n a d i vi s i o n i on s ?
E x am p l e 6 th p m t ti fth l t t i I n h o w m an y of e er u a on s o e e ers a , e , o, u y,
tk ll tt im d t h l t
t i td t g t
.
, ,

h
(0 0
a en a a a e, o e e e rs a , e , s an o e er

E m pl 7
xa Wi t
hth l tt ft h w de m ic l h w m y e e er s o e or nu er a o an ar r a n ge
tf fi l t t ch f m d i which t
.

m en s o b ve h dd p l c
e e rs ea c an e or e n e o a e s a re

o cc u pi ed by c on son an t
s ?

E x am p l e 8 Sh ow t
h t h t
wi t h d igi t0
a e s 1 , 2, t
9 i i p s oss i b le t
o

t
,
.

fo r m P 1 ,
0
Pgn u m b e rs , ea ch of which h as fo u r d i ffer e n fig u res .

E x am pl e 9 How m an y nu m b e rs al l tld o c an be fo rm e d wi t h t he
t3 t b e i n g d iffer en t
.

d igi s ,
4, 5 , 7 , 8 , al l h fig e u re s in ea ch num b er ?

E x am pl e 1 0 I n h o w m an y w a y s c a n se ve n b oy s b e arr a n ged in a r ow

p ar t t t t td ti t
t t
.

i f on e ic u lar b oy i s n o p er m i e d o h s an a e er en d o f h e ro w

Ci rcu l ar p erm u tt
i n
a o s Th e n u m b er of d i ffer en t o rd e r s in
t
tl t tt
.

whi c h n d iffe r e n e er s c an be a rr a n g ed ab o u h ci e r cu m
fer e n ce t
h cl d c v i (
of a c i r cl e or an y o er os e ur e s n

F thor l ti d f t
h l t
e re a t will tb ch ng d ve o r er o e n e ers no e a e

if w hi f t
e s ll th l ttt h m n mb
a f pl c l g t h e e er s e sa e u er o a e s a on e

c u rv eH c w h ll t k cc tf l l t
en h di t i ct d
e e s a a e a ou n o a e s n or er s

ft l tt i f w pp tfi di p i
h l t
f t
.

o h e n e ers e su o se o n e o e e er s xe n os

t i on d t h anm i i g 1 th g d i
e ll p i bl
re a n n n en a r r an e n a o ss e

d B t th 1 l t
t b g d i (
'
or e rs . u e se n e e r s c an e ar r an e n n

o r d e r s, 7 63,

Th u s , e igh tp e rso n s c an be s ea e dt t a a r ou n d tbl a e in 7 or 5040,

o r d e rs .

E x am p le 1 Sh o w t
h tt
h n u m b er of c irc u lar p er m u tt
i of

:
a e r -
a on s

t
tl t
.

i td iffe r en e e rs is P r.
3 98 A CO LLE GE ALG EBRA

3 !perm u t at i on s of The
n u m b er o f h e tp er m u a t t i on s o f
2) i s 5 1, 7 6 3, Th e r e f or e h e n u m b e r of t t
h p e e rm u ta t i o n s

of i
( )
1 s 5 !+ 3 1

t
.

By h e r e as o n i n g h er e em p l oy ed w e c an p r o ve i n g en e r al
th a t
th e nu m be r of di s t i n g u i sh ab l e n p e rm u a i o n s tt of n le ers t
t
t
-

of wh i c h p ar e a l i k e , 9 o t
h e r s a lik e , a n d so on , i s g i ve n b y h e

f or m u l a
p !g !
E x a m pl e 1 . I n h ow m an y d ifferen t
w a y s c an h l t
t te e e rs o f t
h w e or d

i n d ep end en c e b e a rr a n ge d
t
Of h e 12 le t
t ers in t
his wo r d 4 ar e e s ,
’
3 a r e 71 s ,
’
2 are d ’
s

t t
.

He n c e h e re q u i red r esu l i 12s 3 2 or

E x am ple 2 I n h o w m an y way s c a n t h e let te rs o f t h e w o r d An t i och

h ou t ch a n gi n g t i ve o rd e r o f t h e v o we l s o r t h at
.

b e arr an g e d w i t h e r ela t of

th e c on so n a n ts

F rom t h e p ro of j u st gi ven i t i s e vi d e n t th at t h e r e qu i r e d n u m b er o f
a r ran g e m e n t
s is t h e s a m e as i t w ou l d b e i f t he t h r e e vo we ls wer e t h e s am e
an d t h e fo u r c o n son an t s wer e t h e sam e He n c e i t is 7 3 4 or 3 5 . .

E x am p le 3 Ho w m a n y t er m s h as e a ch o f t h e fo ll o wi n g s y m m e t r ic

fu n c t
.

'

i on s o f fi ve var i ab les (13 y z u 9 n a m ely Ex3y 22 , 2 x3y 2z2 2 x3y zu

, , , , , , , ,

an d 2 x3 y 32 2 u 2

W e s h all th tm f2 y tic
o b a n al l ch i f l i g t h p
e er s o x3 2 z o n e ea eav n e ex o

t3 2 1 fi d i p i t w w it d t y 3p m t t
,

h en s i xe h m n os i on e r e un er e e ve r -
er u a on

fth l t
t 11 H c t fth tm i P
, , ,

O e e e r s 93, h b Z u 60
0. en e e num er o e er s s 3 , or
pply t m t h d tE y bt i t h tm
, , , .

If w eh m
a w e sa e
11 e o o x3 2 2
2 , e o a n e er 233 2 2
2

twic c i t h f m
e , on e s nd nc i t h f m
e y Si m i l l y
or a3 2 a on e n e or
‘
x z3 2
3 ar

y tm i bt i d t ch f t i which i t
.

e ve r er wic e c fs o h a ne d on e or ea o e or er s n s

l tt d t t b w it t H c t
,

e h
ers u n q l p er e e ua h mb ex f on e n s c an e r en . en e e nu er o

ter m s in Z
‘
a 1 y 2z2 is P ; 2, or 30
tm
.

Si m i larly 2 x3y zu h as P i 3 or 20, er s , an d 2 a 3g 3z5 a 2 h as P i 2 !2

or 30, tm
er s .

E x a m le 4p I n h o w m an y way s c an fi ve p e n n i e s , s ix fi ve c e n pi e c es , t
tt
-

t t
.

an d fou r d i m e s t
b e d i s r i b u e d a m on g fif e en chil d r e n s o h a e ac h m a y
'

re c e i ve a c o i n

E x am ple 5 I n a c e rtain d ist r ic tof a t o wn t here are t e n st r ee t

s ru n

n i n g n o rth an d s ou t h an d fi ve r u n n i n g e ast an d w e s t I n h o w m a n y
.

way s c an a p e r so n w a lk fr o m t h e so u t h we s tc orn er o f t h e d is t
r ic tto t
.
,

he
n or t h east c o r n e r a l w ay s tak i n g t
, es t
h e s h o rt c o u rs e
 PE R M UTATI O NS AND GO M BI NAT I O NS

The n u m b er of r c om bi-
nat i on s of 11 di fferen tl t
te ers Th i s nu m 767
t
.

ber, CI}, i s g i ven by h e f orm u l a

1
( )

For e v i d en t ly i f we w ere tf o orm a ll t

h e r c om b i n a t
i on s an d

t
-

we r e t
h en o ar r an g e h l t
t te e er s of ea c h c o m b i n at
ion in t u rn
in al l p o s si ble o r d e r s, we sh o u ld o b ti a n all t
h e r
p e rm u tt
i a on s

ti
-

c h c o m b i n at t
.

Bu s n ce ea i o n w o u l d th u s y i e ld r e rm u a !p
t
i § 7 6 3, a ll t h e c o m b i n at i o n s C ; i n n u m b e r , wo u l d
’
o n s,

t
,

y i e ld !x C ? p e r m u t a i o n s
r .

H e n c e r !x 0 2 P 13, an d t h er e f o r e C

Thu s t
h e num b er s of i o n s of t
c o m b i n at t
h e le t
er s a, b, c d, 6 on e, t
w o,

t tt
, ,

h r ee , fo u r , five a im a e are

5 4 3 2 1
’
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

Thi s e x p r e ssi o n for C1? i s h e tc o e ff

i c i en t of t
h e (r tt
1) h er m

in t
h e e x p an s i o n of
( a b) "
by t
h bi e n om i al t
h e o rem , § 5 65 .

Th i s w as s h o wn i n § 5 6 0 by an a r gu m en t wh i ch i s m er el y

an o t
h er p r oo f t
o f h e form u l a

I f in th e e x p re ssion ju s tbtin o a ed fo r C ? w e m u l t ip l y b o t h
n u m e r a to r an d de n o m i n a t by (
or n r
) w e o b ai n h e m o r e t t
sy m m e r i al tc f o rm u l a
1
n

!( n —r
r
)!
F r om t
hi f s or m u l a 2tf ll w
( ) i o o s th a tt
h n e uberm

r co m b i n a on s of n l e
-
ti t
ti t h
er s s e sam e a s th e n u m ber

( n r
) c o m b i n a t i on s
-
.

( n
( n
( n

Th i s al s o foll o ws fr o m h e f a c t t
th t
f a o r e v e ry s e tf
o r -
th i n g s
t ak e n , a se t of n r th i n g s i s l e f t .

Th u s 14
02 14 13 l 2 91 Ob s er ve h ow m u ch m or e r e ad i ly
t
hi w y t tpp l ic t
, .

“
C12 is fou n d i n s h a an by a d ir e c a i a on o f 1
4 00 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

E x a m pl e 1 t p i ti pl Th er e ar e fif ee n o n s n a a n e an d n o t
h re e o f t
h ese

i tli i t tight Fi d t ti
.

po n s h m
e n li h e sa e s ra n e. n e num b er of r an gles which
c an b f m d by j i i g t
e or h m e o n n e .

E idv tly th en m y ti gl th e r e a re as an r an e s as e re a r e c o m b in at i on s o f the

po i tt
n s k th a tt im en H c t h mb re e a a e . en e e nu er of t
r i an gl es i s 0
15
3
th at ,

i s, 1 5 -
14 -
2 -
3, or 45 5 .

E xam p l e 2 I n h o w m a n y wa y s c a n a c o m m i t tee o f t h ree b e s ele c t ed

fr o m t e n p e rs on s 1 ) s o as a l wa y s t o i n c l u d e a p ar t
.

ic u l ar p er so n A (2 ) so
a s a l wa y s t o ex cl u d e A

( l ) Th e o t h er t wo m e m b e rs o f t h e c o m m it tee c an b e ch ose n fro m t he

re m a i n i n g n i n e p e r s o n s i n OS t h at i s 9 8 / 1 2 o r 36 way s
t
.

i re c o m m i t t
, , , ,

( 2 ) Th e e n t e e c a n b e ch o s e n fr o m h e r e m a in i n g n i n e
p e rs o n s i n eg t h at is 9 8 , o r 84
,
wa y s
-
, .

Exam Wit
pl e ht
3 h e vo w e l s a e i o a n d t h e c on so n an t
s b c d f 9

h o w m an y a r r an g e m e n t e r s c a n b e m a d e e a ch c on s i stin g of t
.
, , , , ,

s o f le t
t
, ,

wo
h r ee c on s o n an t
,

vo w e ls a n d t s ?

T h e vo wels fo r t h e arr a n g e m e n t c a n b e ch o s e n i n 0 way s t

3 h e c on
s o n an t
,

s i n 0 way s ; t h e n e a ch s el e c ti o n o f vo wels c an b e c o m b i n ed wi t h
3
e ve ry se l e c ti o n o f c o n so n an t s an d t h e w h o l e arran g e d i n 5 way s Hen c e
t
.

h e r e qu i re d r esu l t i s 0 3 0 3 5 1 o r 7 200 .
,
.

pl e 4 111 h o w m an y way s c an e igh t

E x am e e n b ook s b e d i vi d e d e qu ally

a m on g t
.

h re e p e rs on s A B C , ,

A s b ook s c a n b e se le c t way s t h en B s i n way s t h en

’
ed i n
’

h e r e u r e d r esu l t
, ,

C s i n 0 2 o r 1 way Hen c e § 7 6 2 t q i is 0 5 O G 0 2
13 ‘2
’
.
,
.
, , , ,

or

To fi n d i n h o w m an y w a y s h e 18 b oo k s c an b e d i s r i b u e d i n o h r e e t t t tt
t
se s o f 6 b o o k s e a ch , w e m u s d i v i d e h e r e s u l u s ob ain ed by 3 w hich t t j tt
t
gi ve s 1 8 3 t
fo r h e re h e or d er i n w hich h e h r e dse s m ay ch a n c e tt t
to b e a r r a n g e d is i m m a e r i a l t .

E x a m le 5 p h t
Wi t he le t
t e rs of th w d e or t t c
m a hem a i a l h o w m an y
t l ct
.

d i ffe re n i
se e on s a n d h o w m an y d i ff t er e n a rr a n g m tf f
e en s o ou r le t
t er s

ea ch c an b e m ad e

As h e l e t t
t e rs a r e n o tll d i ff t
w c a e re n e an n o tb ti t
o h a n e re qu i re d resu lt
s
by s ni gl e a ppl ic a t
i ft
h f m l
on s o f e or u as or CI? an d P L
“

t
t tt
.

Th e l e e rs a r e a , a , a ; m, m ; h e, i, c l
t tt i b l e s e le c t
, , , , .

He n c e w e m ay c l a ss ify an d h en e n u m era e h p e o ss i on s an d
a rr a n ge m e n t
s a s fo ll o ws
4 02 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

T ot
al nu m ber of com bi nat
i on s I f in t
h f e o rm u l a fo r ( a

t t b tc t t
.

§ 56 1, we se a b 1 an d h n e su 1 f
ra r om bo h m em

b er s ,
we o bti a n

03+ c g z 2 — 1
n
.

Hen ce t
h tt l e o a nu m be r of c om b in a t
i on s of n d i ffe r e n t
thi g n t ak e n o n e t
s wo n a tt
im a e, in o t
h erw o r d s, t
h e

t t t
, ,

o al n u m b e r o f w ay s i n wh i c h on e or m or e hi n g s m ay be
c h o s e n fr o m n h i n g s t is 2 ”
1
t t
.
,

Th i s m ay al so b e p r ov e d a s f oll o w s :E a c h p ar i c u l ar hi n g
tt
c a n b e d e al w i h i n on e o f wo w ay s, h a i s, b e ak en o r l e f t tt t t
H c t h t tl t ll t
.

en e b e o a nu m e r of w ay s of de al i n g wi h a hi g n n s is
2 2 tt f c t o n a or s , or 7 62 Th e re f or e, re e j ct
i g t
h c n e a se

i wh i ch ll t
h t tw
.

n hi g a e n s ar e le f ,
e h a ve as be fo re ,
2 ”
1 .

E x a m p le 1 Ho w m an y d iffer en t
su m s o f m o n ey c an be p a i d wi t
h on e
q u ar t
.

dim e, on e er ,
on e h alf d o llar , a n d on e d o llar ?

E x am p le 2 i g j u st
By h ei llu st
t r ated sh ow t
r easo n n h at t
he tot al n u m

b er o f way s i n which o n e o r m o r e t
.
,

hi n g s c an b e ch osen fr o m p q
thi n g s o f w hich 19 ar e a l i k e q oth er s a l i k e b u td i ffer e n t
,
h e 19 t
fr o m t hi n gs ,

an d so on is ,
—1 - n
.

E x a m pl e 3 Ho w m an y d ffer en i tm su s of m on e y c an be p aid wi t
h
t
.

w o d i m es , fi ve qu a r t
e rs , an d fo u r h alf d o llars ?

Grea tt
es val u e of In t
h e ex
p r e s s i on fo r n a m el
y
n
( u 1) ( n r t
h e r f act
or s of t
h e n u m era o r t
d e c r e ase wh il e h o se t of t
h d e e n om in a ti
or n cr ease H e n c e fo r
t tt t
.

a g i ve n v al u e o f n h e v a l u e o f C ? w i l l b e g r ea wh
es en h e

n ex t t g r ea e r v alu e o f r w i ll m ak e

(n
F r om t
h i i t dily f
s r ea t
h t
ol l o w s
if b C?i a n e even , s g r e at e st wh e n
’

r n
/ ;
2 an d if n b dd C }:
i g
e o tt wh s rea e s en r
(n
t b i g t
f C I:
,

or r
( n h l e h
va u e o e n e s am e for t h ese
t
w v o al u e s o f r , § 7 69 .

E x am p l e . Wh at h e gre at
is t est
val u e of of
 PERMUTATI O NS AND CO MBI NAT I ONS

Com b i na i on s wh en t repe t
iti n o s are allowed Le t us i n qu i re i n
l ct t
.

h ow m an y way s we c an se e th re e of h f e ou r di g i t s 1 , 2, 3, 4
wh en r ep e ti t
i o n s a r e all o w e d

ct
.

As e x am p l es o f su ch
i on s we m ay t ak e 1 1 1
sel e 1 12, 1 2 4,
tt r e s e ct ve ly t e c a s e s i n wh i c h a l l t
t
,

ill u s i g ra n
p i h w n h re e o, on e

ft h d i git t
,

o h e s ar e e s am e

I f tt h d i g i ti
.

1
1 11 i
o e1 12 d i 1 24 w s dd 0 1 2
n n an n e a

t t t
, , , ,

re s p c i v l y w e b i 1 2 3 1e2 4 d 1 36 w hi
e o c h t h a n f h an ar e r ee o e

bi t h tp t it ft h di g i t
, ,

i n wi t
, ,

3 c om na i o s 1 2 3 4 5 6 ou re e on s o e s

w il l h w t h t t
-

A d l it fl ct
.
, , , , ,

n tl ia e re if w e k on s o a e m a e ou a c om

p l tl i tf t
e e h l cti s l i k 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 24
o e se e gi g t h on s e a rr an n e

d i g i ti ch t h t di g i t
, , ,

s n ea i f ll w d by so fl a l no s o o e on e o e ss v a u e ,

an d t h tt h d i g i ti en ch l c t
o i dd 0 1 2 w
e h ll s n ea se e on a e s a

bt d b t c f t bi t
, , ,

o i c
a n on v y e an h 3 c u i on e e er on e o e -
om na on s

w it h tp t iti ou ft h 4 re
( 3 e 1 ) 6 d i i t
on s o
g 1 2 3 4 5 6 e or s

ft i 0 3 H n c 0 3i t
, , , , ,
.

Th n b
e h l ttu m c bi ti er o e a h er om na on s s . e e s e

n u m b er w h i ch we a r e s e e ki n g

tt
.

Th e s am e r e a son i n g m ay be a p p li e d h go e e n e r al c ase of

r -
c o m b i n at
i on s wi h t re
pe t i i o n s, t of t
h e n nu m b er s 1 2, n

t c o r r e sp o n d t t
t
.
, ,

An d
fl
l

sin c e h n e u m b e r s m ay o n d i ff e r e n hi g n s of

an y ki n d , we h a ve t
h t
h e e o re m

Th e n u m ber ft
h c om bin a ti on s w i th r ep et i on s of n difi er en t
it
'

o e r -

t
hi g i t
h n s s e sa m e as t h e n u m ber of t h e r c o m bi n a t h ou t
i o n s wi t -

p tit
i f 1 difi e r e n tt
hi g n a m el , C n 1
“

re e on s o n r n s, or
y ,

n
( n + 1)
E x a m pl e 1 . Ho w m an y d iffe re n t
th w ro s c an b e m ad e wi t
hf ou r d ic e
As an y on e of t
h f c e a es m a rk e d l , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 m ay t u rn u pp erm o st
t
inh c f e ase o one, t
w th o, fo u r o f t
re e , o r h e d ic e t h e n u m b er o f p o s s i b le

h w i t
t co m b in ati o n s wi th r e p et
it
,

h ro s s e num b er of 4 -
i o n s of 1 2 , , 3 , 4, 5 , 6 ,
6 3
n a m el y , 0 1 , or 1 26 .

E x a m p le 2 Ho w m an y tm er s h as a c om p l e t
e h o m o g e n eo u s p o ly

t t t
.

n o m al i of h h d
e r e g re e i hn ree i var ab l e s c
y z?
ly i t
t y tm as t
, ,

E v de n i h m he re ar e pro du c t h e rt
s of t h de gree
fa c t
as a s an er s

wh ose He n c e t

t
’ ’ ’
or s a r e a3 s , y s , o r zs . h e n u m b er is
1 z ?
G i
r
c
'
-

z
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Form u l as n
co n ec ti g n n u m b er s of c om t
b i na i on s Th e corres pon d

t
.

i ng al g ebra i c iden t
iti es Th e f oll o w i n g r ela i o n s a r e o f sp e c i al

td i tc
.

i nte r es an m p o r an e .

1
( )
tt
F o r we m ay d i s tr i b u e h e r c o m b i n a i o n s o f n l e tt e r s i n o -
t t
two c l asse s, t t t tt
h o se wh i c h c on a i n s o m e p ar i c u l a r l e e r, a s a ,
t ttt t
a n d h o s e wh i c h d o n o c on a i n th i s l e er tW e s h a l l o b a i n al l
t t fth fi t
.

h c m bi
e i o cl n a c ch i f w f
on s o e rs a ss, o n e ea e o rm e ve r y

t t t
t t
,

(r 1 ) c bi n i f h om i i g 1 l
a d hon o e rem a n n n e e r s an e n a dd

t ch f t
-

a o ea h c bi t i o ; h c t h i b i
e se om na on s en e e r nu m er s

Th c ebi t i om ft h c d cl na t h c bi t
on s o i e se on ass a r e e r om na on s of

t
-

h i i g
e r em a n n 1 l tt; h c t h i b i
n e er s en e e r num er s

e m
s
"
c :
" ‘
01 03 Gi t 02 . 2
( )
For tk a e an y tt d p ti ti t
g r ou p o f m n le er s a n se ar a e n o

t
w g o p r ou tt t
s, o n e h t
h l t
of m l e
f t W h ll
ers , e o er o n e ers e s a

tk cc tf l l t c bi t ft l tt nc
.

a e a hou n oi a h e r -
om na on s o e m n e e r s, o e

ea c h i f w c l i fy t h m e f ll wa ss Th y c i t f e as o o s e on s s o

t t t t
,
.

( ) Ta h c b i t ie r f -
h l
om f hna g p T
on s oh e e er s o e m -
rou e

ft c bi t
.

nu mb h er o i i 03
e se3 om na on s s
7

t t tt t
.

( )
b T h c b i i e w h i c h c
om i na 1 l on s f h on a n r e er s o e

m g
-

p d
ro u l at t ft
an h on e
g p A w erc h o e n r ou s e c an o o se

t 1 l t
-

ti d t l t ti 0?w y
.

h e r w y
e er s h n a s an e on e e er n a s,

t
h mb
e nu f c bi t i
er o ft hi ki d i om na on s o s n s

( )
c T h c b i ti e w h i c h c
om t i na 2 l tt
on s f th on a n r e ers o e

m g p d
ro u tw l t t an f t h g po A w
e c h
er s o e n rou s e c an oos e

t
-

2 l t ti t i 03w y
-

d t h t w l t
.

h e r w y
e ers n a s an e o e er s n a s,

th b
e num f c m bi t
i
er o f t h i ki d io 03
na A d on s o s n s n so

t il l tf ll w ch t c bi t f th l t t
.

on , u n as h o a i e rea e r om na on s o e e ers

ft f wh i h t
-

o h g e n
p
-
h
ro u 02
,
o c er e ar e .

Th u s , 03 : 8 4 an d

I f in ( 1) an d
( 2) we re
p l ac e t
h e se ve r a l sy m bols 0 by t
h i e r

e x p r e ss i o n s in te rm s o f m n r, 7 67 , we t
o b ai n
'

f or m u la s
c o n ne c t j u st t
, ,

in g m ,
n, r . Th e p ro o f s g i ve n o n ly sh o w h at
4 06 A C O LLE G E ALG E B RA

7 t t
I n h o w m an y way s c an h e d igi s 1 , 2 , 1 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 5 b e ar r an ged
t t
,

t
.

all h e d igi s o cc u rr i n g i n e a ch ar ran g e m e n

8 Of t
h p e e rm u a tt
i ft ti t
h l t h w
on s o e e e rs n e o rd fa c ti
or n g , tk
a e n all

tt t t c on so n an t
.

a i m (1) h
a e, ow m an y b e h gi n wi a v o we l a n d e n d wi h a

( 2 ) h ow m an y do no tb gi wi t
h f?
e n (3 ) h ow m an y h ave vo wel s in t
h e

fir s t
th ree p la c es
9 I n h ow m an y of t
h p e er m u tt
i j t
a d c ib
on s us es r ed t h do e vo we ls

ti t tc t ti t
.

h
re a n e or d e r a , 0 , i ? I n h o w m an y d o h e o n so n a n s r e a n h e o r de r

f c t r, n , g? I n h ow m an y do b o t
h t
h w l e vo e s an d t
h c e o n s o n an s t
ti t
, , ,

re a n h e se o r d e r s ?

Wi t
10 ht er s o f t
h e l et
t h e w o r d resi d en t at
h ow m an y p er m u t i on s o f
e rs e a ch c an b e fo r m e d i n w hich t
t
five l e t h e fi rs tt
hi rd an d fift h le t t
.

ers , ,

a r e vo we l s

11 I n h o w m an y w a y s c an a b ase b all i
n ne be sel e ct
e d fr o m fif t
e en

t tp l t t
.

c an d i da es o f wh o m s ix ar e qu al i fie d o ay in h fi ld
e ou e o n ly a n d n n e i
in t
h i e n fi e l d o n ly

12 I n how Ma n y way s c an t
w o nu h
m b ers w o s e s u m i s e ven b e ch osen
t
.

fro m h e nu m b e r s 1 , 2 , 3 , 8 , 9, 1 0

13 Ho w m an y nu m b e rs o f on e , t
w o, or th fig re e u r e s c an be for m e d
th t
h d igi t1 2 3 4 5 t
h d igi tm r e p e at
.

wi e s 6, 7 ( 1 ) wh e n e s ay be ed ?

( 2 ) wh t h ym y t p e at
, , , , ,

enb e a no e re ed

14 Ho w m a n y o dd n u m b ers , ea ch h avi n g fi ve d iffer en t

figu res c an be
t
hth d igi t
.
,

for m e d w i e1 s ,
2 , 3, 4, 5 , 6

How m an y o dd n u m b e r s w i h ou r e p e a e d d igi s a r e
15 t t t t t
h ere t
b e ween
t
.

3 000 a n d 8 000 Ho w m a n y o f h es e ar e d i vi s i b l e b y 5

16 I n h ow m an y way s c an ap er son i n vi t
e o n e or m o r e o f fi ve fr i en ds
td i
.

o n n er

17 I n h o w m a n y way s c a n fif e e n t a ed a m on g t
r ib u t
ppl es b e d ist h ree
tt an oth er fi ve a n d a n o t
.

b oy s s o h a o n e b o y s h a ll r e c e i v e s i x , h er fou r ?
,

18 I n h o w m a n y way s c an six p o sit

i ve an d fi ve ne g at
i ve s ign s be
t
t
.

wr i en i n a r o w

19 . How m an y num b er s of fou r fi gu res ea ch c an be ht

fo rm ed wi t he
ch ar ac t
e rs 1 , 2 , 3, 2 , 3, 4 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 3 , 6 , 7

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ee n F r en ch an d tw le ve Ger m an b o ok s e igh t F r e n ch a n d
l ct
.

se ve n G e r m a n b o oks ar e tb o e se e de a n d ar ra n ge d o n a s h e lf In h o w
t
.

m an y way s c an hi s b e d on e
 PE R M UTAT I O NS AND CO M BI NATI O NS 407

21 F ro m ac o m plet e su i t of thir tee n c a r d s fi ve ar e tb o e se l e ct

ed

i n c lu d e t h e k i n g o r qu ee n o r b o t
.

which s h all h I n how m an y way s c an

t
.
,

hi b s e don e

I n h o w m an y way s
22 c anfou r m en b e ch o s en fro m five Am er ic an s
o i n c l u de ( 1 ) o n ly o n e E n gl i s h m an ? 2 ) a t
t
.

an d s i x E n gl i s h m e n so as (
l e as t on e E n g l i sh m an ?

23 How m an y p arallelo g ra m s ar e fo rm ed wh en a se tf t p
o en ara llel

t h e r set
an o t of t
.

l i n es i s m e b y we lve p ar a ll e l l i n es

24 p o in ts i n a pl a n e n o t
G i ven n h r e e o f which li e i n t h e s a m e str a igh t

l i n e ex c e p t m which a ll li e i n t h e sam e s t r a igh t Sh o w t h at

.

lin e the
n u m b e r of l i n es o b t ai n ed b y j o i n in g t h ese p o i n t
.
,

s is C
"
; 3 l .

25 F in d t
h e num b er of b r a c el e tt
h t
s a c an be fo r m e d b y s t r i n gi n g

tg t
.

h
o e er fi ve l i k e p e ar l s , si x l ike i
r u b es , an d fi ve l i k e d i am o n d s .

26 I n h ow m an y way s c an tp
en ers on s be ar ran ged a tt
w o r ou n d

tb l t t
.

a es , five a e a ch a b le a

27 I n h ow m an y way s c an s ix l ad i es an d five gen tl e m e n arr an g e a

tc i tf t
.

g am e of l awn en n s , e a i ch s i de o on s s o on e l a d y an d o n e g en t
l e m an

28 I h w m y w y fift p
n o ttfi ll an a s c an een er s on s v o e o a c er t
ai n of
fi e c
w hich t c d id t I h w m y f t t
.

for h fi h
e re ar e ve an a es n o an o ese way s will h e
tb q lly d i i d d m g t
vo e e e h fi c d id t
ua v e a on e ve an a es

29 A b t c w c i t f igh t m twoa f wh m re on s s s o e en o o o are qu ali fie d t o

t tk i d ly d t
.

row h on h b w id
e s ro ly e s e on an on e on e o s e on I n h o w m an y
t
.

w y a h c w b
s c an g d e re e a rra n e

30 Ho w i m an y b as eb all n n es c a n b e c h osen fr o m e igh t

e e n p lay e rs o f

wh o m ten ar e q u al i fi e d t t t t
.

o p l ay i n h i e n field on l y , fi ve i n h e ou fi ld
e

on ly an d t
h re e i n a n y p o s i t
, i on ?
31 Sh o w th t t ha mb e nu er of p er m u t
at
i on s of s i x d i fferen tl t
t e er s

tk ll tt i m wh t h l t
t
.

a en a a a w e, en o of t e e ers a r e e x c l u d ed ea ch fro m a

p t
ic l
ar u ar p it
os i i 6! 2 5
on , s 4 i

32 Ho w m y c m bi t
an i o na on s fo u r at a ti m e c an be for m ed wi ht
t h e

tp
t t wh re p e t
it
.

le er s , q, r , s, , en i on s are allo wed

33 . Ho w m th fi d ic
an y d i fferen t
th w ro s c an b e m ad e w i ve e

34 H w m y tm h ch f t ym m t ic f c t i 4 3 2
o h an 2myer s as e a o e s e r un on s zu

t ft i bl b i g t
.

2x2 2 z2u ,
y 2 y h mb h x3 3z2 u 2v, e nu er o e va r a es e n en

3 5 Sh w t h tth mb f tm io c m p l th m g
a f
e nu er o er s n a o e e o o en eo u s un c
t ft t
.

i
on o h h d g i f i bl i (
e n 1) ( 2) (
e ree 3) 3 n o u r var a es s n n n !
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

X XVI . T HE M ULTI N O M I AL T HE O RE M

t
Mu l i n om i al t
h eorem t Le a b 13 d e n o t
e an y o
p yl
it i t
. .

n om i al , an d n a p os i g ve n e er . Th e n

w h er e t
h th igh t
e su m c t i ont f h
e r tf on a n s on e er m or e ac
'

se o

v l a u esf B mo th t
a, b s l c t d f 0 1 K 2 a c an e e e e r om n,

ch th t B it td t h t
, , , , ,

su a a b i g d wh n K n, e n un e r s oo a e

a 0 ! tb a
p l i
c sd b y 1 d o t h li k
e ref B a e an e e or K

t t t t
.
, , ,

F ( or b a k ) d h c i d p d c "
en o e s e on nue ro u

( + b { a - J u
t f t -
o n ac or s

d
an ch f t eah p t i l p d ct bt
o i d by c tl ly c
e ar ayi g ro u s o a ne a ua ar r n

t
outhi lt ip l i c t
s m u i wit h tc ll ct i g li k t a h
on , th ou o e n e e rm s, as e

f or m: l t tf t a h fi t p
e er t h i ti ro m l t tf m e rs ar e n e s s, m es a e er ro

th c d t
e s e on im l t tf t h t hi d
es a d e er rom e r an so o n

B ti c t h l t t l c td f t
.
, ,

u s n e e ch p eh i y b
e r se e e r om ea ar en es s ma e

an y f t h l
on e o tt Z k l i
e t f t h
e p d c t th
er s a , ) , a s o e ro u s as us

w it t w ld l b c pl tl i tf t tt
,

r en ou a so h p i
e a f om e e s o e n er m u a on s o

th l tt
-

e e b k wh
ers a , p ti ti ll w d A d if en re e on s are a o e ; n

t y p t i c l tf b 0 1
,

a
B d x e n o e an wh ar u ar se o nu m ers 77. o se

t will b i t h li t y p d ct
, , , ,

su m i h s n, e re i whi c h
e n e s a s m an ro u s n

a ft h f ct
o e a
B ft h m 6
or s ar e f th la s,
’
o e
’
s, x o em c s,
’
as

th e r e ar e n
p tt i f l tt f wh i ch
er m u a lik
on s oB n e ers o a are a e,

t
-

o h l ik
er s a re a d ly !/ ! B!
e , an § 766 A d
so o n , n a m e n a -
x n

ch f t p d ct q l t b k t
.
,

i c
s n e ea h o i e se h i ro i u s s e ua o a
a
B "
, e r su m s

n !
“
a
a
bB u -
k .

d i Bi n -
Kl

Th e b i n o m i al t
h eo r e m is a p ar t
i l cu ar c ase of thi s theor e m .

Th u s t h e e x p an s i o n o f ( a b c d e) 4 c on s i st s of t
er m s o f t
he
fi ve t hth e c o e ffi ci e n t
,

wi t
‘
y p es a bc d a c a zbz a b
, , ,
3
, a4 s 4 !1 !1 !1 I o r ,

or 12 ; or6 ; or 4; or 1,
re s p ec t
i ve ly . Hen c e , un it
in g tm er s of he t sam e t
yp e, we h a ve
(a b c d e 4 ) 2 a4 4 Z a ab 6 Z Ia Qb2 12 Z a 2bc 2 4 2 abcd .
41 0 A C O LL E G E ALG E B R A

Ca l li n g all t
h l i k e l y w ay s i n w h i c h s u c h an ev e n
e e q u all y t
c an t
h ap p e n o r f a il h e p o ss i bl e c a s es w i h r e s p e c o h e ev e n , t t
tt t
th w y ie ta s n wh i ch i c a n h ap p e n h e fa vo r a bl e c a s es , a n d h e t t
w y i w h i c h i t f il t
h f a vo r a bl e c a s es we

tf t
a s n c an a e u n ,
s ay

t
Th e p r oba bi li y o r c h a n c e of h e even i s t t t
h
”

e ra io o he
n u m be r o
f f
a vo r a bl e c a s es o h e e n i r e n u m ber tt t o
f p oss i ble c a s es ,

fa v or a bl e and u n fa vo ra ble .

Hen c e i f m d en o tt
h e e nu m b er of p o s s i b l e c ase s a t
h e

t bi l i t
,

num b er of f av or a b l e c ase s an d p h p e r ob a
y , we h a v e by
t
,

d e fin i i o n
p a
/ m .

Th u s , t
h p e r ob a b il i t hat
y t th e ac e w i ll t u rn u p w h en a d i e i s t
h w ro n is
fo r h e r e m = 6 an d a =1
t c e o f d r a wi n g a whi t tc ti
.

Aga i n , h ch e an e b a ll fr o m a b ag k n o wn o on a n

fi ve b a lls , t
h r ee w hi te an d t wo b l a c k i s 3 / 5 ,
.

Cor ol l ary 1 ti c ti th pp i tp b bi li t
If an
y e ven s er a n o a en , s ro a

1 ; if i t
i c t tf i l i tp b bi l i t ery t
.

is i s
y i O; i
er a n h o a s ro a s n ev o er

it b bi li t t
,

c a se p s
y i ro
p i i a
p p f c t
i s a os ve ro er ra on .

t
F or i f
h ti c ti th pp e e ve n s er a n o a en , t
h e r e ar e n o w ay s i n
wh i ch i t f il ; h c dc an a en e a m an a m 1 If t
h e e ve n t
i c t i tf il t t
.

s er a n h w y i o a e r e ar e n o a s n whi ch i c an h app e n ;
t t
,

h en c e a O an d a m O In e v e ry o h er case a i s g re a er

t
h t t
.

th a n 0 an d l e ss t h an m so a a m is a p o si i v e p r op er
t
,

fr ac i on .

Cor ol l ary 2 t
h p b bi li t
If y the t ro a a an even t
wi l l h p p a en is
t
.

p , h e p r oba y t
bi li t h tit
wi l l t
ah pp i no a en s 1 p .

F or i f a of t
h e m p o s si bl e c ase s f avo r h e t c c ft h o c u r r en e o e

ev e n tth e r em ai n i n
g m a c a s e s f av o r i t cc c s n on o u rr e n e

c t
-

tt
h tt twill th pp n i
, .

Hen h e e p roba bi l i y h a e eve n no a e s

( m — a
/ m = 1 —p
t f a v or a bl e c ase s w i t t
.

Odd s I f he nu m ber of h r esp e c t o a

t ti t
.

c e r ain e ve n s a an d h e n u m b e r o f u n f av o r a b l e c as e s i s b,
we sa
y wh,en a b t
,
h at th e o dd s ar e a o b i n f avo r o f h e t t
 PR O B ABI LI T Y

e v en t ; w h e n 6 a t
th a t h e o dds ar e b o a a g a i n s t h e e v en t ; t t
b ha t tt
h e O dd s a r e e v en o n h e e v e n t I n h e fir s t t t
,

wh e n a
t t t t
.
,

c a se h e p r o b a b i li y o f he e ve n n am ely a ( a b) i s g r e at e r
t t t in h e t t t
, , ,

h an i n h e se c o n d i i s l e ss t h an hi rd i
is e q u al t1
o 2 .

Thu s if a b all i s t a i n i n g fi ve b all s t

o b e d r a wn fr o m a b a g c o n t h re e
whi t
e an d t wo b a c k t e O dd s a r e 3 t t
, ,

h o 2 i n fa vo r o f i t s b e in g whi e an d
l
3 t
o 2 ag a i n s t
, ,

it
s b e i n g b la c k .

tti n
E x p ec I fp a o den o tt
h ch
e c th tp e w ill wi an e a a e r s on n

c t h p d ct
t Mp i c ll d t
.

a i m fm
er a n s u o on ey 111 , e h v l ro u s a e e a ue

p ct t t
.

o f hi i
s ex e a on so fa r as hi M i c c d
s su m s on er n e .

Th u s t
h e val u e o f t
h e ex p ec t
at
i on of a g a m b l er wh o i s twi o n $
1 2 if h e
t t
,

h w ro s an a c e wi h a s n i g le d ie i s 812 x or 82 .

E x a m p l es of p rob ab i li y t t
h d fi i ti
In a pp l y i n g e e n on o f p r o ba
t tb tk t d c t
.

b i l i y , § 7 7 6, c a r e m u s e a h p en o re u e e o s s ibl e c a se s
to s u c h as a re e q u a l ly l i k e ly Th e f o l l ow i n g e x am p l e s w i ll
i l l tt t
.

h n
u s ra e e ee d of th i s p re c au t i o n .

t c i b t d i m lt ly wh t
E x a m pl e 1 i t
h ch
I f wo c o ns e oss e s u an e o u s a s e an e

t
h tt will b t
lt t
w t til ?
.
,

h a w h d
e res u il h d d e o ea s o a s on e ea an on e a

W m igh t e t h :Th th p ib l c
r e a s on f i g us er e ar e ree oss e as es , on e a vo r n

t
h fi t e lt rst
h c d th t
re su hi d ; h c t
, h ch
on e c f ch e se on ,
on e e r en e e an e o ea

r e su l ti s 1 3
t c on c l u si on wou l d b e false s i n c e t
.

Bu ou r h e n u m b e r o f equ a l ly li kely
p o ss i b l e c as es is n o t th ree b u t fo u r F o r if we n a m e t
,

h e c o i n s A an d B
r esp e c t i vely t h e e qu a lly l i k el y c ases ar e :A h e ad B h e a d A t a il B t
.

ai l

A h e ad B t ai l ; A t An d s i n c e o n e of t
, , ,
'

a il B h e ad h e se c ases favo rs
th e re s u l t two h e ad s o n e t h e r esu l t t
wo t an d two t h e r e su l t
, , .

a i ls on e

h e ad a n d o n e t a i l ,th e ch an c es O f t h ese r esu lt

, ,

s a re an d

re sp e c t i vely .

E x am pl e 2 Wh atis t
h ch
e an ce of t
h wiro n g a ttl o a of e igh twi t
h\
t
.

w o d ic e

Here h e t nu i q
p ossi b le c as es i s 6 6 o r 36 for an y
m b e r o f e u a l ly l k e l y

fa c e of on e die m ay t u rn u p w i th a n y fa c e o f t h e ot
, ,

h e r d ie
W e h a ve a t otal o f e igh t h e fa c e s which t
.

if t u rn u p r e a d 2 6 o r 3 5 or

Bu t th er e a r e t
wo way s i n which 2 6 m a y t u r n u p n a m ely 2 o n t
, ,

4 4
, . he , ,
41 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

d ie A an d 6 on t
h di B e e c
o r vi e ver sa Si m i l arly t
h ere are t
w w yo a s in

y t t ty t t
.
,

which 3 , 5 ma p u rn u On h c h e o n r ar ere is b u on e w ay i n which

t t t
.
,

4, 4 c an u rn u p He n c e h e re a r e fi ve favo r ab le c ases Th er efore he

q u e st
. .

ch an ce in i on i s 5 / 36 .

E x a m p le 3 h e ch an c e of t
is t
Wh at hro wi n g a tal o f e igh t
ot ht
wi t h ree
t t t
.

d ic e i f a l e as on e d ie u rn s a c e u p

Th e num qu al ly l i k ely p o ss i b l e c as es i s 6 6 6 o r 2 1 6
b er of e

W e h a ve a tal o f e igh t h e fa c e s which t

.

ot
,

if t u r n u p r e ad 1 1 6 or 1, 2, 5
t1 1 t t
, ,

or 1, 3, 4 Bu 6 m ay u r n u p i n 3 o r 3 , w ay s , 7 6 6 ; for h e
t t tt t
,
.
,

num b e rs 1 , 1 , 6 m ay b e d i s r i b u e d a m o n g h e h r e e d ic e i n an y o f h e
o r d e rs in which 1 , 1 , 6 c a n b e wr i en tt
Si m i l arly 1 , 2 , 5 an d 1 , 3 , 4 m a y
t t
.

ea ch u rn u p i n 3 l, or 6 , wa y s He n c e h e r e are 3 6 6, or 1 5 , fa vor
t ch t
.

ab l e c ases . Th eref ore h e an ce in q u es i i on s or 5 / 72 .

E x am p l e 4 . An u rn c on t
a in s s ix wh i t f e, ou r r ed , an d t
w o bl ack
b alls .

( 1) I f fou r b alls are d r awn , wh a i s h e t t ch an hat

ce t a ll ar e whi t
e

Th ere are as m an y fou r whi t

way s e b a ll s as t
of d r a wi n g
h e re ar e 4 c o m -

b i n at ion s o f th e s ix whi t h e u r n n am e l y 0 2 Si m i la rl y s i n c e t
e b all s i n t he
u rn con t ain s t we l ve b alls all t ol d t he t ot
, ,
.

a l n u m b e r o f p o ss i b l e d r a wi n g s

He n c e t h e ch an c e i n q u e s t
,

is 0 ? i on is Cfi/ 0 4 o r 1 33
12

(2 ) I f s ix b all s are d r awnf w hat is t h e ch an c e t h at thr e e o f t

.
,
'

h em are
whi t e t wo re d an d on e b l a c k
Th e t hre e whi t way s t he t
, ,

e b a lls c a n b e ch osen i n c wo re d b alls i n 0 ;

way s t
g
Hen c e t
,

h e o n e b la c k b all i n Ofway s h e n u m b e r o f w ay s i n which

t Th e t ot
.
,

h e re qu i r e d d r a wi n g c an b e m a d e i s ( 73 0 3 Cf al n u m b e r o f

He n c e th e ch an c e i ll q u es t
.

p ossib le d r awi n gs i s i o n is C? c g Cf / 0 6 12
- ,

or 20 7 7 .

E x a m pl e 5 Th ree c ar ds ar e d rawn fr om a su i t
. of t hi rte e n c ar d s .

( 1 ) Wh a t i s th e ch an c e th a t n e i th e r k i n g n or q u ee n i s d r a wn

As i d e fr o m t h e k i n g an d qu ee n t h er e a r e el eve n c ards Hen c e t h er e are

0 3 se t s of t
.

11
h r ee c a r d s which i n c lu d e n e i t h e r k i n g n or qu e en Th erefo r e
t y i n q u e st
.

h e p r o b ab i l i t i on is 0 3 /
11
or

( 2 ) Wh a t is t h e ch a n c e t hat k i n g o r q u e e n i s d r awn on e o r b o t h
Thi s e ve n t o cc u r s wh en t d es c r i b e d i n ( 1 ) fa i ls t
,

h e e ve n t o o cc u r He n c e
t h e p ro b a b i l i t y i n q u es t
.

i o n is l or 7 78

( 3) Wh a t is t h e ch a n c e t h at bo t
.

h k i n g a n d q u ee n a r e d ra wn
We obt a i n e ve r y s e t of t h re e c ard s which i n c lu de s b o t h k i n g an d q u e en
i f we c o m b i n e e a ch o f t h e r e m a i n i n g e l e ve n c a r d s i n t u rn w i t h k in g an d
q u een He n c e t
. h e ch an c e i n q u e st i on i s 1 1 / or 1 / 26 .
414 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

We m ay ty i thi
sp eak o f n f t
h p
y kin d e ro b ab ili n s se s e, o an

n t Th b t w n t w f t
,

o f f t u u re g m
eve b ll u s, be f or e a a e e ee o oo a

i t id t h t t 3 t2 i
.

t m A d B w h
ea s, an h dd e e ar sa a e o s ar e o n

th t t h p b b ili t t t
,

f v
a f A wi
or o i g ’
s y h
nn n A w il l wi i or a e ro a a n s

t
h t
t p ct t
,

3 5 Th i h g l
s i
m e an s f A wi i g a e en e r a ex e a on o
’
s nn n

b t tg t t i tb ll
.

is a ou p c i
as s r o n f d w i g w h as o n e s ex
’
e a on o ra n a e a

fr om k w tc t an i fi
u rn b ll t hno f wh i c h
n o on a n ve a s r ee o ar e

whi t e .

E XERCISE L XVII
1 p r ob ab il i t
Th e y o f a c er t a i n e ven t is 3 / 8 Ar e t
h e o dd s i n favor
of t h e e ve n t o r a gai n s tit ar e th ese o dds ? Wh at is t
.

a n d wh at
.

h e p r ob
ab i l i t
y th at t h e eve n t wi ll n o t
,

o cc u r

2 Th e o dd s ar e 10 t9 o favo r of A s
in ’
wi n n i n g a c e rt
a in g am e

Wh at t wi n n i n g t t
. .

is h ch
e an ce of h is h e gam e of l os i n g i ?

3 Th e o dd s ar e 5 t3 i
o n f avo r o f A ’
s wi n n i n g t
a s ak e of $
60 Wh at
p ect
at
. .

i s h is ex i on
4 Th e F r en ch p hi l oso ph er D ’Al e m b er s ai d t Th er e ar e t
“
wo p oss i b l e
t t t t tti t
wi ll o cc u r t
h e ot
.

c ases t wi h r esp e c o e ver y fu u r e e ven , o n e h a h er

tha t it wi ll n o t Hen c e t ti 1 t
,

o cc u r h e ch an c e o f e ve r y e ve n s 2 an d h e

i o n o f p ro b ab i li t
d efi n i t
.

y i s m e an i n gl ess .
”
Ho w s ho u ld he b e a n s we r e d

5 An u rn a in s si x t
c on t een b alls of which s e ve n are whi ti
e, s x b lack ,
t
.

an d h re e r e d

ti t h atit t?
.

( 1) If a s n i gl e b all b e d r awn , w h a h ch s e an ce t is whi e

b l ack ? re d ?

( 2) t
w b ll b d
If o a s e ra wn , wh a ti t
h ch
s e an h at
ce t b ot
h ar e b l ac k ?
on e whi t d d e an o n e re

( 3) I f t
h b ll b re e a s e d r a wn , wh a ti t
h s e ch an c e t
h ata ll ar e r ed ?
no n e re d? whi t on e e , on e b l ack , on e red ?

( 4) If fo u r h at is th e ch an c e t
b all s b e d r a wn , w h at o n e i s whi t
e an d

th e r est n ot t wo whi t he ot
e an d t h er two n o t
( 5) I f te n b a lls b e d ra w n wh a tis t h at
h e ch a n c e t fi ve ar e whi t e thr e e
b la c k a n d t
, ,

wo r e d

t
,

6 Wh a t is t
h che an ce of h i g
r ow n d ou b l e h t
twitsw o d ic e ? w i t
h
t
.

h r ee d ic e ?

7 Wh a tis th e ch an c e o f th r o wi n g a t ot
al o f se ven wi h t
t w o d ic e ?
h at
t t h e m o st
.

Sh ow his i s t p ro b a b le t h ro w .
 PR O B A B ILIT Y 41 5

8 W h at
Is t
h e ch anc e of t
h wiro n gtl t
a e as on e ac e in a t
h w wi t
hro

t t t
.

w d ic
o e of h wi g
ro d b n o n e a c e an u on e

t
t i tk at d m f m ch f t h w d f ct d
-

9 On e l e er s a en r an o ro ea o e or s a or an

t ti t c th t t l t
t i tk f m ch
.

p
ban er . Wh a h ch
s h e m an e a e sa e e er s a en ro ea

10 A box c t i i tic k t m b d 1 2
on a n s n n e 9 If t
w fth e s nu ere o o e

ic k tb t d m wh ti t c t
h tth p d c tf t
.

t
.
, ,

e s e d ra w n a h ch
r an o h , a s e an e a e ro u o e

nu m b er s on t
h m e is e ve n o dd

VI T I f five ic k tb
t e s e d r a wn fr o m t
h is b o x , fin d t
h che an h at
ce ( 1) t
(2 ) t
h at t
.

1, 2, an d 3 are d r aw n on e an d bu on e of 1 , 2, an d 3 is d ra w n

(3 ) t
hat
n on e of t
h ese n u m b er s i s d r a wn .

12 fo u r c ard s b e d r awn fr o m a c o m p let

If e p ack of fif y tt
w -
c a rds
o

wh a t is t
h e ch an c e th at t
.
,

h ey a r e a c e k i n g q u e e n a n d k n ave ac e k i n g

qu e en an d k n a ve of t h e sam e s u i t
, , , , ,

Wh at is th e c h an c e that a h an d a t whi st
c on t
a i n s f ou r t
ru m p s a n d

t
h re e c ard s of e ach o f t h e r em a i n i n g su i t
s

14 Wh at h e ch an c e o f a t
is t ot
al o f five in a s n i gl e t ht
hr ow wi t hr ee
of a t
ot
al o f l ess t
.

d ic e ha n fi ve
15 I f e igh t
p e r son s be t t sea e d a a r ou n d tb la e, tt ch
wh a i s h e an ce t
h at
t
w p t tg t
it
.

ic l
o ar u ar p er son s s h o e er

COMPOUND E VE NT S . M UT UALLY E X CLUSI VE E VE NT S

I n dependen t nt eve s Tw o or
'

m or e e v e nt s a re s a id tb o e i n de
t
.

p en d en twh en h cc c e o u rr e n e or n on o -
cc u rren c e o f an y on e

o f t h em i s no tff ct d by t
a h e e e o ccu r r e n c e or n on o -
ccu rr e n c e of

t
h e res t In th c t y c e on r ar as e t
h e eve nt s ar e s ai d tb o e

td p
.

in er e e n d en t .

Thu s t tw d wi g f t
h e re su l s o f o ra n s o a fr om a b ag are i n d ep en d en t
b all
if t t d ft th fi t but e r d e p en d e n t
in t if t
,

h b ll i
e a d s re u r n e a er e rs r a wi n g he
tt d
,

b ll i
a s no re u r n e .

T h eorem Th e p r oba bi li y
1 tt
h tl l a a f
o a se tf i d p
o n e en d e n t
t t tf t bi l i t ft
.

e ven s wi l l o c c u r i s h e p r od u c h p o e r o ba i es oh e si n g le

even s t .

F or c on s i d e r t
w o su ch e v en t s wh ose p r o b ab ili t i e s ar e a 1 m 1

an d a 2
[ m 2 r es p e c t i v el y .
 41 6 A COLLE G E ALG E B R A

Th e nu m b er c ase s fo r an d ag ai n st
o f e q u ally l ik e l y p o s si b l e
t h e fir s t e v en t is m fo r tt se con d m an d sin ce a n d ag a i n s he
s ar e i n d e p e n de n tan y o n e o f t
l,

t he even t
2,

h e m c ase s m ay o ccu r
h an y o n e O f t H e n ce t
1

wi t h e 772 c a se s h e n u m b e r o f e q u al ly
l ik e ly p o ss i b l e c ase s for an d a g a i n st t
2

h e o cc u r r e n c e o f b o t
_ .

h
e v en ts i s m l m z An d by h e s am e r e a so n i n g a l a 2 t of t
h es e

t t t t
.
,

c a se s f av or h e o ccu r r en c e of b o h e ve n s Th e ref o r e
h p b . e ro

abi l i t
y t
h t b t
h tw i l
a l cc i o t h t ev e n s o ur s
al a2
a IS
a1 a2
as

tb d ttd
m lm 2 m 1 m 2
w as o e e m o n s ra e

ff t t t
.

Th p e h c f
ro o h w or t i i il e ase o m or e an o e ve n s s s m ar

d m n t t y t tf t
.

Th e i n pp
e l i ol s ra h k indo a es on o e ve n s o e

d c ib d i
es r 77 6 b t
e f th
n i n di c td i 7 82 w u or e r e as o n s a e n e

m y p p ly t h t i t lf t y kind f f t v nt
,

a a h e e o r em se o an o u ure e e , as

in E x 2 . b e l ow .

Th u s ,
t
h e ch an c e of t
h wi ro n g ac e t
w ic e in su cc e ss i on wi t
h a s n i gl e d i e
is x or

Aga i n , t
h ch e an ce of t
wic e d rawi n g a tb ll f m
whi e a ro a b ag which
c on t
a i n s fi ve whi t e a n d fo u r b l a c k b a l ls h b ll fi t
t e d w b a rs ra n e n i g ret
u rn e d

before t
,

h e se c o n d d r awi n g i s x ,
or

Th eorem 2 If tt
y f
h p fi t t
e i p r o ba bi l i o a rs ev en s l, an d if
er t
ft t d t b bil i t t
.

a his e ve n h h ppas h p y f
a c d en e e ro a o a s e on e ven

is p 2, he p r o t b bi li t
a y th tb t
h tw i ll cc i t h a o e ven s o u r n e or d er

tt
s a ed i s
pl pz . A d i m i l ly f m
n th s tw t ar or or e an o e ven s .

Th i s t
h e or e m m ay b e p ro ve d in h e sam e m an n e r t as

Th eo re m 1 . I tvid n te e ly i n cl u des h at t h eor e m t .

Th u s aft e r a w hi t e b all h as b ee n d r a wn fr o m a b a g c on t a i n i n g fi ve

whi t e an d fo u r b l a c k b a lls a n d n ot t
,

r e p la c e d h e ch a n c e o f d rawi n g a
s e c o n d whi t Hen c e t h e ch an c e o f t wic e d ra wi n g a whi t
, ,

e b a ll i s 4 / 8 e

b all wh en t h e on e fi r s t d r a wn i s n o t
.

r ep l a c e d i s x or

E x am p l e 1 Wh at is t h e ch an c e t h at a c e wi ll t u rn u p a t l e ast on c e i n

th e c o u rse o f t h ree t h r o ws wi t
.

h a die
Ac e wi ll t u rn u p a t l east o n c e u n l ess i t o t
fa i ls t u r n i n e v er y t hro w
Th e ch a n c e o f fa i l u r e i n a s i n gl e t h ro w b e i n g 5 / 6 t
.

h e ch an c e o f fa i lu r e i n
all th ree t He n c e t
,

h r ow s i s x x or h e ch an c e o f
a t
l t
e as on e a c e is 1 or 91 / 21 6 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

T h eorem Th e p r oba bi l i y h a
3 tt t m so e o n e or o t
h er o fa t
se

t t t t
. .

o
f m u u a lly ex c lu s i ve e ven s w i ll oc c u r is h e su m of h e

t t
pr o ba b i l i i es of h e s i n g l e even s t .

F or c o n s i de r t
w o m u tl ly cl i v nt
ua ex u s ve e e s A an d B
wi t t
t t t
.

Th e p o ssi bl e a se s c
r es e o e h p c h t
w
o e v e n t s ar e of h r e e

t c
k i n d s , a ll m u u ally e x l u s i ve , n a m el y , t h o se for wh i h ( 1 ) A c
h app en s , B fa il s ; ( 2 ) A f ail s B h app en s ; ( 3 ) A f ai l s B fa i l s
tt
, , .

Le h e n u m b e r s o f e q u all
y l i k e ly p o ss i b l e c ase s o f t h ese

t h r ee k i n d s b e I, m , a n d n r esp e c t i v el y . Th e n

( )
a Th e c h an c e t
h t it
h a e er A Or B h app en s i s
l
l
m
m

t
n

F or h e r e ar e l m n
p oss i bl e an d l m f avo r able c ase s .

F or si n ce A n ev er h app e n s ex c ep t wh e n B fa il s, t
h l c e as e s

i n wh i c h A h app e n s an d B fa il s a r e a ll t
h c e as e s i n wh i ch A
h app en s, an d h e m t n c as e s i n wh i ch A f ail s an d B h ap p en s
or bo t
h A an d B f ai l a r e all th c e ase s i n wh i c h A f ail s .

( )
0 Si m il ar ly h e ch a n c et o fth i e s n gl e e ve n t
B i s

Bu t l +m +
l m

n
l m

Th er e f o re t
h ch n c t h ti t
e h A a e a e er or B h app e n s i s t
h e su m

of t
h ch e an c ft
es o h i gl v t A e s n e e en s an d B
t t
.

Th e p r oo ff hor w v nt
m or e an o e e s is sim il ar .

Th u s i f o n e b all b e d raw n fro m a b ag c on t a i n i n g fou r whi t e five

b l ac k an d s e ve n r e d b al ls s i n c e t h e ch an c e o f i t s b e i n g whi t
, ,

e is 1 / 4

an d t h at th e ch an c e o f i t s b ei n g e i t
, ,

of i t h e r whi t
,

s b e i n g b la ck i s e

or b l a c k i s 1 4 5 16 o r 9 1 6 O f c o u r se t hi s resu lt m ay b e ob t ai n e d

l y fr o m t
d i re c t i o n o f p r o b ab i l i t I n fa c t t h at d e fin i t
, .

h e d e fin i t y 7 76 ion
, .

m ay b e r e g ard e d as a sp e ci al c ase o f Th e ore m 3 .

Car e m u s tb tk tt pply t
e hi t
ha en no o a s eo re m t v nt
o e e s

wh i c h are n o tm tl ly cl i u ua ex u s ve .

Thu s if a sk e d , as in 7 8 5, E x 2 , tfi d t
h cho n e ce t
an h at a p r ob lem

t tm pt
t it
, .

will b e sol ve d if b o h A an d B a e A ch ,
’
s a n c e o f s u cc ess b e i n g
 PR O B ABI LI T Y 41 9

3 4 an d B c an n ot
’
s 2 ob ta in t
3 , we h e r e su lt b y m erely ad d i n g 3 4 an d
2 3 sin ce t he t wo eve n t s A su cc eeds B su cc eed s ar e n ot mut u ally e x c lu

Th e m u t u al ly e x c lu s i ve c ases i n w hi ch t
, ,

s i ve. h e p r o b le m wi ll b e so l ved
are :A su cc e e d s B fa i ls ; A fa i ls B su cc ee d s ; A s u cc e e d s B su cc e e d s

Th e ch an c e s o f t
, , , .

h ese c a s es ar e 784 x or x

h e su m o f t h e se t
,

an d t
,

or 2 / l 2 x or hr ee ch an c e s or
1 1 / 12 i s t
h e ch an c e t h at t
, ,

,
h e p r o b l e m wi ll b e so l ve d .

E xam ple 1 An u rn A c o n t ai n s te n b all s t h r ee of which a r e whi t e

a n d a s e c on d u rn B c o n t ain s t we l ve b alls fou r o f w hich a r e whi t

.
,

e I f on e
h e u rn s b e ch o s en a t wh at is t
.

of t r an d o m an d a b al l d r a wn fro m i t he
ch an ce t t
,

hat h e b all i s w hi t e

W e ar e re qu i r e d t o fin d t h e ch an c e o f o n e o f t h e fo llo w i n g m u t u ally

e x c lu s i ve e ve n ts ( l ) ch o os i n g A an d t h e n d r a wi n g a whi t e b a ll fr o m i t ;
2 ch i g B nd t h n d r a wi n g a w hi t e b a ll fr o m i t
( ) o os n a e

an d t
.

Th e ch an c e o f c h o o s m g A i s h e ch an c e wh en A h as b e e n
Ch ose n o f d ra w i n g a w hi t e b a ll i s 3 10 He n c e t h e ch an c e o f ( 1 ) i s
Si m i l a r l y t
.

1 / 2 x 3 / 10 o r h e ch a n c e o f (2 ) i s 1 / 2 x 4 / 12 o r
Th er efore t h e ch an c e i n qu es t
, ,

i on is 3 2 0 1 6 o r 1 9 / 6 0 , .

E x a m ple 2 Wh a t is t h e val u e o f t h e ex p ec t at i o n o f a p e rs on wh o i s
to h a ve an y t wo c o i n s h e m ay d r a w a t
.

r a n d o m f ro m a p u r s e which

con t a i n s fi ve d o ll ar pi e c e s a n d se ven h a lf d o ll a r pi e c es ? -

Th e valu e o f h i s ex p e c t at i on s o far as i t d e p e n d s on d ra wi n g t wo d o llar

pi ec e s i s $ 2 x 0 2/ 0 2 12
$ 2 x 5 / 33 $30 ; o n d ra win g t wo h alf d ollar -

pi e c es $ 1 x 0 5/ 0
,
12
$1 x $32 o n d r a wi n g o n e d oll ar pi e c e an d
o n e h alf d ol l a r pi e c e
-
x 5 7/ 02
12
x $80
He n c e t he t ot al val u e o f h i s e x p e c t at
, .

i on i s $30 $32 $80 or ,

E x a m p le 3 p erson s A an d B ar e t
T wo o d r a w al t e r n at
el y o n e b all

at a t i m e fro m a b a g c on t ai n i n g t hr e e whi t e an d t
.

wo b la c k b al l s t he
b all s d ra wn n o t I f A b egi n s wh at
,

b e i n g r e pla c e d ch an c e h as e ach o f
b ein g t t
h e fi rs to d r a w a whi t
.
,

e b al l ?

Th e ch an c e t h at A s u cc e e d s i n t h e fi rs t d ra wi n g i s 3 5
Th e ch an c e t h at A fa i ls a n d B t
.

h en su cc eed s i s 2/ 5 x 3 4 or
fo r wh e n B d r aws t h e b ag c o n t a i n s fo u r b a ll s t
,

h r e e o f which are
whi t
,

Th e ch an c e t h at A fa i ls B fa i l s an d A t
.

h e n su cc e ed s i s 2 5 x 1 / 4 x 3 / 3
10 fo r wh e n A d r a ws t h e b ag c o n t a in s th re e b alls all whi t
, , ,

or 1 e

Th erefor e A s t ot
, , .

al ch a n c e i s 3
’
5 1 / 1 0 o r 7 / 1 0 an d B s is ’
“

, ,

3 10 .
 A CO LLE G E ALGE BR A

E x am l e 4 p In t
h d e ra wi n g d es c r i b e d i n E x 3 wh a t t
h
ar e e re s pe ct
i ve
t
.

t
.

ch an c e s o f A an d B i f h e b a lls are r e p la c e d as h y e a re d r a wn
h fi t
t A ch an c e ’
ro u n d is B
’
On e rs s s x or an d

t
h i e r ch an c es o n e ve r y la t er r o u n d , o f which t
h er e m ay b e an y num b er,
t m t
w i ll b e h e h sa e as ese

H c t h i t t t h t
t
.

tl ch
en e e r o a an c es ar e in h i 3 e ra o 5 6 25, or 5 2 i a s,

A ttl ch c i
’
s o a an e s B ’
s

E x am pl e 5 In a r oo m t
h e re a r e t
h tb l
re e a th m i t
es an d on e n n e, en ,

k t
.

an d e lev e n b o o kspect
i vel y r es I wi s h an y f i b
on e o w f which
s x oo s, o o

t
h e fi rs tt
a b le t t t
.

ar e o n hr ee o n h e se on c d h thi d I f f i d
on e o n e r a r en

ct a b o ok fo r m e a t t m wh t i t
, , .

sel e r a n d o m fr o m os e n e roo a s e t h i h h
ch an c e t h at it i s on e o f t
,

h ose I wis h ?
E x a m ple 6 An o wn e r o f r u n n i n g h o rses e n t ers fo r a c er t a i n r ac e two
3 r es p e c t
i vely Wh at
.

h orses wh os e ch an c es of wi n n i n g a r e an d 1

is t h e ch an c e t hat h e wi ll o b t
.

ai n th e st ak es

E x a m ple 7 A an d B t h ro w a lt e ly w it
e rn a t h t wo d ic e fo r a s t ak e

which i s t h e o n e wh o fi rst th r o ws a d o u b le t Wh at
.

o b e w on b y t ar e

t i ve ch a n c es o f wi n n i n g i f A t
h e i r r es p e ct hro ws fi rst
.

R epea td ti l
e r a s of a si n gle eve nt Th e f oll o w in g th e or e m s

c o n c e r n e d wi t h t h e q u e stion of t h tc t
t
.

ar e h e ch a n c e a i a er a n

e ve n t wi ll o cc u r a sp e c i fi e d n u m b e r o f t im e s i n t
h c e f o u r se o

a se r i e s o f t r i al s t
h e c h an c e o f i t
s o cc u r r e n c e o n
, i gl ti l
a s n e r a

bei n g k n o wn .

T h eorem 4 If t h p b bi l i t
e y th t ro t w i l l cc
a a an e ve n o u r on a

ti l i t
.

s i n g le r a s
p, h p b bi l i t
e y th t
ro itwi l l cc
a ctly t im a o u r ex a r es

in th c e ou rs e o f II t i l i r a s wh qs 1 p e re .

F t h p
or e ro ba y t
b i li t h t it w ill cc ll f
a
y p ti o u r on a o an ar c

u la r se tf ti lo r r a s an d f ai l on t
h e r em ain i n g n r ti lr a s is
p (1 if g 1 —p, 7 84
’
or

ti t t ctt
.

Bu s n ce h e re a re n r i a l s a l l t o ld , w e m a
y sel e his
par t
ic l u ar se tf ti l
o r r a s i n Cg ! way s w h i c h , o f c o u r se are

tlly
,

mu ua ex c l u s i ve
t t t
.

He n c e h e p r o b a b i li y i n q u e s i o n i s 787 .

Th u s t h e ch a n c e t a c e w i ll t
h at u rn u p e xac tly t wic e i n five th r o ws wi t
h
a s i n gl e d i e o r th at ou to f fi ve d ic e th r o wn s i m u lt
a n e ou sly t
wo a n d b u t
,

two wi ll t
,

u rn ac e u p i s 0
2 ( l ? ( g) 3 or
, ,
 '

422 . .
fi CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

F E XE R CI SE v m

1 t t
A b ag h whi tfi
c on a i h s b l ck
'
d d b ll
ree O e, ve a an se ve n r e a s n

t td i g t h t b ll i d w tt
. .
,

h e und e r s an n a im d pl c d
on e a s ra n a a e an re a e a s soo n as

d w ra wh t t
n, h a h c f d wi g ( 1 ) fi twhi tt
are e c an h d t
es o h ra n rs a e, en a re en

wh i t d wh t
,

a b l c k b ll ? (2 )
a a d b l c k b ll i
a y od e , re , an a a n an r er a soe ver

2 Wh t i t h ch a c f bt s i i g w hi tb ll i t
e an h fi t ly f
e o o a n n a e a n e rs on o

t cc i d wm g f m t t
.

h ree su ess ve hi b g b ll
ra b i g spl c d ro s a ,
a s no e n re a e
e
3 Wh t i t h fl
a ft sh p ct ti
e v l ue of p wh i ll w d t e ex e a on o a er s o n o s a o e o

d wt tgd m f m p c t i i g fi fi ft tpi c
.

ra w c i o o ns a ra o y c ro a u r se on a n n ve -
en e es ,

fou r d ll pi c
o ar i l t h fi
e e s, a d ll pi c t
re e ve -
o ar e es

4 Th ch c t e
h t c t ani d e i l ck d i 1 / 2
i aTh k y ter a n o or s o e s e e o

t f ight l ct t f t
. .

h de i
o or f s
‘
ch
on e o k y a If I un h h o e e s se e ree o e se

t d m d g o tt wh t i t
.
Y

k y e s a ra n o h d an h ch c f m y b i g bl
o e o or , a s e an e o e n a e

t p it
o o en

5 Th t h ii d p
e r e are d t t wh
ree ch c i 1 2 2 3
e en en e v en s ose an e s are

p ct i ly Wh t ‘ i t c t h t f t twi ll
, ,
.

an d 3 4 res e h chve h a s e an e a n on e o e e ven s

t h t d b t h m w i ll cc ? t h t d b t t
.

o cc ur a on e an ft u tw on e o w e o ur a o an u o

wi ll cc o th tll t
ur h t i wi ll cc
a a re I o ur

6 Fi d t h Odd n g i t t h wi g
e f t
s a h t tl a ns l ro n on e o e o a s se ve n or e even

i gl t h w wi t ht
.

i
n a s n e w d ic
ro o e .

7 Wh t t h a dd g i t
are th w i g tt e o l f t wi t ht h d ic
s a a ns ro n a o a o en re e e

Wh t t h wi g t tl f m t
.

a h aredd i f e o ft s n h fi
a vo r o ro n a o a o o re an ve

8 Th ic k t d w f m
t r ee e s c c tar e i i g l tick t
ra n ro a ase on a n n e e ven e s

Wh t c t h t t ft
.

nu mb d 1 2er e 11 i t h ch h m h i mb
a s e an e a e su o e r nu er s

i t Wh t i t c t h t t
, .
,

s w l e ve h ch a hi s m i edd mb an e a s su s an o nu er

9 Tw g m b l o A d B t
a h wt w d ic
e rs d g m t
an th t ro o e un e r an a ree en a

i t h w A wi i f t i t h w B wi i f y t
.

tb d i i d d q lly C m p t
if s e ve n s ro n n s, h mb i
en s ro n ns, an o er n u er s

t h w t
ro h tk
n e s a es a r e o h i ch c e v e e ua . o a re e r an es .

1 0 Th m t w g m bl
e sa pl y d
e o g m t a th t A i t e rs a un er an a ree en a s o

wi if h t d t h t B i twi i f h
.

n h w i b f
e ro B t h w
s s x e o re ro s s ev e n an a s o n e

t At A i tb gi d t tt
,

h wro b f
s se ve n h w i e ore h y ro h w s s x s o e n an e ar e o ro

lt t t
.

a e rn a ely C mp . h i ch c o ar e e r an es .

11 Th g m bl A Bree a d C p t f whi t d igh t

e rs b l ck b ll an u ou r e an e a a s

i t b g d g t h t t wh fi t whi tb ll h ll wi
.
, ,

n o a a an h a r ee d w a e on e o rs ra s a e a s a n .
 PR O B AB I LI TY

If t
h y e d r aw i n t
h e o rd e r A, B , C, wh a t t
h i
ar e e r res p e ct i ve ch an c es
wh e n t
h b e t p l c d wh t
a lls h y
d r a wn are n o re a e en e ar e r e p la c e d

12 Wh t h w t
i t h f t ic k t
a i l t
s ty f e h d dt ick t
or o a e n a o er o on e un re e s

1 00 t f $ d t w t
.

h i gfi p i
av n f$ ve 50 r ze s o y f$ 5 , en o , an en o

13 Ab g Ac t i fi b ll a f w hich i whi t d
on a n s b g B i ve a s on e o s e , an a a s x

f which i whi t I f t d p t
.

b lla s n on e O h b ll b d w f m A s e re e a s e ra n ro an u

i tB d t h b ll b t h d w f m B dp t i tA wh t i t
.

n o an ree a s h e en ra n ro an u n o a s e

ch c t h tt h w hi t
,

an e b ll i i A
a e e a s n

1 4 Th b g A c ti m b lle f which
a whi t d th b g B
on a n s a s a o ar e e , an e a

c t whi t I t c f bt i i g whi t
.

i
on a n s n b ll b f which a h ch
s o ar e e s e an e o o a n n a e

f t t dm
.

b ll b y d w i g
a i gl b ll f m
ra n h b g ch
a s n e a ro on e o e se a s ose n a r an o

th m
e sa h t
t itw ld b i f ll t
e h b ll w
a p t i t ou b g nd e a e a s ere u n o on e a a a

i gl b ll t
-

s n h d w
e a en ra n

15 I c t i t w fi n d t a h cc d w it
er a n hi t d y i cl d i g
o n ve ea s o u rre n en a s n u n

y fi t Wh t i t c t h t ft h d t
.

J a n u ar h ch rs h cc
a d s e an e a n on e O e ea s o u rre on

t
.

Ja n u ar y fi rs

16 If t
h g t w p
on tf t h g d i t
e a ve r a e y li tb o e rso n s o u o re e a e s x ve o e

ty wh t i t c t h t tf fi p w i t y t t
.

s e ve n h ch a s e l an e a ou o ve er s o n s n o s x a e as

t ty
,

h w i ll b
re e li h c ? e a ve en e ars en e

17 A b y i bl t l oth g t
s a h tf fi f t
e h p b
o s o ve o n e a ve r a e r e e ou o ve o e ro

th i m I f ightp b l m t
.

l m
e s se gi i mi e i d fi ro e s ar e ve n n an ex a na on an ve

qui d f p i g wh t i t
.

ar e r e re h ch c f hi p i g
or ass n , a s e an e O s ass n

18 Ap i t c i d ll if h t
er so n h w s tth fi t th w
o re e ve a o ar e ro s s e ve n a e rs ro

wi tht if h t t t c dt
.

w d ic d ll
o h w e, a h o h w ar d e ro s se ven a e se on ro an so o n

til h t Wh t i t h t tl l f h i p c tt
,

un h w e ro s s ev e n i. a s e o a va u e o s ex e a on

1 9 I p l y i g t i wi t n h B A wia nt h g t h g m
en n s t n s on e a vera e r ee a es o u

Wh t c t h t tf m B b y t
,

i t
.

o ff ou r h ch h w i ll w i
a s e h c an e a e n a se ro e s or e

f i tt Wh t i t h t tl ch c f h i wi i g t
.

o s x h o r ee f m B
a s e o a an e o s nn n a se ro

t
,

h c e fd c
as e o tb i g d i g d d eu e se s e n sr e ar e

20 Un d e r t
h c e it
on di o n s d e sc r i b e d i n t
h p e re ced in g e x am pl e t
wh a
w i n n i n g a se t t tt
.

ch an c e h as A of i n which h e c
s ore is n ow fou r w
o o

a g a i n sth im ?

21 g am b l er s A a n d B ar e p l ay i n g a ga m e o f ch an c e an d ea ch
Two
pl ay e r h as s t s bu t
h r ee p o i n t
.

ak e d $ 32 Th ey ar e pl ay i n g fo r t wh en A h as
ga i n e d t s an d B o n e t
wo p o i n t h ey d e c id e t o st
.
,

o p p l ay i n g Ho w s h oul d
th ey d i vi d e t
.

he $ 64
 A CO LLE G E AL G E BR A

XX VI II . M ATHE M AT I C AL I N D UCTI O N

Ma h m t
t i l e a ca i n du c i on t A nu m be r of t
h e f o rm u l a s c on

ti tch pt t t
.

a n ed in re e n c a er s m ay b e e s a bl i sh e d by ah d f m e o o

p r oo f c all ed m a h m t
t ic l
e a a i n d u c i on t . I ti ill
s ttd i t
u s ra e h n e

f o ll o w i n g e x am pl e .

E xa m p le . th t
Pr o vet
h m a e su of h fi t
t e rs n o dd n u m b e rs i s n
2
.

We are ask e h t
d th w t o s o a

( 1)
We i n sp e c t
see i on t
byh at r u e fo r c e r t
( 1) i s t a i n v al u es o f n as 1 o r 2

h at
Su pp ose t we h ave t hu s fo u n d i ttr u e wh e n n h a s t h e p ar t
, .

ic u l ar valu e
k, so t
h t a
-
1) = k2 ( 2)
is kn own tb t o e ru e . Ad d i n g h e t n ex tdd O nu m b er , na mely 2 (k 1) 1,
2 It 1 tb t
,

or hm o o em b er s of (2) an d re p l a c i n g k2 2k 1 by (k
bt
,

we o i a n
1 +3 +5 + n o
i—
—
(2 le (3)
Bu t
( 3) i s t t
wh a w e g e i f i n ( 1 ) we r ep l a c e n b y k 1 W e h ave t
h er e
tt t
t valu e Is it
.

fore h o wn
s h a i f ( 1 ) i s r u e wh e n n h as a n y p ar ic u lar
i s a ls o
tru e wh e n n h as t g t
t
,

h e n ex re a e r va l u e It 1
-

Bu t we h a ve a lr e a d y fo u n d b y i n s p e c t h at
i on t ( 1) is t
.

r u e wh e n It h as
th e p ar tic u l ar val u e 1 He n c e i t is t ru e wh e n n 1 + 1 or 2 ; h en ce
1 or 3 an d s o o n t ive i n t
h r ou gh all p o si t
,
.

wh en n 2 e g r al val u e s o f n

which i s wh at we we r e ask e d to d e m o n st ra t
, ,

e .

An d i n g e n e r al , i f a for m u l a i n v o l vi n g n h as be e n f ou n d
t f tt t h t if t f
,

ru e or n 1 a n d we c an d em on s ra e i a ru e or n s

iti l t f
s a so k ru e or n 1 , we m y c
a cl d th tit
i t on u e a s ru e

for ll p i t
a i i tg l os ve n e ra v al u es of n F o r w e m ay r eas on

Si c i t i t wh ti t
.

n e s ru e en n 1, i s a l so ru e w h e n n 1 1,
or 2 ; h en ce w h e n n 2 1, or 3; an d so o n t
h r o u g h al l p o si
ti i t
ve g l nl f e ra va u es o n

t i ll tt ft
hi m t t
.

A hs an o i h dw er u s ra on o s e o e a dd h f e o l l o w in g

p f ft
r oo h bi o i l t h e n om a e orem .

F or s m a ll va l u e s o f n we fi n d b y a ct
u al m ul ip lic t
t h t
i ta on a

b) —l b Cga
—b
( Cya CE 2 ?
b
n n n /“ n r r
a a O
 A C O LLE G E ALG E BR A

Th e fin al c o effi ci en t
a is O ft
e n c al l e d t
h e a bs o l u ttm
e er

t t pl t i c pl t
.

W e c all an e q u a i on o f h f m ( 1) c
e or om e e or n om e e

acc or di n g as n o n e or som e o fth c ffic i t e 0

oe en s a ,, a , , a ,, a r e

Ob se r v e th at tq t t f th t
.

i n a c om pl e e e i h b
ua on e nu m er o e er m s

is n 1
tf ll t t
.

I n wh a o o ws , w h en all h c e oe ffi c i en s a ,, a ,, ar e

r e al n u m b e rs we m ay a n d s h all su pp th tt
h l o se a e e adi n g o n e

t t t l t
h tt tg
,

ao i s p o s i i ve , an d wh e n h ey ar e r a i h y
on a , a e ar e in e er s

w h i c h h av e n o c o m m o n f a ct
or

t t
tt
.

By d i vi di n g b o h m e m be r s of
( ) by
1 ao we r ed u ce i h o e

t
s e c o n d s an d a r d f o r m

-
+b x + b = 0, n
2
( )
i n whi ch h e l e ad i n g t c o effic i e n t
is 1 an d b1 a,
/ a o, an d so o n

t c on v e n i e n t t
,
.

F or m an y p u r p ose s ( 2 ) i s h m e or e form of h e

e qu a t
i on

t tch pt i ti tb t
.

In h p e r e s en a er s o e u n de r s o o d th at
f (x ) 0
d en o te s an e q u a ti ft
h f m (1)
on o e or or

R oo tf
s o equ a t
i on s Th e r oo s o f t t
h f (x )
e e qu a 0 ar e t
i on

t t
.

h e p ol y n om i al f ( x ) v an i sh e s l
f/
h e va l u e s of x for w h i c h '

ti t tt t
,

3 32, 3 3 3 i I s so m e m es c on ve n i e n o c all h e r oot s of

t q t t tf t
.

h e ei h ua h p ly
on i l e r oo s o e o n om a

h d fi it
t ti tf l l w t h t
.

F r om i f e e wh n n i 0 on o roo o o s a e a ,, s

ft
on e oh tff ( ) 0 i 0 l t
e roo s o h t q ti f( ) 0 x s a so a an e ua on x

ll
a f wh o c ffic i t p it
o se i h oe p it iv en s ar e os ve c an av e no os e

tdt
r oo h t gmpl t q
an ti f( )
a 0 wh
a c c ffi c i t e e e ua on x ose oe en s

lt t ly p i t g t
,

ar e a i
e rn a e d n g ti h i ve a ve v
e
os ve an e a c an no ne a

t
,

roo .

Th u s 2 x3 x2 1 : 0 p osit ive r o o t
c an s i n ce t
h a ve h e p o ly n o m i a l
no

1 c an n o t van i s h wh e n x i s p o s i t
,

2 x3 x2 i ve ; a n d 2 x3 x2 3 x 0
c an h ave n o n eg at i ve r o o t s i n c e 2 x3 x2 3x 1 c an n o t van i sh wh e n

n e g at
.

x is i ve .

Theorem 1 . If b is a r oo tf f (
o x
) 0, t
h en f (x ) i s ex a ct
ly
d i vi s i bl e by x b ; and c o n v ers ely if f ( x ) is ex a ct
ly d i vi s i ble
t
,

by x b , h en b i s a r oo tf f (
o x
) 0
 T HE O R Y O F E Q UATI O NS 427

F o r , by t
4 1 3 , h e r em ai n d e r i n h e d i v i sI On of fi g by t
x b i s f ( b) t
B u wh en b i s a r oo t o f f ( x ) z 0 t hi s r em a i n d e r
b
f( ) i s O § 7 93 soh t
t f( a x
) is ex a ct
l y d i v i s i bl e by x b;
t
, ,

an d c on ver se l y wh e n f ( x ) i s e x a c t l y d i v i si b l e b y x b, h e

t
,

r e m ai n de r f ( b) i s 0 ,
so th at b i s a r o o of f x :
( ) 0 .

E x a m p le Pro ve t
. hat
3 is a ro o tf f ( o x ) x3 2 x2 9 z 0 .

2 0 3
9 L D i vi d i n g x3 2 x2 9 by x 3 sy n t
h t e

3 3 9 i c ally , § 4 1 1 , we fi n d ttt
ha he re m a n d e r i f (3 )
1 3, 0 f (3 ) is 0 . He n c e 3 i s a r oo tff ( )
o x 0 .

I f b is a r oo t of f (x ) z 0, t h a t f ( x ) i s e x a c t ly
so d i v i si bl e
by x b, an d we c all t
h e q u ot i en tt
q ( x ) w e h a ve ,

f( ) x = < x
w e) .

t
He n c e h e i i g t f f( )
rem a n n r oo s o x 0 ar e t
h e v al u e s of x

for wh i ch th p ly i l t
e
( ) i ho n om a q x v an s es in o t
h er w o r d s , h ey t
ar e th t ft h d p
e r oo s o d q ti e e r es s e e ua on 95 ( x ) 0, 34 1 .

E x am pl e . So lve h e t e qu a t
i on x3 3 x2 5x 3 0 .

3 5 3 [1 W e se e b y i n sp ec t h at
i on t 1 is a ro o t d di
an id
v

t t
,

1 —2 +3 in g x3 — 3 x2 + 5x —3 by x —1 we
h O b a in e

qu at t
,

1 2 3, 0 d ep r esse d e i on x2 2 x 3 0 Th e roo s

t q u ad rat t tf t
.

of hi s ic fou n d by 631, are 1 i fi He n c e h h

e r oo s o e

e q u at
.
,

gi ven i on ar e 1 1 , i V2 ,
an d 1 i

We sh all a ssu me n ow an d d e m on str at e l at e r t

h t a e ver y

ra t
i on a l in t
g e ra l equ a t
i on f (x ) = 0 h a s a tl t ea s on e r oo t
t
.

F r om th i s assu m p t i o n an d § 7 95 w e d ed u c e h e fo ll owi n g
th e o rem ,
O ft en c al l ed h e fu n d a m en t t
al t
h eo r em of a lg ebr a .

T h eorem 2 . E ver y e qu a t
i on o
ft
he nt
h d eg r ee ,
as

l
f (x) n
0,
’

al x au _ l x a,,

has n a nd bu t
n r oo s t .

t
By § 7 97 h er e i s a v al u e o f x fo r w h i c h f ( x ) v an i sh e s

t t
.

Cal l i B1 Th e n f ( x ) i s e x a c l y d i v i s i b l e b y x B1 § 7 95 ,
t t t t
i t
.
,

h l e e ad i ng e rm of h q e uo b i
en e ng Hen c e
1
f( ) ( w a ) ( a ga
r
+
-

x
 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

t
By h e sa m e r e aso n i n g , s i n c e h e r e i s a v al u e o f x , c al l i t t
B2 , fo r whi ch h e p o ly n om i a l a ox
—l
t va n i s h e s, w e h ave
n

n —1 —2
“ ow i ( 93 “

3
,
“

2 )( d ow T h e r e f o r e, b
y
n

—2
f( x ) ( 31) ( 8 2) (
n
2 x C
C a ,,x
, ,

t
Co n in u i n g t
h u s, a ft
er n di v i s i on s we o bt ai n

f( ) x “ o x
( 3)( 1 33
32 ) ( x 3
( )
We h av e t
h u s s h o wn h t f ct
t a n a or s o f th fi t d g
e i t rs e r ee e x s

hf( ) i th p d ct
,

n am e ly x B B ,, x x
B of w h i c x ; s e ro u

t ct t h n t
, 2, ”,

an d by § 4 1 9 f ( x ) c an h a ve no o h er fa ors h d a ese a n

t t
,

h i p r od u c s
e r

t t tf ct
.

Bu si n c e a pr o d u c v an i sh e s wh en on e of i s a o r s v a n i sh e s

an d t
h en on l y , i tf ll o o ws fr o m ( 3 ) t
h t
f( a x
) v a n i sh e s wh e n
x B B or or B an d t
h ly H c § 7 93 t
en h
on en e, e n

tf t q t
1,

d it
.
”, ,

n u m be r s
B1 B2 B a re r o o s o h i f( ) O e e ua on x an

t tt t
, , ,

h as h no o h h e er r o o s an es

F m t hi t h
ro f ll w t
m it h t th p bl
s f l i g
e ore o o s a e ro em o so v n an

e
q ti f( )
ua 0 i on t
i ll y t
h mx th tf f cti g s e s sen a e sa e as a o a or n

t
h p ly e mi l fo
( ) A l th
no t t f m aq ti w hi c h x so a o or an e ua on

h ll h
s a c t i gi av eb f i t tw h
er a n m ly v en n u m ers or s r oo s, e ave e re

t btct ch f t
o su h ra b i t f m
ea d th t o e se n u m e rs n u rn ro x an en o

q t t0 th p d ct ft m i l f ct t bt
,

e ua e h bi
o h
e i d ro u o e no a a or s us o a ne .

E x a m p le . F or m t
h e e qu at
i on wh o s e roo s ta re 2, 1 2, l , 0 .

I t
i ( s x — 2 ) (x
( x or 2 x4 — 3 x3

Mu l i p l et roo s t Ob se r v e th tt
w a o or m ore of t
h e roo s tB
If t t l t
.
1

B2 B m ay be e q u al w m o or o r e of h m e ar e e q ua o

t
, .

t tA
,

B we c all B a m ul ip l e r oo nd a cc or di n g h as e num ber Of

t t tB i t t
, .

h e r o o s e q u al ow h s o, r e e, i n g e n e r al , r , w e c al l a B
d ou bl e r oo t tip l a r e r oo ti n g e n e r al , a t
r o o of or d er r A sim p l e
t t t
, , .

r oom y b a e d es c r i b ed as a r o o wh ose o r d e r r is 1 E vide n ly

it t
h t
.

f ll w f o o s r om 7 98 a

Th e c on di t
ion t
h t
Bb a e a r oo tf d o or er r o f f (x ) O is h t
t a

f ( x ) be d i vi s i bl e by ( x B)
r
bu ttby ( no x B)
+1 r
430 A COLLE G E ALG EBR A

all i ttm
s er s ar e p os it
i ve 7 94 T est
i n g —1 we fi n dh t
t it i t t a s no a r oo .

i n g 1 / 3 we fin d t h at it i s a ro o t i t
h t
.
,

bt
,

Test an d o a n hi d d p d e r e r e ss e

e qu at
,

i on x2 x 1 z 0
Hen c e t i o n al r o o t
h e r at s of t h e gi ven e q u at t
.

i o n are 2, 2 , 1/3 I s

re m a i n i n g roo t
.

s fo u n d b y so l vi n g x2
, x 1 z 0 ar e ,
1 i i V3) / 2 .

Th e ck on i n g i n v o l ve d i n m ak i n g t
re h e se t
es t s w il l b e l e s s en e d

if on e bea r s i n m i n d t h e r e m a k m ad e i n 45 3 ; al so t h e fa c t r

th a t b k w ttb
a num er no n no o e a roo tf th gi v
o e en e qu a t
i on

c an n o tb tf ft
h d
e a r oo o on e o e e p r e s se d q et
i ua o n s, 7 96 ; an d

fin a lly th f l l wi g t
eh o o n e or e m

If b
i s p os i i ve a n d h e t t sign s o
f t
a ll
h e c oefi i c i en t
s in t
h e

r es u l o
f d itvi d i n
g f ( ) y
x b x
-
b sy n e t
h t
i c lly a a r e p lu s f x
( ) 0
r oo t
g r ea t
er t t t
,

can h a ve no h a n b ; if b i s n eg a i ve a n d h e sign s

ju stm en t
i o n ed a re a l t tly p l
er n a e us and m i n u s , f (x ) 0 can

h a ve no r oo tlg a ebr a i c ll y l
a t
h es s an b .

t
Fo r i
f ll w f t
h t f y t
o h ti c di i i
o s th t i
ro m e n a ure o s n e v s on a n

b t h c
o th ff c tf i c
a ses i g b ei c lly wi l l b t
e e o n r eas n n u m er a e o

i c
n th
r e a se ic l l f l l c ffic i t f t t
e n u m er h fi t a va u es o a oe en s a er e rs

in th lt wi t
e h tch g i g t
re s u h i ig th t th fi lou an n e r s n s, so a e na

c ffic i t
oe th t i t h
en i d
, c n t b 0a s, e r em a n er, an o e .

E x am p le 1 . Sh ow h t
t 2 a x 3 + 3 x2 4x 5 z 0 h as n o roo g tt
t h
re a er an 1 .

2 3 4 5 u D i vi d i n g b y x 1 , w e o b a i n p os i i ve c o e ffi t t
2 5 1 t
c i e n s o n ly Hen c e her e is n o r oo gr e a e r t t t
t
.

2 5 1, 6 h an 1
ti h l g c ffi ci t
.

I f we d i vi d e by x 2 , we ob a n a resu l twi t ar er oe e n s , al l

p o si t
i ve ,
n a m el y , 2 7 1 0, 2 5 .

E xa m p le 2 . Sh o w h t
t 3 a x3 + 4 x2 — 3 x + l : 0 h as n o r oo t l th ess2 an .

3 4 3 1
a D i vi d i n g b y x 2 , we o a n oe en s bti c ffi ci t
6 4 2 t t
which a r e a l e r n a e l y p l u s a nd m i n u s Hen c e
t t t
.

3 2 1, 1 h ere is n o roo l h ess2 an

ti twitht ign s as t
.

I f we d i vi d e b y x 3 , we ob a n c oe ffi ci en s h m e sa e s h os e
j t
usf ou n d bu tm nu er ic al ly g r e a t
er , n am e ly , 3 5 12, 35 .

We m ay a d d t
h ty b a an num er wh i c h i s k n o wn tb o e al g e

b r a i c a ll y g r e a tth ll t
er h an a e r e al r o o s o f t f(x) O is c al l ed a
 T HE O R Y OF E Q UATI O NS 43 1

s up er i or li m i tf t
h o e se r o o s, t
h t t an d a an y nu m b er w h i ch i s
k n o wn tb o e al g e bra i c l ly l
a th ll th
e ss an a e r e al r o o s o f t f (x ) 0
is c al led an i nfe r i or l i i tf t
m h ot e se r o o s .

Thu s we h ave j u stp ro ved th at1 i s a s u p er i o r l i m i tof t

h e ro ots of

0 an d t h a t 2 is an i nfe r i or l i m i t of th e r o ot
,

2 x3 3 x2 4x 5 s

of 3 x3 + 4 x2

E XE R CI SE LXX

1 . F or m t
h e e qu a t
i o n s wh ose t
ro o s a r e

( 1) a, ( 2) 3,

2 . Sh o w t
h t3i
a s a tiplr e r oo tf t
h o e e qu at
i on
x4 +8 x3 + 18 x2 27 : 0 .

3 . Sh ow h t
t 1 a an d 1 2 ar e d o u b le t t
ro o s of
h e e qu a t
i on
4 x5 — 23 x3 33 x2 17 x 3 0 .

4 By h e m t t
h d e o of 8 03 fi n d su s of t
p er i o r an d i n fer i or l i m i t h e r ea l
t
.

ro o s o f x5 5 x4 5 x 3 + 4 x2 7x

5 . Sh o w h t
t 2 a x4 3 x3 4 x2 10 x 3 0 h as t
i l t
n o ra on a r oo .

E a ch of t
h f e o ll o w n i g e qu at
i o n s h as o n e o r m ore ra t
i l t Sl
on a ro o s o ve

t
.

h m e .

x3 —x2 7 . x3 —2 x2
3 x3 9 . 2 x4 + 7 x 3 -
2 x2 —x =0 .

2 x4 + 7 x3 + 4 x2 —7x

x5

2 x5 —8 x4 + 7 x3 + 5 x2
x5 + 3 x4 —l 5 x3
l 2 x4 — 32 x3 + 1 3 x2 + 8 x

x5 —7 x4 + 10 x3 + 18 x2 — 27 x

2 x4 —1 7 x3 + 2 5 x2 + 74 x
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

4 x5 —9 x3 + 6 x2
x5 +8 x4 + 3 x 3 — 8 0 x2 5 2 x + 2 40 =0 .

6 x4 — 8 9 x3 + 3 59 x2 — 2 54 x + 48 = 0 .

36 x4 — 108 x3 + 1 07 x2

—‘1 4 x

2 x6 + 1l x 5
+ 2 4 x4 + 22 x 3 — 8 x2 9
3x

5 x6 — 7 x5 — 8 x4 —x3 + 7 x2 + 8 x

RE LAT I ONS BE TW EE N R OOT S AND COEFFI CIE NT S

R el a t
i n
o s b e weent roo s t a n d c oefi c i en s t W h en an equ a t
i no

t tt t
.

wh o se ro o s a r e B B B is red u ced h o e s e on c d s an da r d

h id t
t
1, 2,

it
,

f or m 7 92, i § 7 98 , b e c om e s
'

, y e en h

—1 —2 —II
m
a
61 x 74
62 x n
bax n
b"

( x
5)(
1 x
, 2)
8 ( x
1 5)
3 ”

( x B) u
‘

Ca r ry ou t
th e m ul ip l i c t
t i a on s i n d i ca td i t
e h n e se on d c m em

be r a n d a r r an g e t
h e r es u l t as a p o ly n o m i al i n x , 559 Th e n
tt ffic i en t tt
.

equ a e h c e s o f l i ke
oe p o w e r s of x i n h e w o m e m b e r s,
§ 28 4 We h u s ob t ai n t t
h e f o l l o wi n g r e l at
i on s be t
we e n t
h e

fi c i en t m b an d t t
.

c o ef s b, ,
h e r oo s B1 B2 ~ , o

, ,, , , n

1
( )
62 8
1 1 33 if “

i
‘ ‘ “

i 18 —1
‘
71 m 2
( )
63 3 62 8 31 B it
r/8 . B n -
2 fl —l fl
n n’ ( )
3

l ) ba 8 1 32 33 (n )
"
1

wh e r e t
h e sec o n d m em be r s Of r e p re s e n t
th e s 1u n of

t
h pe ro d u ct
s o f e v e ry t
w o of t
h e r oo s , tO f e ve r y t
h r e e , a n d s o on ,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

p
E x a m le 1 F nd t
i c
he ond o i ti n t
h a tth e ro o t
s o f x8
19232
qx r 0
s h all b e i n g eo m e t
.

r ic a l p r o g r ess i o n .

R e p res e n t
i ng th e ro ot s by a / B a a B we h av e , , ,

a2
a
+ a + B
a = —p,
— + a2 + a2 :
B q, — -
(r
.
a -
a B —r .

3 I3 B
t hi d q t ces t
3

Th e i r e ua o n red u o a 3 r wh e n c e a V ,
r '

id i g t e q u at io n b y th e fi rs tsu b st ut
it t
a

Div h c d
n e se o n in g a ,
V r in h e

r esu l t ,
an d s i m p l ify i n g w e h a,
ve q
3
p
3r 0 .

t
h q t
E x a m pl e 2 i So lve e e ua on x3 8 x2 5x 50 0, h avi n g gi ven
t
h tit t
.

a h d bl as a ou e r oo .

R p i gt
te h tb y
rese n n e r oo s a , a , B, we h ave
2 a + B —8 , a2 +2 a :
B 5, a2 B = 5O .

Solvi n g h e firs t td an se co n d of t
h e se e qu a t
i on s fo r a an d B, we ti
ob a n

a — 5 B= 2 an d a — 1 / 3,
B
t t t t
t
,

Th e val u es a 5, B 2 s a i s fy h e e q u a i o n a 9B -
5 0, b u h e val u es

a 1 / 3, B tt t t
d o n o sa i sfy hi s e q u a i o n
t t
.

He n c e h e re q u i re d r o o s ar e 5, 5, 2 .

Sy m m e ti r c f u nc t
i on s of t
h e r oo s t Th e e x p r e ss i o ns in t
h e

ttwh i c h t c o effic i e n t
.

roo s o h e s e ve r al s ar e e q u al , 8 05, a r e sy m

m e ritc f c t
i th t 5 40 I t
un will b p d i
o n s Of e r o o s, e ro v e n 8 68
t h tl l t t ti c f ct ft t
.

a ha i l y o i er r ah on a s mme r un on s o e r o o s c an be
ex p d t
i
r e s sel l y i t f th f ra c t
i d th
on a n erm s o es e un o n s, an f
e re o r e

ra ti lly i t
on a ft h c ffi c i t ft h
n q ti er m s o e oe en s o e e ua on .

E x am ple 1 . F in d t
h e su m o f t
h e s q u are s of t
h e ro o s o f t t
h e e qu at
i on
2 x3 — 3 x2 -
4x

Ca l l i n g h e t t
r oo s a , B, y ,
we h ave

E xa m l e 2 p If t
h e roo s tf o x3 p x2
qx r 0 ar e a B, 7 wh a t
t qu a t
.
, ,

is he e ion wh o s e t
r o o s ar e By , 7 a ,
a B?
tt
h c ci e n t h e r e q u i r e d e q u at
s of t ion we h ave
’
If p
’ ’
, q , r d en o e e o ef
fi ,

-
a fi+ a fl flr°

T )(
—V = flr -
va

Hen c e t
h e re q u i r e d e qu a t
ion is x3 qx2
p rx r2 0 .
 THE O R Y OF E Q UAT I O NS

E XE RCI SE LX X] .

1 Two of t
h e roo s o f t 2 x3 —7 x2 + l o x 6 =0 ar e 1 j:i ; fin d h e t
t
.

hi d r r oo t
.

2 Th e t ch
ro o s o f e a of t
h f
e ol l o w n i g e qu at
i on s are in g e o m et
r ic al

fi d t
.

p rog re ss i on ; h m
n e .

(1 ) s i
s —l 4 e z (2 )
3 Th e t ch
r o o s of e a of t
h f e o ll o w n i g e q u at
i on s ar e in ar h m et
it ic al
fi d t
.

p rogress i on ; h m
n e .

( 1) x3 + 6 x 2
+ 7x ( )
2 x3 —9 x2 + 23 x

4 Sh o w th tif tf a on e r oo o x3 19x ?
qx r 0 be t
h e ne g at
i ve of

t tp q
.

an o h er r o o , r .

5 F in d t
h c d it h t
i t e on on a o n e r oo tf o x3 p x2
qx r 0 s h all b e
t t t
.

h e re cip ro c al o f an o h e r r oo .

6 So lve x4 4 x3 1 0 x2 12 x 9 0, h at
h a vi n g gi ven t ith as
t t
.

w o d ou b l e ro o s .

7 Solve t
h q t
i e e ua on 1 4 x3 1 3 x2 l8 x 9 0, h at
h avi n g given t
t t
.

i s ro o s are in h arm on ic al p r o gr ess i on .

8t q t i
Sol ve h e 56 36 72 0 z 0 h i g gi
e ua o n x4 x3 x2 x av n ve n

t
h tt f it t t
i 2 :3 d th tt c b t
.
,

wa o oi t
h h d iff
s ro o s a r e w n e ra o an a e er e n e e e en

t
h t
h t
e ow ti ler o roo s s .

9 If B 7 t h tfa z q z0 fi dt h q are e r oo s o x3 ax? x r n e e ua

t t
.
, , ,

i wh
on s os e r oo s a re

( 1) a , B, 7 . 2
( ) leaf , kB,
Icy .

7 +k .

a 2, 2 2
(6 ) — 1 / a 2 , —1 / B2,
( 5) B, 7

10 . If a , B, 7 ar e t
h e r oo s tOf 2 x3 x2 4x 1 0, fin d h e t va l u es o f

(1) a u x (2) a3 +e +7 3 3

2 a2 2 2 2a a 27
l / va l / a B~ (4) 6 6 +fi + 57 + 7 3 + 7 + .

11 . If a , B, 7 ar e t
h t
e r o o s o f x3 2 x2 x 3 0, fin d t
h e va l u es o f

( 1) ( 2)
( 3) (B a )b H ! 9) (4) (6 +
2 a m “ ? +fi) 2 «
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

T RANSFORMAT I ONS OF E QUAT I ONS

Som e i m por ttt

an ran s or m a f t
i n o s I ti s so m e ti m es ad v an

tt t t t
.

tg
a e ou s o f
r an s o r m a g i ven equ a i on f( ) x : 0 i n o an o h er

e qu a t
i whon tt
os e r o o s s a n d in som e g i ve n r el a ti on tt ho t e r oo s

of f( ) x : O Th e t fr an s o r m a t
i on s m os tf re
q u en t
ly d u se ar e

t
.

h f e o ll o wi n g

tf
To r a n s or m a g i ven q eti f(ua on x
) : 0 in t t
h o ano er wh ose
t t
h
r oo s a r e os e o f
f (x ) h t
O wi t h i e r s i g n s c h a n g ed .

Th e r e q u i r e d e qu a t
i n i o s f y) O F o r s u b s i tu ti n g an y t
t t tt
.

nu m b er , as B ,
for x in f (x ) g i ves h e s am e r esu l a s su b st i u
H n c e , if
‘
ing B fo r y i n f ( y) e f( )
x v an i sh es w h en x B
tt tf
.
,

f ( y) w i l l v an i sh w h e n y ; h a i s , if i s a roo B B o

f( )
x : 0 i
B sa r oo tf f ( o y) : 0
tf f ( t t i gn
,
.

Th e r e f o r e e v e ry r oo o x
) : 0, w i h i s s ch an g ed
tf f ( t
,

is a r oo o y) : 0; an d f( y )
: 0 h as no o th e r r oo s

t
h t
h an i c e se , s n e f( ) x : 0 an d f( y : 0
) ar e of t
h e sam e

d egr e e
t t
.

I f h e g i ven e qu a i on is

61 055
" ‘ ‘
f “ fi
n —l
“ aw
n —2
t
‘ ‘ “

i "
an O,

t
h e r e qu i r ed e q u a t
i on w il l be

—v
a
)
wh i ch on b ein g si m p l ifie d b e c o m es
” l
"
1) n
0
'

a ,,y al
y az
y an .

H en c e h e t t
q u i r e d e q u a i on m ay b e O b ai n e d f r o m h e g i v e n
re t t
on e b v c h a n g i n g t
h e s i g n s of h e er m s of od d d eg r e e w h en n tt
t
i s e ve n , a n d by c h a n g i n g h e s i g n s of h e er m s of even d eg r e e, tt
i n c l u d in g t
h e a bs o lu ttm wh
e er en n is o dd

W e m ay u se x i n st t t t
, .

e a d o f y fo r h e un k n ow n l e t er in h e

t
r a n s f o rm e d e u a t
q i o n a n d wr i tef , x
) 0 fo r f y) O.
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Mul iply i g t
t h n e roo s tb y k ,

( 2)
We i n sp e c t
see by ion th atth e s m al le st val u e o f Itwhich w i ll c an c el all
t
h e den o m i n ators i s 6 it
An d su b s t ut i n g 6 fo r k i n
. we h ave
3
( )
which h as t
h f e or m r e qu i r e d Th e t
ro o s o f ( 3) ea ch d i vi d ed b y 6 ar e t
h e

t t e q u at
.

h gi
r oo s o f e ve n ion
tf
To r a n s or m g i v en equ a i on f ( x )
a t 0 in t t
o h ano er wh os e
t t
h
r oo s a r e e r e ci r o c a ls o
p f h ose o f
f ( )x t 0 .

Th e r e qu i re d e q u a t
i on i s f(1 y) 0 F or i f f ( x ) v an i s h e s

t
.

wh e n x Bf , ( 1 y ) will v an i sh wh e n 1 y B ,
h t a i s, wh e n

y 1
t
I f h e g i v en e qu a t
i on is
1
O,
‘
" "
a ,x alx a ,,

t
h e r e q u i r ed e q u a t
i on w ill b e

wh i c h wh e n c le ar ed of fr a c ti n o s be c om e s

as
"
am t
/
“ 1
ar
y a0 0 .

He n c e t
h e re q t
q u i re d e u a on m ay b e o b ai n e d by m er ely
i t
r e vers i n g t
h e or d er of
‘ t
h e c o efi i c i en s of h e g i ven equ a i on t t t .

E x am p l e . R ep l a c e t
h e roo s o f t 2 x4 x2 3x 4 0 by t
h i e r re cip
r o c a ls .

R ever s i n g h e tc oef
fi ci en t
s we h a ve
,
4 x4 3 x3 x2 2: 0 .

An equ a t
i on lik e 2 x
3
3 x
2
3 x 2 0, wh i c h r em ai n s

un ch a n g e d t
hi t f twhen i n i pp li d ti t
s t h t r an s o r m a o s a e o a

wh n t f i tc ffic i ti
,

is, he d e or ver d i c ll d
o s oe en s s re e r se s a e a

tf ch q t
,

re cip c l q t
ro a i 6 45e If B i
u a on , i s a r oo o su an e ua on ,

tl b t H c wh t f t
.

1 B m h d g h
‘
us a so e a r oo en e en e e re e o e

t h lf f t t t f t
.

e q i
ua i on h
s e v en h c ip
a l oh e r o o s ar e e re roc a s o e

t i t f ll t tb t wh
,

o h h lf
er Tha m h e sa e s ru e o a e ro o s u on e en

t dd ; b t t t tb t
.

h d g
e ei ree i hi c
s o h u n s a se er e m us e on e roo

wh i ch i i t w s c ip c l t h t
s o i n twh i ch i i t
re h
ro a , a s, o n e r oo s e er
 T HE O RY O F E Q UATI O NS

1 or —1 Th u s, on e r o o tf 2 o x
3
+3 x
2 — 3 x — 2 = O is l a nd
t t t
.

h h
e o e r r oo s ar e 2 an d 1 2 .

F m t h
ro t e n a u re of hi t
t s f
r an s o r m a t
i it
onf ll o ow s th at wh en
an
q t
i h
e ua on fi l c i en t
as s and t h e le a di n g c o efil c i en t
va r i a bl e c o e

va n i s h es , o n e of t h e r oot
s be c o m es i nfi n i t e ; w h en t he t wo l e a d i n g
c o efii c i en t wo of t
s va n i s h , t h e r oo t s be c o m e i nfi n i te a n d s o on .

E x am pl e 1 Sh o w t hat on e o f t
h e roo s tf m o x3 3 x2 2 x 1 z 0
b e c o m e s i n fin i t
.

e wh e n m van i s h e s .

App l y i n g 8 14 t o m x3 3 x2 2x 1 z 0, (1 )
we O b t
a i n x 3 2 x 2 3x m 0 .
(2)
t
I f he t
r oo s o f ( 2) ar e t
B1 , B2 , B3 , h os e o f ( l ) ar e l / Bl , 1 / B2 , 1 / B3
t t
.

By § 8 06 , B1 B2B3 m He n c e , i f m app r o a ch 0 a s l i m i , o n e o f h e
tB tl itan d if t tb t
.

roo s 1, B2 , B3 m us a so a ppr oa ch 0 as lim hi s ro o e B1 h e

tf m u st
, ,

c o rr e s p on d i n g r o o o n a m e ly , 1 / B1 ,
a pp r o a ch co , 5 12 .

E x am p l e 2 S h o w th a t t
wo o f th e ro o ts o f m x" m% 2
x 1 0
be c o m e i n fin i t
.

e w h e n m va n i sh es .

App ly i n g 8 14 t o m x3 m 2x2 x l 0 , (1)

we h a ve x3 x2 m 2x m 0 .
(2 )
If t h e ro o t s o f ( 2 ) ar e B1 B2 B3 t h o se o f ( 1 ) ar e , , , 1 / B1 , l / Bg , 1 / B3 .

Also
131 6 2133 m , else as . 13253 m? ( 3)
I t
f ll o fro m ( 3) t
o ws h at i f m a pp r o a ch 0 t wo o f t
he t h re e r o o ts B1 B 2 B 3

tl
a so a pp r o a ch 0 a n d if t h es e r o ot 2 t h e c orr e s p on d i n g r o o t
, , ,

m us s b e B1 B s

1 / B2 m u s t
, , ,

of n a m el y 1 / B 1 ,
a pp r o a ch 00
, ,
.

To t f m r a n s or a g i ven e qu a t
i on f (x ) 0 in t t
h o ano er w h os e
r oo s t th a re os e o f
f ( )
x 0, ea ch di m i n i s h ed by s om e c on s t
ant ,

as k .

Th e re
qu i re d e qu a t
i n i
o s f (y h) 0 F or iff ( x ) v an i sh e s

h t
t
.

wh e n x B f (y ,
It
) w i ll va n i sh wh en y k B, i a s,

wh en y 3 k
t t
.
1

I f h e g i v en e q u a i o n i s

t
h e r e q u i re d e qu a t
i on w il l b e
440 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

wh i ch , wh en i tt
s er m s a r e e x p an d e d by t
h bi n
e om i al th e o r e m
an d t
h en c ol l e ctd e ,
wil l r ed u c e tt
h fo e orm

—1
Coy
n
Gly n
cu —l y cn z o)

wh e r e c0 cl n ha 0 a ,, an d so on

t t
.

is u s u al l y
Th i s m e h d o o f o b ai n i n g (
fl y ) f r o m f (x) v e ry
l ab or i ou s Th e f o l l o win g m e h o d t is m u ch m o re e x p e di t
i ou s , a t
t t c oeffic i e n t t
.

l ea s wh e n h e s o ff x
( ) ar e g i ve n ra i o n al n u m be rs .

— h an d we h a v e
,

a :
M r) w k) ,
t
h t a I s,

— h +
(
c0 x ) cn

If t
bo h mb f t h i id t
me it y b d i v id d by
e rs ok if s en e e x

t ti tt bt
,

agai n h q e h i d b di id d by
uo en s k d us o a ne e v e x an

t
,

so on , h cc i e su i d y i l d d b th fi
es s ve r e m a n
y t b ers e e e rs m em er,

n am e ly c w ill b t h t
h y i l d d by t h e e sa m e a s o se e e e

t
, ",

c
se o n d b H c w
m em y erb i .s
o ( )
y f f( )
en e e ma o a n ro m x as

f oll ow s :D i vi d e f ( x ) by x k , d i vi d e h e q u o i en t
h u s ob a i n ed tt
t t
by x k, and so on . Th e s u cc ess i ve r em a i n d er s wi l l be e

cl and t
h fi e nal
qu o i en t tw i ll be 00 ( c o m p a re

t
h t
,

Th e di v i si on s s h o u ld b e p e r fo r m e d sy n i c lly
e a .

E x a m p le 1 . D im i n ish h e t tf 2 ro o s o x3 7 x2 3x 1 0 by 4 .

tt
F i rs m eh d o . Su b s t
i tt
i gy 4f
u n or x, we h a ve
2 x3 — 7 x2
2 y 3 + l 7 y2 + 37 y + 5

Se c o n d m e t
h d o . Arra n gi n g h e t re c k on i n g as i n 423 , we h ave
'

2 7 3 1
[4
8 4 4
2 1, 5
8 36
2 9, 37 02 Z 37 .

8
2, 17 01 17 an d c o =2 .

Hen c e , as be fo re ,
we fi n d h e t re q u re d ei q u at
i on tb o e
 A CO LLE G E AL G E B R A

E xa m p le F in d su per i o r an d i n fer i or l i m i t h e ro o t
s of t s of t
h e e qu a
t
.

i f(on x ) x4 6 x3 l 4 x2 48 x 121 0 .

W e fin d i n sp e c t
by i on an d t r i al th at n eit h e r It 1 n or k 2 wi ll gi ve
a t ra n sfo r m e d e q u a t i o n q>(x) 0 all o f w h ose t e r m s a r e p os i ti ve b u t
I n fa c t i f we d i m i n i s h t h e r oot
,

that k z 3 wi ll .
,
s o f f (x) O b y 3 we ,

ob t i Hen c e 3 i s a su p er i or
2
a n 4) (x) x 4 6 x 3
1 4 x 78 x 68 0 .

li m it of t h e ro o t s o f f (x ) 0 .

Th e e q u a t i o n f ( x ) : 0 is x4 6 x3 14 x2 48 x 12 1 : 0 W e
i o n an d t r i al tha t 3 i s a su p e r i o r l i m i t of i t i ve r o o t
.

fi n d b y i n sp e c t s p osi t s

3 i s a n i n fer i o r l i m i t h e n eg at i ve ro o t
.

Hen c e of t s o f f (x) z 0 .

On ra t
i on al tn f
ra s orm a t
i t on s i n g en eral I f we e li m in a e x

b t t t t
.

w
e h
ee n q i f( )e z 0 e d
ua y on s w O b i x an x, e a n

f ( y) 0 W h : h w i § 811 t
e h t t
a veh ty f
s o n n a e r oo s o

t t t t t
.

f y) 0 c c d w i har e h O
on n e f f( ) 0
e b y h e roo s x x e

l ti
re a y on Th i i ill tt x i f t h g s l t hs an u s ra on o e e n er a eo

t h t tbt
.

rem i f w p p l y li i
a e ro w f( ) O d y
er e m na e x e e en x an an

eq t i
ua f t h f
on o y whe orm i t i l w ere s ra on a e

h ll Ob t t t c ctd
,

s a i q a ni F (y ) an0 wh e ua on : o se r o o s ar e on n e e

wit h t h ff( ) ose o 0 by t h l t i x y 4( ) th t if t h e re a on z: ; x so a e

tf f ( ) 0 B B m B t
,

r oo s o x h f F ( y)
ar e 0 ose o ar e

Th t f
1, 2,

t
, “ ,

M3 )
( i f 8 12 8 14 8 1 7
e r an s o r m a on s o

ff d f t i ll tt f t hi t th fi tf
2 , , ,

a or h ur i er h u s ra I on s o s e or e m n e rs o

t t f t t t i t
.

h ese i h
r an s o r m a
q i y qs( ) i y
on s h e e h ua on x s x, n e

c d it
s e on i y l / d i t
s h t hi d i t i y x , an b Wh n n e r s x e e

i t t li in t
,
.

as h n c ese
y 1( ) b
ase s , l d f h<) x i n c an e so v e or x , e e m a o

of i x d i l y ff c t
s r ea d e e e .

E x a m pl e 1 F in d t
h e e qu a t
i on wh os e t
r oo s a r e t
h q
e s u a r es of t
h e

t
.

ro o s o f x3 + p az qx r z0 .

I t
hin s c a se t
h e re l a t
i on y ( )
x is y x2

h a ve x z My An d s u b st it
.

So lvi n g y x2 fo r x, we ut
in g i g; for
t i o n an d r a t
e qu a t i o n al i zi n g we o b t
.

x in h gi e ve n ain ,

i
n —
(M P ) 2/
2 2
(r 2 pm +2 =o .

pl e 2
E xa m I f he t t
r o o s o f x3 p x2
qx r 0 are a B 7 , fin d h e t
e qu a t t
.
.
,

i on wh o se roo s are B7 , 7 a , c .

We fi rs td en ea vor t o ex p r ess ch o f
ea t
h p p d e ro ose roo s tB7 7 a

t t ttB 7 t
, ,

d B in erm s o f a s n i gle one of h e gi ve n r oo s a , , an d h gi e ven

 T HE O R Y O F E Q UAT I O NS

c oeffici en t
s p , q, r . Thi s is re ad i ly d on e , for , s n i ce r a B7 , we h ave
67 a fir / a r / a , W a /B r /B , G B a /r r /v .

He n c e ch r oo t
ea y of t i on i s con n ec t
h e r e q u i re d e q u at ed wi t ht h e c orr e
sp o n d i n g ro o tx of t h e gi ve n e qu a t i on b y t h e r ela t
ion y r x .

So lv i n g y r / x for x we h ave x r/ y

An d s u b st itut
, .

i n g r y for x i n x3 191132 qx r : 0 an d s i m pl i
0 which i s t h e e qu at
‘
fy i n g we h ave y 3
, qy
2
p y
r r 2 :
i o n r e qu i r e d , .

E XE RCI SE L XXI I
1 . Ch an g e h e t ig f t
h s ns o t
e r o o s o f x7 3 x4 2 x2 6 x 7 0
.

2 Mu iply t
lt h tf 2 e r oo s o x4 x3 4 x2 6 x 8 0 by 2 Also
t
. .

d i vi d e h m
e by 3 .

fl
o . I n 5 x6 x4 3 x3 9x 10 0 re p l ace ea ch r oo t
by it
s r e cip r o c al .

4 D i m i n i sh h e t r oo s oft 2 x5 x4 3 x2 6 0 by 2 Also i n c r e ase

t
. .

h m e by 1 .

T r an sfor m t
5 h e e qu a t i o n x4 x3 / 3 x2 / 4 x/ 25 0
in t
o an o th er wh ose c oe ffi ci en t s ar e i n t t
.

egers ,
h l e e ad n i g on e b e in g 1 .

6 Tran sfor m t h e e q u ati on 3 x4 36 x3 x 7 0 in t

o an o t
h e r which
he t
t
.

l ac k s er m i n vo l vi n g x3 .

7 . T r an sfor m t
h f e o ll o w n o e qu at
i g in t i on s which la c k h e t tm x er .

2 x3 — x2 —x
( )
t tf
8 If h e roo s o x4 x3 x 2 0 ar e a B, 7 6 , fin d t
h e e qu a t
i on
t
.
, ,

wh ose r o o s a re a z,
B 7
2
,
2
,
62 .

9 If t
h tf e r oo s o x4 +3 x3 + 2 x2 —1 : 0 ar e B,
a y, 6 , fin d t
h e

q t t
.
,

e i wh
ua on os e r o o s a r e B+ 7 + 6, a + 7 + 6, a + B+ 6, a + B+ 7 .

10 If t
h tf e roo s o x3 p x2
qx r 0 ar e a B, 7 fin d t
h e e qu a
t t
.
, ,

i wh
on s ose r oo s a r e

itfl a g a B l
(n -

( 2) ,

a B B r 7 a a B
11 If he t t
ro o s o f x3 2 x2 3x am a B, 7 fin d t
h e e qu a o

t t
.
, ,

i on s w h os e r o o s ar e

2 2 2
a 2, a
1 2
( ) 1
9 7 + + 3
f
‘
1 l 1 a B 7
(3 ) fi7 + M (4)
+ fl —v
“
— l3
3
— 7 +
a y fi+7 a a a
 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

12 F in d su p er i or a n d i n fer i o r l i m i t
s of t
h e r e al t t
h f
ro o s of e o llo w n g i
qu at
.

e ion s .

x4 3 x3 1 3 x2 6 28 0 ( 2) 2 x5 l 2o x2 — 38 x 27 O
( 1) x .
.

4
(4) 2 x5
( 3) x

( 5) x4 l 4 x3 44 x2 28 x 92 0 .

(6 ) 3 x6 3 5 x3 7 7 x2 50 x 1 10 0 .

I M AGI NARY R OOT S . DE S CAR T E S S RULE OF S I GNS ’

T h eorem Le tf ( x
) 0 d en o t e an equ a t
i on wi h t r ea l c oe fii
t If i t tt h t
t
.

c i en s h as i m a gi n a r y r oo s , h es e o cc u r i n p a irs ; i a s,

t t
.

if a ih is a r oo ,
a ib i s a ls o a r oo .

F or i f a ib is a r oo tf f (
o x
) 0, t
h n f( ) i
e x s d i vi s i b l e by
x — (a i b) , § 7 95 ; an d we sh al l
p r o ve th t a a i b i s a ro ot
i f we ttf( )
c an s h o w h a x i s al s o d i v i s i bl e by x ( a i b) , or ,

wh t c
a tth to m es o e sam e h i n g , i f w e c an s h o w h t
t f( a x
) is
v s h p d ct
d i i i bl by t [ e
( i b)] e ro u x a
[ x
( a

Th i p d c th l c ffic i tf
s ro u as r e a oe en s, o r, s in ce i 2
1,
— — 2 2
[ x
( a a
) +b
— x
2

Sin c e t
h p e ol y n om i al s f ( x ) an d x
2
2 ax
( a
2
b 2
) h av e
th c e om m o n
( t
fac
h y t
h or x hi g h t c m a i b) , e av e a es o m on

f ct
a or Th i h i g h t c m f cts tb it
esh ( i
om b) on a or m us e e er x a

B tit t
.

or x
2
2 ( ax b) c a b 2
( i b) in c
f
u an n o e x a s e

t y c ffi c i twh th high t
.
,

hi s h as i gi ma n ar c oe en s, e r e as e es om m on

f a c t or of t w p ly i l w it
o h l c ffi c i t
o n omtitl f a s r ea oe en s m us se

h av e r ea l c ffi i t 4 6 9
oe H c t h h ig h t
c en c s, f ct . en e e es om m on a or
2
of ; in
f (x )
2 2 2 2
an d + (a
?
x 2 ax
( a b ) is x 2 ax b )
t
oh er wo rds , f (x ) i s di v i s i b l e by x
2
2 ax
( a
2
b f
) as was
tb tt
,

o e de m o n s ra ed .

p
E x am l e On e r oo tf 2o x3 5 x2 46 x 87 0 is 2 5i Sol ve
t
. .

hi s e q u atio n
tB t
t
.

Si n c e 2 5 i is a ro o t 2 (i i i s al s o a ro o h u e su m o f all

t ti tt t
.
,

h e ro o s s 5 / 2, 8 06 . He n c e h e hi d r ro o i s

—2 + 5 i —2
446 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

ft
hIf tf 1 (
on e o e r oo s o <) x
) 0 be a r oo tf f ( o x
) 0, h en t al l
o
ft
h tf b( ) O e r oo s o ( x a r e r oo s o tf f ( x
) O .

Thi s m ay b e p r oved b y h e t r e a so n in g of § 8 21 F o r if
t ti
.

x : O an d ¢ x
f( ) ( ) 0 h av e h e roo 0 n c o m m o n f (x ) an d

t ct t
,

( b ( x) h a v e h c e o m m on fa or x c § 7 95 , an d h e r e ore f a

tc f act t t Of
,

h i gh e s om m on o r w hi c h i s e i h e r x 0, so m e fa c or

q t
( ) wxh i c h c t on ai n s x c o r a(x ) i se l f t
ti t
.
,

Bu s n ce by h y p o h e s i s , 0 is an i r r e d u ci ble e qu a

t ¢( ) i t t f ct
,

i on , x s h e on ly o n e o f h e s e a or s wh i ch h as r eal a n d
rai n l c ffic i t
t o a oe en s su ch as h h i gh t
t ec es om m on fa c t or o f f (x )
and th m us a ve , 46 9
t t t
.

Th e r e f o re ¢ (x ) i s i se l f t c o m m on f a c or o f f ( x)
h h i gh e es

an d t
i n o h e r wo r d s ,f( )
x i s e x ac l
y di vi s i b l e b y d)
( )
x t
H e n c e f (x ) m ay b e e x p r e sse d i n t
.

h e f o rm ( )
x

wh e r e Q i s i n t t h i s i d e n i y i f o ll o w s t t
tt t
,

e g r al an d fr o m ha
t t
,

f ( x ) v an i sh e s w h e n e v e r ¢ (x ) v an i sh es ; i n o h er w o r d s h a t
tf ¢ ( tf f (
,

e v e ry r oo o x
) 0 is a r oo o x
) : O .

Perm anen c es an d v ar a i t
i on s In an y p o l y n om i al f (x ) or e qu a

t t l c ffici t p c e o r c on t
,
.

i f( on x
) 0, w i h r ea oe en s a er m a n en in u a t
i on
o f si gn is sai d t cc wh
o o t ur er ev e r a erm fo ll ow s on e of like
s i g n , an d a va r i a t
i on or ch a n ge o f si g n wh e r e ve r a t e rm fo l
l o ws on e of c on t
rar
y si g n .

Th u s in x6 x4 x3 2 x2 3x 1 0 p e r m an en c es o cc u r a tt
h e

tm i t tt
,

er s x3 a n d 3 x, a n d va r a i on s ah tm e er s x4 , 2 x2 , a n d 1 .

Th eorem ct
If f ( x ) i s
ly di vi si bl e by x b wh er e b
ex a is
p os i t
.

i ve a n d t u ot en t
,

h e c oefii c i en t
s o f
f ( ) x a r e r ea l t
h e q i
w i ll h a ve a tl ea st
,

o n e les s va r i a ti on t
h a n f (x) h a s .

F or t t
sin ce t tt c
b i s p o s i i v e , i f o ll o w s f r om h e r u le o f sy n h e i
tt t
d i v i s i o n , § 4 11 , h a w h e n f x i s d i v i d ed b y x
( ) b h e c o effi
t t tt t tt t t
,

c ien s of h e q u o i e n ar e p o s i i ve u n il h e fi r s n e g a i v e
c c t
oe f c ) t
fi i en o f f ( x i s r e a h e d t t I f h e n o r l a e r on e o f h em

g t t t g t t
il t
.

b c m
e o i es h y c
ne i a i ve h or ze r o , e on nue ne a ve un e

t
n ex
p it
i c ffi c i tf f ( ) i
os ch d d
ve oeH c en o x s rea e an so o n en e

v i t c p t ch t
t
.
,

b( )
( hx c an i cc
av e n o h m ar a on s ex e su as o ur a e sa e
 TH E O R Y O F E Q UAT I O NS 44 7

or e a rl i e r t f f ( ) B ti c t
e rm s o h di i i i by h y p t h x u s n e e v s on s, o

e s i s, e x a ctt h l ti g i ¢ ( ) t b c t y tt
e as h l t s n n x m u s e on rar o e as

d t ¢( ) m t l ck t i t
,

s ig n in f( ) x h f ,
an h l t i e re or e x us a e as v ar a on

in f (x ) .

1 + 1
2
—2
+6
—1 0 — 1
8 —4
+ 12
— 10
—4 2
+4
t Th u s ,
l o x3
f( ) x+
— x2 + 1 2 x — 4
x6 x5 — 2 x4
is ex

1 3 4 2 5 2, 0 ac t
ly d i v s i i b le by x 2, t
h e

qu o t
ien t
b e i n g qt ( )
x x5 3 x4 4 x3 2 x2 5 x 2 th tt
O b s e r ve
h a e

fi rs t
two var i at tt
th t
.

i o n s o ff (x) ar e r e pro du c ed i n ob (x) , b u hi d

no e r .

1 —1 + 1 —7 Ag a i n f( ) x x4 — x3 + x2 — 7 x + 2 is
t ien t
,

2 2 6 2 ex a ct
ly d i v i s i b l e by x 2, h e qu o t
1 + 1 +3 — 1 O —1 t
I n h is c ase
t i t
.
,

o n ly on e of h f e i o n s o f f (x) i s r e p r o d u c e d i n a (x) a n d w e
our va r a

tt r a on o f th e fa c t th at wh e n in t er m ed i a t e va r i a t
,

h a ve an i ll u s i i o n s O f f (x)
d i s a pp e ar i n (x) t
h e y d i sapp e ar i n p a i rs
,
.

T h eorem (Des c art es s ru l e of s i g n s

) A n e uat
q i on f x
’
( ) 0 c a n n ot .

h a ve a g r e a t
er n u m be r of p os i ti ve r oo t s t ha n i th a s va ri a t
i on s n or
a g r ea t s t
,

er n u m be r o
f n eg a ti ve r oo t ha n t h e eq u a t
i on f x
) 0
has va r i a t
i on s .

F or l e t
Btt h p it i B2 t ff ( ) 0 B d en o e e os ve r o o s o x

t ti t t bt
1, , ,
.

f w d i id f ( ) by
e v
B h e q h x i d x e uo en u s O a ne

t
,,

by x
B d w O b
an t i fi l q soti b
on ,
( ) w h i ceh a n a na uo en ( x

t tl t
2,

h as a l e asi ti h
r
f( ) h 8 29
e s s v ar a Th f on s an x as , e r e o r e,

t i t t
.

i
s nce ¢( ) c thx l han n o i f( )ave h e ss an n o v a r a on s, x m us av e

a tl t i t
e as i th t
r va r a i t l t on s ,
y f( ) 0 h a s, a e as a s m an as x as

p itosi vet ro o s }

2 Th g ti e ne t f f( ) 0
a b c th i
v e r oo s o
p t i t x : e om e e os v e r oo s

t t t
.

o f f( ) O 8 1
x 1 A d j d d f ( ) 0 n as us e m on s r a e x

th t t t t
,
.
, ,

c an n o p i
a ve i v h
m ore i i H os c e roo s an var a on s en e

t t t t
.

f( ) x 0 c
: h a nn o g i h f
ave ) 0
m or e ne a ve roo s an x :

h asv i t i
ar a on s .

Thu s t h e e q u at i o n f (x) x6 x5 x3 x 1 0 c an n o t h ave m or e

th an thre e p o sit s n o r m ore t
i ve r o o t h an o n e n e g a ti ve r o o t F o r f (x) 0
,

h r ee var i a t
h as t i on s an d f ( x) 0 t hat
.

i s x6 x6 x3 x 1 0 h as
on e var i at
, , , ,

i on .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

Corol lary i on c a n n o t
e eq u a t
A c om p l et h a ve a
g r ea t er n u ni

tt it
.

ber f
o n eg a t
i ve r oo s h h an as p er m a nen c es .

F o r wh e n c o m pl e t
e it s p e r m an e n c e s c o rr e sp o n d
O is
f( ) x

on e fo r o n e t o t h e v a r i at i o n s of f x : 0 s i n c e o f e ve r
) y t vv o

c o n s e cu t
,

i ve lik e s i g n s i n f ( x ) 0 o n e 1 5 c h an g ed i n f x
) 0 ,

81 1 .

Th u s ,
If — 6 x3 —8 x2
t
h en —
f ( x) : 0 i s x5 — x4 — 6 x3 + 8 x2 — 7 x ( )
2

In h ave p e r m an en c e s at
( 1 ) we the 8 x2 7 x an d a t the
c or res p on d in g t
, ,

e 1 1n s O f n a m e ly x4 8 x2 7 x we h a ve va r i at i on s
Si n c e ( 1 ) h a s t ion s an d t 0 c an n o t
.

wo v ar i a t
v .“
, , ,

hr ee p e r m ane n c e s f (x)
h ave m o re t han t i ve r o o ts n o r m ore t h an t ive r oot
,

wo p os i t h re e n eg at s .

De ec tt
i on of i m ag i n ary roo s t In t
h c f e a se o an i n c o m ple te
t f r e q u en t t i tc
.

eq u a i on we c an l y p r ov e h e e x s en e of i m a g i n ar y
roo s tby aid o f D e s c ar te s 3 r u le of s ig n s
’
.

t
L e f ( x) 0 be an e
q ua t
i on
f ot
h t
h d g w h i c
e n h h e r ee as no

t
zer o r oo s , a n d le t v and v
'
d en o tt h mb
e f i t i
e nu er o va r a on s in
f (x) O an d f x
) 0 r es
p ecti ly Th ve
q ti f ( ) e e ua on x 0
t t t
.

m us h a ve a l t ea s 11
( v v
'
) i m gi y a nar r oo s .

F or f( ) x : 0 c an n oth ave m o re t
h an v p o si i v e t t
r oo s n or

m o re t
h an v
'
n eg a t
i t § 830
ve r oo s , an d t h e r e f o re no tm or e

t t ll tld Th tf i t t t
,

'
h an v v r e al r oo s a o e re s o s n roo s m us

t
.

h er e or ef b e i m a g i n a ry
t t tt t
.

Th i s h eo re m g iv es no i n f orm a i on as h i
o e m a g i n ar y ro o s

of a e e q u at
c o m p le t t ch
'
i on sin c e v v is e q u al o n in su an

t
,

e qu a i on .

E x a m ple . Sh o w t
h t a x5 x2 1 0 h as fou r i m agi n ary r oo s t .

In t
hi s c as e f( ) x 0 is x5 x2 1 0, an d —
f ( x) 0 is x5 —x2
Hen c e n (v v
’

) 5 (0 l) th tth c 4,tb l t
h
so a ere an n o e ess an

fou r i m agi n a ry r o o ts Bu t sin ce t

h fi t ll tld d
e r e ar e f ve r o o s a o an one o

th e m i s r eal t 8 24 t t
.

h e d eg r e e o f x5 x2 1 0 b i g dd h c e n o er e an n o

b e m ore t t H c ct
, , ,

h an fo u r i m agi n ary ro o s 1 0 h enly e x5 x2 as e x a

fo u r i m agi n ary ro o t
.

s .
 A CO LLE G E AL G E B R A

14 Pr o v e h t
t i t
h p a n e rod u ctof th f ct c esp a or s o rr e i g t
on d n o the
g t i m a gin ar y r o o t q t i wi t o e ffici e n t
s t
.

ne a i ve an d s of an e h l c
ua on rea he
fi n al te r m is a l way s p o s i t i ve an d t
h h wt
enh t if this o a s p rod u c t h as
a n y va r i a t
i on s t
,

h e i r n u m b e r i s e ve n .

15 Pr o ve th t
wh th a en e nu m b er o f va r a i t
i on s ex c eed s t
h e n u m b er of

tt
.

po si t
i ve r oo s , h c i e ex e ss s a n e ve n n u m b er .

16 Sh o h t
w t a x4 x3 x2 x 1 0 h as e it
h er o n e or t
hre e p os i
t t
.

i t
ve r o o s a n d o n e n e gat
i ve r oo .

17 Sh o w h t y q
t a e ve r e ua t
i on o f e ve n d e gr e e wh o s e a b sol u e ttm er is
t t p it ga t t
.

ne ga t
i ve h as a l e as on e os i ve an d o n e n e i ve r oo .

LOCAT I ON OF I RR ATI ONAL R OOT S

Th eorem 1 . If f ( a) and f ( b ) h a ve con t

ra r y s ig n s , a r oo tf o

f(x ) O l i es be ween t a and b .

Thi s m ay b e p r o ve d a s i n h e f o l l o wi n g e x am pl e t A g e n e r al
tt t t t
.

s a e m en o f h e p r o o f wi l l b e g i v e n su b s e q u e n l y .

E x am pl e . Pr o ve h t
t f( a x ) x3 3 x 1 0 h as a ro o tb t
w e een 1
an d 2 .

Th eig n o f f ( l )
s 1 is m i n u s an d t hat o ff ( 2 ) 3 i s pl u s
in g t
.

By c o m p u t h e v a l u e s o f f (x) fo r x s u cc e s s i ve l y

we fin d t wo c on sec u t i ve tent hs b et
,

we e n 1 a n d 2 n a m e ly an d fo r , ,

whic h f (x) h as t h e s a m e s ig n s as fo r x z 1 a n d x 2 r e sp e c t i ve ly ; fo r
f ( 1 5) 1 2 5 is m i n u s a n d f ( l 6 ) 2 96 is p l u s
ho d w e fi n d t i ve h u n d r edt
wo c o n s ec u t
. .

By t
. .
,

h e sa m e m e t hs b e t
.

wee n an d

n a m e ly an d ,
fo r which f (x) h as t h e sa m e s 1g n s a s fo r x 1 an d
x 2 ; fo r f ( l 5 3 ) 008 42 3 is m i n u s a d f ( l 54) 03 2 26 4 i s p l u s n

It e r m in e s t he t
. . . . .

Thi s p ro c ess m a y b e c o n t i n u e d i n d efin i te ly det wo .

n e ve r en d i n g s e qu e n c es o f n u m b e r s
-

( a) 1, (b ) 2,

t
h t e f which
er m s o t
h m li m i t
i g la pp ro ach
1 92 1 93 C ll e sa e n va u e , a

t tf f ( ) 0 t
.

hi l i i t h t
,

si g l
m n It i va u e 0 i f( ) 0 s a ro o o x a s, c

b m d t th gh i t
. .
,

F by
o r, 5 09 i f h
x ft h
e q c af e o run ro u e er o e se u en es o

ch f ( ) l i m i t B ti f ( ) i l w y
,

l
va u e s ( ) ( b ) f ( ) wi ll pp
a or x a r oa c as u s nce x s a a s

g t tb p i
,

q c ( ) i tli i t
.

ne i
a t
h gh t
ve a s x r u n s h f( ) c
ro u e se uen e a s 1n c an n o e os

t lw y p i t h gh t
t
,

li m i t
i ve d i c f( ) i
an s n e i x s a h q c (b )
a s os ve a s x r u n s rou e se u en e

it t g t
,

s f (c ) c b i H c f ( c) i
an n o e ne a ve . en e s ze r o .
 T HE O RY OF E Q U A TI O NS

Th eorem 2 th b i If tf f( ) : 0 d
n ei er a n o r s a r oo o x an an

ft tf i ( ) O li b t
,
.

odd mb
nu h er o w
e r oo s od b f( ) d x e e e en a a n a an

c t y ig b t t
,

f ( b) h a ve if
on r a r s mb
ns
f u n o r oo or an e ven n u er o

tli b t
r oo s w
e e d b f( )een d f ( b) h
a an th m ig , a an a ve e sa e s n .

C ly if f ( )
o n ve rs e d f ( b) h c t y ig
a an dd a ve on r a r s n s, an o

ft tf i ( ) O li b t d b; b t
,

nu mb h
er o e r oo s ow if f ( )
x e e een a an u a

an d f ( b) h th m ig
a ve it
h e sat mb
e s n, e e r n o r oo or an e ve n nu er

f
o tl i b t
r oo s w e d b
e een a a n .

Su p p o se th a t a b an d th a t8 8 c om p l et e l i st
8 is a

t t Th e n f (x ) i s e x a c t
1, ,

b et
, , ,

of h e r o o s of wee n ly
f (x ) 0 a an d I) .

d i v i s i b l e by n d if w e c all
( x 81) (x 8 2) ( x B ) 41 8 a

t tt
, , , r , ,

h e q u o i en w e h a ve

f (x) ( 90
3)( 1 x 1 2)
3 ( x B) ( )
rf x i ) 1
( )
ttti g fi t
Su b s i u n rs a and t
h en b fo r x in 1
( ) an d di v i di n g h e t
fir s t lt
by t h c
r e su e s e on d, w e o b ti a n

f <> a 06 —5 a
2
( ,
f ( b) b — Bi b _
B r M b)

In t
h p e ro du ct 2
( ) th f ct e a or i s p o s i i ve F or t
t t
.

¢ (a ) an d ¢ ( b) h a ve h ig n , si n c e o h e r w i s e, b
e sam e s y § 8 33,
be t ween a an d b t
h w ld b
er e ou e a ro o o f < ;t
1( )
95 O a n d h e re t
f o r e by
, a r oo tf f ( ) 0 o x : in a ddi t
i tt
h on o e r oo s t8 , 1,

5 8
t t ch of t h e r fa ct
1 1

On h h e o er h a n d, ea or s
( a 8 1) ( b BI )
t s i n c e e a ch o f th e r ro ot
, ,

an d s o o n , is n ega i ve , s 8 8 8, is
tt t
, 1, , ,

g r ea e r h a n a a n d l e s s h an b
t
.

Th e r e f o r e , w h e n r i s o d d , f ( a ) f ( b) i s n eg a i v e, th a t i s,

f (a ) an d f ( b) h av e c on t
r ar
y si gn s ; bu twh en r is e ve n or

ze r o , i s p osi i v e , t t
h ti a s, f(a ) an d f ( b) h av e t
h e

s am e s i gn

c on t
.

Con v e r s e ly , wh en f(a ) an d f( )
b h a ve r ar
y s i gn s, s o th a t
a t t
f ( ) f ( b) i s n e g a i v e i f o ll o w s f ro m ( 2) t
h tia dd ; r s o an d

t tf ll w t
,

wh e n f ( a ) an d f ( b) h a ve h e s am e s i g n i ,
o h t o s a r is
e v e n o r ze r o .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t t t
Ob serv e th at i n h e p r oo f s o f h e p r e ce di n g h e or em s,
8 33
t tt
8 3 4, n o u s e h as b e e n m a de o f h e a ss u m p t i on h a eve ry
q e ua

ti f ( ) 0 h
on tN t ic
x l t h ti p p ly i g t h
as a roo o e a so a n a n ese

t lt i tb c
.

h ipl
eo r e m s t f d a m t du e roo o or er r s o e ou n e as r

i pl
s m t e roo s

8 34 itf ll w th t tI f ( ) wi ll
.

F m ro i f o o s a as x v ar es r om a o ), x

c h g i ti g a p
an et
h gh ch i pl
s s t m lt
n ip ls x asse s r ou ea s m e roo or u e

roo tf dd d f f ( ) 0 wh i ch li b tw
o o or d ber o d x es e e en a an an

th t t t
,

f( ) w ill
a p i c hx c h g f i g h t
ex h er e n e no o er an es o s n an e se .

Th u s i f f (x)
( ( x 2) x 3 ) 2 (x an d x b e m ade t o va r y fro m 1
t5 h e s ig n o f f ( x) wi ll b e p lu s b e t
t i n u s b et
,

o we en x z1 an d x z 2, m wee n
t
,

:
9 2 and x 4, an d p lu s b e we en :
2 4 an d x 5 .

Loca t
i on of t
h t h t
i rra i on al roo s t By ai d of e e or e m of § 8 33
it i b l td t i b t Wh t
.

i l ly p s u su a w p i o ss e o e erm ne e ee n a a r o f c on

t
i
s ec ui t g ch f t
h f ct
ve i l d in t
i el er s e a o e ra on a an rr a on a t
r oo s o f

agi ic l q t i li
ven n u m e r a e ua on es .

E xam ple . Lo c a tt
h
e e r oo s o f t f( ) x x4 6 x3 x2 12 x 6 0.

t l f ig § 8 30 t
By D es c a r hi q t i c ’
es s r u e o s n s, s e ua on an n o th ave m or e
t
h t p it t m t g t t
,

h an i ree h os i ve r o o s n o r or e an on e ne a ve r o o

T l c t th p it tw c m p t cc i ly f
.

i
o o a e e os ve r o o s e o u e su e ss ve f f
t
unil t
h t cc td f b y 8 33
re e r o o s a re a til w ou n e or or u n e r ea ch a va lu e o f

xwhich i p i l i m i tf t
h t 803
s a su e r or o e ro o s ,

i g t m t h t
.

Th h h d f y t
u s, ic d i i i
us n i e e o o s n e v s on , as n 4 1 4, we fi n d
f (O) 6, f ( 1) 2, f (2) 10 , f ( 3) 42 , f (4) -
70, f ( 5) — 46 ,
f (6 ) z 102
t t t
.

He n c e 8 33 , o n e ro o li es b e ween 0 an d 1, an o t
h er b e ween 1 an d 2,
h t
t hi d b t Th er e c an n o t an o n e r o o t t
,

an d e w r e ee n 5 an d 6 b e m o re in h
ft i t l n e r va s s i n c e t h e r e a re o n ly t h r ee p o s i ti ve r o o t
s a ll t
.

an y o h ese o ld

i ve r o o twe h ave f (0)

.

s i m i l ar s e ar ch for t
,

M ak i n g a h e n e g at 6
h e n e g ati ve r o ot l i es b e t
, ,

f( l) 1 0, f ( 2) =38 He n c e t
— . we e n 1 a n d —2 .

t
itt
Th e m e r e
i fi t g f i f ( ) w il l f c
su bs u on o n e er s or x n x o ou rse

no t
l d tt h d tctiea f ll th l twh t
o w e e e on o a e re a r oo s en o o r m or e

o ft
h li b tw p i
em fc c ti i t
e g eTh i e en a a r o o n se u ve n e ers s c ase
t
.

wi l l b e c o n s id e r e d i n 8 44 an d ag ai n in 8 6 4, w h e r e a m e h d o

i s g i v en fo r d e e r m i n i n g e x a c ly h ow m a n
l
t
y t r oo s tl i e be t
w n ee

a n y g i ven
p a ir o f n u m b e r s .
45 4 A C O L LE G E ALG E BR A

E x am pl e . F in d h e t p it
i os ve r o o tff ( ) 2
o x x3 x2 15 x 59 z 0 .

1 By h m t
t eh d e o of 83 6 , w e fi d t
h t
n t
h a e re q u ir ed roo t
li es t
b e we en
t t t
.

3 an d 4 Hen c e if i b e ex p re ssed as a d e ci m a l nu m b e r , i w il l h a ve h e

ti td
.

for m 3 ,6 7 6 wh e r e B, 7 6, den o e s e ci m al figu r es

t
,
. .

2 1 59 L
3 2 D i m i n is h t
h e roo s of f (x) 0 (1) by 3
h t
ti t qu a t
. .

6 18 We ob a n e r a n s fo r m e d e i on
7 —41
(2)
6 w hich h as t
h e r oo t ly i n g b e wee n 0 t
13 an d 1
Test
.

6 in g x z 1, 2, 3, in we fi n d
t
h t t
. . .

19 a is an d is Hen c e h e

tf (2) l i b t
ro o w
o es e ee n 6 an d 7, h t
t i a s, B i s 6 , an d t
h e r oo tf o
( 1)
tt
h fi t
.
,

o d ci m l fi g
e rs e a u re is
2 19 45 41 3 D i m in ish t
h e roo s t f (2 )
o by 6
W e ob t
. . .

ai n

‘
P( )
x 2 x3 z

6 9 96 x. o, ( 3)
6 9 96-
which h as h e t ro o t0 7 6
. ly i n g b e we e n t
0 an d 1
T e st
. .

in g x 01 02 in W3
th t 09) i Hen c e t he root l ie s b e t
,
. .
,

fin d a s an d 1 ) is wee n 09 an d
1 th t an d th e r o ot of (1) t o t
.

i 7 i 9
a s, s h e se c o n d d e ci m al fig u r e is
4 D im i i h t t
, ,

. h n s e ro o s o f ( 3) by . 09, an d s o o n .

ck o n i n g c on du ct t -

Th e re m ay be e d m or e sim
h i t hi ply an n s

e x am ple, as will b e s h o wn in t
h f e o ll o wi g cti n B t se on s u

t t th tt b l t
.

b e fo r e u rn i n g f r o m h e e x am pl e o b se r v e h a e a so u e

t t t t
,

te rm s o f h e fir s an d s e c o n d r an sf or m e e d q i 2
( ) d ua on s , an

n am e l y 4 1 an d h a v e h e sam e t si gn Th i s i s as

th t
,
.

i s ou l d b e , s i n ce 41 5
(1 0
( ) an d q F o r we r e
an d th o av e c on t y ig t h rartf s n s, e r oo o 0
wo u ld li e b et
we e n 0 an d 6, 8 33 dth f 6w an e r e o re ou l d n o t
b e

tfi t t ft b q nt
,
. .

i s fig rs u re Th e l i k e i s h
ru e o t e su se ue r an s o r m e d f
q t
.

e i ua o n s, an d , i n g e n e r al ,

Wh en th gi q ti h b t e twi th t
h i t
veng l e ua on as u on e r oo e n e ra

p ar tt h b l t
a, tm f l l t h t f m d q
e a t
i
so u d e er s o a e r a n s or e e ua on s u s e

in fi di g thi
n t
wi l l h
n t
h m ig if th ck i g i
s r oo a ve e sa e s n, e re on n s

c orr e ctly p f m d er or e .
 T HE O R Y OF E Q UAT I O NS

In t
h t t
p l e w e f o u n d h e fir s fig u r e o f h e r o o o f e a c h
e e x am t t
tr a n sf or m ed e u a t i o n
q h a i s h e s u cc e s s i v e dtt t
e c i m a l fi g u r es o f
t tf t b tit t q t by t t
, ,

h e rooh gi o m e ve n e i iua h h d fon e e o o su s u on

B t th fi t d q t f t tf ch t f
,
.

u fig e rs u re o i h e r oo o ea r an s o rm e e ua on

from th c d y d i i l
e s e on y b f d by on ly di i d i g
ma or n ar e ou n m er e v n

th b l tt f t
e a h
so u q t
i e h i ti g n c h
w it er m g d by t
o h e e ua on , s S an e e

c ffici tf Th i i c l l d t
,

oe en oh th d f t
x . i l di i s s a e e m e o o r a v sor.

Th u s c o n s i d er
,
t
h c
e se o n d t f
r an s o r m e d e q u at
i on in t
h e ex a m pl e
c( ) x 2 x3 22 6 . a; 2 0 .
(3)
Thi s e q u a t i o n i s k n o wn t o h a ve a r o o t c which i s l ess t h a n 1 Th e
se c on d a n d high e r p o we rs o f s u ch a n u m b e r c w i ll b e m u ch s m all e r t
. .

han
c it s e lf Th u s e ve n is b u t 008 1 He n c e we r e 6 k n o wn an d su b
stit ut t h e fir st t erm s o f th e r esu l t
i n g n u m er ic al i d en t
it
,

wo t
. . .
,

ed i n y
2 03 02 0

wo u ld b e ve r y s m a l l n u m b er s i n c o m p a r i so n ht
t h l t t
w wi e as o

t td i ff itfi t f m t tf t
.

Th er efo r e c is no l ik e ly o er in fig
s h rs u re ro e roo ho e

e qu at
i on x 0

ti
ob a n e d b y d i sc ar d i n g h e t x3 a n d x2 tm
er s in
Bu tl so v n i g we ha ve x 09 h t
t i wa s, e fin d , as

t
h t
th fi t t tf (3) i
.

ab o ve , fig
a e rs u re o f h e ro o o s 9 .

Th i s m t h d c et b tt od tg i v t h fi t
an n o fig e ft h ru s e o e e rs u re o e

roo tf t h fi t
o t f d q t
e i n c
rs c t ly B t
ran s orm e itw ill e ua o orr e u

t t i di c t twh tt h t
.

u su al ly g i l ve a i e as so m efig i n a on a s o a a u re s

an d l so th b
e s se n f ttt h t n d tb
e nu m d i
er o es s a ee o e ma e n

app l y i g t h nt h d f b t
eit t
i
me O cc i o oll y t h
su t
h d s u on s a s on a e m e o

f il tg i ct ly t f t t
.

a s o h fi t fig
ve c o rr e h t f v e h rs u re o e ro o o e en e

sec dt fon d q t i
r an s o r m e B t i ch c e thua ion u n su a as e e err or s

d ily d t ct tth n t t f m ti ; f
.

r ea d i ce e
yi g e n arr n ou e ex r an s o r a on or

if t h fig e i t l g u re c h g f i g w i ll cc i t
s oo ar h
e, a an e o s n o ur n e

ab l tt f t
so u e hi t t f d q t
erm o i s n ex8 38 i f i ti r an s o r m e e ua on , s

t ll t
oo sm a h fi t fig fth e tf t hi
rs q t i will b f
u re o e roo o s e ua on e o

t h i gh d i t
,

oo ai en o m na on

id t h t bl i t
.

W e m a
y avo d ci l w h i c h cc
e r ou h e som e e ma s o ur n e

t f t
ra n s o r m a i ft t h fi t by
on s a lti pl y i g t h
er tf ch
e rs m u n e ro o s o ea

t n f
ra s orm ed q t i by t § 8 1 2 b f
e ua m ki g t
on h n t en , ,
e ore a n e ex
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t f
r an s o r m a t
i on tth Th i s m ay b e d on e by a ffi x in g o n e zer o o e

c d c ffi c i t t t t t ti t
.

se on oe en o f h e e q u a i o n i n q u e s i on , wo ze r os o s

t
h i d c ffi c i t d
r oe W t
h tt th fig
en ft
h t an so on e en rea e u re o e r oo

t t
t t t t
.
,

em l
p y d i
o h e f i if i
n w i e n ex
g r a n s or m a o n as e r e an n e er .

Thu s ,
t
h fi t
t e rs f
r an s o r m e d e qu at
i on in t
h e ex a m pl e in 83 7 was
2 x3 45 x 41 0,

an d we fo u n d th tit
h d tf t ah f a a roo o e or m 6
ip ly i g t t f (2) b y 10 w ti
.

Mu lt h n e ro o s o , e ob a n

2 x3 1 90 x2 4500 x 4 1 000 0,
which h as a r oo tf t
h f
o e or m 6
D im h e r oot
i n i shi n g t s of by 6, t
h e re ck o n i n g d i ffer i n g from t
h at
a b o ve gi ven on ly i n t h e ab se n c e of de ci m al p o in t
s we h a ve
,

2 x3 2 2 6 x2 6 996 x 6 728 0,
wh ose r o o s aret tt
im en e s as g r ea t
as t
h ose of

2 x3 22 6
. x2 69 96 x 0 .
(3)
tf
.

Th e m e th d ft
o i l d i i gi
o r a v so r ves 9 as t
h e roo o an d t
h f
e r e or e ,

t tf
.

as a b o ve , . 09 h as e roo o

We m ay n o w arr an g e t
h e r e ck on i n g i n v o l ve d i n c om p u t
in g t he
r o ot Ot o t h e t h ir d d e c i m al fig u r e as
3 2
of 2 x x 15 x 59
fo ll o ws
458 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

B efor e p erfor m i n g th e n ex t tr an sfo r m a t i o n we c u t o fi fi gu r es a s b efo r e

an d t h u s re d u c e (5 ) t o t h e s i m p le e q u a t i o n 7 422 x 24644 0 Th e
h e r oot 3 2 a re t h en o b t
.

n ex t two fi g u r es o f t n a m e ly a i n ed b y m er el
y
d i vi d i n g 246 44 b y 7 422 b y a c o n t ract e d p r o c e ss which c o n s i st
, ,

t
, ,

s i n cu t in g
of f fi g u r e s at t h e e n d of t h e d i vi so r i n s t
ea d o f a ffix i n g ze r o s a t th e en d o f
th e d i v i de n d .

Neg a i ve t roo s t To fi n d a n eg at
i i ti ve rr a o n al r o o tf f (
o x
) z 0,
t it tf f ( t
.

fin d h c p e o r re s o n di n g pos i v e r oo o x
) : 0 an d h en

c h an g i t ig
e s s n .

E x am p l e . F in d t
he ne i ve r o ot
g at o f f ( x) x3 x2 l ox 9 0 .

He r e f ) z 0 i s x 3
x x2 10 x 9 z 0 I tp i t
s i os ve r o o tf ou n d by
pp r o x i m at H c t g t t
.

Ho r n e r s m e t
,

h o d is
’
a e ly enh e e ne i a ve r oo

a pp r o x i m at
.
,

of f (x) 0 is e ly .

R oo t ly s n ear equ al If t
h gi e ve n e qu a t
i n o h as tw o roo s t
g b t con s e cu t tg t
.

ly i n w e e en a p ai r of i ve in e e r s, h y e m ay be
fou n d as in t
h f e oll o w i n g ex am pl e .

E xam l e p . F in d he t p it
i os ve r o o s , ti f an y , o f f( ) x : x3 + x2 10 x +9 : 0 .

We tt f (0)
fin d h a 9 f (l ) 1 f (2 ) 1 f (3 ) 15 d th ck i g an e re on n

p i l i m i tf t it
,

h t t 803
, ,

sh w t
o s3 i a h s a su 8 34
er or h o e r oo s, e er

p it t t t tb t h ly i g b t
.
,

th erei i
s no h os w ch ve r o o w or e re are o su r oo s o n e e en

b t b t B t
,

0 d 1
an w 1 or d 2 w e2 d 3
ee n f (l ) d f (2 )
an or e een an u an

f m 0 t H c if t t i tw
,
.
,

d iff ler ess h f ( 0) d f ( 3 ) d

ro w an an o en e, o r o o s ex s e

p ct tfi d t h m b t th t h b t
.
,

m y a ex e w 1 d 2
o n w e 0 d 1 e e en an ra er an e een an or

b t ew 2 d 3
e en an

W t h f dim i i h t t f f ( ) 0 by 1 b ti i g
.

e h
e re o r e n s e roo s o x , o a n n

which h as t
w o ro o s tb t
w e e en 0 an d 1 if f (x) 0 h as wo t r oo stb t
w e ee n

1 an d 2
i gt
t h t
t
.

Co m p u h n e va lu es of ( )
x fo r x 1 , 2, 3, we fi n d 95 a is
t
h t
. . .

an d is als o a is an d is He n c e ¢ (x) 0
has tb t
a roo w 2 d e een an 3 a n d an o t
h er b e we e n t 7 and 8 B y Hor n e r s
’

t h tt t ppr o x i m at
.

h dw fi dt
. . . .

me o h e n a es e r o o s a re 2 5 56 0 an d 7 7 73 3 a e ly

t po s it t
. .

h t
.

He n c e f (x) 0 h as w e o i ve ro o s an d

On l oc a t
i g n l arg e roo s t I c t h gi q t in f( ase e ve n e ua on x
) 0
t tt t w m y m pl y t
.

has a roo wh i ch i s g re a h er h f
an en , e a e o e o ll o w

i ng m e t
h d f o or fin d i n g t
h fi g f i ti t
eg l p t u re s o s n e ra ar .
 T HE O R Y O F E Q UAT I O NS 45 9

To o b ti t
a nh fi tfig e rs u r e, co m pu te t
h e v al u es of f (x ) fo r
x 1 0, 2 0, or, if ne c e ssary fo r x 1 00, 2 00, an d s o

th t
,

o n , ap p ly i n g 833 Th u s , i f w e fou n d f ( 4 00) a an d f ( 5 00)

t t
h t l y b t
t
.

h ad c on t r a ry s i g n s, so h a e ro o wa 4 00 e e en an d 5 00,
t
h fi tfig
e rs u re wo u l d b e 4 To fin d th e r e m ai n i n g fig u r es,
cc e ss i ve tr a n sf o rm at t
.

m ak e su i on s of e e u at i o n a s wh e n h q
fin di n g t t
,

h e d e c i m al fi g u r e s Th u s i n e a se j u s t c i t e d we h c
sh o u l d d i m i n i s h t
.
,

h e r o o t s o f f ( x ) z 0 by 4 00 a n d so o bt ai n an
e qu a t
i on ¢ (x ) 0 h av i n g a r oo tb t
w e e en 0 an d 1 00 I f we
t tl y b t
f o u n d th ath i s t
.

w roo a e ee n 70 an d 8 0, h e se cond figu r e

o ft
h t w ld b 7
e ro oW h ou e e s th n di i i h t
o u ld h t f e m n s e r oo s o

bt t
.

O by 7 0 d i an so o a n q i
an ¢( ) 0 h
e i g ua on x av n a

roo tb t
w 0 d 10
e If w f een an e d th t t
ou nhi tl yb t
w n a s roo a e ee

h t t
wn t h i t g l p t f t
.

8 an d 9, w e sh o u l d h av e sho a h e n e ra ar o e

r oo tf f ( o x
) 0 wa s 4 7 8
t tfi t
.

On s ol vi n g nu m eri cal e qu a i n o s If a sk e d o n d h e r e al

t f gi t ti t
.

roo s o a ven nu m er i c al eq u a i f( )
on x : 0, i s b e st a

t t ffic i en t t t
,

l e as wh h c en e oe s ar e ra i l n mb
on a u e r s, o s ear ch fir s t
fo r ra tby t
t i on al
h m th d f
roo s 8 02 Th i p c e e o o s ro e ss

d q t tif
.

wi ll y i ld d p e ai ¢( ) e0 whr e sse l e ua on x o se r e a r o o s,

any i tiare l W l c tth

rr a tby t
on a h m th d f e o a e e se r o o s e e o o

fi d t t
, .

8 33 8 44 8 4 5 d th h i pp i an v l by en n e r a ro x ma e a u es

m t
, , ,

H or n e r s h d ’
e o

It y b tm y l b f nd
.

dd d t h t
ma f cti e la e a a ra on a roo a a so e ou

by H th d
o r n er s ct l y wh n t
’
h d n
m e i ot i v lv ex a e e e om n a or n o es

ly t h f ct 2 t
,

on d 5
e
ppa i t ly i
or s h can ,
a r ox ma e n o er ase s .

E XE R CI SE L XXV
Com p u tt
eh e r oo s ti nd ic at o t
e d b elo w t h e s ixt
h de ci m al
1 . x3 x 3 0; r oo tb t w 1 d 2
e een an .

2 . x3 2x 20 0; tb t
ro o w 2 d 3 e een an .

3 . x3 6 x2 l ox 2 0; tb tw 0 roo e een an d 1 .

4 . 3 x3 5x 40 0; t b twr oo2 d 3 e e en an .

5 . x3 1 0 x2 8 x 1 20 0; tb t w 2 r oo e e en an d 3 .
46 0 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

2 x3 — x2 tb t w r oo—1 d —2 e e en an .

x3 + x2 5x tb t w r oo1 d 2 e e en an .

x3 — 2 x2 —2 3 x + 7 0 : 0 ; tb tw 5
ro o d — 6 e een an .

x4 10 x2 4x 8 0; t b tw 3
r oo d 4 e e en an .

tb t
x

10 . x4 6 x3 + 1 2 x2
11 41 x 0; w 2 d 3 r oo e een an .

11 . x3 3 x2 4x 13 0; t
z w tb t w 2 d 3
o r oo s e ee n an .

F in d tt
h t
hi d d
o e r e ci m l fig
a ll t
h tf t
u re a h f l l wi g q ti
e ro o s o e o o n e ua on s

12 . x3 — 3 x2 13 . x3 + x2 —2 x

14 . x3 15 . x4 + 5 x 3
+ x2 — 13 x

16 a pp ly i n g Ho r n e r s m et
By h od t
o t
h e e q u at
ion x3 17 0 c om pu t
’
. e

t
o t
h e fo u r t
3
V 17 h d e ci m al fig u r e .

t t c om p u t tt
h t
3 4
17 . By h e sa m e m e h d o e 2 V3 an d V 8 7 ea ch hi d
o e r

d e ci m al fi g ur e .

18 By a id o f § 845 an d Ho rn e r ’
s me t
h dfi o nd tt
oh c
e se o n d d e ci m al
t
.

fi gu r e h e r e al r o o tf o x3 x2 25 00 0 .

19 . By a id o f 8 44 l o c at
e t
h e ro o t
s of x3 5 x2 6 x 1 0 .

20 . F in d all t
h e roo s of t 3 x5 x4 l 4 xs x2 9x 2 O
.

A
T YLOR S
’
T HE ORE M . MULT IPLE R OOT S

Der i va t
i ves Mu l i p ly t an y m o n om ti al
h f of e o rm ax
”
by n,

t tf t h tp
i h t t
.

h d h d i m in by 1 “
T

e ex p o n e n o x , an en s a ex on en e

bt t t
.

o ai n h d i wh i c h i s
i f m c all e d e er va ve o ax
"
or, or e

y t d i t wi t p ct t I p t t
,

p c i
rel i se i h s e r va ic l ve h res e o x n ar u ar , e

d iv t tt t
, .

eriv f c
a e o h t i ai 0 o n s an a, a s ax
"
s

ft t ft h tm
, .

Th h d i
e su m o i f p ly
e m i l f( )
e r va v es o e er s o a o no a x

i c ll d t
s a h d i e t i f f( )
e m e r va
p i ly i t fi t
ve o x o r, o re re c se s rs

t td by f ( )
, ,

d i i
er v a d i ve ,
p an s re r e sen e x

Th d i t ll d t c d d i t
.

e i ff ( ) i
e r va h ve o i ’
f x s ca e e s e on e r va ve o

f( ) x d i an
p td by f ( ) d
s re re s e n e
"
x an so o n

E id t i l f( ) f t t
, ,
.

vly y p ly
en h
e ve r h deg h
o n om a x o e n re e as a

i f
s er e s o d i t i n t
h l t f whi c h
e r va i c tt
ve s, e as o ,
s a o n s an .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

h ti th
m es e su m h d i t
tof iv ef t h l di g t mer v a es o e ea n er s, or

f ( )h; th
x e su m f t
h t
o hi d t w ill b h
e 2 !t
i th r erm s e
2
m es e

su m f th d o e e r i va ti f th c d t
ve s o f ( ) h 2! e s e on e r m s, or x
2

an d so o n . In o t
h w d w
er h ll h or s, e s a ave

3
”

f( x 4) 4 +1 ( )
x
,

Th us ,
if f( ) x a ox3 a 1 x2 (1 2113 a 3,

we h ave f (x + h) + as
h2 h3
a 0x3 +3 a 0x2 h +6 a 0x —+ 6 a0
2! 3!
—
~
l 1
a x2
“
2 a 1x 2 a1

(1 223 02

as

(W W m s
f( ) x ? !+ f ( ca /3 1

Si n c e x a
( x a
) we h av e f( ) x = f [a (x
t t
,

Hen ce w e m ay o b a in h e e x p r e s si o n fo r f (x ) i n p owe r s of

x a, 4 23 , b y m e rel y p l ac i n g
re x by a , an d h by x a, in
t
h id t
it
e I
y ( ) en . Th e r esu l is t
a
)
2
( w 0
0
+f <
ll
a
>T
E x a m le p . Ex p re ss x3 1 in p owe rs of x 1 .

W e h ave f( ) x x3 1,
’
f ( ) x 3 x2 , f (x) 6 x 6 .

Hen c e -

3, f
Th erefo r e x3 1 3 (x 1) 3 (x (x
Mu l i ple t r oo st Th e fi r s tc s e on d , t
d er i v a i v e s of
'
f (x ) are

t t i t t
.
,

h e se c o n d , hi d r d er i va ve s of f (x ) H en ce , 8 49, h e

tfi t t
,

e x p r e ss i o n s fo r a p o ly n o m i a l f ( x ) an d i sd rs e r i va i f( ve x
)
in t erm s of x a are

f( ) x =f
( ) a
( 90 a
) ( —
234 el
f/ 2 ! “

w ( )
1

+ f (a ) (x 4
) ( 90
( )
2

I f f ( x ) i s di v i s ibl e b y x a bu ttbyno
( x a
)
2
i tf ll o ows

tt t t
,

from ( 1 ) h a ( a : 0 b u f ) 0, an d h f
er e o r e f r om ( 2)
 T HE O R Y O F E Q UAT I O NS 46 3

th a t f ( x ) i s n o d i v i si b l e b y x t a Agai n if f ( x ) i s di v i s i bl e
tt t t
.
,

— 3
i o ll o w s f r o m 1 h
)
2
by ( x a
) b u no b y ( x a
) f ( at

t t t
,

0 nd h e r e f o r e f ro m 2 h t
f( ) f
a : 0 b u a
( ) a

tt
,

— a bu b — 2
A n d in
f ( ) x i s d i v i s i b l e b y x no y ( x a
)
) b u n ot t
.
.

g e n e ral i f f ( x ) i s di v i s i b l e b y ( x a by ( x ”

t tt t
,

: 0 bu
i fo ll ow s fro m ( 1 ) h a ( )
a

t
0 a n d h e r e f o r e fr o m ( 2) th a f ( x ) i s di v i si bl e by t ’

tt
,

1
( x a
) b "
u no b y ( x

Th e r e f o r e by 8 00 w e h av e h e f ol l o wi n g th e or em
, , t .

T h eorem . A s i m p le r oo tf f (
o x
) 0 is no t tf f ( )
a r oo o
'
x 0;
bu td a ou bl e tf f (
r oo o x
) 0 is a s i mp le r ootf f ( ) O o
'
x a n d,

tf
,

i n g en er a l , a u m lt
ip l e r oo tf o o r d er r o
f f(x) 0 is a r oo o

'
o r d er r 1 of f ( x ) 0 .

Th u s , t
h e ro o s o f t f( ) x 8x x3 — x2 12 0 ar e 2, 2, 3, an d t
h e

ro o s t — 2 x — S = O are 2 ,

Wet h f h t
h f ll wi g
e r e o re th d f d i c v i ng t
av e h e o o n me o or s o er e

m ltuip l t f f( ) 0 if t
e roo s o h b y S k t
h hxi g h t er e e an ee e es

f ct f f ( ) d f ( ) by t t
.
,

c om m on a hor o h d f 4 65 x If an x e m e o o

w t fi d t t t
.

eh us h t f( ) d f ( )
n
p i a h
x an x a re r m e o on e an o er ,

f( ) x 0 h i p l t l y B
as s ti f w fi
m d t h t f( )
e ro o s o n d u e n a x an

th h i gh t c m m f ct 5 ( ) t
.

f( ) h h i l
’
x av e e y es p o on a or < x en e v e r s m e

tf 5 ( ) 0 i d bl t f f ( ) 0 v y d bl t
,

r oo o < x s a ou e r oo o x e er ou e r oo

ti pl tf f ( ) 0 d
,

o f 5( )< 0 i
x s a r F 8 50
e r oo o x , an so o n . or , ,

i f <5 ( x ) i s d i v i si b le b y ( x t h e n f (x ) i s d i vi s i bl e by

( x a ) an d f ( x ) b y ( x
’

O b se r v e th a ti f th q t i t f( ) e uo en x 5 (x ) b e
< F ( ) x t
h e r oo s t
t
,

of F( ) x : 0 ar e h f f( ) = 0
o se o x
,
ea c h c ou nte d on ce .

E x a m p le . F in d h m lt
t ip l
e u e r oo s , tif an y , o f t
h e e qu at
i on

x5 — x4
f( ) x

He r e f (x) ’
5 x4 4 x3 l 5 x2
'

2x 8, an d by § 46 5 we fin d t
h e

high estc o m m o n fa c t
or of f (x) an d f (
’
x ) tb o e 5( ) z
< x x3 3 x 2
tf
.

Th e r oo s o 5 x
< ( ) 0 m ay b e fou n d by § 8 02 an d ar e 1, — 1, 2
t
h t t1 t h t
t2 t i it
.

Hen c e f (x) z 0 h as e r ip l e r o o an d h d e o u b le r o o a s, s

t
,

r o o s are 1, 1, 1, 2,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Ob ser ve t
h t a f( ) x ( x l )3 (x
t
h t a f (x) (x (x 2 ) ( 5 x
an h t
d t a F (x) (x) z (x 1 ) (x

W e m ay a dd th a t i f an y w q t
t i o e ua on s f( ) x 0 an d < 5( ) x z 0
h a ve a ro o ti n c om m on , it y b di ma e sc o v e r e d b y fin di n g t
h e

h i g h es t
c mm o on fa c t
or of
f (x ) an d

E xa m p le So l ve f (x) x4 x3 3 x2 4x 4 0, h avi n g gi ve n t
h at
t ti t g t f it t
.

on e of hi i f
s ro o s th s e ne a ve o an o er o s roo s .

E id tly t
h t
v w entm t i d c mm
e tf ( ) 0 d t
o r oo s h en on e ar e o on o x an e

q t
e i f(
ua
) on 3 4 4 x 0 d m y t
x4 h f bx3 x2 x an a e r e o re e

bt h high t f ct f f ( ) d f (
,

o i d by fi d i g t
a ne c mm n n e) es o on a or o x an x

B y § 465 w fi d t hi high t f c t tb
.

c mm e n 4 H c s es o on a or o e x2 en e

t tm t l i g t
.

h e roo s i d 2 2 D i idi g f ( ) by
en on e 4 d a re h v n x x2 an so v n e

t 0 w fi d t h t t th t
.
,

lt
r esui gd p d q
n i e 1
r e s se e h ua w on x2 x e n a e o er o

t f f ( ) 0 (1 j
,
'

ro o s o x ar e ;

E XE R CI SE L XXVI
1 . F i n d h e firs t tc , se o n d , d e r i va t
i ves o f 2 x5 4 x4 x2 20 x .

2 . G i ve n f (x) x4 2 x3 1 , fi n d f (x h) b y Ta y lo r s ’
t
h e o re m .

3 t
Us i n g h e fo r m u l a 8 49, (I I ) , ex p ress ( 1) x4 x2 1 in p o wers of

tm
.

x +l ; (2 ) x5 32 i n p o we rs of x —2 ; (3) in er s

of x 1 .

4 . T h e fo llo w i n g e q u at
i o n s h a ve m ul t
ip l e ro o s t. Sol ve t
h m e .

( 1)
3 —3 x 3 2
x ( )
2 9 x + 1 2 x

( 4) x4

( )
5 2 x4 — 1 2 x3 + 1 9 x2

( 6) x5 — x3 — 4 x‘2 — 3 x

(7) x4 — 2 x3 — x2

(8 ) x5 —x4 — 2 x3 + 2 x2 +x
9
( ) 3 x5 -
2 x4 + 6 x3 — 4 x2 + 3 x

5 . h t
t :
Sh o w0 c t
h a an an an n o a ve a m ul t
ipl e ro o t .

6 If t
.h q t i 12 0 h
e e ua o n x3 x a as a d o u b le r oo tfi ,
n d a.

7 D tm i d b th t
e er 3 n e a an so a x3 a x2 x b 0 m ay h ave a tiplr e

t dfi dt t
.

r oo , hi
an n s roo .
 A CO LL E G E ALG E BR A

Th eorem ) t p yl i
Lel t
f( x den o e a o n om a a r r a n g ed i n d es c e n d
t t t t
.

i g p w
n f o d l d
e rs ho m x, a n e a en o e e nu er i ca l va lu e o
f i s

l di g
ea fi i td g t
n h t f it m i c
c oe c en an a o s nu er l ly g r ea es c o efii
a tt ’

c i t Th l d i g t f f ( ) wi ll b
en e ea n er m o x e n u m er i c a l l y g r e a er t
m f t m i i g tm f
.

t h th
an h e su ll
o e re a n n er s or a v a l u es o f x w hi c h
m
a re n ui c ll y g tth er( g) /
a r ea er an a a .

tf( ) a
F or l e x
"
alx a so t
h t a a a an d

le t d tt
x h’
en o e e n u m eri c al v al u e o f x .

W e h av e a ,,x
"
a ,, x
"
( a ,, -

l al
/ x

H en c e | a 0x n -
+a | wh e n
t§ 8 5 4
n

Bu wh e n g) ,
th t
, ,

g) /
’
ia wh s, en x
( a a .

Thu s i f f (x) = 3 x3 + x2 7 x + 2 , we h ave 3 xa | > x2 — 7 x + 2 wh en

t
h t
,

3, i a s, wh e n

F rom t
hi th s t id t ly f ll
e o re m i ev en o o ws h t
t t
h a e nu m b er (a g) / a is
g rea h t
tt h
er b an l t
e a m ic lso u e o r n u er a v a l u e o f a n y ro o tf t
ho e e qu a t
i on
f ( x) z 0, w he t
h t
h tb
er l i e roo e r ea or ma gi n a ry .

T h eorem . If a is a r oo tf f (
o x
) t
h 0, e v a l u es o f f (x ) an d
c on t i li g h t t t
'
f ( )
x h a ve ra ry sign s wh en x s s ly l es s h a n a, a n d h e

s a m e s ig n wh en x is s li
g h ly g t
r ea tt erh an a .

For e x p r e ss f (x ) an d f (x ) i n p o we r s o f x a, 8 49, an d

t
h en th fi t
d i v i de e rs e x p r e s s i on by h e se c o n d t Wh e n a is a

t th t t tm
.

sim pl e roo f( so a a
) z 0 bu f(
’
a
) t a: 0, t
h e resu l ay be
d tt
,

r ed u ce h f m
o e or

f (x )

Th e nu t
m e r a o r a n d de n o m i n a o r t ft
h f ct
i o e ra on on t
h e r i gh t
a re o
p yl n om i al s i n x a He n c e fo r a ll v al u e s o f x a wh i c h
t t t t t
.

a r e s m a ll e n o u g hh o m ee e r e q u i r e m e n s of 8 5 4 h e i r si gn s
w ill b th f t h i c m l e adi n g t f( ) d h t
’
e o se o e r om on erm a a n e

f ct i tl f wi ll b p i t
,

ra i on i se e os ve Th e s ig n of f (x ) w ill
t b t t
h tf t
.

h en h e e s am e as a o x a h f
an d e r e o re m in u s or p l us

a cc o r di n
g as x a or x a . Bu t
wh t h ign en e s of f ( x ) /f (x )
’
 THE O R Y or E Q UAT I O NS 46 7

i s m i n u s, f ( x ) an d f (x ) h av e c on t
’
r ar
y s i g n s, a n d wh e n h e Si g n t
t
,

of
f( x ) f ( x ) i s p l u s , f ( x ) an d f ( x ) h av e h e s am e s i g n

t t
.

Wh en a is a m u l ipl e ro o o f o r d e r r we h a v e , 85 0,

f (x)
f ( ) x
/( r t e rm s i n v o l vin g ( x a
)
f r om wh i c h h t
t h e e or em f o l l o ws by t
h e sam e r e a son i n g as wh en
a is a s im pl t e r oo .

R oll e t t’
s w c t
h eor em B e w e en o on s e u c t
i ve r o o s tf f ( o x
) : 0

tf f ( ) 0
.

t
h i lw y
er e s a a s a r oo o
’
x .

F l t B or d B b the t i an e e roo s t
q u e s i on , a n d l e 0 d e n o e
n t t
tt t
1 2

a num b l i gh t
ly g h
er s B re a e r an a n d d a n u m b e r s li g h ly l e ss

t h t
1

h B an t B c
9, d Bso a , 2.

Th f ( ) h th
en m ig
’
c as e sa f ( c ) § 8 5 6 an d f ( c ) h a s
e s n as

t t t
, ,

h e sa m e si gn as f ( d ) § 8 3 4 ; b u f ( d ) h as a diffe r e n s i gn
h t
t t
,

fr o m f a o 85 6 H e n c e f ( c ) an d f ( d ) h a v e c o n r a r y ’ ’

t t
.

si g n s Th e r e f o r e o f f x ) : 0 li es b e wee n 6 an d d,
’
a ro o
(
t
.

th a t i s, be w ee n B1 an d B2 ,
8 33 .

Thu s i f f ( x) x2 3x 2 t
h f ( ) 0i 0, en
’
x s 2 2 : 3 z 0 Th e
t f f( t tf f ( ) z 0 i
, .

l i es
’
r oo s o x ) 0 are 1 an d 2, h e roo o x s an d

be t
w 1ee n an d 2 .

E xam pl e Pr o ve t
h tf ( a x ) z x3 x2 10 x 9 0 h as t
w o r oo s t
t
.

b e wee n 1 an d 2 .
( Co m p ar e § 8 44 , E x .
)
Si n c e f (1) z1 an d f(2 ) 1, t
h e re ar e t
w o roo s t o r n on e t
b e wee n 1
an d 2 tw
If tf ( ) 0 m tl h
t
h er e ar e o r oo s ,
’
x us a so a ve a ro o t
b t
w e e en

d t t li b t
t t
h t t ff ( )
.

1 an d 2 hi m
an w w s roo us e e e en e o r oo s o x 0
B t tb t
.
,

10 z 0 h w for
’
u f ( ) 3 2 x x2
1 x as a roo e een an d 2,

f
’

( 1) 5 d f (2) z 6 S l i g w fi d t
an h tt
hi t i
’
o v n e n a s r oo s app r o x i

t
.
,

m a e lyt M o r e o ve r f ( 1 5 ) 3 7 5 is m i n u s Th er efo re , s i n c e b o h f ( l )
t t t
. . . .

a n d f ( 2) a r e p l u s , f (x ) z 0 h a s wo r o o s b e we e n 1 an d 2 , n a m e ly , o n e
t
b e we en 1 an d a n d an o t
h er b e ween t an d 2 .

T h eorem . If t
h e va r i a bl e x i s i n c r ea s i n g , h en , t i p a ss es as t
t gh t t ’
h hr ou e v a lu e a , h e va lu e o
f ( )
f x is i n c rea s i n g if f ( a) 0,
b t
'
d c
u i e r ea s n g if f ( a ) 0 .

If f ’
( ) a 0 bu t "
f ( a) sf: 0, f ( a) i s a m ax im u m va l u e o
f f (x )
" "
wh en f ( a) 0, a m inim u m va l u e w h en f ( a) 0.
46 8 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

F or by 8 49 w e h a v e

x —r < ><
”
f( ) e) ( 4 a
) +1 a x a
i
r/ 2

Th e c
se on d m e m ber is a p o l y n o m i al i n x a, an d for all

v al u e s of x w h i c h m ak e x a s m all e n o u g h nu m e r i al l yc t o

m tt
ee h q i t f
e re 8 5 4 t
h l d i t
u r em e n
g w ill c o e ea n erm on tl t
hro e

ft t t t t
,

s ig h
n o i p i d
e en h f h
re e x f f( ) f( )
r e s s o n an e r e o re a o x a

ti ctd t h l
.

W e h ll p p s a su Th
o se x r e s r e o su c va u e s en

t
.

1 If f ( ) 0 f ( ) ( '
) a d h f f( )
’
a x a an er e o r e x

t
.
, ,

h ash m ig (
e sa ) T h e s f in c as c h
x g a e r e or e , s n e x a an es

tpl h t t i t f
.

f rommi nu s
p h gh o h m
u s as x ass s r ou a, e sa e s ru e o

f( ) f ( )
x th t i f( ) i tha i c i ag f m s, l lx s en n r ea s n ro a va u e e ss

t f( ) t tt
,

h an l g a h n f( )o a va u e re a er a a

t
.

2 If f ( ) 0 f ( ) ( ’
) a d ( ) h c ’
a
y x a an x a a ve on ra r

cl d t h t
.
,

s ig H c
ns i g i
en 1 w c e, r e a so n n
f( ) i as n e on u e a x s

t
.
,

d c i g
e r ea s n
p h gh as x a s se s rou a

0 b t t
.

—
3 If f h i g f f( ) f( ) i
u e s n o x a s

t h tf f ( ) ( d t th tf
.

" 2
a o
) /2 h f
a x a f an er e or e a o or

( x
) i p i
a t
i w 2
h t h s os ve H wh e er x a or x a en c e en

f ( ) 0 w h f( ) < f( ) j t
.

"
a b f
e av e ch xd l a us e or e x r e a es a a n a so

j tf t p t h t
,

us a wh i c h p
er x f( ) i
as se s a , i r o ve s a a s a m ax mum

v al u e o f f (x ) 63 9
t t
,
.

An d in h e s am e m a n n e r wh e n f ( ) a 0, we m ay sh ow th a
f(a ) is a m in im u m v al u e o f f (x )
I tm y b a e a dd e d t
h t a if bu tf f (a )
is no tm a ax i m u m or m i n im u m v al u e of f ( x ) ( see § 8 5 9,
Ex An d , i n g e n e r al , i f al l t
h d e e r i va t
i ves fr om h fi t
t e rs

tt t
h b t t
.

h o t
h e r u no e
( r l ) hb , va n i sh w h en x a,
f (a )
t twh
,

is a m ax i m u m or m i n i m u m w h en r is o d d, bu no en r is
e ve n .

E x am pl e I s f (x) x3 6 x2 9 x 1 i n c r e asi n g or d e c re as i n g as x ,

h ro u gh t
i n c r ea s i n g p a sses t
.

,
h e va l u e 2 F in d t
he m a x i m u m an d m i n im u m
val u es o ff ( x ) .

We fin d f
’

(x) 3 x2 12 x 9 3 (x l ) (x He n c e f (2) ’
3
is ne gat
i ve . Th e refo re f (x) is d e c re asi n g as x p a ss e s t
h ro u gh 2 .
47 0 A CO LLE G E ALGE BR A

As fr o m
x var es i to 0 t h e c or resp o n d i n g p o i n t
ac 0 on t h e c u r ve m ove s
fr o m an i n fin i te d is tan c e b e l o w t h e x a x i s u p wa rd a n d t o t h e r igh t
-
thr ou gh
At ot h e m ax i m u m p oi n t th e n d o wn wa rd t h r o u gh B t o th e m i n i m u m p o in t
t o a n i n fin i t e d i sta n c e a b ove t
,

h en u p war d ag a in t h r o u gh 0 t
,

h e x ax i s -

o i n c re ase t e t
h e a b so l u t e r m o f f ( x) t
.

I f we we r e g ra d u al ly t h e g r a ph
e d ve r t ic al ly u p war d an d t h e p oin t
,

of y f (x) wo u ld b e s hift s B an d 0

wo u ld a t fi rs tapp r o a ch c o i n ci d e n c e i n a p o i n t of t an g e n c y an d t he n d is
a pp ea r Th e c or r e sp o n d i n g r o o t s o f f (x) 0 wo u ld a t fi rs tb e c o m e e qu al
z

an d t
.

h en i m agi n ar y .

E x am p l e 2 D i s c u ss t h e v a r i at
. i o n off (x) x4 2 x3 2 x 1 .

Th e t
r oo s o f f (x) 0 ar e 1, an d f (x) (x 1) (x
He n c e w h e n x z
i oo , f( ) x co; wh en x t
= : 1 f (x ) 0 ; wh en x < —1
t
,

an d wh en x > 1, f (x) i s p osit

ive ; wh en x i s b e wee n 1 an d l, f (x) i s
ne g at
i ve
t tf
.

Her e f ( x) ’
4 x3 6 x2 2 z 2 (2 x 1) (x an d h e r oo s o

f (x)
’
0 ar e Wh en x < f (x) is n eg a ve en x
’
t
i ; wh
is b et
wee n 1 2 an d 1 an d al so w h en x 1 f (x) i s p os i t
i ve The r efo r e
co t
.

§ 8 58 f (x) i s c o n t
, ,

in u a l ly d e c r e as i n g as x v a r i es fr o m o

an d c o n t
in u ally i n c r eas in g a s x v ar e s fro m 1 / 2 t o 1 an d fr o m 1 t
,

o 00 .

Hen c e f (x) h as a m i n i m u m valu e wh en

x bu t it h as n e i t
h e r a m ax i
m u m n o r a m i n i m u m va l u e w h e n x 1
Thi s is i n ag re e m e ntwi t
.

h 8 58 .

”
F or f ( ) : 1 2 x2 12 1)
x l2x x (x
an d f (x)
’”
z 24 x 12 He n c e wh e n
p os i t t
.

x z 1 2, (x) is i ve ; bu wh en

x 1, f (x) : 0 0
t
.

Th e graph of y f (x ) h as h f e or m

i n d ic a t
e d in t h e a cc o m p a n y i n g fi g u r e
Th e p o i n t
.

A wh e re t h e c u rve m e r e ly
cu t s t h e x ax i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e roo t -

1 o f f (x) 0 and t h e po in t B wh e r e
t h e c u r ve b o t ht o u ch es a n d c r oss e s t
,

he
x a x i s c o rr e s p o n d s to t he t r ip l e r o o t1
Th e lo we r m o st p oi n t of t
-

h e c u r ve c o rr esp o n d s t o t
.

h e m i n i m u m val u e o f
f (x ) Its c o or d i n a t
’

. e s are

As i n t
h p l e s , s o i n g e n e r al , i f f ( x ) i s o f o dd de g r ee ,
e se e x a m

t
i s t
l e a d in g c o e ffic i e n b e i n g p o s i i v e , wh e n x v a r i e s f r o m t co

t o
( ) i n c re a ses f ro m
00 , f x co o tt
h e fi r s m ax i m u m val u e , t
t
h d en e o t
c r e as es t h e fir s t
m in i m u m v a l u e , an d so o n , a n d fin ally
 T HE O R Y or E Q UATI O NS 471

i n c r eas e s th l ti i
f rom e as m n m um v al u e t o 00 I t
i p s o s si b le ,
t h tt
.

h o we v e r , h a e r e ar e n o m ax i m u m or m in im u m v al u es for
t t
,

h e e
q ua i f ( )
on 0 b ifg d gx y h e n l o e v en e r ee , ma a ve n o r e a

t Th g ph f y f ( ) td f i fi it d i tc
,

ro o e ra o x ex en s rom an n n e s an e

b l w t i t i fi n i tdi tc t It
.

e o h e x ax s -
b h
o an i n e s an e a o ve e x ax s -

t ft c t
.

cr o ss es h i dd b
e x ax s a n o
-
i l t n um er o m e s, on e a e as

O t t
.

h n h h d i f f( ) i
e o f er d g an f( ) b gi by x s o e ve n e r e e, x e ns

tt
,

d c e r e as ni g f h fi t rom i i l 00 d o d e rs m n m u m va u e an en s

by i c i g f
n t h l ti i
re a s n v l
rom t e I thi
as m n m um a ue o 00 . n s

c as e t h g ph f y e f( ) n d t
ra c o t h i tl l I f x ee no r o ss e x ax s a -
a

it t i it ft
.

d coe s h r o ssc n n
e ax s , b i r o s se s an e ve um er o m es

bt ffic i t tp
.

I n t c w
m os i a ses ly cc e c an o a n a su en a u r a e re r e se m

tt
a i ft h g ph f y
on o f ( ) by t
e h ra t h d f 3 8 9 wh i ch
o x e me o o

c i ti t c pt i g t
,

on s s s i gn i g n i f
a ss l n a h
se r e s o va u e s o x, om u n e

c or r es p di g v l on f y p l tt n i g t h p i a ue s o f l f y o n e a rs o v a u es o x,

t c v t
,
”
th u sf d d p ou n i g anh h
a ss n g h ll th a
“
sm o o ur e ro u a e se

p i t S ch wil l i di c t t
,

o n s c u a g h ly w h
u r ve h t n a e r ou e re e ru e

t it
.

g ph c
ra h i
r o s se s d wh i
e x ax s an d i i e re s m ax m u m a n m n m u m

t t
-

p i t
o n s l i B t b e i th p i t u f c i
o o g w i t h a nct e o n s o r o ss n ex a n es s ,

tl t q t d t bt in t c tl
.

w e m us h i
so ve f( ) 0; e e h
ua on x z : an o o a e a ua

p osi t i f th on s o i d i i e
p i t w
m ax m t l
u m an m n m u m o n s, e mus so v e

th e q t i ef( ) 0 T v y
ua on l tip l
x tf f ( ) 0
: o e er mu e r oo o x :

p i tf tg cy f t h g p h wi t h t
.

th er ec p nd o rr e s o s a o n h o an en o e ra e

x ax s
-
i If t h de f t h lt ip l
e or t i dd t r h g ph
o e m u e r oo s O e ra

t t
.
,

l
a so c h r o ss esi t hi p i t e x ax s a-
s o n .

E XE R CI SE L XXVII
1 D i s c u ss t
h e var a i ti on o f f (x) (x 1 ) (x x3 3 x2 4,
tm tg
.

fin d in g i s ax im u m an d m i n i m u m va l u e s i f an y a n d ,
d ra w h e ra ph of

y z
f ai
2 . T r e at
in a s i m i lar m an n e r e a ch of t
h fe o llo w n i g fu n c t
io n s .

1
( ) 2 2 —x + l — 2)
x .
(2 ) (2 x
(3) x3 — 12 x + 14 x3
.
( 4)
(5) x3 — 3 x2 + 5 .
(6 )
(7) (8 ) x x (
47 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

3 tF in d
h g ph e ra s of ea ch o f t he follo w i n g fr a c t
i o n al e q u at
i on s by
t
t h p i tc
i gt o r r esp o n d i n g t
.

plo n e o n s o x 1, 0, 1, 4 .

( — 1) x x ( — 2)
x x

— — — —
‘ '

ix 2 >< 3 )
x ( as ne z ii

S T UR M ’S T HE ORE M

S tm ur fu nc t
i on s tf( ) Le x : t
0 be an
y e q u a i o n w hi c h h as
t t dlt t t t
.

no m ul i pl e r oo s , an f( e x
) b h e e fir s d e r i v a i v e o f f ( x )
d c ll t i t
t t
, .

D i vi de f (x ) by f1 (x ) an h q a
9 e uo en an d h e

t t ig
1,

rem a i n d er, wi h i c h an g e d f (x ) s S n

Ag ai n d i vi d e f (x ) by f ( x ) an d c all t
, 2 .

h e q u o t i e n t q an d
h e r e m ai n d e r w i t
z,

h it
, 2

t
, ,

s s i g n c h an g e d f x
( )
An d s o o n m od i fy i n g t h e o rd i n a ry p r o c e ss o f fin di n g t
, , , .

he
h i g h estcom m on fa ct n t r esp e c t
,

or o f f x an d f x i i on l
( ) ( ) h s y ,

t c h r e m a i n d e r i s c h a n g ed a n d c a r e i s t a k en t
h e sign f
o ea o ,

m a k e n o ot h er c h a n g es of s i g n t ha n t h es e
Si n c e f (x ) z 0 h as n o m u l t i pl e r oo s an d t h er e fo r e f (x ) an d t
f ( ) x h av e n o c o m m o n f a c t or 85 1 w e sh all fi n a lly o b ai n a t
r e m ai n d e r w hi c h i s a c o n s t an t t
1 , ,

d i ff e r e n fr om O § 4 6 5 Cal l
t tt
.
,

h i s r e m a i n d e r w i h i s s i g n c h an g ed fm
t
.
, ,

Th e se q u en c e o f f u n c i on s

f( ) fx
1 x f
( > ( )
2 x
? fa <>
w > ’ ) fm )
c o n s i st
in g of t
h gi e ve n o
p yl n om i al , i tfi td s rs er i va t
i ve , an d

t
h e s e v e r al r e m a i n d e r s in o r d e r, ea ch wi t
h i ti g
c h an g e d i s s s n ,

c a ll ed a s e qu e n c e of tmS ur or a s e q u e n c e o f St
u r m f n ct i ns u o

Stm fu n c t
.

t
R el a i on s a m on g t
h e ur fu n c t
i on s Th e se ion s a re ,

c on n e c t t t t
.

by d e fin i t
i on , e d by he se r i es o f id en i c al e qu a i on s

f( ) x
(93)
E
91 f1

f ( )
i x E a z f ( )
x 2

f ( )
z x E 9 3f 3 ( )
93 “

ft( )
x ,

f —2 ( )
in
x E
g m —l fm —l ( ) x " _
fm '
474 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Su p p ose , for i n s tc t
tf f ( ) 0 d th t h t
an ci e, a s a r oo o x z an a

t tm i
2
.

f ( ) ch g fx an es p ro h m plgh us o n u s as x a s se s r ou 0

t f f ( ) 0 it
2

tb tf i t
.

Si c i n e 0 c
s a r oo o h x an n o e a r oo o e er

A d if w t p it
2 ,

=
f ( ) 0 x 862 or k i n e a e a os ve

ll th t
1

tf
.

n ub hm er so sm a0 f
M 0 a no r oo o or o :

li b t
es w e d c
e en b t w 6
9 d c h it
h
an f or e ee n an ne er o

t ct t
, ,

h f e i f ( )
un
f ( ) w ill
on s c h g i i g x or i x an e s s n as x v a r es

h tc
1 3

f c
r om h o

B t t
,

wh u c f ( ) df ( ) h
en x pp i i g 8 6 2 x an x av e o os e s n s,

t h t f ( c) i p l ; t
, , 3 .

S ppu o se h af ( c) i i d w hs us en s m n u s, an e av e

t f t
, 3

h f ll wi g c h
e o o h ign ff ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f
s em e o e s ns o x x x or

b t
1 , 2 , 3

v l f
a u es o w c h d c
as h e e en an

fi (mi f3 (x)
x z c —h
0.
x e +h

F or all th e s e va lu e s of x , t
h f
e r e or e, t
h e s i gn s o f t
h t
h e ree

fu n c t
i on s
fi f ( x ) f (95 ) , , 3

p r e sen t o n e v ar a i t
i on Th e on ly e ffe ct of t
h e Ch a n g e of t
h e

t h i p tf t
i t
t
.

sign of f ( ) x a l ea s h n s ar o e se q u e n ce is a ch an g e
t
2

i t
.
,

in h p it ie f os i on o a v ar a on

A d t ch g i t f v i t
.

h n b e re c anh mb e no i an e n e nu er o ar a on s

In th p t f t e h ar q c whi c h f l l w f ( )
o e se u enp e o o s x as x a s se s

t t t t
3

th h
r ou
g c F i h f c i
or e f f ( ) w i ll
er n o c h g i un on a er x an e s

t if it t
.
3

s ig n
p as x h gh c a sse s d w rouh ll h h or , o e s, e s a av e e

ft ct t t
,
,

c a se o h f i f ( )
e un g i don h ly ff cx w i ll ov er a a n , an e on e e

ch g i t h p it t i t
2

b e a an ie f n h e i os on o an o e r v ar a on .

2 Th q c l
e se i
u en ti f e c h t f
f ( )
os es on e va r a 0 on or ea r oo o x

tb
.

th g h wh i c h
r ou p i yi g f x a s s es n va r n r om a o .

F l tb
or e tf f ( ) z 0
0 e a r oo o x

ct t
.

Th f i e f( )
un d f ( )
on sh O pp i x i g f
an l 1 x a ve os e s ns or va u e s

o f wh i ch
x l i gh t
ly l th
ar e s d t h ig f e ss an 0, an e sam e s n or

v l a u es of wh i ch l ig h t
x ly g tt h c § 8 56
ar e s rea er an ,
.
 T HE O R Y O F E Q UATI O NS 47 5

In t
th e r w o r d s h e se q u en c e h a s a var i a t i on b e w e e n f ( x)
o t
u st t t
,

an d f1 x j b e f o r e x r e a c h e s 0 a n d t hi s v a r i a i on i s l o s
( ) as

t
,

x a s
p se s h r ou gh 0 .

He n c e t
h tm f ct i g i
e se q u e n v i ce of S ur un o n s n ev e r a ns a ar a

ti i f m
o n a s x v ar e s tb B t t h t
h h d itl ro a o u on e o er an o s es

i t ch tim t h tp t tf f( ) 0
,
.
,

a var a i n o h gh
ea e a x a sse s r ou a r oo o x

d t
,

an h ly en o n

t c b t
w n t
.

Th f h d i ff
e r e o re h mb f v i tie ere n e e ee e nu er o ar a on s

f ( a ) f1 ( a ) 7 > fm
an d in f ( b) fl ( b) f2 ( b)
) ; ) fm
is t
h e num ber o f Si n g l e v ar i a t i on s t
h t a a re lo st as x p ass e s

thr o u gh t
h e roo s of t f( ) x 0 wh i c h l i e t
w be e en a an d b In
t iti t f t t tb
.

o h er w o rd s , h n s e um be r o h e se r o o s, as wa s o e

dem on s ttd
ra e .

I f we a pp ly t
h m t
h d e e o of § 86 1 t
o an e qu a t
i on f (x) : 0 which h as
t
m u l ip le r o o tw b ti
s, q c e f ( x) fl (x)
e o a n a se t tu en term f m (x) ( 1 ) h e l as
h high t
t on fa c t o r o f a ll the t
, , ,

o f which i s e es c mm
o er m s 46 5 D i vi d e all
the t We t h u s ob t ai n a se q u e n c e o f t
.
,

e r m s o f ( 1 ) b y f (x) h e fo r m < 5 (x)

1 (2 ) which as i s e as i ly s h o wn p ossess es all t h e p r ope r t
," .
,

5 1 ( x)
< i es o n
which St urm s t h eo r e m d e pen d s He n c e t h e n u m b e r o f ro o t
, , , ,

s of < 5 (x)
’
0
th at 8 52 t feren t root 0 b et
.
,

is h e n u m b e r o f dif s o f f (x) we e n a a n d b
is t h e d i ffe re n c e b e twe e n t h e n u m b er o f var i a t
, , , ,

i o n s in <51 ( a ) 1
An d t his d ifi er en c e is t h e s am e as t h at
,

an d i n < 5 ( b) m (b) 1
b et wee n t h e n u m b e r o f va r i a t
, , .

i on s i n f (a ) fl (a ) fm (a ) a n d i n f ( b)
f (b) ; for m u lt ip ly i n g t
, , ,

fl (b) m h e se qu e n c e s <5 (a) 1 an d < 5 ( b) 1

i ve ly will n o t affe c t t
,

h e i r var i a t
, ,

b y f m ( a ) a n d f (b) r e sp e c t m i on s .

Appli ca i on s t t t h
of tm t
m S h bl ur
’
s eorem S u rm s
’
eore en a es

tfi d t ct t
.

on e o n
y d iff exa l ly h w mg i n o an er en re a r oo s a ve

ic l
n u m er
q t
i ha I t l e b l
ua t fiond h w as a so en a es on e o n o

y f t tl i b t c t i t
.

m an h o w y p i
es e ro o s f c i e e ee n an a r o o n se u ve n e

g d t h
e r s an f i y c t l
e re ore t
h p b l f l n t e ve r a se o so v e e ro em o oc a

i g t
n h t B tte hi roo s t
h d f l c ti g ti u
y s me o o o a n roo s s v er

t m t
.

l b i
a d i
o r o u s an d ly wh h i pl h d f 83 6
s u se on en e s m er e o o

fa il s .
47 6 A CO LLE G E AL G EB RA

E x am p l e 1 . Lo c a tt
h
e e r oo s o f x3 t 3 x2 4x 1 0 .

He r e f (x) x3 + 3 x2 4x an d fl ( ) 3 x2 6 4
°

1 x x

t tt t i i g fu n c t
.

Ar ran gi n g h e c o m p u ia o n of h e rem a n n i on s as i n § 468 ,

3 , we
h ave
6 Hen c e
f( ) x x3 + 3 x2 —4 x
6 3 —4 ,

15 8 f ( ) =2x
2 x
—l ,

30 — 16 fs z l .

3 0 —1 5
i
f
-
1

Ob ser ve h t
t t
h f ( )
a e z x an d fg h er e t
ob a i n e d ar e n o tth f ( ) d f e 2 x an s

d e fin e d i n 86 1 b tt
h u e se fu n c ti on s m u l t
ip l i ed by p os it
i c tt ve: o n s an s

t
,

We Sh ou l d h ave l esse n e d h e re ck on i n g h a d we d i vi d e d fl (oz) b y

j g (x) 2 (x 5) sy n h t
t ic lly
e a I ti s o f en t b es tt o us e t
h e sy n h t
t ic e

t t
. .

me h d o in h fi e n al d i vi s i o n
g r e at n u m e r ic al ly t h t
t
.

1 Wh en x is ve r y h e s ign o f a p ol y n o m i al is a

ttm o f high e s t Hen c e t

.

h e foll o wi n g t
,

of i s er d e g r ee 8 55 , ab le . .

f (iC) fl “ ) f2 (x) fa
x cc i t i on s t
h r ee var a

o var i a t t
.

x 0 ion s w
n o va r i a t
.

x 00 i on .

Th erefo r e f (x) 0 h as o n e n eg at i ve a n d t
wo p os i t i ve r oo t
/

2 To l o c at e t h e p os i t s we su b s t
i ve ro o t it
ut ti
.

e x 0 1 an d ob a n

t
.
, , ,

f (x) fi (x) fa )
e fa
x z :0 t
w o va r a i ti on s
va r i a t
.

x 1 no ion .

t t p it
Hen c e h e woi tl i b tw 0 d 1 os ve ro o s e e ee n an

Si c t i b t g t tw k w t h tit td b y
.

h n e i e re s u on e n e a ve r o o e no a c an b e lo c a e

h m t h d f 8 36 W t h fi dt h tit b t
,

t e e o o li w . e us n a es e een 4 an d 5 .

E m pl 2 xaH wm y l e th f ( ) 2
. o an rea z0 r oo s as x x3 x2 2x 2
Pro c e e d i n g a s i n E x 1 we fin d fl (x) z 3 x2 x 1 an d fz(x) : 1 3 x —1 7
W e c an fin d t ho u t
h e S ig n o f f3 which al o n e c on c ern s u s wi t
.
.
,
.

d i vi d i n g
, ,

fl (x) by
f2 (5 h
F o r s i n c e f2 (x) l 3 (x t
h e r em a n d er i in t
h di e i i
v s on of f1 (x)
b y f2 (x) i s fl ( 1 7 Bu t 1, an d fl (x ) i s posi t
i ve wh e n x 1
t n eg a t
.

He n c e f1 ( 1 7 / 1 3 ) is p o s i t
i ve a n d , h f
e re or e f3 is i ve .

F o r 113 — 00 t
2 h e S ig n s O f a re _ +2
t t t
7 9 y

x co h y e ar e He n c e f (x) 0 h as b u on e re al ro o .
 A COLLE G E ALGE BR A

SYMME T RI C F UNCT I ONS OF THE R OOT S

T h eorem 1 t tf f (
If h e r oo s o x
) x
11
bl x '1 ‘ 1
bn 0
t
.

a re
B1 B B h t so a
B1 ) ( x —
B2 ) ( x

t
, u ,

h en
f (X ) f (X ) f(X )
f ( ) x + ,

—
x B1 X
B u

Th u s, su p p o se h t
t a n 3 so t
h t a

f (x ) ( x 3 1)
1 ( 90 32 ) ( x Ba)
Su b s i t
tt i u ng x h fo r x in we h av e

f ( fv 7L) [( x
31 ) 70] [( x
32 ) 7L] [( a? 3 9 + 7L]
1
2
( )
We c an r ed u ce ea ch m em b er of 2
( ) tt
oh f e or m of a o
p yl
n om i al th fi t m in h,
b by T y l e rs 8 48 t h em er a or s t
h ’
eo r em e

c d by c t d m lt ip li c t
, ,

se o n i ion i 55 8
nu e u a on , a s n

id t y t
it t f lik p w f h
.

Si c ( 2) i
n e h c ffi i s an en e oe c en s o e o e rs o

i t h t mi l t bt t
,

n w p ly e h o i do bno
q l 28 4
a s us o a ne m us e e ua

B ti c f ( 8 48 t
, .

u h) = f ( )
s n e h x h ffi x e coe

c i tf h i t h fi t t
,
’
en o p yl i lni f( ) Ie h rs d o n om a s x n e s e c on

it i ( s 3 ) ( 93
7 B) ( 2 B) ( x 8 )( 3 ) a x l x 1 1 x 1 2

H en c e
—
B2 ) ( x —
B3) ( x —B1 )
+ (x ( 3 1)
32)
,
x
,

f (x ) f ( x
) f ( w)
— + — + —
’
x fl. x a x a
Si n ce ( x B2) (x B3 ) f ( x ) (x B1) ,
a n d so o n .

Thi s t
r easo n i n g i f y d g is a p p li c abl e t
o an e qu a on o an e r ee n

t t f t i t
.

I h g
n l e h en er a h d
c ase b e re a r e n a c o rs n e sec o n m em er

o f d wh t
hi b
an i d c d tt h f
en f s m em er s re u e o e or m o a

i l i h t h c ffi c i tf h i t ft
.

p ly n
o om a h n h p d ct e oe en o s e su m o e ro u s

f t t 1 t
,

o h bi i le B B
n om
B k
a s x x x a en n a a

Th t ft p d ct w h i h l ck t h f ct
,, 2, ",

ti 55 8
m e, h a on e o ese ro u s c a s e a or

t
t
.

x 3 y b
,
w
1 i f ( )/(
ma B) d e r en x x 1 ,
an so o n .
 T HE O R Y OF E Q UATI O NS

T hu s , if f (x) : x 3 — 6 x2 + 1 1 x — 6 —(x —l ) (x — 2) (x —3)

we h a ve — l2 x + 11
an d — — 3 ) (x — l ) (x — 2) = 3 x2 — 12 x + 1 1
( 2) ( x
x .

Th eorem 2 Th e su ms f
o l i k e p ow e r s of a l l h e t r oo s tf o an

t tm
.

eq u a t
i on f (x ) : 0 can be exp r es s ed r a i on a l ly i n er s o
f i t s

c oe fii c i en t
s.

Th u s, su p p os e h t t
t h a e equ a t i on is
3 2
f( ) x x 6 1 93 oza b, 0 .

Le tB a ,
y d en o tt
h e e r oo s o ft ( )
1 an d le t 8 1, 3 2, m
t
, , r

h e m e an i n g s

2
+fl+n + B + ri
f f
s. a s. -

i vi
- ' “
a

We tp th t
ar e o r ov e a 8 1) 3 2, c an be e x p r e sse d r a t
i o n al l
y
in t ft h c ffic i t
erm s o b e oe en s b, , b3
1 By t
h p c di g t
,, .

. h e re e n e o r em ,
8 6 5 , we h a v e

f (x ) f (x ) f (x ) 2
f( ) ( )
,
96 7
— x — —
x a
B x
y

Si n c e f( ) x i s di v i si b l e by x a, x
B an d x 1
y ea ch of

t
h f ct t
, ,

i
e ra on s i n ( 2 ) r e p re s e n s a p o ly n o m i al i n x wh i ch c an
be fou n d t
h l
by e ru e of 41 0 t
App ly i n g h i s r u l e an d t h en
g t l tw
.

a ddi n h e r e su s, e h av e
2
+ (a
2
a
) : x + (a b1 ) x bl a
x
2 —
+ ( B l b1 ) x + 03
-
2
51 3 + 52 )
2
50 50 50 + ( r 2
51 7 52 )

3 x
2
+( sl 3 b, ) x -

( s2 bl s l 3 b2 ) 3
( )
Bu t
by d fi n i t
i e on , 8 47 , w e al s o h av e

( )
4

E qu a in g t t
h e c o effi c i en t
s of l i ke p o w e r s of x in t
h t
w e o

e x p r e ssi o n s 3
( ) an d ( )
4 an d so l v i n g fo r 8 1 , 3 2, w e h a ve

sl + 3 bI = 2 b1 , s,

32 = bi — 2 62
48 O A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

2 F r om t
h e v al u e s t
h us f ou n d fo r s 1 an d 3 2 we c an o btai n
t
.

h ve a l u e s o f 3 3 , S 4, su cc e ss i ve ly as f oll o w s
Si n c e a , B , 7 are t
h e r oo s o f t we h a v e

s 2
a bl a 62 6! 63 0,
S 2
B + 61 B + 62 3 63 O,

7
3 ‘
t
'

61 7 2 “

i 62 7 i be
" ‘ '
0

Add i n g these i d en i i e s, w e o b t
t ti a n

33 bl sz 62 3 1 3 b3 0, 1
( )0

wh i ch g i ve s 3 3 ra t
i o n ally in t er m s of b, , b, , ba, 3 1 , 3 2 an d t
h ere

fo r e , b y ra t
i on all
y i n t e rm s of b, , 62 , ba
t lti p ly t t
t
.

Nex h m u e i d en i i e s 9
( ) by ( r
B y r es
pe c
t d dd t lt W bt
, ,

i ly
ve h an a e r e su s . e o ai n

34 61 3 3 62 3 2 638 1 O, 1
( )1

wh i ch by a id o f
( 1 0) g i ve s 3 4 ra t
i o n a lly in t er m s of

61 ) 62 ; 63
t t
°

An d i n l ik e m a n n e r , if we m u l ip ly (7 ( )
9 p e c i ve ly
r es

by a
2 2
B 7
2
b y
a
d ,
B
3
a n d s o on , an d a ft
er e a c h Se r i e s o f

tc t tw t t
t
, , , ,

m u l i pl ii a o n s a dd r e s u l s, e ob a i n i d en i i es

35 bl s 4 bzs 3 0, 36 bl s 5 bzs 4 O,

whi ch g i ve 3 5, 3 6 , ra ti l ly i t
on a n erm s o f b, , b, , b, .

By sim il a r r e aso n n i g th t h e eo rem m ay be p r o v e d fo r an

equ a t
i on
f( ) x = 0 o f an y de gr e e n .

E xa m p le 1 . If a , B, 7 d en o tt
h e t
e r o o s o f x3 2 x2 4x 2 0, fin d

App ly i n g t
h tf e ti on x 1 / y an d d i vid i n g
r an s or m a h t
t e f
ran s or m e d

e qu a ti on b y t h e c o effi ci en t
,

o f y 3 we h a ve 3
3 2
1 2 y y 1 2 0
F or t his e q u at i o n b y su b s t itut t
, .

i n g bl 2 b2 1 b3 in he

( 1 0) ab o ve we o b t
, , ,

fo r m u l as ai n 3 1 2 82 , 6 , ,
33 31 / 2 .

T h e r efo r e § 8 1 4 ,
2 l / a 2
,
E l l / er2 6 2 l / a
a
, ,
482 A CO LL E G E AL G E B RA

2 Th e ty p e Ea ‘
B/ BY B
P h r P V ” pa '
l r
a
.
y

Th e p r o du ct( B aP
‘
I
Ba p q
( a
r

B
’

y
"
5
( )
is h e t su m of t
h th e ree s
ym m tc g
e ri r ou
ps of t er m s

( 6)
( )
7

n y r w 8
( )
”
a a

Bu t w e h av e al r eady sh o wn th a t an d
( 7 ar e r a t
i on a l

fu n ct
i on s t
of
h c e ffici e n s H e n c e
oe t o r Ea
q w hi c h P r

bt tt t
.
,

m ay be o i n d by
a e su b r a c i n g h e su m o f ( 6) an d ( 7 ) fr o m
is al s o su c h a f u n c t i on

t
.

Wh e n p q h e g r o u 8
p ( ) b e c o m es 2 Ea
By ;
P P
w h e n
p q = r
’

t
, ,

i b c e om e s 6 E aP
p
f’

t
.

3 Th e Ea By S
V
an d s o o n
P ’ "
es
yp
th t t t ct ft
. .
,

We h i
m ay p r o ve l f i h a e se a r e r a on a un on s o e c oe ffi

i t
c en by p t i ti s f th p c
re ill te td i 1 d 2
on s o e ro ess u s ra e n an We
b g i by m l t
.

e i p ly i g Z
n
q b y u B 7 n aP
’
a
“ " “

E x a m p le . Sh o w h a tt
za p /sq yr -
8ri ses) " 2 3p + q + r 3p + q 3 r sq + r 3p 3r + p s
q
°

E XERCI SE L XXI X
1 . F or t
h e e qu at
i on a ox3 a 1 x2 aex (1 3 0 fin d 3 3 an d 3 4 in tm er s

O f 0 0 , (1 1 , 0 2 , a s

2 If a , B, 7
de n o tt
eh tf e ro o s o x3 p x2
qx r z 0, fi n d 2 1 / a 2,

tm f p q
.

2
2 1/ a 3, a n d 2 a B in er s o , ,
r.

3 . Find t
h e e qu a t
i wh
on t o se r oo s are t
h e c u b es of t
h e r oo s tf o

x3 —2 x2 + 3 x
4 If a B, 7 d en o e tt
h e r oo s o f t t
h e e qu at i o n x3 x2 3x 4 0
t t ti fu n c t i on s o f t tb y t
.
,

fin d h e val u e s o f h f
e o ll o w n i g sy m me r c h ese roo s h e

me t
h d o s of 86 6 , 8 6 7 .

( 1) 3 1 , 3 2 , 33 , 34

3 7
( )
4 2 51 79 7 .
 CUBI C AND BI Q UADRATI C E Q UATI O NS

XXX . THE G E N E R AL CUBI C AND

BI Q UAD R ATI C E Q UATI O N S

Al g ebrai c s ol u t
i n o s In t
h p e re ce din g ch ap t er we h a v e Sh o w n
t
h tt tf
.

h a e r e al roo s o a nu m er i ca l e qu a tion c an al way s be

f ou n d ex a ct
ly o r tly d i ti p i bl t tnd
a
p p r ox i m a e an s o ss e o ex e

t th d t tt t f ch q
,

h e m e h o s h c
ere pl e m p l oy e d o e om ex r o o s o su e ua

ti on s A h dl y n d b S id t
ar h t h d ee tppli
e sa e se me o s a re n o a

c b l tl i t l q t q t t
.
,

a e o i er a T l e ch
ua on si w o so v e su an e ua on e m us

it t f i tc ffic i t
.

obt i a n ex
p i f r e s s on s i t or s r oo s n e rm s o s oe en s

t t
.

W y he sat q i a b an l d leg bua i c llon

y w h n c an e s o ve a e ra a e

it t b
s r o o s c an p d i t e ex f i tc ffi c i t by pp ly
r e sse n er m s o s oe en s a

i g
n fi it m b
a n f ti
e nu t h l lg b i c p
er o m es ti n e s ev e ra a e ra o era o s,

n am ely dd i t
i a b tc t i n on lti p li c t
su i di i ra l o m u a on , v sI On , I n vo u

t d v l t
, , ,

i no an i n e o u o

63 1 t h t t
.

W h e l dy p
ave da r ea h g l q d ti c
r ove a e en e r a ua ra

t w t
, ,

eq t iua h on c h l
asg b i c
su l i d w
an a e ra so u on an e ar e n o o

t t t t t
,

p r o veh h l i k ai f h
e g el c b i c
s d b i
ru e o
q d t i c e e n er a u an ua ra

eq t iua B t on s g . l q t i u f d ge n er a h i gh e th f ua on s o a e r ee er an ou r

c an n o t be s o l v e d al g e b r a i c al ly
h t t
t
.

Cu b e r oo s tf o u ni t
y In 6 46 we Sh o w e d ha e equ a

t t t1
.

3
i on x 1 h as h e r oo s 1 1
ch f t c u b e r o ot Th e t
,

He n c e ea h o b i e se n u m er s s a o f u n i ty h ird
d tb t of t
.

will b e f ou n h q o e e s u ar e h e s e c on d H e n c e i f we
t t tt
.

re p r e se n h c d by w
e s e on ( I)
,
e pr e s en t h e
m ay re h i d by r (0
2
.

Si n c e x
3
1 ; 0 l a ck s an x
2
t er m , w e h av e , 8 05, 1 w 0
t t t
.

Si m i l arl y e v e ry nu m b er a has h r ee cu b e r o o s , n am e ly , h e
t
h r ee r oo s tft
h o e e qu a t
i n o x
3
a . If on e o f t
h e se r oo s tb e

$
75 t
h t
h t
w w ill b
e o er o o \/d an d
t e
3
5
2
£75
t t
, .

Th e g en eral cu bi c Car dan s for m u l a ’

By h e m e h od of 8 18
t tt
. .

e ve ry c u b i c equ a i on c an be r ed u c ed o h e f or m

i n whi c h t
h e x
2
te rm i s l a cki n g .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BRA

In ( 1) pt u x = y +z .

We o bti
a n

( 3)
AS t
h e va r i a bl e s y an d z ar e
s bjue ct tt h i gl o e s n e c on d i t
i on
w e m ay i m p o se a se o n d c co n di t
i p n t
h on u o em .

We su pp o se 3 yz p = 0, ( )
4

t
_

an d h by 8
f
e r e or e , y z
3
q 0 . 5
( )
3
F r om 8
6
y 2
q. ( )
an d
3
/ 7
3 3
fr om y z p 2 .
( 7)
Th e re fo r e , 6 36 , y 8
an d z
3
ar e t
h tf e r oo s o a q u ad r a ti c e qu a

t
i o n of t
h f e orm
2
u + qu ( )
8

Sol vi n g 8
( ) an d re
p r e s en ti g th n e e x p r e ss i o n s o b tin
a ed fo r
t
h e roo s tby A an d B r es
p cti ly w
e ve ,
e h ave

2 3
q 9 2 J?
y —3
A
2
1
L _

4
’ z
3
‘ "
B “9
27 2 27

Th es e e qu a t
ion s
( )
9 g i v e t
h r e e v al u e s fo r y an d t
h r ee fo r z,

n am ely , 8 7 0,
3 3 3
w A, o
2
\/ Z , ( )
1 0

1
( )1

Bu tby yz p 3, an d th e o n ly p ai r s of t
h v e al u e s

of y, z in ( )
1 1 wh i h c sa i fy t
t shi s c on d i i o n t are

3 3 3

y, z N/ A, w
2 '

3/B ; w
2

Su b s i t
tti g t
h
u n e se p ai r s i n we o b ti n t
a h t
h e r e e r oo s tf o

n am e ly ,

xl w - i
i X/
3
B, x2 x3 (0
2
3

wh e r e A B 1
( )2
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Th e g en eral bi qu adra i c t Ferra r i ’

s s ol u t
i on t t
By h e m e h o d o f
b i q u a d r at t tt
. .

818 e v e ry i c e qu a i o n c an be r e du c e d o h e f or m

1
( )
Wit
h a view tt
o ran s o r m f in g th fi t e b rs m em er o f
( 1 ) i n to a

differ e n c e o f s q u a re s , we a d d an d b tc t su ra
z
x u u
2
4, w h e r e
u d en o t es a c o n st
an twh o s e v a lue i tb f s o e ou n d . We t
h us

o bt ai n
2
4f — u 2/4 2
= O,
/
4 2 2
x + x u + u x u ax + bx + c

—
/ ) / )]
2 2 2 2
( 2 ) bx + (u 4 0 2
( )
’

x n a x c _
f .

To m ake t
h e s e on d c t er m a p e r fe c tq s u ar e , we m us t h av e
2
/ c)
2
b 4 ( u
)( a u 4 ,

— 2 — 4 cu + ( 4 a c
au
( )
3

Le td tu 1 e n o e on e o f t
h tf t
h i c bi c i
e roo s o s u n u Wh e n u

t d t i t
.

is rep l a ed c by u 1 in h he se c o n erm s e s q u ar e of

Va, a x b 2 Va , a , an d 2
( ) b e c om e s e q u i v al e n t
tth o e

t
w o q u a d ra t
ic s
b
4
2 2 \ u / 1
— a

6
Vul — 1—+
2 1
,

a x -

l ( )
5

We m a
y t
h f
ere or e o bt
ai n t
h e ro o s t f ( 1) o by so l v i n g
( )
4
an d

E x am pl e 1 . Sol ve x4 x2 4x 3 0 .

He r e a 1, b 4, c 3, so t
h t
th c a e ub ic (3) is

u3 — u 2 + 12 u
On e of t
h e ro o s o f t t
hi c s ub ic i s 2 , an d se t
t
i g n u1 2 in we h a ve
x 2
+ x
'

—l = 0 an d x2

So l vi n g t
h ese qu ad r a t
ic s ,
we tiob a n x 1 i (l 4;

p
E x a m le 2 . So l ve h e t e qu a t
i o n x4 4 x3 x2 4x 1 0 .

t c b i c ( 3) h t
AS h e h u as ree t
ro o s an
y on e ofw h i ch m ay b e
tk t
ah i ( 4)
en a s d e u1 n an it
w ld ou s eem tt
t t
ha h e m e h od
 C UBI C AND BI Q UAD R AT I C E Q UAT I O NS

a bove d e s c r i b e d m i g h y i el d t
o r 1 2 v al u e s of x, wh er e as
t
h e t it
t t
g i v e n e q u a i on ( 1 ) c a n h av e b u fou r r oo s
i t t Bu s no

d i ffi c l ttp t h tt tff ct
.

u h ch i c
o d f
r oved a e o e ma e o u 1 oe s n o a e

th l f t
e va u es oh f t f ( 5 ) c b i d b t ly
e o u r r oo s o om ne u m ere

t i w hi ch t t di t ib td b t
,

h h w 4
e m an n e r n
( ) e s e r oo s a r e s r u e e e en

an d

R ec i proc al e qu a t
i t
on s W e m ay d i s c o v e r by i n sp e c t i on w h e h e r
tg i c ip c l q t t t t
.

or n o a i
ve n r e ro a e ua on , 8 1 5 , h as e i h e r o f h e r oo s
1 1 d if it h d i f it d p d q t i ro m

it
or an as , er v e a e r e ss e e ua on

f t t I tf ll w f
,

0 wh i h h h h c as ne er o ese r oo s o o s r om

§ 8 15 t
h t t d q t tb f t
.

hi d p a i 0s e h re ss e e ua on m us e o e

f or m
2m
= 0, 1
+ ( )
’"
a 0x amx a 1x a0

t
h ti i td
a s, s e g r ee m us tb e ev en , an d ev e r
y t
w o c o effic i en t
s

wh i c h ar e e q u all y r e m o ve d from t
h be e g i n n in g an d en d of

5 (x )
c m u s tb e e q u al

t tt t t
tt z
.

We p r o c e e d o Sh o w h a by h e s u b s i u i o n x 1 /x
t
hi s e qu a i o n < t
5 (x ) t
0 m ay be r a n sf o r m e d i n o a n e q u a i o n t t
in z w h o s e d e g r e e i s o n e h a l f h a o f <5 (x ) 0 tt
I w il l h e n t t
t h t if t t tt i gh t
.

fo ll o w a h d g e e re e o f <
5 (x ) 0 be no g h r ea e r an e

t tby
,

we m a y fi d h n e r oo s ai d o f 63 1 , 8 7 1 , 8 7 4
tm
.

D i v idi n g ( ) y
1 b x
’"
an d c om b i n i n g er s, we h a ve

1 —1
+ ( )
2
m
d +
ni -
a1 m
E
Bu t
by c arry i n g ou t
th i e n di c a td e re ck o n i n g w e fin d th a t
1 1
mp
'

t
l
'

z x + 1 / x, an d in ( 3) w e se t
p = 1 ,
2, 3 m
su c c e s

we h a ve
1 —z2 — 2
x
2
+ ,
-

x
3
+ z
3 — 3 z,
x

1
z
4 — 4 z2 —
l 2, -

4
x
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

t
h t a i s, w e o btin f
a 1/ or x? x 1’
an e x p r e ss i o n of t
h pt
h e

d e g ree i n z S b t
it
u i g t
t h s u n e se s e v e r al e x p re s s i o n s in we
ti t
i n ft t tb
.

o b a n an e q u a h o h d go e m e ree in z, a s w as o e d e m on
ttd ( c
s ra e om p a re

E xa m p le 1 . So l ve 2 x8 —x7 12 x6 + 14 x5 —14 x3 + 1 2 x2 + x 2

Thi s i s a re i o n h a vi n g t
cip r oc al e qu at h e ro o t
s 1 an d 1
R e m o vi n g t
.

h e fa c to r x2 1 ,

2 x5 — x5 —l o x4 l 1 3 x3 —l o x2 - -

D ivi d i n g b y x3 ,

1
+—
2
( x3
3
x x2 9 :
Hen c e b y 2 ( z3 3 2 ) ( z2 2) 13 0,

2 z3 —z2
Sol vi n g , z = 1, —3 o r ,

Hen c e —3 , or

an d t
h e r e fo r e x : (1 i ts/ 3p
'

x —3 i wz
xf
é ,
2, or

E x a m p le 2 . Sol ve x6 x5 x4 x2 x 1 0 .

E ve ry b i n o m i al e q u a i o n x t ”
a 0 m ay b e r e du c ed
n —
tt
h o e

r e c i p r o c a l f o rm by a i d o f h e t su bs t
tt i u i on x N/t ty, h e t lt r esu

t
tt
o f t h i s su b s i u i o n b e i n g y
”
1 0 ( c om p ar e 64 6 , E x .

E x p res s i on of a com pl ex nu m b er in tm er s of ab sol u e val u e an d t

am pl i td
u e In t
h e a cc o m p an y i n g fig u r e P is t
h g e ra
p hth of e

tctd
.
,

c om pl ex n u m be r a bi , c on s ru e as

in 23 8
t t
.

Th e l en g h of OP i s Va 2
h e

a bs o l u te va l u e o f a bi , 23 9 R e pr e
t
.

s en by
t i r

L t tt
.

6 d e h ci c l en o e f e r u ar m eas u r e o

X t
h n gl X O t
e a h ti t e h ft
h l gt h P, a s, e en o e

bt
ar c su n d d by thi gl
e c i cl f e s an e on a r e o

uni t di d c ib d b t 0
ra us c t es r e a ou as en er

W e c all 6 t
.

h e a m p li t
u d e of a bi .

W e c al l th e r atio b r t h e si n e of 0 , an d wr i t6 /
e r
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

Coroll ary 3 . F or a qu o t
i t
w
en e h av e h e tf or m u l a

F or
§ [oo s
( e a) ti ( 0
s n -
r
'
( e os a i :i
s n e)
'

r
( eo s 9 i si n § 8 79
Coroll ary 4 . Th e n n t
h tfroo s o a c o m p l ex n u m b e r ar e g i v e n b y
0 + 2 k7r 0 + 2 k 7r
+ i sin
n n

wh en k i s a s si gn e d t
h e n v al u e s 0, 1 , 2 , (n
9 + 2 k 7r
n
+
r
[ e os
(9 2 k 7r) + i ( Si n 9 2 r ( eo s 9 i i
-
Si n

8 8 1, 8 7 8

Bi n om i al equ a t
i n o s Th e n n t
h tf r oo s o r
( c os 9 i Si n 9) a re

t t t t
.

h e n r oo s o f h e e qu a i on x
"
r
( eos 9 i sin 9) 0 He n c e,
t t tf t t
.

i n p ar ic l h u ar , e n roo s o h e eq u a i on x
"
r 0, w h e r e r is
r e al a n d th f e re o re 9 i s 0, ar e

1, n _ 1 ,

Th u s , t
h e roo s o f t t
h e e qu a t
i on x3 1 0 ar e

c os 0 i i 0 0 0 8 2 7r / 3
s n , i i
s n 2 7 t
/3 , c os 4x/3 i s lu 4 7r / 3,
which m ay b e p roved e q u al t
o

1, —1

T ri gonom et ri c s ol u t i on of th e i rredu c i bl e ca s e of th e c u bi c In
t t t
.

h e i r r e d u c i b l e c as e o f h e c u b i c x 8
px q 0 8 7 2 3, h e
t
, ,
.

e x p r e ss i o n s A an d B § 8 7 1 ar e c o n j u g a e i m ag in a r i e s F or
t 7 i s n e g at
, , .

Si n c e i n hi s c as e q 4 2 3
p 2 i v e w e h av e ,

ef
f
2
_ 2 ’ B 2 .

27 2 4

Hen ce t
h e e x p r e s s i on s fo r A an d B in tm er s of a b so l u t e
v al u e an d a m p li td
u e, § 8 7 7 , w ill b e of .
t
h f e orm

A B = r
( c os 9 —i si n 9) ,
 CUB I C AND BI Q UAD R AT I C E Q UAT I O NS 491

wh e r e

c os 9

Wh e n p an dq are g i ve n w e c an fin d t
h e v al u e of 9 f r om
t
h tf a o c os 9 by a i d of a tbl
a e of c o si n e s
t t t
.

I h n ef or m u l as fo r e roo s o f h x
3
+p x q O, § 8 7 1 ,
su b st i u t
e t th e e x pr e s si o n s ( 1 ) fo r A an d B , a n d h e t
e x p r ess i o n s fo r w an d (0
2
g i ve n i n § 8 8 4 . Th e twh
r e su l s e n
Si m pl i fie d a re

i‘ 9 i 9+ 2 n l 9+ 4n
x1 2 r cos ’ x2 2r c os i x3 = 2 r
“
eo s
5 3 3

An d r an d 9 b e i n g k n o wn b y t
h e se f o r m u l a s e n a bl e u s
tc tt t tby t
,

o om pu e h e v al u e s o f h e r oo s ai d o f a a b l e o f c o si n e s .

E x a m p le . So l ve x3 x 1 3 z0 .

He re q2 4 p
3 27 1h ave t 1 08 , so t
h t
h e i r re du ci b l e c ase
w a e

Su b s t
itut in g t
.

h e for m u las ( 2 ) a n d s i m p l ify i n g w e fin d

in ,

r z 1 V2 7 c o s 9 fi / 2 an d t
,
h er efor e 9 ,

ab l es o f l o ga r i t
He n c e b y a i d o f t h m s an d c o s in e s we ob t ain

2 2
c os 50 °
. 7 42 2 ; x2 _
5
c os 1 70 °

V 27

c os 2 90 °
. 3 949 .

E XE R CI SE L XXX
Sol ve e q u at
ion s 1 .
10 by t
h m t
h d
e e o s of 871 an d 87 4 .

1 . x3 —9 x 2 . x3 — 9 x2 + 9 x — S = O .

3 . x3 — 3 x —4 z 0 . 4 . 4 x3 —7 x

5 . x3 + 3 x2
+ 9x 6 . 3 x3

7 . 8 . x4

9 . x4 + 12 x 10 .
— 11 x + 2

11 . Solve 3 x6 — 2 x5 6 x4 — 2 x3 6 x2 2x +3 : 0 .
 A COLLE G E AL G E BR A

12 . Sol ve 2 x8 9 x7 + 1 8 x6 30 x5 3 2 x4 3oxa + 18 x2 9x + 2 = 0 .

13 . So l ve 6 x7 — x6 + 2 x5 — 7 x4 — 7 x3 + 2 x2

14 . F in d t
h c e ub ic in z on which , b y 8 75 , t
h e solu t
i o n o f x7 1 0
d e p en d s .

15 . F in d t
h c e on d it
i on t
hata ll t
h t
e ro o s of x3 3 ax2 3 bx -
1 c 0
be real .

16 . Wri t r igon om e t
he t
e d o wn t h e r oo t
r ic e x p r ess i on s fo r t s ofx5 s l 0,
a n d o f x6 +1 =0 .

17 . Sol ve h e tf ol l o w ni g i rr edu ci b l e c u b ic s .

( )
l x3 —3 x ( )
2 x3 —6 x

18 In a S ph er e t i 3 V3 ightp i m wit
wh ose d i a m e er s h q a r r s a s u are

h p i m i 2 7 wh t
f t i i t lt
it
.

b ase i s i n sc r i b e d . If th l m
e vo u e o e d r s s , a s s a u e

19 Th e vol u m e o f ac t i igh t
er a nci c l c y l i d i 50 : d i t
r r u ar n er s 7 an s

t Fi d t f i tb d it
.

en i re su p e rfici al ar e a i 1 05 : 2
s 7 h di n e ra us o s as e an s

it
lt
.

a d u e .

20 Th e igh t
al it
t Ci r c u l ar c o n e i s 6 a n d t
d u e of a r h e r ad i u s o f i t
s b as e

In t hi s c o n e a r igh t
.

is 4 ci r cu la r c y li n d e r i s i n sc r i b ed wh o se vol u m e is
h at h e al titu d e of t
.

hs t
fo u r n i n t of th e c on e F in d t h e c y l i n d er
. .

XXX I . D E TE R M I N AN TS AND E LI MI N ATI O N

DEFI NI T I ON OF DE T E R M I NANT

I nvers i on s Od d an d eve n perm u tt

i na o s W h e n c on si d er i n g
t tt
tf bj ct l t t
. .

h p e e rm u a i on s mb of a se o o e s, a s e er s or nu er s,

w m y fi
e p m
a p tic l xd u f th bj c t t
on h so e ar u ar o r er o e o e s as e

n or m al d A y gi p m t
or t
i er i t h id t h n v en er u a on s e n sa o a ve a s

it ti tc i wh i ch bj ct
.

m y i
an i p n ver s on s a s i r e se n s n s an es n an o e s

f ll w d by
o o wh i ch i t
e h n m l d p c
on e d i t A d n e or a or er re e es n

t tt cc odi g t
.

h p e i i c ll d dd
erm u a on h n mb s a e o o r even a r n as e u er

of it i i i
s dd (
n v er s o n s s o o r e v en or

Th u s t
if h e ob e j ct
s in n or m al o r de r a r e t
h e n u m b er s 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5, t
h e

p e rm u ti o n 45312 h a s t
at h e e i g ht
,

i n vers io n s 43 , 4 1 , 42 , 5 3 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 3 1 , 3 2
Hen c e 453 12 i s a n even p er m u t at
.

ion .
494 A COLLE GE ALG E BR A

t h ese p erm u t ati on s we c an der i ve all h e re st by rep eate d t

t
i n e r ch an g es o f wo o bj e c s t t
As th u s o btai n e d, h e p e rm u t a t
t t
.

i o n s w il l b e al e rn at el y odd an d e v en o r vi c e vers a § 8 8 7
Th e re f or e s i n c e n !i s an e v e n n u m b er h al f of th e p er m u t t
, ,

, a i on s ,

a r e o d d an d h al f a r e e v e n .

tf ll w w h ll h td wi t
I n wh a o o s h t f l tt
e s a av e o o se s o e ers

wi th b c ip t
su s r m b 6 s, d
a s a ,, H i g
a ,, an so o n av n

t t t d
, ,, 2, .

ch o se ny f anc h y bsel i w ho i c h ll
su h l t s m o s n a e e e r s an

sub c ip t
s r d iff t g t
s ar e h i ere n p t ic l d
a r r an e em n so m e ar u ar o r er

d t fi d t f t f t
,

an h h
en n h b e f i v
su m i h o e num er o n er s o n s o e

l t
e t d fie r s an i f t o h b c i pt I f t
n v er s on s hi i o e su s r s s su m s

it t
.

e v en , wi ll b wh h y b l
e even g d i en
y e s m o s ar e ar r a n e n an

oth d ; if d d dd
er or er F wh o
y t w o f th y b l or en an o o e s m o s

i tc h g d t f b t h l t t d b c i pt
.
,

are n er h i i
an e e n ve r s on s o o e e r s an su s r s

are ch g d by dd an e b § 8 87 o d t h f
nu t
h i
m e r s, ,
an e re o r e e r su m

by an e v en nu m b er
t t t b c i pt
.

I n p ar i c u l a r , h e num b er of i n ve r s i o n s h of e su s r s

t t
wh e n h e l e e r st i ar e n n o r m al o r de r an d t
h tf th l t ta o e e er s

wh en t
h b c ip t
e su s r s ar e in n o r m al o r d e r ar e b t
h dd b t
o h o or o

e ve n .

Th u s in a g bg c l t
h e num b er of i n ve rs i o n s of t
h e su b s r c ipt
s is t
w ; o

t i n ve r s i o n s o f t h e let te rs i s t
wo ; i n b3 a 2 6 1 t
,

in Cl a g bg h e nu m b er o f he
su m of t
h e nu m ber o f i n ve rs i o n s o f t h e l ette r s an d t hat of th e su b s c r ip t
s

is fou r .

Defin i i on t of de tm ier n an tW e m ay a rr an g e an y s e tf 2 o
2
3 2

t y t
,
.

2
i n g e n eral n nu m b er s i n h f e o rm of a s qu a r e a r ra ,
h us

“ 1 “ 2 “ 3 “ 1 “ 2 “ 3 “ 4

51 52 53 61 62 5 3 54
01 02 03 01 02 c3 04

dl “ 2 “ 3 034

a n d so o n , wh er e h l t
t ti
e e er c at
n di es t h e r o w an d t h e s u b s c ri p t
t rt
,

h c e l m
o u n, i n wh i c h an y p a i c u l a r n u m be r o cc u r s

t t t t t
.

We m ay h en c all h e num b er s h e e l em en s o f h e a rr ay .
 DE T E R M I NANTS AND E LI MI NAT I O N

h t
Wi t h e elem en t
s o
f su c h an a rr a
y for m t ttt
ll h e p r od u c s h a
a

can t
be for m ed by a k in g a s fa c or s on e t el em en a n d bu t t
o n e fro m

t
ea c h r o w a n d ea c h c o l u m n of h e a r r a y

ch p d ct g t h t t
.

I n ea h f ct rot h u w m k a rra n e e a or s so a e ro ar s

( t
l et) i
ers m l d d t
a re h c tt
n h i n ori f a or e r, a n en ou n e n ver s o n s o

th c l m
e m k ( b c ip t
o u
) nIf th i mb
ar b s
( su s r s e r nu er e e ven or

t d ct i g ; if d d t
.

gi h p
ve t
h pl e ro h mi u ig e us s n o , e nu s s n .

Th lg b i me
f ll t
a h pl e ra c d mi p d c ti
su o a es e us an nus ro u s s

c ll d t
a h d te m i tf t h e y d i
e er
p td by th
nan o e a r ra an s re r es en e e

y it lf wi t w it t ti t id f i t
,

a r ra h b se h a rs r en a e er s e o .

“ 1 b2 _ a Z bl

“ 1 52 03 “ 1 53 02 a zbac i (1 2 51 03 a sbi c z

tIf ll w f m § 889 t
o h t
o i d t
s i i g t
ro h ig f y a n e e rm n n e s n o an

oft h p d ct b e d c ib d w
ro u
y s a g t h
o vef c t es r e e ma a r r an e e a or s s o

th t th c l k i l d d t h gi t
h
t
a e o u m n m ar s a re n n or m a or e r , an en ve e

p d
ro c t h u
p l m i i e
g n cc di us
g th or b f nus s a or n as e num er o

i v
n i f t
er s on s h w k i o dde ro m ar s s ev en or o

y w i tt h f ct i wh t
.

O w r e ma y d r e d
e a or s n an or er a so ev e r , a n

th en
g i v t h p d c t t
eh p l e i i
rog cc udi g t
h e u s or m nus s n a or n as e

su m ft h n o b f in i
e fu w m k
m er od f c l . v er s on s o ro ar s an o o um n

m ar k s i s e ven o r o dd .

Thu s c o n s i d er t h e p ro d u c ta 3 b2 c 1 to w hich o u r fi r s t r u l e g a ve t h e m in u s
Wr it i n g i ts o t h at th e su b s c r ip t
,

s ig n s a r e i n n o r m al o r d e r we h a ve

h e l ett e rs 0 b a n o w p r e se n t three i n ve r s i o n s t h e produ c t

.
,

0 1 62 0 3 a n d s i n c e t

m u st a g a i n b y ou r se c o n d r u le b e gi ve n t If t
, ,

h e m i n u s s ig n h e p r od
u ct b e wr i t ten b2 c 1 a 3 th e l et ter s p r e s en ttwo i n ve rs i o n s a n d t h e su b s c r ip t
.
, ,

He n c e a ga i n b y t he t hi r d r u l e we m u st gi ve t
,

o n e an d 2 1 i s odd he
pr o du c t t
.
, , ,

h e m i n u s s ig n .

Th e n u m b er of t
h e r ow s c ol u m n s i n
or t
h e a r r ay ou tf o

w h i ch a de tm ier na nt is f o r m e d i s c al l e d t
h e or d er o f t
h e

de t e rm i n ant .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Th e p r odu c t s a bov e d e s c r i b e d, wi h tt
h i e r p r op e r s i g n s, ar e

tt
c al l e d h e e r m s of t
h d t e e erm i n an t
tw i t ti tt t
.

To exp a n d a d e t e r m i n an t i s o r e ou s e rm s a

l e n g th
t t
.

Th e d i ag o n al o f e le m e n s a ,, b2 , c 3, is c all e d h l e ea d i n g

t
d i a g o n a l,h p d an d e ro u ct b al zc g , is c all e d t
h l e ea d i n g tm
er

o fth d t ie t e er m n an

Th l d i g t t t
.

e cl d by b
ea n e r m en os e a r s, h [ b i
u s, f a1 03 s o en

th d t i ti tl f
2

u se d y b l f
as a s m o or e e e rm n an se .

Th e num ber f t he t
o e r m s of a de t i tf t
er m h th d
nan o e n or er

is n !, and h a lf of th es e t er m s h a ve p lu s sign s and h a lf h a ve

m in u s si gn s .

th l tt i
F or , k ee p i n g l d e e er s n n orm a or er , w e m ay f or m n '

p t t i
er m u f t
h b c
a i p t § 7
on s 6 3 o e n su s r s, an d t
h ere i s o n e
tm f t tf ch f t tt
,

er h d t i o eh e erm n an or ea o e se n ! p erm u i a o n s,

890
t t tt
.

F u r h e rm o re h al f of h es e n ! p erm u i a on s ar e e ven an d

h al f are o dd , § 888 .

Th u s ,
for n 3 we h ave 3 ! or 6 tm er s ; fo r n z 4, we h ave 4 ! or 24 .

O t
h er n o a tt
i on s I t t
b m u s e re m em be re d h t
t th l t
a t e e er s a n d

t
.

c
s u b s r ip s ar e m er e m a rk s of r ow an d c ol u m n o rd er An y
t t t
.

oh y m b
er l w h isc h o s wi ll s er ve hi s p ur
p o se m ay be su b s i
tt
u d f e th m or e .

an am am Thu s t
h e ele m en s t f d tm i
o a e er n an t a re o ft
en r ep r e

t b y i gl l t h t
t wi t c ip t as a w t
,

a zl am 0 23 s e n ed a s n e e w
er o su b s r s he
t i gt t t
,

i d ic t
,

am an a gg fi rs n h a n e ro w a n d h e se c on d h e c olu m n Th e
t
.

sy m b ol an is rea d w t h
a o re e ,
”
an d s o o n .

A ru le for ex p an di n g a de tm i n ntf t
er h t
hi da o e r order To o bt
ai n

t
h t t t ttt ch l m tf t h fi tw
.

h e ree
p o si i v e e r m s, s a r a ea e e en o e rs ro

t d f
i n u rn p i b l f
an ll w t
h d i c t
i n
so ar a s oss e, o o e re o

ft l t
a, a2 “ 3 ,

b, b, 53 o h l di g di g
e h ea n a on a ,
us

01 62 03
“ 1 62 08 :“ 2 68 0 1 , “ 3 61 0 2
 A CO LLE G E AL G E E RA

PR OPE R T IE S OF DE T E R MI NANT S

Th eorem 1 . Th e va l u e o
f a de tm ier n an ti tc h g d if i t
s no an e s

r ows a r e m a de c o lu m n s an d i tcs o lu m n s r o h t
w wi ts, ch g i g ou an n

t
,

t
h i e r r e la i ve o r d er .

a, a2 a3 a1 bl cl
61 62 be “ 2 be 02

C1 02 03 (1) “ 3 be 03 (2 )
F or e v e ry term as a 2 b3 c 1 , in t
h e expa n si o n of th d t e e er

t ( 1 ) co n t tdb t f
,

m i n an m a rk ed a in s on e el e m e n an u on e ro m

ea ch r ow an d c ol u m n of He n ce itc ti on a n s on e el em en t
an d t f m h c l m d w f ( 2) d i t
bu on e ro h
e ac f o u n an ro o an s er e o re ,

exc pt p h p f
e ig ertm f a M s ort
h ig
s f n, a er o or e o v e r e s n o

th tm i
e
(1) i t
er h m n it ign i F s if t h e sa e as s s n or e

f ct f t
a h tm b
ors o g d i t
h ed f
erth l tt e a rr a n e n e or er o e e ers

a,b c th i i fth e b c ip tw i l l d tm i n t
n ve rs o n s o hi ig e su s r s e er e s s n

i b t i ( 1 ) by t f § 8 90 i ( 2 ) by t
, ,

n h ( 1) o d h l
an hn e ru e o ,
n e

ru le of 8 91
t t t
.

Co n v e r s e ly , e v e ry e rm in h e e x p an s i o n of
( ) is
2 a e rm

in t
h e e xp an si on of

He n c e fo r ev er y t
h e o re m r e sp e ct
in g t
h e r o ws o f a de tm i
er

n an t
th er e is a c or r e sp o n di n g t
h e orem res
pe ct
in g i tc
s ol u mn s .

Th eorem 2 If a ll t
h tf
e e lem e n s o a r ow or c o l u m n of a de t
er

t t ft
h d tmi t
.

m in a n a re 0, h e va lu e o e e er nan i O s .

For e v e ry t erm of t
h e de tm i twill
er n an c on t
ai n fa c o r
a t
from t
h e ro w o r col u m n in qu es t
i 8 90 on , ,
an d will t
h er e f o r e
v a n i sh .

Th eorem 3 t
wIf w ( c o ro s or olu m ns ) f o a tm i
de er nan tb e

i nt h d tm i
t tm i t ig
.

er c h a n g ed , e e er nan e r ely c h a n g es s s n .

a1 a2 a3 01 02 03

bl 62 b3 bl b2 b3
01 02 03 ( 1) “ 1 “ 2 “ a ( 2)
 DE TE RMI NANT S AND E LI MI NATI ON 499

F or an y ter m of 1
( ) wi t h fa c t or s arran g e d in t
h e o r d er o f

t
h e r o ws of 1
( ) m ay b e t r an s f orm e d i nt o a t erm of 2
( ) wi t h
f ac t o r s ar r an g e d i n he
o r de r o f t
h e r ows o f ( 2 ) by i nte r t
ch an g i n g i t s fir s an d l as t
f a c o r s ; an d c o n ve r s e ly Bu thi s tt t
t t t
.

i n e r ch an g e w i l l i n c r ea se o r d i m i n i sh h e i n v e r s i o n s o f h e
t tt
su b s c r i p s i n h e e r m by an o d d n u m b e r 8 8 7 an d t h e r efo r e
t t t t
, , ,

s i n c e h e n o r m al o r d e r o f h e s u b s c r i p s i s 1 2 3 i n b o h
( )
1 an d

it
wil l ch g t
h an e e s i g n of t
h t e er m .

Th u s a 2 b3 6 1 is a tm f ( 1 ) d
er o an Cl bg a z i sth c e o r re sp on d in g ter m

t tt
,

of F or i n 6
(1 2 3 6 1 h b c ip tp e su s r s r ese n w i o n v e rs m n s whi l e i n
t t i
,

Cl bg a z h y e p r es e n on e i n ve r s on .

E xam pl e V er ify t
h p c di g t h
e re e n eo r e m by ex p an d i n g ea ch of t
h e

tm i t( l )
.

de er n an s an d

Coroll ar y t
w f t h w ( c l m ) f
If o o e ro s or o u ns o a de tm i
er nan t
tic l t
.

a re i d en h d tm i
a ,
t ih e e er n an va n s es .

F or l t D d
e t t h l f th d tm i
en o e e va u e o e e er n an t An i n t er
ft h id n t tby
.

c h an g e o ic l w m etl D che a ro s us e av e un an g e d ; bu
t t
,

902, i w ill c h a n ge D in o D
t
h t
.

Th er ef o r e D D, i a s, 2D O, or D 0 .

a a d
b b c ab f+ a ec + d bc —a ec —a bf — dbc = 0 .

c c f

T h eorem 4 If a ll t
h e el em en s tf ow ( a ro or c o lu m n ) are

t t t
i m lt
.

m l ip l i ed by
u h e sam e n u m ber , as k th d tm i
,
e e er nan i
s u

p li ed by k .

F or of t
h e el e m e n t s th u s ti p li d b y k
m ul d b t e on e an u one

o cc u r s as a f ac ti or n ea c h tm f t h d t
er i n t 8 90
o e e er m na ,
.

Th e e v al u a t
i fon o a d t i t m y ft
e e rm n b i m p li fi d by
n an a o e e s e

ap p ly i n g t
hi s t h e o r em .

Th u s ,

-
6 8 2 —3 4 1 —1 1 1
15 —20 -
5 .
3 —4 1 —1
3 4 —1 3 4 l 1 1 —1
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Corol l ary If th c pe di g or r es on n e le m en s o tf t
w o c olu m ns ( or
h d tm i
.

r ows
) a re p ro
p or t
i l t
on a , e e er nan t va n i s h es .

ra a d a a d
Th u s, rb b e r b b e r -
O= O . 904
rc c f c c
f
Th eorem 5 If on e o f t
h c e o lu m ns
( or r o ws
) h a s bi n om i a l
h d tm i t
.

tt
e le m e n s , e e er n an tm y a be exp r ess ed as a su m o
f w o

de tm i ti t
er h mn an s n e a n n er i llu s tt
d b l
ra e e ow .

al —
Fa '
a2 as a1 a2 a3 a
'
a2 a3
'
b 62 63 61 62 63
,
61 b 62 63
, ,
|
01 0 02 c3 ( 1) 01 02 03 (2) C 02 03 ( 3)
F or ea ch t er m of
( 1 ) i s t
h e su m of t
h c e o rr esp o n d in g t
er m s
' ’
2 an d Th u s ,
of
( ) ( a, a
) b c8 a , b,,c 3 a bg c g
tt y f t
2 .

'
Ob s e r ve h a ' '
h b b an o e nu m e rs a , ,
c m ay be 0 .

By p td re
pp l i c t
i ea ef t h i t
h a a on s o s eorem an y t
de er m i n an t
wi th p ly i l ol t y b
n om a e em e n s ma e r e so l v e d in to a su m of

d t i
e er m twi t h i pl
n an l ts s m e e em e n s .

’ ’ ’
“ 1 a 1 “ 2 a z “ 3 a s

p le p r es s t h e d et e r m i n an tbl b be b2
’ ’
Ex b3 b
’
E x am 1 3

e igh t det er m i n an t
.

as a su m of s cl . cl
’
C2 c g
’
C3
’
c 3

T h eorem f a d et
6 . er m i n a n t
Th e wi ll n o t
be c h a n g ed
v a lu e o

to t e le m en t f c t r e be a d d ed t
if h e s o an
y ol u m n
( or r ow
) h e h e

c or r esp o n d i n g e lem en t
s o
f an
y ot h e r c o l u m n ( or r ow) a ll m u lt i

p l i ed by t
h e sa m e n u m ber , as k .

Th u s, b y h t
t h e eo r e m s o f 905 , 9 06 , w e h a ve
a1 + ka 3 a2 as a1 a2 a3 ka 3 a2 a3 a, a2 as

b1 + k b3 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 kb3 b2 b3 bl b2 b3

cl -
l kc 3
-
02 c3 cl c2 03 kc 3 02 03 cl c2 c3

An d s i m i l a rly i n t
h c
an y o er as e .

I t
f ll w o o s f ro m thi th t
h t
s e o re m a a de tm ier n an t va n i sh es if
on e f it
o s r ows m y ba bti d by e o a ne a ddi n g m u lt
i pl e s o f an y

o f it s r em a n in g r o ws
i .
 A CO LLE G E AL G E BR A

1 3
p 10

4 . Pr o ve h t1
t a q q
3 = ( p — q) (q —r ) (r
1 r r3

(b c 2 ab
) ac

5 . Pro vo h tb
t a a (c a 2 ) be 2 a bc ( a b c 3.
)
ac bc ( a b) 2

MI NOR S . M ULT I PLI CAT I ON OF \DE T E RMI NANT S

Mi n ors t In an y de er m i n an t
A s u pp r e s s t
h e r o w an d c ol u m n
t t li t t
.

wh i ch c
tdi t
i
n
p i ls om e ar u ar e l em e n e h f es h an d en or m e

d t i
e erm tf t h n an o e r e m ai n i n g l
e em en twit h bi g
s ou s ur n

t h i l t
i
e r re a p i t
i ve os on s Th i s ne w d tm i ti c ll d t
e er h n an s a e e

c om p l em en t t t i q ti
.

a ry m i n or of h e el e m en e d n
y u es on an ma

b e d en o td by
e A 6
.

“ 1 “ 2 “ 3

Th u s ,
in A bl bz b3 t
h mi e n o r o f 01 is A
01 C2 C3

Theorem In t
h e exp a n s i o n o f an t
y de er m i n a n A h e s u m tt o
f
t tm t t
.

a ll h e er s wh i c h i n vo lve h e l ead i n g el em en a , i s a l Aa l .

“ 1 “ 2 “ 3 “ 4
b2 63 b,

fi2 fi2
1 [2 g 4
Th u s, i n th i s su m is a1 02 os c4
1 2 3 4

“ 1 “ 2 “ 3 “ 4 ( 1)

F o r, a p ar tf ig
ro m s n , e ac h t
er m of A wh i ch i n v ol ve s a1 is
f orm ed by m lt
u i p ly i g th m i n al by e le m en s tch o se n f ro m e re a n

i g
n w rod c l ms an f A f m ch i t
o u h w d by ns o on e ro ea n o er or s,

m lt tm f A M v t f t
, ,

i p ly i g
u by n a1 h ig a h er o or e o er e s n o e

At i t h t fthi A tm i c w it th l t t
.
al

erm s a i g
o b f s er s n e r n
'

al e or e e a er

t wi ll tff tt f t b c i p t Th
o, l ,

e rm h i no i ha ec e n ve r s o n s o e su s r s u s,

th tm f ( 1 ) m y b f m d by m l t
.

e er i p ly i g o a e or e u n a1

by th tm e erf C v ly th p d ct f byo on e r se e ro u o a,

ch tm f A i tm f A
,

ea er o s a er o .
 D E T E R M I NANT S AND E LI MI NAT I O N

Corol l ar y If e d en o tt h
es l m ti th it h
e e e en n e r ow a n d t
k h
t t t
.

c o l u m n of A, h e su m f
o l l h a m f A wh i c h
e er s o i n vo lve e is

F or we c an br i n g e tt
h p it
o i e os on o f l eadi n g e l e m e n wi th ou t t
t h
d i st u r b i n g l f t h l
e re a t
t wh i c h li
i p i
ve t
i os on s o e e e m en s e

ou tid f t
s h w e o d c l i wh i c he ro td n ly by an o um n n e s an s, am e

fi t i tc h gi g t tn d wi t
,

rs n h er w i wh i ch an nh ch p e ro n e s a s ea re

c di g w i t
e n rod t h n i tc h n g i g t
n h c l
u rn i an e n er a n e o um n n

whi c h td wi t h ch p c di g c l m
e s an s I c yi g t ea re e n o u n n a rr n ou

t
.

h cc i i t ch n g
e se s u f w
e s s ve d c l m nw m er ly a es o ro s an o u ns e er e

ch g t h
an ig ft eh d t m i n nt ( i
e s 1) ( k
n o 1 ) i + k e 2 e er a or

tim 902
es, H c if A d tt h d t m i n nt
. eni it fin l
e,
'
en o e e e er a n s a

f or m , we sh all h ave

A !
l) i +k —2 A l i +k
A
) .

By 9 10, t
h e su m o f al l t
h t e er m s i n A wh i c h in v ol v e
’
e is
eA e
'
H e n ce i n A h i s t su m is F or t
h e m i n or of

t tm i
.

e in A is he sam e as i s n or in A '

Thu s in t
h c e as e o f A | a1 bz Cg o h
] t
h e e le m en t
d g, fo r which i 4,
tt
t
,

k 3 , m ay b e b r ou gh h l o e e ad n i g p osi t
ion as fo l l ows

“ 1 “2 “ 3 “ 4 “1 “2 “3 “4 “ 3 “ 1 “2 “ 4
bl 52 53 b4 “ 1 “ 2 “ 3 “ 4 “ 3 “ 1 “ 2 “ 4

01 C2 Cg C4 C1 O2 O3 O4 O3 bl O2 O4
d l d2 d 3 d 4 ( 1) 61 C2 Cg C4 (2) Cs Cl 62 C4 (3)
By in t
er ch an gi n g t
h f t
h e ou r row o f
( 1) wi th t
h thi d e r c se on d , an d

ti t bt c t
,

fi rs w in u rn , e o a n ( 2) b efor e which we p la h mi
e e n u s s ig n b e c au se
o h t
ft h t
h t
i i e r ee, in t
e r ch a n ges o f r o ws
a s, 1,
Th en b y i n t e r ch an gi n g t he t hi rd c olu m n o f (2) wi t h t
.

h e s e c on d an d
fi r st in t u rn we o b t a i n ( 3 ) b efor e which we p l a c e t h e s am e s ign as t h at
b efo r e ( 2 ) b e c au se o f t he t wo t 1 int
,

h at is k er ch an ge s o f c o l u m n s

Th e m i n or o f (1 3 i n ( 1 ) i s t Hen c e t
, ,

h e sa m e as i t
.
,

s m i n o r in h e su m
o f al l the t e r m s o f ( 1 ) which i n vo l ve ( i s i s d 3 [a l b2 c 4 | .

T h eorem A d et er m i n a n tm a y be exp r es s ed a s t
h e s u m of t he
r odu c t t nt
.

p s o
f h e e l em e s o
f on e of i t
s r ows or c o lu m n s b
y th ei r
 A COLLE G E ALG EB R A

c om p l em en t
ar
y m i n ors , w i t
h ig s ns wh i ch a re t t
a l er n a el
y p l us

and m i n us, or m inus an d

p l us .

Th u s , i n t
he c a se of a d e t e r m i n an tf t
h f
o e ou r th o r de r

A al 62 03 d 4 W 6 h a Ve

A “ 1 Aa , a2 A 02
az
, A3 a
a4 A‘ a
.

For ea ch te rm t
inh e e x p an s i o n of A co n t
ai n s o n e an d but
on e of th l e e em e nt s a] a2 a s, An d, by 91 0, 91 1 , t
h e

f ll t
h t t
, ,

su m o a e er m s w h i ch i n v o l v e a1 is al A l, hea
su m o f al l

wh i c h i n v o l v e a2 is “ AW an d so o n .

I n l ik e m an n e r,

bl Abl 63 A?) 3 64 Ab4

al Aa l bl Abl Cl Al d l Ad l ’ a n d SO O D .

t
c

Cofac tors I ti s so m e im es m o re c o n ve n i e n tt
o wr i t e t
h e

t
.

p r e c edin g e x p r e ss i o n s for A i n h fe o rm

A “ 1 A1
'

t“
“ 24 2 "

i
‘
“ 3 1 43 "

i
“
“ 4 1 44

an d so on , wh er e AI A 1 , A2 A an d so o n W e th e n
t
.

h c f ct
0

c al l AI , A2 , e o a or s o f a l , a 2 ,

Thus ,
in

cl ( 12 as

bl b2 b3 t
h c e f ct
o a o rs o f a l , a2 , a s ar e

Cr 02 03

An y su m li k e b l Al b 2 A2 b 3 A3 b 4 A4, t by
ob a i n ed a dd ng i
t
h pe r od u ct
s o
f t
h tf
e e l em en s o on e r o w by h c f ct
t e o a or s f
o t
h e

c or r esp on di n g e l e m en s o tf t
h ano e r r ow, is ze r o .

F o r 111 A1 62 A2 bsA3 b, A4 de n o t es a de ti e r m n an t
wh o se

t
t t t t
,

las h re e r o w s a r e h e s am e as h o se o f A: | a1 b2 os d4 | b u
w h o s e firs tw i b bro s b, An d si n h t
ce bot h e fi rs tan d

f t
hi d t t tv n i h
,, 2, .

se c o n d r o w s o s e erm i n an a re 62 , 63 , b, , i a s e s,

9 03 . An d so i n g en e r al .
 A CO LLE G E AL GE B R A

is al 0, 0, t t t ti m i t
He n c e h i s d e t e r m i n an i s e q u al o a, es s

whi c h i th d t i tf t 1) t
,

mi n or, h ( s h d e e e rm n an o e n or er

Ob th t ch l
ser ve tf ( 3) i b ti d f t
a ea h e em en o s o a ne rom e c or

r es
p d i gon l t fnt h i f i ( )
1
e em e n b y m l t
i p l
o y i g e m n or o a1 n u n

t
h tl a t by
e em e n d f t
h l t b tc t i g th p d ct
a 1 an r om e r es u su ra n e ro u

of th c pe di g l ti t
or r es h fi tw on d tnh fi t e em en s n e rs ro an e rs

c ol u m n of

Th u s ,
by t
w o re d u ct
i on s of t
h ki
e nd just
d esc i b ed r ,
we h ave
2 2 —1 3
6 4 2
—2 3 —2
6 6 —4
2 —1 2 1
10 1 7
3 — 2 —2 1
1 —l 5 3
3 — 17 11

i ce
s n 2 -
1 —2 (

Wh en t
i g ele m en t
h l e i s 0 we b e gi n b y b r i n gi n g an o t
e ad n h er e l em en t
in t
o t i on b y t
h e l ea di n g p o si t h e m et h o d e x pla i n e d i n 91 1 .

E x am p l e . E val u a te ea ch of t
h f e o l lo w n i g de tm i
er n an s h ft
tb y b t h o o e

me t
h d j t
od c ib s us es r ed .

1 —2 3 4 1 —2 — 1 3
2 3 —4 2 2 4 0 —1
1 —1 2 3
’
3 5 2 3
'

0 2 —3 1 1 2 1 —3
t t
Mu l i p l i c a
i on of detm i n nt
er a Th e pr o du c o f w o de er
s t t t
t t t
.

h
m i n an s o f m d e sa e or er, A an d A , m ay b e e x p r es se d i n h e
'

f m f t
or h i d d tm i
o a tA bt i d r f ll w e er n an
”
o a ne as o o s

M lt
ip ly t
u h l tf t h ith w f A by th c
e e e m en s o e ro o e o r r es
p on d n g i
l tf t
e em e n s h kt h w f A
o Th f t h p
e ro o
'
e su m o e rod u ct
s t
hu s
i d i t ti th it d kt
.

bt A
'
"
o a ne h l s h w h c l m
e e e m en n e ro an o u n of

“ 1 “ 2 “ 1 91 “ 2 292 “ 1 91 “ 2 2
1 9
bl 92 9117 1 92 192 92 92

F or, by 906, t
h t
hi d d t
e r e e rm in an i t
t h s e su m of

“ 1 71 “ 1 91 “ 1 91 “ 2 2 “ 2 17 2 “ 1 1 “ 2 72 “ 2 92
1 1 9 9 1
9117 1 61 91 61 17 1 92 92 2) 9217 2 61 91 6217 2 62 92 (4)
 D E TE R MI NANT S AND E LI M I NAT I O N 5 07

Bu t
( )
1 an d
( )
4 ,
t
van i sh s i n c e h e i r c ol u m n s ar e p r op or t i on al ,

905 . An d ( ) (
s i m p li fy i n g 2 an d 3 ) by a i d o f 90 2 9 04 ,
an d ,

add i n g th e m , we h av e

“ 1 “ 2
°

2 62

17 1 292 P3
91 92 93

“ 1 91
1 “ 2 17 2 “ 329 3 “ 1 91 ‘
t '
“ 2 92 “ 3 3
9 “ 17 1 “ 37 s
'

91 10 1 92172 93193 91 91 92 92 93 93 927 2 b3 r 3

0 1 91
1 02 7 2
2
“

l
“
03 7 3
1 01 91 "

i
“
02
92 03
93 01 7 1 0 27 2 037 3

a s m ay be sh ow n by r e so l vi n g t
h t hi e rd de t e r m i n ant i n t o a

su m tm i twi t
of de erh im pl c l m
n an i t
s h m n j t s e o u ns n e an er us

i ll tt w il l b t w t ch d tm i nt
t
d
u s ra e Th y er e n e en -
s ev e su e er na s,

b t tw t t
.

u
y f th m h
en w
on e o h p p ti
e l c l mn av e o or r ee ro or on a o u s,

t
-

an d th f i h E ch f t
e r e or e v a n s h m i i g i i q l a o e re a n n s x s e ua o

t h d tm i t| b c l m l t
.

e e er n an ip l i d b yal t m f p g u e a er o r3

th t t
2 3 1 2

h i m i
[ l
'

so a e r b c su
p 9 s al 2 3
~
l 2 r3

Thi s p r oo f m ay e as ily b e g e n e r ali ze d .

Th e ru l e a b o ve g i v e n i s r ead i l y t nd e d
ex e td to e erm i n a nt s
of diffe r e n t o r de r s W e h a v e o nl y to be g i n by m aki n g th e ir
t t
.

o r d ers h e sam e by b or d e ri n g h e on e of l o we r or d er, 91 5 .

E XE R CISE LXXXIII
E val u a tt
eh f e oll o w n i g de tm ier n an t
s.

2 3 1 —2
g g g 0 1 2 2 1
—1
-

2 4
0 1 —1 -

2 1
7 2 4
0 2 3 1 —1
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

3 2 5 10 6 4 10
6 0 4 0 18 6 30 21
9 6 1 30 12 24 40 28
12 4 8 20 9 2 20 14

E x p r ess ea h e foll o w i n g p r o du c t
ch o f t s as a d e term i n a n t .

a b c b a 0 p 0 r a 0 c
5 . b c a a 0 b 6 .
p q 0 a
“

b 0
c a b 0 b a 0 q r 0 b c
a —a a a
-
b b b b a b
c c —c c c d
d d d —d

al ag a3 A1 A2 A3
9 . PI‘O VG t
h tC a 1 O2 O3 B l B 2 B3
Cl C2 ( 33 0 1 C2 C3

10 Pr o ve th t d tm i t d c titl d i g tm wh
a a e er n an re u es o s ea n er en

t t ti t
h id f t
.

h e e le m e n s a e h l di g d i g
er s l e o e ea n a on a a r e ze r o .

E LI M I NA I ON T . LI NE AR E QUAT I ONS

t
Sol u i on of a s y s em of t l i n ear equ a t
i n o s We ar e t o s o l ve t
h e

t t
.

f ol l o w i n g sy s e m o f e qu a i on s fo r x l , x 2, 93 3

“ 1 331 “

i
“
“ 21 2 “ 3 333 k
91 331 92 332 93333 l
0 1 7 51 “

i "
0 2 392 0 3 333 m

Le tA d t en o e a1 b2 Ca
l h d t
t e e erm i n an t of t
h c ffi c i
e oe en ts
91 3 l t
,

o f x l , x 2 , x 8 ar r a n g e d a s in an d, a s in A A e

tt
I,

f ct
, 2,

d en o eh c e o a or s of a l , a ,, in A
t t t t
.

To e li m in a e x 2 an d w e m u l i p ly h e fi r s t e q u a i o n by AI ,
t
h e se on d c by B 1 , t
h t e h i r d b y C l , an d add W e o b ain . t
( Ll / 1 1 £131 $2 ( 1 3 24 1 {
133 -
kA1
61 3 1 62 3 1 b3 B I Z BI
01 01 “

i
“
02 01 03 0 1

Buti t hi q t
i
n t
h c s e ua on e oe tf
ffi c i e n s o 33 2 an d x, a re 0,
91 4 ; t
h ffi c i tf i A
e c oe en o x1 s , 91 3 ; dth an e se o n dc m em be r
 A COLLE G E ALGEBR A

I f A an d al l t
h d e t
e e rm i n an t[k s 62 cs
l [ a1 l ] [
cg , al 62 m ]
t t t
,

v an i sh , h e i 4 i r e st r i c t i on h
e qu a on s
( ) m p o se no on e

v al u e s o f x l x2, x 3 In t
hi c s a se t
h gi e ve n e q u a t
i on s
( )
1 ar e n o t
t Th i t
,
.

in d e p e n d e n s f ol l o w s by 3 94, f ro m h e m ann er in
t
.
,

wh i c h ( )
4 were d e r iv e d from u n l e ss al l h e

m i n or s A1 , A2 , v a n i sh An d i f al l t
h e m in o r s v an i s h it
t h t t h t t
,
.

m ay r e a di l
y b e h q i ( )
s h o wn1 d i ff ly a e ree e ua on s e r on

by c tt f ct t
o n s an h tv y a l ti f
o r s, so ft h m i a e er so u on o on e o e s a

l t
so u i n fto h th ot w e o er o

lt y t
.

Th es e r e s u d ily g li d f
s are r e a m f q en e r a ze or a s s e o n e ua

ti i
on s nk w l t
n t
un no n e e rs

0 t
.

H m g
o li
o en eou s qu t i Wh k l
n earm h
e a on s en e

q t t t
,
.

e uai ( 1 )
on sf § 9 1 9 d c o
y m f h m g n re u e o a s s e o o o e e ou s

eq t uai i on s n m ly xl ,
x 2, x 3 , n a e

i
“
“ 2 372 “

l
“
“ 3333

91 92 x 2 93373
01 0 2 352 ‘ ‘
t 0 355 3

an d t
h e e qu a t
i on s
( )
4 of 91 9 b e com e
Ax 1 0, Ax 2 0, Ax 3 0.
( )
2

tt
E v id en ly h e e q u a i on s ( 1 ) h a ve h e sol u i on t t t x1 x2 x3 0,
an d i t
f o l l o ws fr o m ( 2 ) h a hi s i s h e o n ly ttt t s o lu t
i on u n l ess

A 0
t t
.

Bu if A 0, h e e qu a t i on s ( 1 ) ar e sa t i sfied by

“ 71 r A1 :x 2 77 42 , “ 3 TA3;
wh e re r m ay t y c tt wh t
d en o e an o n s an a so e v e r

b t
itt
i gt
.

F o r, su s h l i (1)
u d i n e se v a u e s n an s m p l i f y i n g , we h a v e
“ 1 141 “ 2 1 42 “ 3 4 43 O; 91 1 4 1 92 1 42 93 143 O;

0 1 1 41 C2 A2 0 3 143 O,

an dth t id t it
i
e se ar e th fi t b c ru e en e s, e rs on e e au se A 0 t
h e

oth t w b y 91 4
er Th
o thi g y b p d e s am e n ma e r o ve as f oll o ws
t c d d t hi d f t t
.

If w el h so ve h q ie se o n an r o e e ua on s
( )
1 for x1

and i t
x2 f w
n bti /A
e rm s o
/A x 3, e o a n xl 1 232 2 xz
, A
/ 3, o r, if
 D E T E R M I NANT S AND E LI M I NAT I O N

r d en o t e t
h t
h v
q l t
ie al u e of e se e ua ra o s, x 1 r Al , x2 r Az,
x3 A A d
r j th w i f A 0 th n as us s o n, e se v al u e s wi l l a l so

t h fi tf t
3.

i fy t t
,

sa s h q i e rs o e e ua on s

F thi
r om d p f itf ll w th twh
s s e c on r oo o o s a e n A 0

h t
t i t
h mi
a s, e n o rs of c o r re sp on d i n g elem e n ti t
hs n e r o ws o f

A ar e
p roti plo r on a Iti s as su m e d h t
t th a e se m in o r s are n o t
0
t t ft t
. .

Fr o m h y e s s em o h re e n o n -
h o m o g e n eo u s e qu a i on s in x, y
: 0
a 1x + az
y+ a3

bl x bzy b3 0
c 1x + c2
y + c3 = 0

t
we m ay d er i ve h e h o m o g e n eo u s sy s em ( 1 ) o f § 921 b y t sub

t
tt
s i u in g x x1
/ x3,
y x2
/ x 3 a n d c l e ar i n g o f f r a c i on s t
t t h t
t t t
.

He n ce A 0 is h c e on di i on h a e e qu a i on s h av e a

c om m o n s ol u t
i on .

E XE R CI SE L XXXIV
So l ve h e tf o ll o w n i g sy st
em s of e qu a t
i on s b y de tm i
er n an s t .

2x + 3y —5 z z 3, 2x + 4y —3 z z 3,

x 2 . 3x

8 x — 2 y —9z z 4 .

2x
‘
-
4y + 3 z +4t
+5t
ax by cx d,
3x —2 y + 6 z
2
3 . a x b9y /
022 d2 ,

a 3x bi g
t2
3
0 3 ( 13.
x — l oy — 3 2 — 7 z .

Sh o w h t
t th f ll
a e o ow n i g sy s t en t
i o n s a re c on s i st
e m s o f e qu at an d so lve

t t
,

h m e fo r t
h ie ra os x y z .

x 2
+ y — z : 0,

5 . 3x 6 .

7 . F or wh a tl va u e s o f t
A ar e h e fol l o w i n g e i on s c o n s i st
qu a t en t

4x 3y z Ax,
3x
x 7 y 6 z Ax .
 A COLLE GE ALG E BR A

RE S ULT ANT S

R esu l t
tnt
a t tf t ws By h e r es u l a n
q ti n f( ) 0 d o o e ua o s x an

t t tt t t f t tf
.

q ( )
x 0 i sf c i
m e anh c ffic i
h a i n e g r al un on o e oe en s o

f ( ) d q ( ) wh
x an i hi g i t
!
) xh n c y d ffi c i e t
o s e v an s n s e e e s s ar an su n

c di t
on i t h t
f( ) 0 d 4 ( ) 0 h v
on a c t
x an ) x a e a om m o n ro o .

Th u s t
h e r es u l an ttf o a 0x2 alx a2 0 ( 1) an d x b 0 ( 2) i s
t qu at
,

a ob
2 al b a2 ; for w h en a ob2 4
1

al b az 0, h e e i on s ( 1) an d (2 )
h ave t
h c e om m o n ro o t
b .

Th e r e su l ttf an o an y tw o e qu a ti o n s f (x ) 0 q t
( )
x 0 m ay
ti d b y t t t t
,

be o b a ne e li m i n a i g n x b y h e f oll o wi n g me h od d u e o
Sy l v e s t er

fi t t
.

To x h id e e as, le
3 2
f (x) a 0x alx a zx a3
(1)
2
1 (x )
<; box bl x b2 0 .
( )
2

t
M u l i p l y ( 1 ) by x an d 1, an d 2 b
( ) y x
”
x , an d1 su cc essi vely
bt
, .

We o ai n
, 3 z
a“ a 1x a zx a ax 0,
3 2
a ,,x a 1x a 2x a3 0,
4 8 2
box bl x b2 x 0,
8 2
box bl x bx 0,
2
box 31 3 b, 0 .

Th e se m ay b e r eg ar de d as a sy s em o f fi ve h o m o gen e o u s t
t t 4 3
l i n e ar e q u a i on s i n h e fi v e q u a n i i e s x , x , x , x , 1
2
H e n c e, t
t
t t
.

92 1 , t h ey c an n o h a ve a c o m m o n s ol u i on u n l ess

a0 a1 0 2 a3 0
0 a
o
al a2 a3

D : bO b, b, 0
,
0
0 b,, bl
-
b2 0
0 0 b0 b1 b2

H en c e ( 3 ) i s h e t c y c dit i th t( )
1
n e es sa r d 2
( ) h v on on a an a e a

com m on r oo t It i l t
h fil i t
‘ c di ti
s a so F tt he su c en on on or o e

t f D dd t h fi t
. .

fif h c ol u mn o f c l
a m l t i p l i d by
e
‘
rs our o um ns u e x ,
 A CO LLE G E AL G EB R A

By t
h p e re c e di n g me t
h d it
ho e er of t
h e un kn o w n l e t
t ers

x,
y m ay b e el im in a td fe r om a p a i r o f al e br ai
g c e qu a t
i f
on s o

t
h f e orm f (x , y) z 0, <1) ( x , y ) : 0 .

E x am p le . So l ve x2 2y x z 0, ( 1)
2 x2 (2)
We m ay r e a r d g ( 1) a n d ( 2 ) a s q u ad r a t ic s i n x, ( 1 ) wi t
h he tc oef
fi ci e n t
s

1, 1, 2 y 2, a n d (2 ) w it ht h e c o e ffici e n ts 2 0, 5 y2 3g
t tf i m in at
, .

Hen c e h e r e su l o el in g x is

1 —1 2 y2 0
O 1 1 — 2 y2
2 0 — 5 y‘2 —
l—3 y 0
0 2 0 — 5 y2 + 3 y

which wh en ex p a n d ed an d s i m p l i fie d gives

Sol vi n g we ob a n ti y z 0, 1 , 1, 6
t t
.

I f ll o o ws fro m 92 4 t
h t
wh a en y h as an y o f h ese val u e s ,
(1 ) an d (2)
ar e s a t
i fi s ed by t
h e s a m e va l u e o f x An d In f ctwh
a en y z 0, (1) an d

have t tz 0
.

(2) b e c o m e as2 x z 0, 2 x2 z 0, which h e c om m o n r oo x wh e n

y z 1, (1 ) an d
(2) b e c o m e x2 hich h ave t he x 2 0, x2 1 : 0, w
c o m m o n ro ot x z 1 x 2 a n d x2 l h ave t
s i n c e x2 h e c o m m o n fa c tor

x + 1 § 8 53 ; a n d s o o n
,
We t h u s fin d t hat t h e so l u t
. i o n s o f ( 1 ) an d ( 2 )
a re x y z 0 0 ; 1 1; 2 1 ; 9 6 T h e v a l u e s o f x m a y also b e fou n d
fro m t
, , , , ,
.

h o se o f y b y app ly i n g 925 (c o m p ar e 926 ,

Thi s e x am p l e il l us tt t
h f ct
ra es th t
if t
h e a a e r e su l tf o e l im i
na t
i g n x f ro m f (x y) z 0 an d qS (x , y ) z
0 i s R ( y ) z 0, an d o n e
ft t t
.

o h e ro o s o f B (y) 0 is B h c e o r r e sp o n di n g v al u e o r v al u e s

bt t
h h igh t
,

of x ~al w a c m
c an ys be o a i n ed by fi n d i n g e es o m on

f a ct
or of f x
( B) an d B) Usu a hi h i gh t
l ly t c mm s es o on

f ac t th fi t b t
,
.

o r will b e d g of e rs e r ee , wh e n u l f wi l l
on e va u e o x

c o r r e sp o n d ty B B ti tm
o u ay be of a hi g h e r d e g r e e , an d

t t ty B
.

h n e m or e h an o n e val u e o f x w ill c o r r e sp o n d o

t tt S t tb
.

Prop er t
i es of h e r es u l a n u pp o s e a a i
p r of e q i ua on s o e

t
.

g i ven of h f e or m

f( )
m
+ +
n
x a
c x
 DE TE RMI NANTS AND E LI MI NATI O N 515

Le t a de n ot e an y ro o t of f( ) x z 0 an d B an y r oo t of

t
, ,

¢ (x ) 0 Th e r e will b e m n diffe r e n ce s of h f e o rm a,
Bk ;
t tt t
.

le II ( a
Bk) d en o h i e e r p r od u c
t t
.
,

E v i de n ly H ( a , Bk) 0 i s h e n e c e ss ary an d s u ffi ci en t c on

tt
d i i o n h at o n e o f t
h e roo s a t bet ft e q u al
h t o on e o e r oo s Bk
y m tic i t
.
,

M o r e ov er si n ce H is a s g l f
m ct i e r n e ra un o n of

t t Bk i t l i t
,

h e r oo s or , an d o f
t h e roo s t i ti g l f s a ra on a n e ra un c
t t
,

i on of h c e oe ffic i e n t s of f (x) 0 an d 0, 8 67 , 8 6 8
tt
.

H e n c e, i f R ( f, den o h e e r es u l t ant of f( ) x : 0 an d

¢ (x ) O, 92 3, we h av e

R U ;
n ( “ i
Bk )
Th e p r o d u c t II ( a .

, Bk ) m ay b e wr i t t en

31 }
1
3 2)
, B) ?u

31 ) 32) B) ?u

( , 2) (
a
m B (
) “ 1 m 8 “
m

ti c 4 ( ) ( B) (
Bu s n e ) x x x B) ( x t
h p e ro du c t
ft h fi tw i t
,

h f ct i t
2

o e a or s n e rs ro s qS( a 1 ,) in h c
e se o n d r o w

an d s o o n . H enc e

n ( “ ‘
z

Ag a i n si n c e f (x) ( x ( rl
) (x x a
) t
h p e r o du ct
t
h f ct h fi t
t t
, m ,

of e a or s in c l e rs o umn is f ( B) 1 , in h e se o c nd
c ol u m n an d s o on . He n ce
H (“ i 8 k)
1
1) n m
f ( 3 1 ) f ( fi2 )
1 f ( B) n

W h en t
h g iv e en e qu a ti on s h av e h e tf or m

-
+ um 0,

th t i
a wh s,t
h l d i g c ffi c i t
en t h p d c tf
1 t e ea n oe e n s ar e n o e ro u o

t th fi t w i ¢ ( ) /b d t
,

h f ct
e a i or s n d ; h e rs ro s a l 0, a
n so on an e

p dro c t
uf th f c t oi t
h fi tc l ie f (B ) a o rs n e rs o um n s

H c i t tm k II ( B) i tg l
1

and so o n hi c. en e, n s as e , o a e a , , an n e ra
51 6 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

fu n c ti ft
on o h c ffi c i t f f ( ) e oe en s o x 0 an d qb ( ) x 0 we m u st
mu ip ly i t
lt b y ser W th h v u . e en a e

R ( f: “ ibb n
f ( i “ 33 )
1

“ 52 ( G 1 ) 2 '

i
<>

“6 ‘
w f ( fiz) ’

In t
h e r es uttf l an o a
p a i r of e q u a i o n s f ( x ) t 0, ¢ (x ) 0
t
h e c oe fii c i en tf f ( )
s o x t
0 en er i n h e d eg r e e of t 4) ( x ) 0, and

c
vi e ver s a .

F or t
h p t e ro du c c t in f ct on a s m a or s

ea ch i l i g t h c ffi c i t f 1 ( )
n vo v n 0 tt h fi t d g
e oe ; en s o <; x o e rs e ree

an d th p d ct e f ( B ) f ( B) f ( B ) c t
ro u i f ct ch ~ on a ns n a or s, ea

v l i gt h c ffi c i t f f ( ) 0 tt h fi t
1 2 n

in o v n e oe d g en s o x o e rs e re e

W t t t t d t i
.

he h us h p f h t h
a v e an o t D d c ib d er ro o a e e erm n an es r e

in 9 2 4 92 6 i t h l tt f f ( ) 0 d a( ) 0 t h t
“

s e r e su an o x an x a

th t
, ,

i s, D a R (f ,

Th e su m f
o t h b c ip tf t
e su h s r s o e c oe fii c i en t
s o
f f (x ) 0 and

O in ea c h tm f R ( f
er i o ,
s m n .

F o r , by 8 1 2, i f w e m u l i p ly e a ch c o effi c i en t o f f (x ) an d t
¢( ) y
x b h e p o w e t
r of r i n d i c a e d b
y i s s u b s c r i t, w e o b a i n
p t t t
t
w o e qu a t
i on s

m 1 2 m 2 m
f (x ) 0,
‘
"
' “

, a ox ra lx r a 2x r am

—l 2 n _ 2
93 1 65 ) 9033 Tbi x 92 33 a 0,
" n
l i 7
' '
“ “ “ "
7

wh o se r oo s are rt t i m es t
h e r o o s of t f(x) 0 an d ¢ (x) 0
t tt
.

E a ch er m of R ( f1 oSI ) w i ll b e e q u al h c o r re s p on d i n g

t
o e

t t
,

t er m of R f )
i p l i d by p w
c f whm ul
p i e a o er o r o se e x o n en s

t f t b c ipt f t h c ffi c i t f f ( )
,

h e su m h o e su d qS( )
s r s o e oe en s o x an x

wh i c h cc i t h t
o ur H c n t
h mi d m
e ttd
e rm en e ou r e or e s e o n s ra e

y t t ti B t
.

if w h w th t i
e c an s o hi p a n e ve r er m s ex o n en s m n u

inc t f ct i t h p d ct
.

s h e e r e a re m n H( Bk ) w h v
a or s n e ro u a
,
e a e

tv
,

a) a m e n s we.) R (
 A COLLE G E ALGE BR A

s am e d e g r ee i n xl x2, x3 Th u s, x
3
xy y 1 0 b e c om e s
t3
,
.

x i x l x zx s “ 2 33 x 9 0
t t
“

h th
“

t
'

O b se r v e al s o a a om o g e n e o u s e q u a tion of h h d g
e n e ree

in x 2, x 3 wh i c h i tdi s no vi s i b le by x3 de t e r m i n es fi it l
n n e va u e s

of t
h e ra tio x2
/ x3 . Th u s , fr o m x 3 3 x 2x 3 2 x 3 0 w bt in e o a

= 1
x2
/ x3 or 2 .

t Le an d

d tt w
en o e o equ a t
i wh
on s ose degr e es ar e m an d n r e sp e c t i v ely
If t th t t tit t
.

h y i n v o l ve an d h by bs i g
"
' "
e e e rm s x x en su u n

ct c ll ct
,

x x1
/ x 3, y z xz
/ x g, c l e ar i n g of fra i on s, an d o i g e n

tm er s, we c an r edu ce t
h tt
h em o e for m
1
F (m l a
x 2, x 3
) “ c a3
n
i “ 1 33 i
n _
“ m O) ( )
1
(b
( xi y
x2 ) 503
) box i bl
_ 1
b O) 2
( )
wh e r e th
ea ch
c ffici t of b b e d t oe en s a1, m
‘

en o es a

f ct f t i di c t d by i t
, o, l,

h m g
o o i
en e o u s f h d gun on o x2, x3 o e e ree n a e s

su b c i p tH c R t
s r h ltt f ( 1)
en d ( 2) wi t
e h p ct t e r e su an o an r es e o

f ct ft
,
.

xl i h s ag om o i f e n eo u sh d g 930 un on o x 2, x 3 o e e r ee m n,

92 8 t ffi c i t c dit th t
, .

By h c y d e ne i 1
( )
e ssa rd an su en on on a an

2
( ) b ti fi d b
e sa y t h sm le f i t h t e sa e va u e o x1 s a

6)
I f R is no tdi vi s i bl e by x 3, t
h en R 0 is sa ti sfie d by m n

t
fin i e v al u e s of x z
/ x3 or y , § 9 33 If B den o t e an y on e of

t t t
.

h e se v al u e s, h e e qu a i on s f( x, B) : 0, ¢ (x , B) : 0 h av e a

c om m o n roo t d an if t
hi s r oo tb e a t hen x a,
y B is a

t
, ,

so l u
i on of f( x,
y) z 0, ( I) (x y) 0 ( c o m p ar e M o r e ov e r
it b t
h t t tf R t
,

c an e sh o w n a o ea ch si m ple r oo o 0 th e r e h us

c orr esp on d s a s i n g l e sol u ti n f f( o o x,

y) 0, qS( x , y ) z 0 ; an d
t
h t t lt
a i plo a m u e r oo tf do or er r of R t
z 0 h e r e c orr e sp on d
r l t i
so u f f( on s o x, y) 0, d> ( x , y ) : 0, al l d i ffe r e n t o r s om e
:

ft h l H en ce f x , y
( ) 0 ave m n fin i e t
o q em e ua <1
)
( x,
y ) 0 h
l t
.
,

so u i on s

t
.

I f R i s di v i s i b l e by x 5 th e n R 0 is sa i fi s ed by o n ly

t t
,

u fi n i e v al u e s o f
mn ,
. x2
/ x3 or y ,
an d h e re ore f f (x , y) 0,
 D E T E RM I NANT S AND E LI M I NA T I O N 51 9

¢ (x , y ) 0 h a ve on l
y m n u fin i t e s ol u t i on s Bu ti s n ce
t
.

an d wh e n b o th
x x1
/ x3 y xz
/ xg, x3 0 ei h er x or y or

x an d y are i n fin i t e We t
h e r e ore f s ay in t hi s c ase t h at
t t
.

f( y)
x, 0, ¢ ( x , y )
: 0 h a v e p i n fin i e s o l u i on s
t t t
. .

I f h e g i ve n e q u a i on s ( x,
y ) 0 ¢ ( x, y
) 0 l a kf h e x
m
c
t t t t
,

an d x e r m s , w e c a n t r an s f o r m h e m , b y a su b s t i t u i o n o f h e
"

form y y '
t
c x , i n o e q u a t i o n s o f h e s am e d e g r ee s wh i h h av e t c
t
h tm
e se er s By w h th a as j us tb p e en ro ved th t e r an s o r m e d
f
q t t
.

'
e i uai on s y w i l l
n x, h a v e m n s o
’
l u t i on s B u x a
, y B if
t t t
.

b e an y o n e o f h e s e s ol u i o n s, h e n x a,
y B c a i s a sol u

ti o n o ff ( x , y ) 0, gs ( x , y ) 0 Hen c e f (x , y ) 0, ( l) ( x , y ) 0
t
.

a l so h av e ru n s o lu i on s

t c ed i n g di s c u s si on i t i s a ssu m e d t h atR d oes n o t

.

In h p e re

v an i s h i d e n t
i c al l y I f R d oe s t h u s v a n i s h f ( x y) an d a( x y )
h av e a c o m m on f a c t or an d t
.
, , ,

h er e f o re f ( x y ) z 0 y) 0
tly m t
, ,

h a v e i n fin i e an
y s o lu i on s

t
.

W e th e r e f o re h av e h th e e o r em

If f ( x , y ) a n d y) are
f t h e d eg r ees In a n d n r esp ec
o

ti ve ly a n d h a ve n o c o m m on fa c t
or t
h e eq u a ti on s f ( x , y ) = 0,
,

q ( , y)
5 x = 0 h a ve m n s ol u t
i on s .

E XE R CI SE L XXXV
1 t t
By h e m e h d o of 924 , 92 5 show t h atth e e q u at
i o n s 6 x2 + 5 x
c o m m on r o ot a n d fin d t hi s r oo t
.

an d 2 x3 x2 9x 9 z 0 h a ve a .

2 . t
F or mh l ttf e r e su an o
‘
a ox2 al x (1 2 z 0 an d box2 bl x b2 0 .

3 . Fi d t
hn lttf b
e r e su an o ax3 x2 cx d 0 an d x3 1 .

4 . By th m t
h d f 931 fi d t
e h di
e o o n e s r s of t
c i m i n an t h e e qu at
i on s
( 1)
5 By ai d o f 93 1 Sh ow t
h t a x3 x2 8 x 12 0 h as a d ou b l e roo t
t t
.

an d fin d hi s roo .

6 . t
Solve h e foll o wi n g pair of e q u at
i on s b y t
h m t
h d e e o of 92 7 .

x2 — 3 xy + 2 y 2 — l 6 x — 2 8 y = 0,
x2 — xy — 2 y 2 — 5 x — 5 y z o .
 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

XXX I I . C O N V E R G E N CE O F I N FI N I TE SE RI E S

DE FI NI T I ON OF CONVE R GE NCE

I n fin i t e s eri es If “ 1 , u z, “ m de n o t e s an
y g i ve n n e v er
t
.

e n d in g s e q u e n ce of n u m b er s ,
1 8 7, h e ex p r e s s i o n
u 1 + u2 + u

is c al l e d an i n fin i te s e r i es
( c o m p ar e

For u 1 u2 we m ay wr i tE
e u r ead su m of u t o

t
,

y
’
i n fin i
tt
.

Th e ser i e s Eu i s c al l e d r ea l wh e n al l i s erm s u l , u 2 , a re

t ttm it t
,

r e al ,
p os i i ve wh e n al l i s er s ar e pos i ve I n wh a f ll
o o ws

t
.

we Sh all c o n fin e l
o u r se v e s o r e al s e r i e s .

A i
se r e s is o ft
e n gi ve n b y m e an s of a fo rm u l a fo r i tt
h tm
s n er u n.

Thu s ,
if Vi i / (n t
h e se r e s i is

So m e t
im ch
es su a fo r m u l a i s i n d ic at in g t
e d b y wr i t h e fi r stt
h r ee or fou r
tm
er s of t
h e se r i e s . Thu s i n , 1 4 + 1 3 4 6 - - - o
we
h a ve nu -

( 2 n -
4~ -
2 n .

Converg enc e an d di v erg enc e Le t

S d tth en o e e su m o f t
h fi t
e rs

t t th t
.
n

n er m s of h e se ri e s u 1 u2 8so a 1 “ 1; 52 u , u 2,

an d i n g e n e r al Sn u 1 u2

As n i n c re a se s, 8 , w i ll tk a e su cc e s siv ely t
h v e al u es u l,

u 1 u 2, u 1 u2 u 3, a n d on e o f t
h f e o l l o wi n g c a se s m u st

p r e se n t
i tl f se ,
n am e l
y

S, w il l ch
a pp r o a so m e fin i t e n u m b er as l im i t,
S, wi ll ap p r oa ch i n fin i ty ,
S, will b e i n d e t er m i n at e .

In t
h fi t
cet
h rs a se e s e ri e s u l u2 is s aid tb o e c on ver

t t t
c

g en t d l im S
an is c a ll e d i s su m In h e c nd
se o an d hi d r

t tb t
.
, ,

c a se sh i e se r e s is s a id o e di ver g en
c o nve r g e n t it
t
.

Wh e n u 1 u2 is we m ay r e p r e s e n s su m

tS = ti
,

l i m S”, by S an d wr i e u 1 + u2 + m ,
th a s, w e m ay
 A COLLE G E ALG E B R A

t gi
Th u s if h e ve n s er e s i be u1 u2 an d g 1 , 92 , d en o tt
h e e su m s

f itfi t
tw t t t tm t
,

o s rs o erm s , i f
s n ex ou r er s , an d s o on , h e ser es i gl g2
w i ll h av e t
h e s a m e su m as u 1 uz

F or if an d en o tt
h l t
e tm e as er in t
h g e ro u p g m , we h ave

an d t
h t
w e o m em b e r s o f t
hi s e qu a t
i on a pp r o ach t
h e sa m e li m i t
as m an d

t
h e r e fo r e n is i n d efin it
e l y i n c r e as e d .

In t
h e s am e m an n e r i tm y b a e s h o wn t h at a d i ve r g en t
p osui ve i
s e r es

r em a n s i d i ve rg e n t
wh en i ttm
s er s ar e g r o u p e d .

We m ay t
h er e or e f in td
ro u ce t
p ar en h e se s a w i ll i n a c o n t
ve r g e n t se r i e s I t
i s a l so a ll o w a b l e t
o r e m o ve t h e m u n l e ss, a s

t t lt t
.

in h f e o ll o wi n g e x a m l
p e, h e r e su i g n se r i e s i s d i ve r g e n .

Th e c o n ve rge n tse r i es § 93 6 , m a y b e w r i t
ten

( 1 71 1) l i
( ,r 1) (1; 7 1) Bu th er e i t is n o t
a ll o wa b l e t o

r e m o ve p ar e n t
h e s es s i n c e I ]? 1 l } 1 1% 1 i s d i ve r ge n t.

I ti s so m e t
i m e s p o s s ib l e tfi d t
oh n e su m of a se ri e s by t
h e

r e m o v al of
p a ren t
h e se s .

Thus ,
t
h e su m of l / 1 -
4+ - ~ is 1 .

1 1 1
1 2 2 -
3 n (n + 1 )
l I
< nc 2
1
1 2 2
-

3
+
n n +1 )
1 1 1 1 1
1
1 2 2 3 n +1
1
He n c e S i i l I l Sn li m
< 1
u +1

E x a m le p . F ind t
h e su m of t
h e se r es i wh ose n h tm
t er un is 1 / n (n
R em i
a n der a ft
er 11 tm
er s If t
h e se r i e s u 1 u2 1 i
( ) s
c on ve r g e n th at
t rt t t t
.

p o i on of h e s er ie s wh i ch f o l lo ws h h
e n

t g t
,

e rm n am e l y , u
H
u wi ll al s o be c on v e r en

tR d tt ti ll d t
, , " , 2 ,

§ 938 Le h en o e e su m of I s ca e h e

ft t
.

r em a i n d er a f er 11 er m s o

E v id en t
ly l i m R 0 ,,
.
 CONVE RG E NCE O F I NFI NI TE SE RI E S

POSI T I VE SE RIE S

T h eorem 1 Ap os i t
i ve s e r i es u 1 u2 is c on ver g en t
if as

t
.

fin it
' ,

11 i n c r e a s es ,
Sn r e m a i n s a lwa
y s l es s h a n som e e n u m ber 0 .

F or si n ce t
h e s er i e s i s p o si ti v e, S c o n t i n u ally i n c r eas e s as
ti t t t
n

n i n c r e a se s Bu rem ai n s le ss h an 0 He n c e , § 1 92, i
§ 937 t t
. .

ap p ro a che s a l im it . Th e r e f o r e, h , e s er i es is c on v e rg e n .

Th eorem 2 .t gi Le t u , u2 1
( ) d eno e a ven
p os t
i i ve s e r i es ,

and l t
e al d t p it
i a2 en o e a os ve ser i es kn o wn tb o e

c o n ve r g t Th
en . i c g t i e s on ver en n an
y o f t
h c e a s es

1 . Wh c h tm f ( 1 ) i l
en e a t
h t
h c er o s ess an e or r esp on di n g t
em r

o f
2 t h t
Wh en
i f c h tm f ( 1 ) t c di g
j e ra
p o o ea er o e or r es on n

tm f ( 2) i l t m fi it m b
.

1
er o h s es s an so e n e nu e

3 Wh i.
( )
1 th t
i
en f c h n h i m m d i tly e ra o o ea e e a e

p c d i
re e
g t m i l n th t
h c erp d i g ti i s es s an e or r es on n ra o n

1 F o r le tS d en o t e t
h e su m of t
h fi t e rs n t erm s of

t tt ft
.
,,

u1 -
u2 an d l e A de n o h e e su m o h i e s er e s a 1 a2

If ul a ,, u 2 a 2, we sh al l a l w ay s h av e S, A H en ce
c o n v e rge n t 944
.

u 1 u2 is ,
.

2 . F 0 1‘ If a

,
t h en “ 1 c a l , 152

Th e r ef o r e , si n c e ca 1 ca 2 + o
is c o n ve r g e n t 93 9, h e t se r i es

t
,

u l u2 is c on v er g e n by 1
, .

“ 2 “ 3 “ 3
3 . F or if
“ 1 “ 2 “ 2 “ 3

I tf l l o o ws fro m t
h e se tt ch
i n e q u al i i e s
h t a ea of t
h e ra ti o s
/
a z a z, u a a 3 ,
/ i s l ess t
h th fi it m b
an e n e nu er u l /a l Th e r e

g nt
.

f o re u1 u2 is c o n ve r by 2 e , .
 A CO L LE G E ALG E B R A

I tf ll o o ws fr om th tt
h 93 8 a e sa m e c o n c l u si o n s c an be
d r a w n if a n y on e o fth l ti 1 2 e re a on s 3 h o ld s g ood fo r al l bu t
t fth t ms f t
, ,

a fin i e n um be r o h e er o e s er i e s
( )
1 an d

E x a m p le . Pr ove t
h t a

(1)
is c o n ve rgen t
b y c o m p ar i n g i t ht
wi t ge om et
h e c o n ve rgen t r ic s er i es

-
2 (2 )
by ea ch of t
h m t
h d
e e o s 1, 2, 3
i rst E a ch tm tt h t
t
.

F er of ( 1) af e r h e s e on d c i s l e ss h c an e orr es p on d i n g
tm c on ver g en tb y
.

er of He n c e ( 1 ) i s 1
t h tm
i ft tt p nd i g tm f
.
,

Se c o n d Th e ra os o h c e er s of (1 ) o e or r es o n er s o

fi i t H c ( 1) i c g t
.

n a m el y , 1 , 1, 2 4 by 2 are n e en e s on ve r en

t f th tm f ( 1 ) tth im m d i t
.
, .
,

T h i rd Th e ra i os o ly p c d i g
e er s o o e e a e re e n

tm h t
t p di g t
.

er s , n a m el y , l h c i are ess an e o r r es on n ra os

in n a m ely , H c ( 1) i c g tb y 3 en e s o n ve r en , .

T h eorem 3 Le t 11 1 t gi p i t
11 2 i i ( )
1 d en o e a ven os ve s er es ,

t t
.

a n d l et bl b2 2 d t i i i k w b
( ) p en o e a os ve s er es no n o e

di ver g e n tTh e s e r esi ( )

1 i d i g ti y f t
h c s ve r en n an o e a s es
°

tm f (1 ) i g t t t
.

1 Wh en ea ch er o h h c p di g s r ea er an e o r r es on n

tm
.

er of
2 t t
h t
i f en e ra o o ea ch tm er o f (1 ) tt
h o e c or r esp on d i n g

tm t t m p it
.

er o
f ( 2) i s g r ea er h a n i mb so e os ve nu er 0.

3 Wh en in ( 1) he r a i o t t f ch tm tt h i m m di t
ly o ea er o e e a e

tm tt t
.

p r ec ed i n g er is g h h c
r ea er
p di g ti i an e or r es on n ra o n

Th e p r oo f t
hi t h m whi c h i of
i il tt h t g i n i
s e o re s s m ar o a ve n

t tt td nt
,

945 , i s l e f h o e s u e

T t i Th p c t fth p c d i n g tt
.

es s er es ic l f l e ra a u se u n e s s o e re e e s s,

id t
.

94 5 946 ly d p d ev p i g tt i
en e en s on ou r o s s e ss n es s er es

w tb c di v g t Th m t
, ,

k no n g o t e o n v er i p t t en or er en e os m o r an

ft tt i i t h g m t
.

o h e se es ic i
s er e s s e eo e r se r e s a ar ar
2

wh i ch h b h w as § 7 04 tb c v g t wh
e en s o 1 n, o e on er en en r

ly d i v g t
, ,

and wh i c h i b i wh
s o 1 An t h
v ou s y er en en r > o er v er

i c b l tt i i t
.

se rv ea h f l l wi g
e es ser e s s e o o n .

Th i 1 1 /2 1 /3 1/ i g t
p p
e s e r es np s c on ver en

wh en p 1 , d i verg en t
wh en p 21 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Appli ca i on s of t t
h p e t
rec edi
h ng eorem s Th e f oll owi n g e x am

till tt t t
h t
.

p l es w ill se r ve o u s ra e h e u se u l f n ess of h e e or e m s o f

94 5, 946 .

p
E x am le 1 Sh ow t h at 2
. 3 4 is c on vergen t .

It i s c o n verg en t b e c a u se i ts te r m s aft er t he fi rs t ar e less t h an the

er m s o f t
c orresp o n d i n g t h e c on ve r g en tse r i es

945 , 1 .

E x am p l e 2 . Sh o w t
h t
l a i s d i ve rg en t
.

Th e ra t
i fth tm
os o e er s of t
hi s se r e s i tt
h c o e or r es p on d in g t
er m s of t
h e

d i ver ge n ti 1se r es n a m e ly 1,
er t
gr e a t
,

n l), ar e a ll h an He n c e I
d ive r g en t§ 946
, , 2 .

E x am pl e 3 I s t h e ser i es i n w hich a ,, (2 n 1 ) / (n 3 n ) c on vergen t

d i ve r g en t
it
.

or is
2 n +1 n 2 + l /n 1 2 + l /n
Her e an
n
3
+ n n3 l —
l l /n
-
2 —
— l
4 / n
2

Hen c e h e t t i f ra o o an tl /
o pr essi on
n2 is (2 l / n 2) , an ex

fi i tf
which i s n e o r a val u es o f n an d which a pp r o ach es t
ll e lim it
h e fin i t
Bu tl / n2 is t he nt h t of t h e c on ve rg en t
,

2 as n i n c re ase s e rm s e r i es

Th e r efo r e t
h e gi ve n s er i e s i s c o n ver g e n t 945 2
.

{
1 1 , ,
.

t t
By h e m e h o d e m p l oy e d i n E x 3 , i m ay b e p r o ve d h a i f t tt
t
.

a ,, h a s h e form a n f(n ) n , wh e r e
( ) f ( )
n an d ¢ n
( ) d e n o te

i ntg l f n ct
e i
ra u on s of n,th i i ce se r e s s on ve r g e n t wh e n t
h e

d e g r ee o f <; 1 (n ) c
e x ee d s t
h t f f ( ) by m
a o n or e t h an 1 o th erwi se,
t
h t
iti di
a s ve rg en t .

E x a m pl e 1 . Sh o w h t
t th f a e o ll o w n i g s er i es a r e c on vergen t .

1 1 1 2 4 6
1 + 2
4 23
-
3 -
5 6 -

( 3) a ( a + b)
1 1 1
i
E x am pl e 2 . Sh o w t
h t
th f ll
a e o ow n i g ser i es ar e d i ver ge n t .

l 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2

1 1 1 2 3 4
( 3> (4 )
V2 3 4
 CO NVE R G E NCE or I NFI NI T E SE R I E S 5 27

E x a m p le 3 Writ e ou t th e fir st fo ur t er m s o f th e s er i es i n which u
'

h as e a ch of t e r m i n e which o f t
h e fo l lo wi n g va lu es an d d e t
.
n

h es e s er i es ar e
c on ve r g en ta n d which d i ve r g en t .

2n —1 V7; n 2 —( n
( 1) an
(2 ) an

T h eorem 4 t i
Th e p os i i ve +3 s er es u l u2 c on ver g en t
is if
ed i a t
.

th t
i f
e ra o o ea ch o
f i ttm tt
s h mm
er s o e i e ly p r e c ed i n
g t
e rm

i l
s t hess an s om e n u mb w h i c h i tlf i
er r se s l es s t
h an 1 .

F or in u 1 u 2 as 1
( ) t
h e ra t i o o f e ac h t e r m o h e tt
i m m edia tly p c di g t i l
e re te n e rm s ess t h an h e c o rr e sp o n di n g
ra ti i t
o h g n ti c i e e om e r i c is er e s u 1 u lr u 1r
2
s n e n

1
( ) t h ti i
e ra
q t i io l w y
n l t
h w
u eshil i ( )
2
on i t s a a s e ss an r, e n

is e q l t u a B t 2
( )
o r i c g n t i c u 1 Th f s o n ve r e s n e r er e o r e

t
. .

1
( ) i c s g b
o n ve r
y 9 4 5 3 en

If t t t q l t1
, .
,

h i be ra m i d
os a o ve
g t th n en on e are e ua o or rea e r a

1 t
,
h i i di
e s er e s g t ; f i t
s hi c liver 0 en or n s a se m a ,,
.

Corol l ary If as 11 i n c r ea s es t
h t
i e ra o a
pp r o a c h es a

tli m i tA t twh t
.

d efi n i e h ,
e s e r i es is c on ver g en en A 1 , d i ver g en
wh en A 1 .

1 F o r if A 1, t ak e an y nu m ber ch t
r su h at A r 1
t
e r a c er t
. .

Th e n , sin ce li m ( a ,, A af a i n v al u e of n

t
,

we sh a ll a l w ay s h a ve u
/u A r A, 1 8 9, an d h e re

con verg en t
H
t
n n

f or e n
H /u r. Hen ce h e se r i e s is 93 8 , 95 1
t ti
, .
u ,,

2 If A 1, a f er a ce r a n v al u e o f n we s h all a l w a y s h av e
t
.

n /
+1
un 1 . He n c e h e ser i e s i s d i v e r g e n t, 95 1 .

Wh e n u
H /u 1 an d = 1, t
h e s er i e s is
t
n n

d i ve r g e n t ; b u w h e n u n H / u n li m = 1,
1 an d
( u
/ ) un no

t
h t
, +1

c on cl u s i o n c an b e dr awn fr o m h e e or em of § 95 1 .

tt c on ver gen t
3
E m m p le 1 + . Sh OW h ai s .

s s

Th th tm f t
e n hi i i 3 5 7
er (2 o s s er es s 11 -
5 n, an d

t h i ft
t
e ra hi tm tt
o o h tm which p c d
s it
eri (2 o e er re e es s n n

B ti c
.

u ( 2 l ) /
s n5 e l i mn( 2 n n, n n which
i
s 1 H c t . h i i c
en g t
e e se r es s on ve r en .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

c on vergen t
1 1 1
E xa m pl e 2 Wh e n is
p os i t 1 + 2 a: : ,
.

2 1 +3 c3
l + x
m b ein g i ve ?
“ M d 1 nos” 33" l /n
Here 1
an

an d t
h f
er e ore lim
un + l

an
1
:
11

He n c e h e t s er es i is c o n verg e n t
wh en l / a; 1, t
h t
i a s, wh e n a:1 .

E xam pl e 3 . Sh ow t
h t a
l l 3 1 3
-
5
7
+ is c on ve rg en t .

E x a m ple 4 . Sh o w t
h t
2
a
1 l
2
3
5
l
2
3
5
1
2
is c on verg en t .

:
E x am pl e 5 . Whe n is
a

T 2
m2 x3

3
c on ve rg en ta; ,
b e i n g p os r t
i ve

c on ver ge n t
1 1 1
E x am p le 6 Wh en 18 a:
b ei n g
p os i t
.
,
2 3
l +x 1 +x l +x
i ve ?
Seri es i n wh i c h l i m ( nu 1 In a se r i e s o f th i s k i n d t
h e

tt
.

ra ti o a ,,
H / u ,, c an be r ed u ce d h fo e o rm

un
H / un

wh e r e li m We p r o c e ed th
o s ow h t
t if a as 71.

t tly tt
,

i n c r e a se s, u l im a e be c om e s an d rem a n s i g h r e a er an

som e n u m ber wh i c h i s tt
i t se l f g r e a h er an 1, t h i e i ser es s c on

ver gen t
; b th t
t if u a a u ltim tly b c
a e e o m e s an d re m a i n s l ess
t t
,,

t h an 1 ,
h i i di v
e se r es s er gen .

h at
pp ose t after a c e r t
i
1 F or su a i n val u e o f n wh ch we m ay c all k we
wh e r e a i s p o s i t
.
, ,

h ave a n 1 a ,
i ve .

Th en
Bu t
w e m ay r e d u ce t y t
hi s i n e qu al i t o t
h e fo r m
1
wh e n n s k .
( 1)
I n (1 ) t kk 1
se n k l l su cc ess i vely ,an d add t
h e r esu l t
in g
lit W bt
, ,

i n e qu a i es i . e o a n
1
-

(lc (2)
tf ll w
I o o fr o m (2 ) t
s h ata s 1 i n c re as es th e su m o f t h fi t
eI tm f rs er s o

t
h p it
e i os ve s e r i es u k “ uk + 2 . re m a i n s a l wa y s l th t
e ss h fi it an e n e
5 30 A CO L LE G E ALG E B R A

E XE R CI SE L XXXVI
De tm ier ne wh e h t
t h f er e o l lo w n o r d i ver gen t
i g s e r i es ar e c on ver gen t .

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3
1 . 2 .
“
L

3 5

4 6 2 2

6)
2
4 "
L 2
”
3

1 1 1 1
+
$n ( 75
a? a2 +1 az + z

2 4 6
7
4 4 4 7 10

2 2
s . +
6 6

1 1 3 5 (2 n —1
9 .

2 4 2 4 -
6 2 o
4 ~6 ~ 2 n

Wri t e ou t th e fir s t fo u r te r m s of th e se r i e s i n which u h as t h e foll ow

i n g val u es an d d e t o r d i ve rg en t
h ese se r i es are c on ve r g en t
n

e r m i n e wh e th er t .

3
\/ n
10 . u ,, 11 . nu
n (u + 2)

De tm ier ne wh e th t
h er e i i n which
se r es h as t
h f ll
e o ow ni g
val u e s a r e c o n ver g t di
en or ver g e n t .

an “ 2 71 . an “ 3 n
3 —2 n2
un 2 n +3 an 3 n3 + n2 +1
F or wh a t
p it
i os ve v a l u es o f a are : t
h f ll e o ow n i g s er ies c on verg en t
3 3 6 9
x3
5 8 5 8 11

l a

17 . Sh o w t
h t
1
a
1 2
is d i ver g en t
1 2 3
p os i t
-

wh e n a is i ve .

18 I f fo r a ll va l u e s o f n we h ave V u r wh er e r is p os i t ive a n d l es s
t ho w t hat i s c o n ve r g e n tb y c o m p ar i n g i twi t h t
.
n ,

h an 1, s ul “ 2 o
he
c o n ve rge n tse r i e s r r
2
r3
 CO NVE R G E NCE O F I NF I NI T E SE RI E S

SE RIE S WHICH HAVE BOT H POS I T I VE AND NE GAT I VE T ERM S

General ttf es o n
co verg e c e n . By de fin i i o n , t
93 7 , an i n fin i te
se r i es o f a n y ki n d u, u2 i s c o n v e r g e nt if Sn app ro a ch e s
a tl i i t i i d fini t ly i c d
fin i e m as n s n e e n r e a se

B t 1 95 1 97 S w ill pp ch l i m i t i f t
.

u h q c f a r oa a e se u en e o

t gh whi c h i t n
, , , n

v l a u es h ro u i c n m ly S 8 ru s as n n r ease s, a e

t
h p p t
, I, 2,

S p y th t f
o sse s se s v y g i v n p i ti v e ro er a or e er e os e

p n di n g tm S
3,

n mb 8 h w v
u er ll c o e b f nd
e r sm a a o rr e s o er ,c c an e ou

v y b q nt
, ,

wh i ch d i ff i c l ly fe rs n u m e r t m S by a r om e er su se ue er

t hi c n di t
If t t ti fi d S wil l t
k + 1,

l h
es s 8 an i n i
. s o o s no sa s e , ,
no

ap p r o a ch a l i m i t, 1 98 .

Si n c e ul

an d k +p

we h av e SH ] ,
Sk + ak
+p
.

t
H e n c e h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r al t e s t o f c o nve r g e n c e
An y i nfi n i t e s e r i es 11 1 11 2 is c on verg en tif for e very

g i ven p o t
s i i ve n u m ber 8, h o we ver s m a l l, o n e c a n fi n d a tm er uk

s u ch ha tt t
h e s u m of a n y n u m be r ft he t er m s aft
o er u k is nu m er

ica l ly l t
h es s an 8 in o t
h er w or d s s u c h t
hat
,

I uk
+1
“

l
"
uk
+2
"

l
“
nh
+p | 8

f or a ll va l u es o fp . If h e t s er i es d o es no t
p os s es s t
hi p s ro
p er y , t
i t
i di s ve r
g en t .

H e n c e i n p a r t i cu l a r , a se r i e s u1 u2 c ann otbe c on

v er g en tl u n e ss li m u 0 Bu t
thi s sin gl e c on di t
ion i s n ot
s u ffi

t
.
,,

c i en f c n
or o v e rgen ce . We m us t al s o h ave li m ( a ,,
a ,,
+1 ) 0,
li m ) 0, an d s o o n
(
f
u u l
u
“
.
,, ,H L n

Th u s 1 tlt
i s d i ve r g e n
h gh lim a ou lim l /n
a ,, 0
h k tm which f ll tt
.

t i t ft
,

F o r in hi h s ser e s e su m o e er s o o w h e e r m l / h is

al way s g re a tth er an Thu s ,

1 1 l 1 l 1 1
+ + n

k +k 2k 2k 2k 2

He n c e k c an n o t
be so ch o se n t h at uk+1 u k + k i s l es s t
h an e very

a ss ig n ab le n u m b er , an d h e s e r i es is d i verge n t
t (c o m p ar e 948 ,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Coroll ary 1 As er i es w h i c h h a s bot i ve a n d n eg a t

h p os i t i ve er m s t
is c on verg en t
if t
h e c o r r es on di n g p os i t
p i ve s e r i es i s c on ver en t
g .

For le t u 1 u 2 1
( ) be t
h e g i v e n se r i e s, an d let
'
a ,
'
u 2 2
( ) b e t
h e s a m e se r i e s tt
wi h h e s i g n s o f al l it s

n eg a t
i t ve erm s c h an g e d . Th e n

l l h“
' '
uk
+l
“
H 2
‘
l ‘
“
5 “ e
u r
+z
“

l
“
u k
+p
°

Hen c e , i f by tki n g 1
a 6 g r ea t e n ou g h we c an m ak e

t
h e s am e will b e t ru e of
| uk ak
l Th er e f o r e 1
( )
c on ve r g e n t
+1 +p
.

is i f ( 2) i s § 955
Th e p r e c e d i n g d e m o n s t
r at
,
.

ion a l so s h o ws th at a se r i e s

ul u2 t t
w i h i m a g i n a r y e r m s i s c o n v e r g e n i f h e se r i e s tt
wh o se tm er s t
a r e h e a b so l u e v al u e s o f a , , u z, t 2 3 2 , n am e l y ,
t
h e se r i e s
| u 1
| [ |
u2 is c o n ve r g e n t .

Th u s i / l i 2/ 22 o
is c o n ve rge n t
si n c e 1
c o n ve rg e n t
,

is .

Coroll ary 2 A s e r i es tm lt t
w h ose ly p i t
i d er s a re a er n a e os ve a n

t tif c h tm i m i c lly l t
.

n eg a i i ve c on ver g en
s ea h t
h er s nu er a ess an e

tm
er wh i c h p r e c ed es i t d if t
, h lim i t
an
ft
h h tm i 0
t e o e n er s .

F or le t
th e se r i e s be a1 a2 a3 wh e re a ,, “ 2 ,

p os i t
i ve . U s in g t
h tt
i e no a on of § 95 5, w e h e r e h av e
—l
l
uk
+1
“ r 2
+ 4 “
nk
+p l
ak
+1
1) p ak
+p "
We c an wr i te ak
+l
ak
+2 + ( )
1
in th f m e or
( ak
+l
2
( )
an d i t
h f n e orm a
“ 1 ( a
H , ab
” ) ( )
3

Si n c e a
H ea ch of t
h e e x p r essi o n s in
t t t
1

p a re n h e ses i n ( 2 ) an d
( )
3 i s p o s i i ve Hen c e i f o ll o ws f r o m
h t
t t t
h t
.

( )
2 ( )
1 a is p o s i i ve , a n d f r o m ( 3 ) ( )
1 a is al g e b r a i c al l y
l e ss th an an d th f e re o re fr o m ( 2 ) an d 3
( ) c om b i n e d t
h t a

( )
1 i s nu m er ic a lly l t
h e ss an

Bu ti s n ce l im 0, w e c an ch oo se k so h t
t a ak < 8
c o n v e rg e n t 955
.
+l

Th e r e fo r e a1 a2 a8 is , .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

Coroll ary Th e tm f er s o a i on a lly c on verg en t

c on d i t s er i es m ay

h t t tk
.

be so a r r a n g ed t t
h a e su m o
f h e ser i es wi l l a e an
y r ea l

v a lu e h t
t m a ay be a s s i g n ed.

F or , as j u st s h o wn , in a c on di t
i on ally c o nv e r g en t se r i es

t
h p it
i
e t os ve erm s by th l e m se ve s an d t
h n g t
e i t by
e a ve erm s

t h e m s e l ve s ea c h c on s t
it t di u e a ve r g e nt i t h l i i tf
ser e s e m o

wh o se n t
h t erm is 0
t
.

Hen c e , fo r e x am p l e i f w e as si g n s om e p o s ii n b c d
ve u m er an

t h t
wi t ch gi g t l t ft
h p it
iv t
, ,

h en , h ou i d an n e re a ve o r er o e os e erm s

or th t ft
h a g t io t g t
h
e ne l f m S by fi t
a ve e r m s am o n e m se ves , or rs

ddi g p i t tm t il t t th n c t
n

a i
n os h i g
ve er h s un e su m s rea er a en

g t t til t t
,

ne i a ve h i l
erm s u n h d i d fi e su m s e ss a n 0, an s o on n e

n itly t
e h li it ,
ft hi Se i i d fi it
m ly i c
o d w i ll b s n,
as n s n e n e n r e a se , e 0 .

H c t h c en e tti l w f dd it
e i d
om m u t h ld g d a ve a o a on oe s n o o oo

for a c dit i l ly c
on v g t i on a on er en se r e s .

E XE R CI SE L XXXVII
1 . De tm ier ne wh e t
h t
h f ller e o ow n i g ser i es ar e c on ve rgen t
or d i ver gen t .

1 i 1 1 1 1
<
1) (2 )
36 V2
3 5 7
(3)
3 -
6 -
9

2 F or w h atre al va l u e s o f a a r e : t
h f e o ll o w n i g i
se r es c on vergen tan d

tl t t
.

for wh a va u e s a r e h y di e ve r e n g
l 1
1 +
—x 1 +2 x 1 — 3 11:
(3 2 71
—1

3 If ul u2 u3 c on ver ge n tan d a l (1 2 a s
u
is a b s o l u el
y t
d en ote a n y s e qu e n c e o f n u m b e r s all o f which a r e n u m e r ic a l ly l ess t
.
, , , ,

h an
som e fin i t e n u m b er 0 p r o ve b y t h e m et h o d o f § 95 6 t h att h e se r i es
i s als o c o n ve r g en t
,

a lu l a gu g a gu g .

4 I f S den o t es t h e su m o f a se r i es o f t h e k i n d d es c r i b e d i n 958 sh o w
t h at t a r e al te rn a t e ly gr ea t
.
,

h e su m s a l a 1 0 2 al az as er a n d

l ess t
, , ,

ha n S .
 CO NVE R G E NCE O F I NFI NI T E SE RI E S

CONVE RGE NCE OF POW E R S E RIE S

Power s eri es Thi s n am e i s g iv en t o an y s e r i e s wh i c h h a s

t
.

h f e o rm ao a sol a zm
2
a nd
"
wh er e a:i s a

v ar i abl e bu t a o, a 1 , ar e con st
an t s . Th e v al u e s of x an d

a ,, m ay b e r e al or i m a g i n ary
t c o n ve r g e n t if t h e p os i t
.

By 95 7 , h e se r i e s 1
( ) i s i ve se r i es
a l so s c o nv e rg e n tW h e n
la ] ] | | [ ] 2
( ) i
2 n
a 2 a d u

s c o nv e r g e n t e say t h a t
c 2

s olu t
.
n

i w 1 i e ly c o n v e rg e nt
2
( ) ( ) s b a

c W et c on ve rg e n t o r di v e r g e n t
w
( om p ar e h h er
( )
1 i s ill
d e pe n d u p o n t h e v al u e o f 96 He n c e t h e i m p or t an c e o f t he
t
.

f o l l o wi n g h eo r e m s .

T h eorem 1 If wh en x = b tm f ever y er o ao al x is
fi i tp i t
.

n u m er i c a l l
y les s t
h an so m e i n e os ve nu m ber 0, wh en
x
| | |
b t
h e se r i es is a bs o u l tly e g t c on ver en .

F or sin ce c for e v e ry n,

2
we h ave 3 for e v e ry n .

Hen c e ea ch t e rm of
| a0
| alx
[
a zcr
2
( )
1 i s l e ss th a n

t
h c e o r r e sp on di n g t er m of c

But b ei n g a g eom e tr i c se r i e s, c o n v er g es wh e n | x /b 1
th a ti whs, en
[ ]
a
c
[]
b A n d wh e n
.
( 2 ) c o n v e r g es, s o d o e s

945 , 1 .

Thu s , 1 2 :
9 x2 2 x3 c on verg es wh en | z | < 1 .

Coroll ary 1 . If ao al x i s c on ver g en t w h en x b ,

i ist
a bs o l u ec on v erg en t
tly w h en [x | b

Thi s f o ll o w s i m m e d i a e ly f r o m 963 t F or s i n c e ao l
a so

t tt tv
.

i s c o n v e r g en wh en a: b, all i s e rm s h ave fin i e al u e s wh e n
a: b .

Coroll ary 2 . If ao al x i s d i ver g en twh en x b ,

i t
i
s

a ls o di ver g e n tw h en
[
x
[ ]
b .
5 36 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

F o r we re ao a go tc o o n ve r g e fo r a val u e o f x wh i ch
is nu c
m e r i a l ly g r e a e r tt
h an t
b, i wou l d al so c o n ver ge for a: b,
96 4
tf l l
.

Li m i tf s o c onv er g en ce I o ows fr o m 96 4, 96 5 th a t if
t t
.

we ass i g n o a cl a ss AI p o s i i v e v al u e s o f a:fo r w hi c h
all

a ,, a lw c on v e r g e s an d t
o a c l a ss A2 all fo r w h i c h i t
d i ve r g e s , ch n u m ber i n A
ea t
w i l l b e l e ss
h y n b an e ver u m er

1 59 t it tt
I

i n A2 H en ce h e re i s h eg n b i A
er a r ea e s um er n or

t t b A Itp tt
I

h li i t
.
, ,

a l e as i A n Call hi s n um er
f re r e sen s e m o

t
,. .

c on ver g en c e o f a o a sol h i b i g b l t ly
e se r e s e n a so u e c on

v er g e n tw h en cc ] A, d iv e r g t wh
en
[ ] A en as .

Th u s i n b o t h a: ma/ 3 ( 1 ) a n d a: ( 2)
t it Ob ser ve t h at
,

h e li m o f c o n ve r g e n c e A i s 1 ( l ) d i ve r ges an d (2 ) c on
It is p oss i b le t o co n s t ru c t
.

ve rg es wh e n cc Az 1 . a ser i es i n which

A = O ; fo r e x a m p l e t h e s er i es 23 +
we h ave c al le d t he li m it o f c o n ve r g e n c e i s m o r e fr e qu en t
,

Wh a t ly c al le d
the r a d iu s of t he c i rc le of c on ver g e n c e F o r i f we pic t u r e c o m plex n u m

b er s b y p o i n t s i n a p lan e i n t
.

h e m an n e r d es c r ib e d i n § 2 3 8 an d d r a w
a ci r c le wh o se c e n t e r is a t t h e o r igi n an d wh ose r a d i u s i s A t h e ser i e s ,

a, a la s wi ll c o n ve rg e fo r al l val u es o f 2: wh o se gr a ph s li e w i t hi n
th e ci r c l e a n d i t wh ose g r aph s l ie wi t h ou t
,

w i ll d i ve r ge fo r a ll val u es o f 2:
t
,

h e ci r c l e § 2 39
,
.

Th eorem 2 If i n a,, al x th t i e ra o

t
h li m i t
.

a e li m i t
d efi n i t n t
h en ,
a
,
is e fc o on ver g en ce .

F o r , b y § 95 2 , t
h e se r i es
| a 1x
| c on v e rg e s wh en

t
h t
u +l
1, i a s, wh e n x
| < li m

a lw d i v e r g e s wh e n [ ]
x l im

F in d t
h l i m i tf c
e o o n ve r ge n c e of t
h i
e ser e s

3 5
2
+
5 -
10 ~ .
5 n

5 (n + 1 ) 5 + 5/ n
Si n c e we h a ve y = li m
2 n +3 2 + 3/ n
5 38 A CO LLE G E ALG EBR A

3 . Th e bi n om i a l s er i es , n am e l
y,

1 2 3
wh e r e m is no tp i t
i
a os ve i n t e g e r, i s c on ve r g e n t wh e n [ ] n
o 1,
di v e r g e n t
wh en
I] x 1 .

F o r h e re
a ,, m (m —1) —n + 1) m (m —1 ) - o -
(m —n
an + 1 1 -
2 u -
n 1 o
2 o

” i 1 1/n
He n c e li m li m i i
m —n l — m /n
Wh en a: 1 t
h e s er e s i c on verges if m > l , d i ver ges i f m 2 —1 (see
§ l ool , E x
t
.

Wh en a: l h e se r e s i c on verg es if m 0, d i ve r ge s i f m 0
se tt t t
.

F or whe n a: l by in g m a we m ay r e du ce h e se r es i o

t
,

h f e or m
a (a 1) a (a 1) (a + 2)
1 2 1 2 3

tf
E vi d e n l y ro m a ai n t
c er t er m o n all h tm
t e er s ar e o f t
h e sa me s ign so

ttt ttf
,

h a h e es o 954 is app l ic ab l e , 95 6 .

—l —l )
B t
an “ a + n n + (a
h u er e
an n n

Hen c e , 95 4, t
h e se r es i
c o n verg e s if (a 1) 1, t
h t
a i s, if a > 0,
or, s n i ce a m it
c o n verg es i f m 0 tt
B u i d i ve r g es i f (a l) 1,
t
h t
.
,

i a s, if m 0 .

E XE RCI SE L XXXVIII
De tm i t
erh li m it f c
ne e s o o n ve r gen c e of t
h f ll e o ow n i g ser i es .

1 . l ma : m 2932/ 2 ! m 3x 3/ 3 !

2 . 2 ( 2 cc ) 2 3 (2 x) 3 2 (2 a ) 4 3 (2 x) 5
— 4
3 .
>

F o r wh a t
real val u es o f a :wi ll t
h e fol l o wi n g s e r i e s c on ver ge

3 8

3 ( z +4
+

x
<
x 9°
+
x2 +1
—3 + —2
( 3 10 + (3 2 )
 OPE R AT I ONS W I TH I NFI NI T E SE R I E S

XXX I I I . O PE R ATI O N S W I T H I N F I N I TE SE R I E S

S OME PRE LI M I NARY T HE ORE M S

W h en g i ve n p o we r se r i e s a ,,
a a so i s o nv e r g e n , i s l c tt
s u m i s a d e fin i e f u n t ct
i o n o f a:wh i h we m ay r ep r e s e n by c t
f( ) w t i i f( ) : I w h t f l l w wh
h t
x r n g x ao alx n a o o s en

w w it t
,

e f( )
r e x a a so l we a s su m e l a ao a as

l i i tf c t t
o
1
h as a m ‘
o o n ver g e n c e A whi c l r
is g h n 0
r e a er a an d

t
,

supp t h |
o se a x A .

Th eorem 1 Gi ven t
h t
q ( a
‘
) x
) al x a2 x
2
+ and t
h t
wh a en

tm
.

x has t
h p it i l e b os ve v a u e eve r y er o 5 x i
f ( ) s
< nu m er i a l ly c
l ess th m fi itp it
a n so i e n e os ve n u m ber 0

t
.

If y p it
i
an mb 8 os ve nu er be a ss i
g n ed , h ow ever sm a l l, h en

8, wh en ever | l x bS /( c
F or , as wa s sh o wn in t
h e p r oo f in § 96 3, wh e n [ so b,

an d th e r e f o r e

He n ce

t
h t
i a s, wh e n
c
53
8
Coroll ary . If f ( x) a,, al x t
h en H f x
g; ( ) a,, f ( O) .

F or , as jus th
s ow n ,
fil m
$5 0
( l
a so a zm
2
O, 2 00 .

Th eorem 2 .
If t
h e s er i es ao al x va n i s h es for ever
y
va lu e o f x for whi c h i tc on ver g es , t
h en ao 0, a1 0,

F or se t
t
i g n a : 0, we a tc on e h a ve ao 0.

He n c e a cel a 2x
2
a 3x
3
O

fo r e v e ry v a l u e o f a :for wh i c h i t c on v e rge s .
 A C O LLE G E ALG E BR A

If so i 0, we m ay di v id e 1
( ) t
h r ou gh o u t
by x .

He n c e a, a za : a go
2
O ( )
2

fo r e v e ry val u e :for wh i c h i
of a tc g on v e r e s, e x ce p t
p er h a p s
fo r a : 0 Bu titf o ll o ws f r o m thi t h t s a a1 O ; fo r we r e
l l ( wi t t t tt
.

a1 0 we c ou l d c h oo se 96 so s m a h ou m ak i n g i 0) h a

| a zm a 3x
2
| |
a 9 7 0, an d s u ch a v al u e o f as w ld t
ou no

t t t
1

j u st
,

sa i fy s as w e h av e sh o w n i m us

t t
.

Hen c e a1 0 An d by h e s a m e r e a so n i n g i m ay b e s h o wn

t
h t
.

a a2 0, d a 0, an d so o n .

Th e l ik e i s t ru e of a bxi‘ ’
ca : da g an d o f e ve r y ser es i in
which h e t : p it
t p ex i d d i ff t f m
o n e n s o f a ar e t
h ; f os ve a n er e n ro o n e an o er or

t h i gj t gi
e r e as o n n ppl i t ll ch i us ve n a es o a su se r es .

Th h y p t h i t
e h t : o i h f
es s y l a f aof al a va n s es o r e ver va u e o a; or

which i t c g c ti m t
h i
o n ve r q i d f t
es h p f t h t
on a n s or e an s re u re or e roo a

ao 0 0 F
al t h i g b gi h w t h ti f 49
or e r e aso n n a o ve ven s o s a 1,

t y gi
,

13 2, fi d di g
‘
q c f mb
e n o e an ch ven n e ve r e n -
n se u en e o nu er s su

t h t
n,

li m 3 z 0
a d if lt i h wh : 6 6an ao a s va n s es en a 1, 2,

t ic l t
,

p t
,

h en a o0 0 I a1 h mb 3 13 m y ll n ar u ar , e nu er s 1, 2, a a

t
, ,

b i l
e ra on a .

T h eorem 3 If ao al x + a2 x
2
+ b0 + b 1 x b 2x + 2

for ever y va lu e of x for wh i c h t

.

h es e s er i es c on ver g e t h e c o efi l c i e n t s

t at
,

o
f t
h e li k e p ower s o x a r e equ a l
f h i s ao b o a1 b , , , ,
a, b 2,
a n d s o on .

F or su b tct
rai g t
h n e s e on c d s er ie s f r o m b o th m em b ers of t
h e

g i ve n e qu a ti w h
on , e av e , by 9 7 4,

( ao b1 ) x -

( a2 b, ) a :
2
O

fo r e v e ry v al u e o f a :for whi ch h e g i v e n t s er i e s c on v e r g e .

H e n c e , § 97 2 , ao bO 0, a1 b, 0, a2 b2 0,

th a t
i s, a0 = b a1 = b1 , a2 = bz,

t
Th i s
h i c ll d t
h t h e o re m s a e e e or e m f
o u n d e er m t i n ed c oe fi
z
e leu s t I t tth tg i f cti a sse r s a a ve n un on of 2 :c an n o t
b e e x p r e ss ed
t
.

in m h w y
ore p w i an o n e a as a o e r se r e s i n 2:(c o m p ar e
54 2 A CO LLE GE ALGE BRA

Ag a i n , l e U l ',t 2
'
d en o tt
h
e e su ms o tfh e s er i es ob a i n e t d
by re
p l a ci n g t
h tm e er s
f
o by t
h i be r a solu te va l u es ,

so h t
t a

Us 11 3 + 111 2 ] lv
u a s
a n d s o on .

If t
h e s er i es U I + U2' ’
is c o n ver g en tt
h e s ever a l s er i es

t
,

o b a i n ed by a dd in g t
h e c o r r esp on di n g tm er s o
f
n a m el ,
y t he s er i es u ? ‘
u ? u? u“ ? and so o n ,

a re c on ve rg en ta n d , if t
h i e r su ms be d en o t
d by
e VI , V we
s h a ll h a ve

Fo r l e t us re
p resen tt
h e r e m ai n de r s a f t t
er n e rm s in t
h e

se r i e s b y R e) , so th t a

U1 : u“ ? u“ ) R a)

U2 i d ?)
u ( 2)
R ( 2)

E a ch of t
h c e o lu m n se r i e s u
‘
P u “ ? o u ? u ?
c on ve r g e n t tt
,

an d so o n , is si n c e ea ch of i s erm s is nu c
m e r i ally

less t
h an t
h e c o rr e sp o n d i n g t e rm o f t
h c e on v e r g e n t se r i e s
’
UI + U2 + '
§ 94 5 , 1 Le tt
h e su m s of t
h e se s er i e s be
td by
.

de n o e V1 , V2, V,
t t
,

I f we ad d h c e o rr e sp o n d i n g er m s o f th e se n 1 c ol u m n
se r i e s , we obt i t
h a n e o r i g i n a l se r i e s UI U2 Th e re f or e ,
sin ce n is fi i tw h
n e, e av e , 97 5 ,

V1 + V2 +

t
To p r o v e o u r h e o r e m , h e r e fo r e , we h av e t on l y th
o s ow h t
t a

t
wh en n i s i n d e fin i e l y i n c r e ase d li m R 0
ti f t ft h t
.
,,

Bu h i d e R9 R‘
rem a nfi l b er a er e rm s In 3 h e

d td by 39 w h R R 9 R ?
en o e 2 R‘ ? S9 e a ve ) ) 5)

L t t y p it b it t t t
.
,

8 de i e n o e an h w ll os ve n u m er, ma ers n o o sm a

ch tm f R ‘ t
.

Si c n e ea l ( )
eri i c l ly l
o h ,
’ a s n u m er a e ss an
 O PE R AT I O NS WI T H I NF I NI T E SE RI E S 543

t
h c ep o rr e s on d in g t e rm of U1 + U2 ’ '
t
h e r e m ai n d er

ft k t
a er er m s in ( )
a is c n u m eri
a l ly l e s s t
h t
h c
an e o r r e sp o ndi n g
r e m a i n d er in Bu t
si n c e ( 6 i s c o n ve r
) g t w en e c an s o c h o o se
k t t
h th l t
a t e a e r r e m ai n de r w ill b e l e ss t h an He n c e w e
c an so ch o o s e k t
h t
wh t t
a h a ever e va l u e o f 11 m ay be, w e Sh al l

h av e SQ” n u m e r i c al ly
t t
.
,

s i n c e e a c h of ?
a)
Bu ag a i n , he r ow se r i es a , u

u
‘
? a ? u
i s c on v e rg en t as n i n c r e a se s ea ch of t
h e k
t tly b c
, ,

r e m ai n der s R 93, R ‘
fi
’ R ‘
fi
) w ill u l im a e e o m e an d r e m a i n

t t t t
,

n u m e r i c al l y le s s h an k, an d h f h
ere ore e su m of h e se

re m a i n d e r s, n am ely ,
R ? w i ll be com e an d

r em ain l e ss th a n h ) k, or

Th e r e f o r e as n i n c r e ase s , R R? R? S“?
t tly
,,

w il l u l im a e b e c om e an d r e m ai n n u m e r i c al l y l e ss th an
or 8
t
.

He n c e l i m R ,, O, 200 ; an d h er e ore f
m+ m+ m+ m n + n + n +
as w as tb o e d e m o n s t r at e d .

A se r i e s UI U2 + ea ch of w h o se te rm s i s i t s el f an

i n fin i te se r i e s is c all e d a d ou bly i nfi n i te s er i es .

Th u s c o n s id e r t
, h e ser i e s

x ) x2/ (1 a 2t
) x 3
) (1 )
w hich c o n verges fo r a ll r e a l valu es o f a:which are g reat er t h an
( a lso fo r i m agi n a ry val u e s o f 0: wh o se real p ar t s ar e g r e ater t h an
I s it p oss i b le to t r an sfo r m
( 1) i n t
o a p o we r s e r i e s i n as t h at is in t
o a

ex c ept
.
, ,

se r i e s w hich w i ll c o n ve r g e fo r an y val u e o f 2: 0
Wh e n e a ch t erm o f l ) i s t h u m o f a p o wer s er i e s which m ay
( e s

be obt a in e d b y th e b i n o m i al t h e ore m 98 8 Th u s ,
.
,

cc
-
1 cc — zc2 + x3 254 +
-
2 —:
5 2 + 2 a 3 —3 cc 4 +

x3 0 3 x4

R e p l a ci n g ea ch tm
er of h fi tf t
t e h rs o es e se r es i by i tb s a t
so lu e valu e ,

we o b ti
a n
| |a + [ |
x2 + [233 1+ u
, wh ose su m is
 A CO LLE G E AL GE B R A

T r e at
in g th e re m ai n i n g ser i es i n a s i m i la r m a n n er , we ti
ob a n ser es i
wh ose su m s a r e [x2 l/ ( l an d s o o n

Hen c e t t
.

h e se r i es U1 Ug Us
’ ’ ’
of o u r h e or e m is h ere
I !)x | 962 I
/ ( 1 l > 2
[ 903 W 1 w
l l) 3

which c o n ver ges wh e n [x ]

Th e refo r e w h en th e p o wer s e r i es ob ta i n e d b y a dd i n g t
he
er m s of t
c o rre s p o n d i n g t
,

h e se r i es n a m e ly a; 4 x3 8
o t
c o n ve r ges an d i s e q u al t th at
,

h e gi ven se r i e s is wh e n a: we h ave ,

x — 2 m2 + 4 : c3 — 8: c4 +

Com m u tt
i a ve l aw v ali d for ab s ol u el y t n
c o v erg e nts eri es We
tt ttt t t
.

ar e n o w p o si i o n o d e m o n s r a e h at h e er m s of a n a bsa
in a

t t
l u el y c on ver g en s er i es m a y be r ea r r a n g ed a p lea s u r e wi h ou t tt
t t
c h a n g i n g h e s u m of h e s er i es .

1 We m ay r e arr an ge t
h tm e er s so as tf o or m an y o th e r
t tf th
.

s i n gl e i n fin i e se r ie s o u o em .

F o r le tul u2 t y b l tly c
(1 ) g t i
d en o e an a so u e on ver en s er es , an d

le t ul
’
u2
’

(2) d tth men o e h i ttm

i wi t e sa e se r e s s er s r e ar r an ge d
t tt m fth fi t tm t
.

Ag a i n , l e S d e n o e h e su f d
o h e rs n er s o an e su m o f

t t
n

h fi e rs m tm er s of

Ass ig n an y va l u e t t h ch
o n m h t
t th fi ttm en f (1 ) o ose so a e rs n er s o are

tb f d m
o e ou n a on gt h fi tm tm
e f d fi lly ch
rs p th t er s o an na o os e so a

t
h fi t
m tm
e rs er s o f ( 2) tb f d m g th fi t 1 tm
ar e o f e ou n a on e rs n ) er s o

Th e n Sn i m d
s p f tm i
a e u S t h t i f tm i
o er s n +1 , a s, o er s n

t
”,

h e su m a n “ u n +a an
” .

He n c e Is in “

l
'

lu +p l
ti t c o n verg e n tli m
n v

Bu s n c e ( 1) is ab s o l u e ly 0
h at
.

0 t
,

Th er efo re li m IS; l Sn ] ,
is li m S ,
li m S" .

2 We m ay b r e ak t
h e se r i e s u p in t o an y n u m b e r ( fin i t e or

t) th t t
.

i n fin i e o f s e r ie s e erm s of ea ch of wh i ch o ccu r i hn e

sa m e o r d e r as in t
h igi
e or n al se r i es F o r we c an r e co v t
er h e

tf
.

o r i g i n al s e r i e s f ro m e v e ry s u ch se o se r i e s by ap ply i n g o n e

of t
h t
h e e o re m s o f 97 4 , 97 6 .

Th u s i f we fo r m o n e se r i es o u t of the te rm s o f u 1 u2 11 3

which h a ve o dd i n d ic es an d a n o t
h er ou tof t
,

ho se which h ave even i n d ic es

, ,

we h a ve b y § 97 4, ,

- o
 A CO LLE G E AL GE BR A

By t
r ep e a ed l
y m u t t
l i p ly i n g ( 2 ) by i se l f , we o b ai n e x p r e s t
s i on s fo r y , y , y , 2 3
t
i n h e f o r m o f p o we r s e r i e s i n x w h i c h
c o n ve r g e wh e n ( 2 ) c o n v e r g e s I f we su b s i u e h e se e x p r e s t
ttt
t
h t bt
.

s i on s in e e r m s a l y , a zy
z
of w e i o a n a se r i e s o f
t
,

h e

an d t
hi s, wh e n t
h t e e rm s wh i ch i n v o l v e l ik e p o we r s of a :
a re c oll e ct
ed be co m e s
, a p o we r s e ri e s i n a:o f he t f or m
( 11 0 “ 1 60 2 d ebobi
( )
4
Thi s fi n al se r i e s wi ll c on ve r g e an d h av e t
h e s am e su m

as
( )
1 fo r al l v al u e s of a s u ch h t
t a

F or i n t
hi s c ase t
h e c on di t
i on of § 97 6 i s sa t
i fi d
s e by t
h e

d o u b ly i n fin i t e se r i e s t
h e se r i e s U1 + ’
be in g
whi c h by t
hy p o h e si s c on

ver g e s w h en | bo X.

Qu o t
i tf p w
en s o o er s er i es A fr ac t
ion wh o se nu t
m e r a o r an d

t
.

d en o m i n a o r ar e p ow e r se r i e s, a s

wh e r e b0 t
0, m ay b e r a n s f o r m e d i n o a p o w e r s e r i e s wh i ch t
w i l l c o n v er g e fo r a l l v al u e s o f a:fo r wh i c h a o alx c on

v e r ge s a n d
M g: b2 x 2
| | 0|
b .

F or l e t y bl x b2332

1 l 1 l
Th en
bo l Z/ - -
bo 1 + y / bo
2
1
(
v y
1
b0

i ce
s n h y p ot
by h e s i s a n d 2 32 | y | <
I n ( 2 ) re p l a c e y b y i t h e n app l y 97 9 W e s h all t
s va l u e ( 1 ) a n d t
, ,

hu s
t
ran sfo r m ( 2 ) i n t
.

o a p o we r se r i es i n a ; which c o n ve r g es wh e n

bl x l | 2 |
b 2 2

M ul t
iply t
hi p w s o e r se r es i by ao a 2x2 97 8
lt
.

Th e will b
r e su e a p o we r se r i es i n a:which wi ll c o n verge a n d b e e qu al
tt
h gi
o e ve n fra c t
i on for all valu es o f a: for which a o a ls
o c on verg es
an d M 2332
]
 O PE R AT I O NS WI T H I NFI NI TE SE RI E S

Th e q u o t i e n t se r i e s m ay b e o b ai n e d t t o an y r e q u i re d t erm
by th p c f c
e ro e ss o an cel l i n g l ead i n g tmer s de s c r i b e d i n 4 06 ,
or by t
h m t
h d f e e o o u n d e e rmt i n ed c oe ffici e nt
s ,
408 .

E x am p l e Ex pa n d (1 2 a : :
a x2 tf
o our

tm
.

er s

tch c oeffi ci en t
.

Us i n g d e a ed s we h a ve,

1 1 1 He n c e h e tq t
i t uo en se r es i is

2 2 I t
c on ver ge s wh en | a 1< 1 / 2

W h en td f b
in s ea o e in g i n fin i te t
se r i e s
h n m t d e u e ra o r an

den o m i n a t p ly
or ar e o n om i al s i n so, s o t
h t
th f ctia h th e ra on as e

f or m ( a o a as l b lx t
h q e uo

t
i t i
en se r e s wi l l c o n ve rg e for :wh i c h ar e n u m er
all v al u es o f a

i c a l ly l e s s t
h t
h an e n u m e r i c al l
y s m al l e s t r oo t o f t
h e e q u at
i on
b0 bi as b,,x "
0 Th i s w i l l be e v i d e n t f r o m t h e fir s t
t
.

of t
h f o l l o w i n g e x am pl e s Th e se c o n d o f h e se e x am p l es
e

tt
i ll u s r a e s t h e f or m o f h e q u o i en t t t t
.

se r i e s wh e n b0 0 an d h e
t t
h i r d il l u s r at t t
,

es h e m e th o d o f e x p r e s s i n g h e f r a c t i o n as a
o w e r se r i e s in
p

E x am pl e 1 . Fin d t
h l i m i tf c
e o o n ve r e n g ce of t
h e ser e s i which i s h e t
ex p an s i o n of
(3 x 5x

By t
h m t
h d
e e o of p ar t
i al fr a c t
i on s , 5 3 7 , we fin d

3a + 8 3 33 4 8-
2 1
x2 + 5m+ 6 x +2 a +3
—1 x
2 1 :
a 932
l + 1 + wh en Iz I< 2
x +2 l + a m 2 2 w

K
1 1 1 1 a
'
,
-
1 1 a: m2
1+ l wh en x <3
s i + mm gu
.

x + 3 2 3 3 y

3 33 4—8 4
Th e r e fo r e
x2 + 5x + 6 3
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

E x am p l e 2 . E x p an d (1 4 a 3) i n i n c r eas i n g p ower s o f x .

l — a: 1 1 — 9: 1
We h aVe (1 — 5 3; 20 x2 —8 0 1153 +
a2 + 4 a 3 a2 l + 4 az x2

—x—2 — 5 x

E x am pl e 3 . Ex p a n d ( 2 x2 + x of l /x .

2 x2 + x —3 1 2 1 / a:
- —3/ :
c2 3 5 2 3 5
x3 +2x + 4 33 33 352 m m?

R ever s i on of s eri es F r om th e e qu a t
i n y o al x a zr
f

tm it ib l t t t
.

d e fin i n g y i n er s o f or, i p s o ss d i
e o e r v e an o h er o f h e

f orm a: by b2 y 2
d e fin i n g i tm
a
n n er s of y Th e p r o
call e d t t
.

c e ss is h e r eve i
r s on o f h e g i ve n ser i e s a l so a , cv
‘
2

I t
w ill b e o t h tt
b se r v e d a h i s s e r i e s l a c k s h e c on s t tnt
t a er m

an d th e un d tdi g i t
e r s anh t n s a al 9h 0 It c an b e p r ov e d h a tt
li i tf c t
.

p: ce
2
if u a 2x h as a m o o n v e rgen g r e a te r h an 0
t
h l ik
e e is t fth
ru e o td i e r ev e r e s er e s bl y by 2

E x am ple . R e ver tt
h e ser e s i y :
a 2 3 x3 o .

Assu m e : bl y b2 y 2 b3 y 3 a (1)
Co m p u t
in g y 2 y 3 fr o m t h e gi ven e q u at
i on b y t
h m t
h d
e e o of 97 8 ,
a n d su b st
ituting t h e r esu lt
, ,

i n g se r i e s i n we h ave

x = b1 x + 2 b1 x2 + 3 b1
52 4 bz

bs

E qu a t
i g n c o effi ci e n t
s 1 , b1 , 0 2 bl b2 , 0 3 b1 4 Oz bs ,
wh e n c e b1 = l , b2 = 2 , bg 5,

The r e fo r e — 2 y2 + 5 y3 +
x z
y (3 )
By t
h e s am e m e t
h d o , fr om an equ a t
i on of t
h e fo r m
-
or y ao a 1x + a 2x
2
+ ~ -
we c an

t t
, ,

d e r i ve an o h h f m x
er of b (y e or b2 ( y
t t
l

An d f ro m anq i f h
e f m ua on o e or
y az ;
a
2
a a
r g 8
we
c an d e r i ve t
w th ft
o oh f m x er s o e or bl y l ’

by b,,y g

E x pa n s i on of a l g eb r a c i fu n c t
i on s An al g e b rai c e qu a t
i on of

t ttt t
.

h e f or m f (x , y) O w h i h l a k s a o n s an c
e rm i s sa i s c c
fie d wh e n x 0 an d y 0 He n e , i f w e s u p p o se f ( x , y )
. 0 c
55 0 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

By t
h i g o f E x 1 at
e re a s o n n l e as ttwo of t h e e x p on e n t s 3p M 1
b e e qu a l a n d l e ss t h an an y o t h er ex p o n e n t
.

an d 2 m u s t
, , ,

o f a: in
Set t i n g 3 p u 1 we fin d p This i s an a d m is s i b l e val u e o f i t
h 3 u an d p 1 ar e le ss t
.

b ot
.
, ,

s i n c e wh e n u. han 2
Se t t
. .
,

in g 1 2 we fi n d it 1
u. z Thi s also i s a n a d m i ss i ble val u e o f
1 bot h n 1 a n d 2 ar e l ess t
.
, ,

i ts i n c e w h en n h an 3 u

Se t t Bu t t hi s i s n ot
, , , .

i n g 3 u z 2 we fi n d a n a d m i s s i b l e valu e
u.

3 p a n d 2 ar e g re at er t
, ,

o f u s i n c e wh e n p . han u 1 . .

He n c e m u st h ave o n e o f t
,

u
,
h e val u e s 1 o r
Wh en y 1 (3) b e c o m es a 3az3 on ? x2 0 fr o m w hich
it fo ll o ws t
.
, ,

ha t a 1 z 0 or a z 1 ,
.

3 5 g
Wh en n 3
( ) b e c o m es (1 55 a m a ? 0 fr om
which i t follo ws t hat 0 t h at
,

a3 a :0 o r s i n c e a a } 1 z
z;

h e r efo re assu m e t h at t h e r e qu i r e d sol u t i o n s are o f t

, , , .

We t h e fo r m
-
y = - n

t i g t tm i i g t
,

i tt
.

An d su b s hu n es e ex p r essi on s for y i n (1) an d de er h n n e

c o effi ci en t
s as in E x . 1 , we ob tai n

a:
, y:
2

hi m t
t
In h d it i s teh t if t h l di g t
o f s a ssu m e d a e ea n e rm o on e

f t t
P

o h q i d e p re i i u re h p i exw ill b i an s o n s s a xq , e ex an s o n e n

t t t t t
l

p w
o f I
er s o p i l c h i i n d h
exc e on a ase s s s no ru e an e

m t h d f il
e oB t t
h f ll wi g
a s th d i g lu H i g e o o n me o s en era av n

dt h l di g t i t
. .

f ou n e f ea p i n h p l “
er m a x o an e x an s o n a s n e e x am e s,

se ty ( ) i th
x“ g i q
a t i I t b cv q n e v en e ua on e om e s an e ua

t t t fi d t h l di g t
.

i i
on d F
n v an hi q i as f ro m s e ua on n e ea n erm o

t
.

h e ex
p i f i w
an s o n o
p f d v n o ers o x , an s o on .
*

Th u s , in E x 2, . se t
ti gy n xi (1 )
v in
3
y xv x2 0
an d s m i p l i fy i n g ,
we h a ve

wh e n c e v an d th f er e o re y z x§ (1
To fi n d t
h e n ex tm
t er , se tv l‘
x
’
v ) in
’
a n d so o n .

For fu l l e r d i sc t t i
h d f he m f cti a dt
t
hi h e u se i c o
f N wt g a m see C h y t
n n

h t
e o s se on n

t w it
a u ss o n o s o

i h m ll l
’
l s Alg e b r a I I
’

tC
n ec on e o p e on s a ra e o r r s a ,
—
,

T c g a d Jo h s n s Cu r ve Tr a c i n g
’ ’

pp 349 37 1 a ls o F r os s u r ve ra i n n n o
,

.
 O PE R ATI O NS W I TH I NF I NI T E SE RI E S

T ay l or ’
s t
h eorem . If f( ) x ao a go a zm
2

i
x A, an d we re
p l ac e a by x h , we o btai n

t
I f ll o ow s f rom 97 6 th at wh e n x
] [ ]
h Aw e m ay t r an sf or m
t
hi s se r i e s t pw
in o a o er se r i e s
i n h b y e x p an di n g ( a h) 2

by t t
,

mi al t h e o r e m , a n d h e n c o ll e c t i n g
(
3
a h) h bi e no ter m s
By t
h m t
,

whi c h i n v o l ve l i k e p o we r s o f h h d e e o em p l oy e d i n
t t
.

8 4 8 i m ay be sh own th at h e r es u l t will b e
2
h
+ .

wh e r e ’
f (x ) f (a ) den ote t
h e su m s t
h i of e se r e s wh o se
t t
h fi t c t f t
h t t
, ,

e r m s ar e e rs , se on d, de ri v a i ve s o e erm s Of h e

g i ve n ser ie s a o a asl a 2x
2
n am e l
y,

so o n .

I f in t
h p c e di n g i de n t i t
e re
y we r ep l a c e a:by a an d h by
: A ain t
e obt
a a, wh e re | a | | x a
] w h e e x p a n si o n o f f ( x
, )
i n p o we r s o f a; a, n a m e ly ,
6
0+ n !

F ro m t
hi s l as t e x p an s i o n an d 97 1 i tf ll o ows t
h t a if
f( ) x : a
0
alx wh en I]
x A, an d if l l
a A, th en

if; )
f ( x f (a ) .

E XE R CI SE L XXXI X
1 .

2 .

3 . Sh o w th t a — m + x2

4 Assu h t
mi g t (1
n a : 2:
a 13?) é 1 a l e: 0 2332 fin d a l , 04

q i gt ve n e q u at
,

a s, a , by s h gi
u ar n e i on a n d a pp ly i n g 97 3 .
55 2 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

5 . By a s i m i l ar me t h fi t
h dfi dt f
o tm n e rs ou r er s of t
h e ex pan s i on s of
— 3 i
Ul fi fl
6p an d e a ch o f t
Ex h e foll o wi n g fra c t
i o n s i n as c e n d i n g p o wers of a :
t
o t ht
h e fo u r t er m b y t h e m et h od o f t
.

h e ex a m pl e i n 980 .

2 + x — 3 m2 + b a 3 x + 5 — m3
m2

(l ) 2 ( )
2
— a: z — x3
1 + 2 a3 + 3 cz
z 1 + z

p an d each o f t
7 Ex h e foll o wi n g fr a c t
i o n s i n as c en di n g p o wer s of a :
t
o t
h e fou rtht er m b y th e m et h od o f u n d et fi ci e n t
.

e r m i n e d c o ef s .

3 x2 m3 a
; 5 x4
( 1) (2 ) 4
1 + x + x2 x3 + 2 x +3 x5

8 E x p an d ea ch of t
h f e oll o w n i g fr a c ti tt
on s h tm b y t
h fift o h e er e

t th fi t d i d ic tt l i m it f
.

m e h d o of e rs e x am ple in § 98 1 an nh a e e s o c on

g c
ve r en e o f th p e ex i
an s o n s .

9 a: 2 2 6
x2 — 4) (r — 3) ( )
2
(
9 E x p an d ea ch of t
h e ion s t
foll o win g fr a c t o t h e fou r th ter m i n

F o r wh at wi ll t h e fi rst of t
.

d es c e n d i n g p o we rs of as . val u es o f a: h ese
ex p an si on s c o n ve rg e
2x + 3 x4 +l
<
1)
—1 5 (2)
2 x2 + x x4 + x3 + x +x+1

10 . R ever t ch ea of t
h f e ol l o w n i g s er i e s t
o t ht
h e fou r t er m .

2 3
( 4

Z
11 . F rom y z 1
'

a : m2/ 2 de r i ve tt
h f
o h tm
t e ou r er a

ser esi fo r a :i n p owe rs of y 1 .

12
F r o m 31
. m2 3 x3 d er i ve tt
h fot
h tm e ou r er a ser es i for a :i n
p owers o f y i’ ’
.

13 By h m t
t h d f
e e o o 98 3 fi n d h e fi rs t t th tm f t h p
r ee er s o e ex an s ons i
t f y i tm i fy t
t t
.

of h e val u es o n er s of a :which sa sh f ll wi g q i e o o n e ua on s a n d

van s i h wh en a; 0
é
.

( )
l m2 2
+y +y —3 x = 0 .
( )
2 x3
+y — xy =0 .

14 . By aid of h t
t h e e o r em of 97 6 S h ow t
h t a

x x22 3 x3 x x2
l —x 1 —xl
‘
1 —x 3
(1 — ) r. 2
a
“

(l (1
5 54 A CO L LE G E ALG E BR A

By re
pe a td e ap p li a c t
i on s o f we h av e

M } M ) m " e (m M m 71

a n d so o n , fo r an y fin i te nu m ber of fact
or s of t
h f e or m 1 (m ) ,
<)

we Mp ) r ( r)
t t t
, , ,

l Ve ar e n o w p r e p a r e d o p r o ve h e b i n o m i al h e o re m fo r a ll

ra t
i o n al v al u e s t
of h e e x p o n e n m , n am ely t
Th eorem . If In be an
y ra t
i on a l n u m ber wh a ts oever , t
h e su m .

ft
oh e s e r i es

wh e n
I
x 1, i s ( 1

t tf
No i c e fir s o al l th twh
a en m t
0 he se r i e s r e d u ce s t1
o

h t
d t 1 t c t1
,

an wh a en m h ie se r e s r ed u es o x .

He n c e 1 an d 1 x .

1 . Le tb m e a t tg
p o s i i ve i n e er.

Th e n +1 t t )
o m er m s

qb ( 1 ) t f t
o m ac or s

by 2
( )
whi c h p r o v e s h t
t h e e or e m fo r a p o si t
i ve i n t e g r al e xpon e n t
.

2 . Le t
m b e an y t t
p o s i i vei ra t
o n al
i p /g fr a c on .

Th e n MP/fl)
( t9 f ct o a or s

¢ ( p / g + p /g tg t ) o er m s

by ( )
2

Th er e f or e c t
( / )p g ( 1 if
) ? ( 3)
tf ll w f m t
F or i h o q t
i o s ro e e ua on
( 1 x
) ” an d

§ 98 6 th t t h l w h i ch
a tke va u e s a es fo r all v a l u e s o f a :
su ch th t [ ] 1 t
a b t h
or c p d i m us e e o r re s on n g v al u e s o f o n e a n d

th m
e sa qt h tf ( 1 )
e r oo o x P
.
 T HE B I N O M I AL SE RI ES 55 5

Mo re o ve r thi s r oo t m u st be t
h p e t tn
r i n c ip a l q h r oo , a m e ly ,

hi i t
t f t
h qt t f (1
P

( 1 )}a b h fo r ly s s e on on e o h e roo s o
)
as ?

wh i c h h t
h m v l
as 1 (p /g) wh n x
e sa e a u e as <) e 0 .

3 L tb
. ey n g t
m i v t i
e an l n m b e a e ra on a u er s .

Si n c e
we h av e oS(

( 1 )
S
I

93 )

t th
wh i ch p r o v es h e f y t
i n l p t e o re m o r an ra o a ex o n en .

It i td i ffic l t t td t
s no h th ti t
i u o e x en e e or e m o rr a o n al v al u e s
o fth p n
e ex t o en .

E x am pl e . E x p an d (1 2 a: 3 x2 ) § i n c
a s end n i g p o wers of m.

W e h ave ( 1 2 2 : 3 x2 ) % [1 (2 x
3 2 2
(2 x + x )
2

_
22 : 5 302 68 323
1
3 9 81

Th e ex p an s i on c on verg es wh en 2 [ml 3 [ |<1

x2

th er efor e wh en 9 | x2 l 6 | x| 1 <4 ;
t h e r ef o r e wh en 3 123 ] 1 2
t h er efor e wh en lx | <
Coroll ary . If m i s ra t
i on a l a n d
[ ] x
[ a we h a ve

Fo r ( a t
)
a
”
a

2
Q
—
%
_
+ ( )
1
’"
a

2
( )
wh er e (1) an d t h e r e f o r e ( 2 ) c o n v e r ge if [/ ]
a
c a 1, or
[ ]
a
[ ]
a .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

Th e ex p o e n nt
i al s er i es . We h av e al r e a dy sh o w n t
h t t
ha e
‘
SCI I CS

( )
1

c o n ver g e s fo r a ll fin i t
e v a l u es o f x , 96 8 .

Le td
e en o e t i ts su m wh e n :
a 1, so t
h t a

e : 1 +1
We are tp o ro ve t h a t
th e su m o f 1
( ) for an y r e al val u e of x is “
e

For l t
ef( ac
) d en o tt h e e su m of so t
h t a

f( ) / /3 ! /n !
s
x : 1 x l x
2
/2 ! ga z
e
n

=
f (y) 1 + v/i + y /2 !+ v /3 !
2 3

Th e n by t
h e ru l e fo r m ul t i p ly i n g i n fin i t
e s e r i e s, 97 8 ,
2

gi
—w
f( ) x w

F rom thi s r es u l t
itf ll o ows t
h t a

f( ) a n d SO o n
x y) y z
) ,
.

He n c e , o b s e r v i n g t h a f ( 0) t 1 an d f( 1) e, we m ay p r ov e
su cc e s si v e ly p r e c i se ly as i n 98 8 , h a tt
t t
,

1 . W h en a:i s a p o si i ve i n eg e r m ,

f (m )
2 . W h e n a:i s a p osi t
i ve fr a c t
i n p /q
o ,

f ( r /g ) x/ [f <
"
1>r v7
3 . Wh e n x is a n eg a t
iv t
i e ra o n al s,

:
f( S
)
55 8 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

E qu a h i tt
tt e h c s o e oe ffic i e n tf y i
o n We o bt ai n ,
if

Ia: 1,
=
l o ge ( 1 + x
) x
( )
3

Th 1 s se r i e s is c alle d t
h l g it
h ic
e o ar m s er i es In § 968 we
h t
t it
.

p r o ve d c a on v e r g e s wh e n | c|
$ 1 .

t h p
In e roo f j u stgi ven we h ave a ss u m e d th tt
h a i
e s er e s (2) re m a n s i
eq l t( 1
ua o af ert i th as b e en t r a n s fo r m e d i t p n o a o we r s e r e s i i n 31
B tt t[
.

uh i f ll s o o ws fr o m § 97 6 w h e n | x l< 1 F o r if z
’
an d y
’
den o e as ]
p e ct t c or r es p o n d i n g t
.

an d | y r es i vely , h e s e r es i U1
’
U2
’
-
oi 97 6 , o

is
1) 2)
’ ’ ’ ’ ’

’ ’ v (y v (y 1 ) (y
1 + 1, v .

an d t
hi c on ve rg en t
s ser e s i wh en as
is 1 it s su m b ei n g 1
( a ) 98 8
’ ’ —y ’

As we h a ve p r o ve d t he t ru t
h of t h e b i n o m i al t
, .

h e or e m on ly fo r r at
,

i o n al
val u es o f th e e x p on e n t it m ay b e o b s e r ve d t h at (3) fo llo ws fr o m ( 1 ) an d
( 2 ) e ve n wh e n y i s rest ed to r at i o n al valu es (se e t h e r e m ar k a t t
,

r ic t he
e n d of

t
h t
i) —e
n

E x a m p le Sh o w a
li m
=
. .

W e h ave
1 n
1 1 1
10 g e 1 n 10 g c
( l
n n 2 n2

i) t
“

He n c e l o ge
( l 1, an d h er e fo r e e.

F or l i m u lim el og
e
“
eh m fl og e 7 26 —7 29, 7 3 1 .

Com pu tt
i a on of nat
u ral l og ar i t
hm s Th e l o g ar i h m s t of n u m

tt c all e d t
h eir n a t t At
.

b er s h bo e ase e ar e a bl e u r a l l og a r i h m s

t l l g it m ay b e c o m p u t
.

of n a u r a h o ar m s e d as f o ll o w s :

We 3 ‘
h av e l og ( 1 x
) _ x x
/3 a
r
/4 + ( )
1

an d th f l g (1
e re o r e o ,
x
) x no
s
/3 ac
‘4 / ( 2)
S b tc t
u 2
( ) fra ro m Si n c e

l o g, ( 1 x
) l o g, ( 1 x
) log

t
3 5

we ob a i n l oge
ii i 2
 T HE LOG ARI THM I C SE RI E S

In ( )
3 t se an d th e re fo re a:
We O btin a

u +1 1 1 1
l o ge
n

or l o g, ( n 1)
1 1 1
l o ge n 2
2 u +1
Se t
ti g n n 1 in
5
l o g6 2 -
3 . 693 1

Se t
t
i g n n 2 in
'

l o g, l o ge 2 + 2 -
5 8

an d s o o n t o an y i n t e g r al v al u e o f n

t
.

Modu l u s By § 7 5 5 , l o g a n l o g e n /l o ge a Hen c e h e l og a
t t t t
. .

ri h m s of nu m ber s o an y b a se a b m
e o b a i n e d by m u l i
a
y
l
p y i ng th i t l l g it hm
e r n a u ra o ar s by 1 /l o g e a W e c a ll 1 /l o g e a
it q i v l t § 7 5 6 l g t t t
.

or s e u a en o e, h e m o d u lu s o f h e sy s e m of
h m tt
g it p t t t
, , a

lo ar h b s I ic l
o e a se a . n ar u ar , h m e odu l u s o f h
e

t
sy s e m of c om m on l og a r i t h m s i s l o g m e . 43 42 9

E XE R CI SE XC

1 . C om p u tl g 4 d l g 5 ch tt
e o h f t hd
e an o 8 ea o e ou r e ci m al figu re .

2 . Sh o wt h t a e
‘
o 1 .

3 . Sh o w b y m lt
ipl ic t h t
i t u a on a

:
a x2 x3 a: x3

2 1 3 ! 1 2 1 31

4 . th t
Sh o w
( 1 m /2
a efx
/4 l e 2 x4

5 Sh w t
. h t( o : /3 1 +
a c i ac
/7 6
“

a xi a il

6 Sh w t
. h tt h ( o h tm i t
1) t ah p i f (1
e r
'

er n e ex a n s on o by t
h
e

mi l t
1)
(
bi no h m i
a
( e ore s
n n n T

7 Fi d t
. h tm i t n h p i f (8
e t)
er3 whi ch i l n e ex an s o n o i n vo ves x4 .

8 Fi d t h tm i t p i i 5 which i
-

. n h f (1
e )
er n e ex an s o n o d n vol ves
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

9 . F or wh a tl va u e s :w ill t h e e x p a n s i on o f ( 9
of a an d of

( 12 :
a in as c e n d i n g p o we r s o f a: c on ver g e ?
10 . Ex p an d ( 1 a : 2 fi
afl in o t
p o we rs o f a:t he t
e r m i n vo l vi n g 234 .

11 t t
F i n d h e fi rs th tm ree er s of t
h pe ex i
an s on o f
(8 t
3 c ) g(9 2 t
)
i 3 "

wh t l
.

in p o w ers o f aF . or a va u e s o f a :wi ll t
h e ex p an s i on c o n ver g e
12 . F in h l im i t
d t i g l
e n va u es o f t
h f e ol l o w n i g ex p ress i on s .

c 2 d:
—
e z x
li m (1 xz fi (1 x2 ) §
“ 0 3 2>
(2 )

13 . Pr ove t
h ti
( 1 a
“ n
n _ oo
1
n

14 . Pr o ve t
h t ( a er my? 2
e .

15 E xp an d l o g , ( 1 a; p owe r s o f a:t
x? ) in he t
o t er m i n vo lvin g

t i t
.

F or w a valu e s o f a:
h w ll hi s ex p an s i on c o n verge

t
h t
2
m 1 m 3

( ) )
7 n n
16 Sh o w l g a o £ _ _
n

2
.
e
n n n

17 . Sho w t
h t
l g a o ,
2 —1
1
n2
l
n4
+ L +
2 3 71 6
wt
h t
n
18 . Sh o a

1 1 1 1 1 1
+
n 2 n2 3 u3

XXX V . R E C UR R I N G SE R I E S

R ecu rri n g s eri es A serie s ao a sol a 2x

2
i n wh i c h
c o n se cu t
i v e c oe ffic i e n t
s ar e c o n n e c t
e d by a n i d e n t
it
.

e v e ry r 1 y
Of t
h f e or m

an + p l a —1 + p 2 a ’
n
’
n —2 +p r
a’n -
r
0)

wh er e p l , p g , p a re c on st
an t fo r a l l v al u e s o f n , is c all e d a

t t t it
h id t t
,

r ec u r r i n g s er i es o
f h h e r or d er , an d ey i en s c all e d i s

s c a le of r el a t
i on .

Th u s , i n ( 1)
e ver y t
h ree i ve c o effici en t
c on sec u t s ar e c o n n e c t
ed b y t
h f e or m u l a

a. — 2 a. (2)
for 5 7 —2 2 u + 1 —2 (2 n —l ) + 2 n
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

From t
h e e x am t
p l e i w i ll b e se e n h a o r d i n ar ily wh e n 2 r tt
tm
er s ar e g iven t h e se r i e s m ay b e c o n i n u e d i n o n e way a s a t
re cu rr i n g i
s er e s t t o f h e r h or d e r , a n d h a w h e n 2 r 1 erm s tt t
ar e g i ve n it y b c ntima d i e o nu e n in fi itly
n e m an y w ay s as a

r e c u rr i n g i f t
se r e s oh ( i )t
h e r or der .

Th e g en era i n g t fu n ct
i on of a rec u rr i n g p ower s eri e s E ve ry
tt t
.

re c u rr i n g p ow e r se r i e s o f h e r h o r de r i s h e e x p an s i on o f a
p p ro t er t t t
f ra c i o n wh o s e d e n o m i n a o r i s o f h e r h d e g r e e ( c o m
p ar eTh i f c t
i i c l l d t
h g ti g f s c t
i ra on s a e e en er a n un on

o
f t
h i It i t h
e s er es m f th . i wh n t h is i e su o e se r es e e se r e s s

c o nve r g en t .

Th u s , le t
be c
a r e ur r n i g s er i es o f t
h e se c o n d or d e r wh ose c
s a le o f r el a t
i on is

an na —1 n gen -
2 0 .

Se t Sn = a 0 + 0 11
3 + a ,, -
1x
n —1

—1
m m Sn +p an -
i x"

2
(1 33 3 7:
2
q 0 +
a x qan (I a n —2
( :
ao + a 1 ( p a 1 q u —2m
p a o) 2 n -
a

th e r em a in i n g t
erm s o n t h e r igh t d i sa pp e ar i n g b e c au s e o f
Wh en ( 1) i s c o n ve r g e n ta s n i n c r e as es S wi ll a pp r o ach S, t
h e su m

as l i m i t
, n

of an d a w i l l a pp r oa ch 0
,
”
.

Th er efor e ( 1 p a: r ?
q )S ao ( a 1 p a o) m ,

t
h t
i a s, S
ao

1
(a l
: ?
pa qr

Th e g en eral tm er of a rec u rr i n g power s er es i Th i s m ay b e

ti d wh t t ct t
.

o b a neh g i g f i i en e en er a n un on s k n o wn , by he
m th d ill ttd i t
,

e o h f ll w i g pl
u s ra e n e o o n e x am e .

E x am pl e F in d t
h g e e n er a t
i gf n un ct
i on an d t
h g e e n e ra l tm er t
of
h e

t
t
.

re c u rr i n g s er i es wh o se s c al e is a ,, 2 an _ 2 0 an d wh ose firs w o

tm
er s are 5 4x .

Here p
—1 , q —2 , ao = 5, al z 4 .

5 —x 5 —x
Th ere fore , b Y § 998 ,
1 — x —2 x2 — 2 x)
 R E CUR R I NG SE RI E S 56 3

Se p ar a i g ( 1) i ti tp t
t n i l f ct
i
n o s ar a ra o n s, 537 ,

5 -
:
:
z 2 3
— 2 33 l
+ 2 1
"

—2 x)
”

1 +x 1 —2 c

Bu t
if |x < 1, 2 (1 + a )
An d i f [as — 2 x) —1 = 2 23 +
Th e refo re t
h g e e n e r al t erm is l )n2 3 x" .

E XER CI SE X CI

1 tt h tm f c i
t
I f h e firs re e er s o a r e u rr n g se ri e s of t
h t
hi d
e r o r d e r ar e

d t c l f l t
.

2 3 5 x h i i
x2 a n e s a e o re a on s a ,, 2 a ,, l 3 a ,, s 0,
d t t h tm
- -

fin h f h d fift
e ou r an er s .

2 Fi d t
. h c l f l t
n i d t
w
e s a e o re a on an o ad d it
i on al tm er s in ea ch of t
h e

fo llo w i n g
—z3 — 3 c 4 +

( 2) 2 — 5 x + 4 x2 + 7 m3 —26 x4 + ~
— 3 x + 6 m2 — 1 0 x3 + 15 x4 — 2 l x5 +

3 . F ind t
h g
e en e ra t
i gf n un ct
io n and t
h g e en er al tm
er o f ea ch of t
h e

fo ll o wi n g
( 1)
(2) 3 7 x 43 9133 1 1 3 15 4

4 Pro ve t
h t
i a n a r e u rr n c i g i
se r e s a o al x of th thi d de r or er,

t 0 t t
.

wh o s e c
s al e o f r e l a i on is a ,, p an _1 qa n _ 2 ra n _ 3 h g,
i g e en era n

1 + p x + qx2 + rx3

5 By th p c
aid o f e re e d n i g fo rm u la fin d t
h g e e n e ra t
i gf n un ct
io n an d

t l tm f t
.

h g e en e ra h
er o e se r e s i

6 Sh o w h a tt a ( a d) cc ( a ( a 3 d) v3 is a re c u r

i g s er i e s o f t tg t ct
. .

r n h e se c o n d o rd e r , a n d fin d i s e n er a i gf n un i on .

7 Sh o w t
h t
a1 2
32332 is a re u rr n c i g i
ser es o f t
h e

t g en er at
i n g fu n c t
.

hi d r o rd er wh ose ion is (1 cc ) (1 x 3
) .

8 Sh o w t
h t a -
3m+ 3 -
4 x2 + 4 -
5 x3 + is a r e u rr n c i g
h t
f t t c o n vergen t
.

i
s e r es o hi d
e r or d e r, an d fin d i s su m wh e n .
 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

XXX VI . I N FI N I TE P R O D U C TS

I n fin i tp e r odu c s t . Th i s n am e i s g i ve n t o e x p r e ss i o ns of t
h e

fo r m
H (1 + a1
) 1
( + a2
) + ar
)
i n wh i c h t
h e num b er of th f ct e a or s is su pp o se d tb o e i n fin i t e

i d tb c t tcc
.

Su ch a p rodu ct is sa o e on ve r g e n or di ve rg en a ord

in g as
( 1 a,
) ( 1 a,
) ( 1 a ch e s or doe s
a pp r oa no t
app r o a ch a fin i tl i i t
e m as n is i n d e fin i t
e l y i n c r e a se d

t
.

T h eorem If a ll he nu m ber s a, a re
p os i t
i th i ve, e nfin it
e

t
.

p rod u c tH (1 ar
) is c on ver g en tor d i ver g en tcc di g a or n as h e

i nfi n i t
e s er i es 2 ar i s c on ver g en tor d i ve rg en t .

F ir s t pp su o se t
h t2 a ar is c o n v e rg e n t
an d h as t
h e su m S
t
.
,

Th e n sin ce 1 a: e
x
wh e n cc i s p o si i ve , 990,

+ ) < ~
a “ a
an e l -
e 2 -
e n
,

t h at
is ,

Hen ce, a s 77. i n c r e a se s, ( 1 a,

) )( 1 a, i n c r e ase s
bu t r e m ai n s l e sst
h t
h an e fin i t
e n u m be r e
S
I tt
h f
e r e o re

l i m i t 1 92 th t
.

app r oa ch e s a i H (1 a s is c on v e r g e n t
th t g t
.
, ,

Se c o n d , su pp o se E i di a a, s ve r en

t
.

In hi s c a se lim ( a1 a2 00

t( 1
.

Bu 1 + (a1 a2

Th e r e f o re li m ( 1 a1
) ( 1 a2
) ( 1 00 , t
h t a i s,
H (1 ar
) i s d ive r gen t .

Th u s , H (1 1 / n P) i s c on verg e n t
wh e n p 1 , d i ver g e n t
wh p 2 1 en .

E xam pl e 1 I f 2 a , is a d i ve r g e n tp i t
i os ve se r e s i wh ose tm er s are a l l

t h at
.

l ess h an 1, s h ow t H (1 ar ) 0 .

Si n c e a, . 1 an d 1 a f
, 1 , we h a ve 1 ar < ar ) n u m er ic ally .

He n c e ( I a1 ) (l a2 ) a1 ) (l a2 )
Bu t
Th erefor e II ( 1 a, ) li m ( 1 a1 ) (l a2 ) ~ 0 .
 A COLLE G E ALG E BR A

XXX VI I . C O N TI N U E D F R ACTI O N S

t
Con i nu ed frac i on s t . Th i s n am e i s g i ven to e x p r e s si o n s o f t
h e

b
f o rm a +
b
c +d
or a
c +
d
c +
as t
h y e a r e u s u al l y

wr i t
t en .

We sh a ll c on s i der si m p le c on tin u ed fr a c t i o n s on ly . Th e se

h av e t
h f e orm a 1
“ 2
1
"

i
”
1
as
wh e r e a1 is a Po si t
i i t
ve
g n e er

or 0 an d a , , a 3 , t
i tg ar e p os i ve I n e ers

c ll d t t
.

Th b
e num h fi t
er s a , , a 2 , c d p i l ar e a e e r s , se on ar a

i tf t h c t d f ct
,

q t
uo en s o i i e on nu e ra on

t ft t i nt
.

Acc d i g or h n b ash q i fi it
e num i fi er o e se uo e s s n e or n

n i tt
e, h f ct ei i c ll d t i
ra t
oni g s ti t i g
a e er m na n o r n on er m na n

E id t y t i t
.

T in t
er mi g f t
i a n ly ra c on si g i pl v en e ve r erm na n s m e

c t t t it
.

on i d f cti
n ue h p i
ra i i
on l l f as a m y b os ve r a on a va u e, or a e

re d c d t im p l f cti n
u e o a s e ra o .

1 4 13
1 30 ,

’
1 1 1
13 13 30

Co n ve r se ly ,t
i t
i l mb m
e ve r y p o s i ve r a on a nu er ay be c on v e r t
ed

in t tm i t
o a i g im pl c
er t i d f ct
na i n s e on nue ra on Th i s w il l b e
id tf m t
.

ev en h f ll wi gro m pl e o o n ex a e .

E x a m p le . Co n ver t int o a c on ti n u e d fra c ti on .

App ly i n g h e tm t
h df e o or fin d in g th e gr ea t e st c o m m o n d i vi s o r of t
w o

in t
eg e r s t6 7o an d 2 9, w e h ave
29) 6 7 ( 2 a1

58
9) 29 (3 a2

27
2 ) 9 (4 a3

8
1 ) 2 (2
2
0
 CO NT I NUE D F R ACT I ONS

Su b s it
t t
i g (2)
u n in an d (3) in t
h e re su l tw
, e h ave

2
2+ 1
as r e qui r ed .

4 1
2

Si n c e 1 we a ls o h a ve
29 1 1 l l
67

Converg en t Th f c t
is .

1
e ra on a1
1 ; a1
1 1

h fi tc d t
“ 2 (1 2

d t s of t t
as

c on ver gen t
c

are c alle ehi d r s , se on ,

r , h e fr a c i on
1 1
a1 +

Wh en a1 i s O, t
h fi t
c e rs on ve rg e n t
i w it
tT
s r en
0

Th eorem 1 E a ch od d c o n ver g e n tis less and ea ch even c on

tt tc
.

.
verg en ti g s r ea er h an ever y s u bs e qu en on ver g en t.

Th i s f ol l o w s f r om t
h f e a ct h t f ct
t ia a ra on d e cr e a ses wh e n
i td
s en om in a ti or n cr e a se s .

Thu s ,

1 . a1 < a1 + - o
.

1 1 1
2 . a1 + — > dl + S ce
in
az . o o
a2

1
3 . a1 + < ar + tsm c e az + - —> a2 +
a3

by 2 ; an d so o n .

R edu c i on t n
of c o ver g en s t . On r ed u ci n g t
h e fi r st , se o c nd ,
t
hi d
r ,
1006

c o n ve r g e n tf s o a1
1
— 1
tt
oh e f or m of si m l
p e
fr ac t 1 on s , we b tno ai
a2 a3

a1 a l az + 1
y o .

1 a
2 a go , 1
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

t
Le p l , p g , p g, den o tt
h ne e u m e r a o r s , an d
t g 1 , 92 , 93,
t h e d e n o m i n a tor s of t
h c e on v e r g e n t t
h
s as u s r e du ced , so th a t
1 71 a ,,
P2 “ 1 05 2 1 :P3 61 1 61 2 61 3 “ 1 a s,
( )
2
= + 1, 3
93 a 2a 3
( )
Si n c e a ,, a , , a ,, ar e p o s i t
i i tve
g n e e r s, i t
f ll o o ws f r om
t
( )
3 h t a as n cr e ase s p a n d g c o n t
in i n u a lly i n c r ease a n d
t
h t
t 0 if t i o n d oe s n ot
h e g i v e n fr act t
, , ,

h y pp
a e a r o a ch 0 er m i n ate .

By e x am i n i n g
( )
2 an d
( )
3 i t
wi l l b e f ou n d t h at

P3 a3
p 2 + 10 1 an d q3 wagt qt

Th i s i s an ill u s tti
ra on o f t
h f e oll o w i n g t
h e ore m .

T h eorem 2 or a n d d en o m i n a t
Th e n u m er a t or o
f a n y c on ver
nt a r e c on n e c t
ed w i t t ft he two p r ec edi n g c o n ver g en t
.

e h h os e o s b
g y
t
h f e or m u la s

p n
a‘
n pu —l p —2)
n qn an q u
' —l q n —2‘

F or su pp o s e th tt
h f l h a e se orm u as av e b een p ro ve d th
o ol d

g o od fo r h kt
t h c eg t t h t on v er en ,
so a

p ic ak
p k —l + Pk -
2a 9k “ —1
k il t 9k 1
( )
Pk a kp k —l l p k 2
“ ”

ak —l + gk —2
( )
2
file

Th e ( k 1) h tc o n ve r g e n t m ay b e de r i ved f r om t
h kt
h by
e

m e r e l y re p l a c in g a ,, by a, 1 /a k 1 004 Th e r e fo r e , s in ce
t t t
h t
. .

p k _ 1, p k _ 2, gk _ 1, 91. -
2 do no i n v o l ve i f ll o o ws f r o m ( 2) a

( al t 1 / a k + l ) g k —l 1 916 “ “
-
2

( + 91 —2) + 9k + 9k —1
t
h t
ak a ak
+1 k 9k -
1 -
1 +1 9k
a I s,

Ple + 1 a’
k tl p k
v - + Pk -
1; 9k “ ak
+l QIc Q’s —1

h u s pr ov ed t
W e h ave t if t
h at h e fo r m u l a s p
t c o nve rge nt
,, 1

91. g n _ 2 h o ld g o o d fo r an y p a r ic l u ar
,
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

1010 Coroll ary 2 . F or t

h d ifi
e
'

er e n c es be ween t c on ver g en t
s we h a ve
t
h f e or m u la s

qn qn -
l q n q n —l qn q n —2 q n q n —2

Th e fir s t
f orm u la i s an im m e di a tc e o n se q u e n c e of t
h e r el a

t
i a on —l _
p —l g n l >
n

h f ct
t t
h t
n n

Th e se c o n d f o l l o ws f r o m e a ,
1 007 , 1 008 , a

a n —2 —p —2 g n n ( an
p —l + p —2) gn —2
n n
_
p n —2 ( a n Qn —l gn —2)
—l
an
(p n 1 911 —2
_
p n —2 9n —1) l) n
a’n '

Th e t
h e or em of 1 005 m ay b e d e r i v e d fr o m t
h e se f o rm u las .

Th eorem 4 Th e n t
h c o n ve r g en tf o tm i t i g i mp l
a n on e r na n s e

d fi i tl i m i t
.

co n t i n u ed fr a c t
i on a
pp r oa c h es a e n i i d fi it
e ly as n s n e n e

i n c r ea s ed .

F or , b y t
1 005, h e o dd c o n v e r g e n t s p l /g l , p s/gs, for m a
n e v e r e n d i n g i n cr e as i n g s e q u e n c e , e v e ry e r m o f wh i ch i s l es s
-
t
t
h th fi it m b
an e n e nu er p / g H c
e n e , § 1 92 , a v a r i a b l e w h i h c
t gh t t
2 2 .

h
ru n s hi q rou s se u en c e will i n r e ase c
o wa r d s o m e n u m b e r

A li m i t
as

t
.

Si m il ar ly a v ar i a bl e wh i ch ru n s th r ou gh h eq se u en ce of

e ve n c on v e r g e n t
s p
/g p 4 /g 4 , w ill d e c r eas e tw o ar d s om e

t
g z,

nu m ber p
. as l im i .

é”
92 m —1 —1
”
92 m

Th e r e fo r e a v ar i a bl e wh i c h ru n s t
h r ou gh t
h e c om p l e te

s e qu e n ce of c on v e r g e n t
s p 3 /g 3 , w il l a pp r o a ch

A as l i m i t
t t t t t
.

By h l e va u e o f a n on e rm i n a i n g s i m p l e c on i n u e d f r a c i on
i s m e an tt
h e num be r hm t
I f o ll o w s f r om 1 003 h at t
t
n éw
th i s n u m ber is a l w ay s i r r a i o n al
tm i t t
h tf i tl
.

Th e v al u e o f a er na i ng f ra c tio n is a o s as t c on

ve r g e n t , 1 004 .
 CO NT I NUE D FR AC T I O NS

t
h tt m t f t
In h f l l wi g t
e s a e h m 1 01 3 1 01 4
en s o e o o n eo r e s,

td i g i t h t th f ct tm i t
, ,

t
h d e un wh
e r s an i n s a en e ra on er n a e s, c on

ve r
g tm en y c g t c pt t
h l t
e a n s an o n ver en ex e e as on e .

Corol la ry 1 Th e va lu e
f
o a s im p le con ti n u ed fr a c t i on l i es
c o n s ec u t
.

t
be we en t
h e v a l u es of e ver y t
w o i ve c o n ver g en t
s .

Cor oll ary 2 Th e d if e r en c e be wee n t th e va l u e f

o a c on t
in u ed
th t
.

f ct
ion
ra and
f i t t
h c a o s n on ve r g e n t
i s nu m er i c a lly les s t
h an

d g
an tt h r ea er a n an
“

+ 2.

F or l te Ad tt h l en o e e va u e of h f ct
t ie ra o n , an d tfi t
h o x e

id ea s su pp th t i
o se dd a n s o .

We t
h en h av e
(
A 1 01 3
In gt i

1
He n c e § 1 01 0, 1
q gt i q gn7 n + l
7’ “
H 2

gi t gir l 2
-
Tn ga gn + 2
E vi de n ly t 1 /g fi, an d b y m ak i n g u se o f t
h e r el a

t
i on
g, H a ,,
H q 1 007 , i m ay t r e a dil
y b e sh o w n h a tt
t t
",

a ,,
+2 2 ( q, g H en c e h e c
d i ffe r e n e b e wee n
t tt
__ ,

Aa n d p /q i s l e ss h an
n n
an d g rea her an 1 /g ,, (g , 9,

Corol l ary 3 E a ch c on ve rg en t
is c los e r ap p r ox i m a t
a i on tt
h o e

ft
.

va l u e o h e fr a c t
io n t
h an is an
y p r e c edi n g c o n ve r g en t .

F o r , by 1 01 4 , if A d e n o tt
h e e v al u e o f th f cti t
h di f
e ra on , e

fe re n c e b e t
w een A an d p /g is n u m eri ca lly l t
h e ss an

t ce b e t
n ,

wh i l e h d i ff e ere n we e n A an d is n u m er i c ally
g r e a ett
rh an a
n -
l—l /f
l —I gn ri 4 1
-
; an d 1 /Q ’1 nn i—
-
I an
+ l /? n —1 7 n + l)

Si n ce gn _ 1
a ,,
a ,
1 006 .

Coroll ary 4 c on ver g en t Th e is a c los e r t

i
app r ox i m a on

t
.

o t
t h e va l u e of t i on t
h e fr a c t ha n i s a n y o t
h er r a i l f ct
ion a ra on

wh os e d en om i n a tor d o es n o tex c eed q

F or i f a
/b i s a c l o se r a pp r o x i m a i n tt
t oh o e v al u e of t
h e

fr a c t
i t
h on an p n / gn i s, i t tl m us a so , § 1 0 1 5 , be a c l o se r
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

a pp r o x i m a t
i t
h on an i s, an d m us tt
h f
e r e o r e, § 101 3
t
,

l i e b e w e e n p /g ,, an d
t
To fi x h e i d e as, su p p ose h ti
t a n s e v en .

\
Ve t
h h en a ve
p"“ CL
—
b
15
g n —l gn
I)" p —l a
p n —l
Hen ce
n
;
g g —ln
b g n —I
'

t
h t
i a s,
1 a (h —l

Qn Yn —i a —i

b 9 ( ” Ya —1 a —l ) ’

tBu i p it i i c / b H c s os ve, s n e a en e

b t h t i i f /b i cl a pp is, ti tt h v l
a f s a o se r a r ox ma on o e a ue o

th c eti d f ct
on i th
nue p /g i it d ra i tb m t on b an s, s en o m n a o r u s e

g tt
r ea h er an

R i g f
ec u rr nti A n t i t i g c
ra c t i d f ct
on s i on e rm n a n on nue ra on

i gl p t i l q t i t c t
.

i wh i c h
n a s n g p f e i
ar a uo en or a rou o c o n se u ve

p ti
ar l q t
i a t c tiuo l l y c i
en c ll d s c g f
on nua re u rs s a e a re u rrin rac

ti on A d h f ctn i i c ll d p
su c i d c
a di g
ra on s a e u re o r m xe a c or n

it tb g i n w i t h t c i g p t
.

as b gi d e ns or h oe s i l no e e se re u rr n ar a

q ti
uo t en s

c i g f ct
.

Th l f
e va u e o i m y b f d f ll w
a r e u rr n ra on a e ou n as o o s .

E x a m pl e 1 . F in d t
h e va l u e o f 2 1
3
2
1

3
1
2
I
3

c i g fra c t ht
t 1
Thi s is a pu re r e u rr ni on wi h p e er i od 2 + He n c e , if 2:
ti t s v al u e , we h a ve
5;
d en o e

1 1 1 x
7x +2
3 x2 —6 x —2 z 0,
3 9: 1
- -
, . . s
3 x

E x a m le 2 p . F in d t
h e va l u e o f 4
1
5
l
3
1
3

Thi s is a m x ed i c
re u rr n i g fr ac t
i on wi t
hth p e i
e r od 2 Hen c e , i f

:d e n o te t t t2 + t
1
2 h e va l u e of h e re u rr n c i g p ar an d y h e val u e o f
3
t
h e e nt i r e fra c t
i on ,
we h ave , by E x . 1,
3

1 1 21x + 4 4 V1 5
 A C O LLE G E ALG E B R A

E x am p le . tV 1 1 i t c t
Con ve r i n o a on n u ed fr ac t
i on .

Th e g re a tt
i tg l t
es h V 11 i 3
n e er ess an s ,
an d , § 6 03 ,

Th e est
great in t
e ger le s s h a n t V 11
( is 3, an d

2 l
3 + 3 + 3 +
2 2 V1 1 + 3
Th e est
g r e at in t
e ge r l ess t
h an 3 is 6 , an d

2 1
V 11 + 3 z 6 + V
( 11 _ 6 +
3 x/ fi
( +
Th e l a s t
f ct
i ra on in ( 3) i s th e sa m e as t h e l as t in h e st
He n c e t ep s

e d i n d efi n i t tha t
fr o m (3) o n wi ll b e ( 3) r e p e a t e ly is t
h e p ar ti al q u o
t t3 He n c e s u b s t it a n d (3 ) i n t
,

i en s an d 6 wi l l rec u r . ut i n g (2) i n
, he
i
lt
i
resu ,
an d so on ,
we h ave V 1 1 z 3

A g i v e n i r r a i o n al t b b p d i
num ly w ye r c an e ex r e ss e n on on e a

as a sim l
p e c t
on i d f ctinu e Th i f l l w f h f ct
tra on s o o s ro m e a

h t
t t ti t i g i pl c t d f ct t
.

w a o n o n e rm na i in c s b
m e on nue ra on s an n o e

eq u al u n less th i ce r p di g p t i l
o rr e sq ti t qonl n ar a uo en s a re e ua .

F or if a c 7 w h er e
a a an d 0 den o ei i t
tp i t g os ve n e e rs a n d :
a

a n d 7 d en o t e p os i t t
h 1 t
,

i ve n u m b e r s w hich are l es s h an en a 0, s ni ce
t
h t i tg t
,

ot h e r wi se i t w o u l d fo ll o w fr o m a cz 7 a a an n e er, n o 0 i , s

n u m e r ic a l l y l ess t h an 1 .

1 l 1 1
He n c e , I f a l 01 wh ere 0 1 , (1 2 , a s , w
a2 + a3 +
c 1 , 6 2 , C3 , den o tp t
e o s i i ve in e tg e rs , we h ave al
1 1
(1 2 as
l 1 1
02 012 6 2 , an d so o n .
02 Ca 03

I f we e t
c om pu t h e co n ttwh i ch g i v
i n u e d f ra c t
i on o a en

i t
r rai l b
on a I i q l num f th t
erh p t i lq
) ti t s e ua as ar a s e n ar a uo en

fi d it t t t t t
,

w e c an h c n g p d
s n h i i l f c i on ve r en an s ra on a ra on

p /q w ill p 6 pp i tly wi t
ex hr e ss l th a ro x ma e an e r r or e ss an

t
n n

1 /g3 1 01 4 M v P /Q w i ll b cl pp
or e o i i n er e a o se r a ro x ma o

t6 t y t t l f ct
,
.
n r.

o h i anh i s i
an wh od n m in t er ra on a ra on ose e o a or

d t c d g 1 01 6
oe s n o ex ee ",
.
 CO NTI NUE D F R AC TI O NS

t tf c o n ve r g e n t
1 1 1
Th u s ,
h e fir s ou r s of VI +
3 6 3
3 EQ
—a —
63 1 99
—— , an d ex p r esse s V 11 wi t
h an e rro r l e ss t
h an
1
1 3 19 60 6 02

Sol u i on t of i nde tm i t q t
er i na e e ua on s of h fi t
t d ge rs e ree G iven
t t t
.

an y equ a i on of h f e orm ax by c wh e r e a, b, 0 den o e

tg
,

in e e rs of wh i c h c o m m on f a c t o r 6 7 2 I f
a an d b h av e no

we c o n v e r t a b in t o a con t n u e d fr act on t e l as t
.
,

/ i i h c o n ve r g e n t

of t h i s f ra cti o n w il l b e a /b i t se l f an d i f t h e c o n v e rg e n t n e x t
,

to t h e l as t
,

b e p /q w e h a ve a q bp i 1 1 008 Th i s f a c t
m ak e s i t t r of in t
, .
,

s s i b l e a l w a s o fi nd a a i e r al v a l u es o f x
p o y p g
a n d y wh i c h s a t i s fy an: by c Th e m e t h o d i s i l l u st r at ed
t
.

in h f e ol l o wi n g e x am l
p e .

E x a m p le . F in d an in t
e gr al so l u t
i
on of 2 05 a : 93 y 7 .

2 05 l 1 1 1
As i n 1 003 , E x .
,
we fi n d

c on ve rg en t 2 9 E 2 3 2 05
Th e s fou n d ,
as in 1 007 , E x .
, are , , , ,
1 4 5 44 93

Hen c e 2 05 44 93 97 1,

or , m ul t
ipl y i
g b y 7 205 n 44 7 ) 93 ( 97 7 )
, 7 -
.

Th er e fo r e a: 308 y 6 79 is a s o lu t i o n o f 2 05 11; 93 y 7
z

i o n i s a: 308 93 t 2 05 t
, .

Th e ge n e r al s o l u t y 6 79 § 6 74
Si m i l a rl y we m ay s h o w t h at 7 h as th e s ol u t
, , .

205 a: 93 y i o n a:
67 9 .

E X ERCI SE X CII I

Co m p u tt
h ce e on ver gen t
s of t
h e foll o wi n g

1 1 1 1 1

t ch f t
Co n v e r h f ll wi g i t c
ea ti d f ct i
o F e o o n n o a on nu e ra on or e a ch of

h l t t c m p tt t g td t i m tt
.

t e h as h f hc
r ee o h u e e ou r o n ve r en an es a e e error m ad e
i t
n ki g t
ahi c ng tt h l ft h f ct
s i o n ve r en as e va u e o e ra on .

45 7 142
»
6
g
.

5 13

2 33 42 1
17 7 i 5 972
576 A C O LLE G E ALG E BR A

Con ver t ch f t h f ll w i g i t
ea o e o o n n o a re c u rr i n g c o n t i n u ed fra cti o n an d
c o m pu h fi ft
tt e h c eg t dt h c o n ve r en s an e o r re s p o n d i n g e rr o rs fo r th e fi rs t
fo u r of t
h m e .

13 . WE .

16 . 17 .

19 . e x6 . 20 .
( Vi c — 2m . 21 .

F in d h e t val u e s o f t
h f e o l lo w n i g r e c u r r i n g fra c t
i on s .

1 1 1 1 1
24 ‘
o ~

é+ 1 1 i
26 .
1 1 i 1 i

27 . Sh o w t
h t
V
a az a
2 d +2 a +

h t
t 1 1 1 1
28 . Sh o w V a a2 2 a

29 . Sh o h t
w t a

1 1 l — ( a bc + a

a +b + c + 2 (a b + l )
30 Co n ve r tt
h e p os i t
i ve ro o tf o mz + a> o a c on t
in t in ued
t
.

fr a c ion .

31 . Sh o w h a tt pn —p 1 + 1 1
(l ag s
Qn (11 91 92

h t
t 1 1 l 1 1
32 . Sh o w a
az as (1 1 92 92 93 93 <
Z 4
H

33 Wh at rat i o n al frac ti o n h a vi n g a d e n o m i n a t o r l ess th an 1000 will

m os t n ea r l y e x p r ess t h e r at io o f t h e d i a g o n a l o f a s qu a re t o it
.

s s i de ?

i m at
E st e t h e e r ro r m ad e i n t ak i n g thi s fr ac t i o n as t h e va lu e o f t
h e r at i o.

34 . F in d t
h e si m p l e stfr a c t
i o n which w i ll ex p ress n

wi t
h a n e rr or w hich i s l ess t h a n 000001 . .

35 Co m p u tt
e h i t
hce s xg tf on ve r en o e a n d es i m tt
t h
a e e

tk i g i t t
.

err o r m ad e in a n h l fas e va u e o e .

36 . F in d an i t g l l t
n e i raf 1 2 7 : 2 14 y
so u on o a 6 .

37 . Fi n d an i t g l l t
n e i raf 2 35 412 y
so u on o 3; 10 .

t in t t 5 1 7 a: 32 3 11
'

38 . F in d h g e e n e r al e g r al s ol u id n of 31 .
 5 78 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

i n d e t e r m i n at e f or m wh en x a, 5 1 3—5 18 Th e e qu a t i on
t t
h n f il t
.

y f ( w) by i sel f c on s i d e r e d d fi
e a s o e ne
y wh e n x a

t i tfi i t l t
.

Bu
a
if 1 m f ( x) h as a d e fin e wn e v a u e, e a ss i g n hi t
h s as e

v al u e of f( ) a § 5 1 9, wh i ch m ak e s f( ) c
x on t
i n u ou s t If
a a.

tf ( ) t
,

ll m 00 , w e a s s i g n h e v al u e § 5 1 5 ; f (x ) i s
— f ( )
x o a 00 ,

t t t t
arJ az .

F i n ally , if l i m
i s i n de
h en d is co n i n u ou s a a f( ) x er m i
n tw t
.

x é a

a e, e h a ve no r ea son fo r a ss i gn i n g an y s in
gl e v al u e o

f( a
) E t
v i d e n l y w e c an a ss i g n n o n e fo r w h i c h 11 m
f ( as) f( a)
t t t
. .

In h i s c a se al so f ( x ) i s d i s c on i n u ou s a a .

Th u s every r at i o n al fu n c ti o n f (13) i s c o n ti n u ou s e x c e p t
p e r h aps wh en
ft 1
h e d e n o m i n at
.

o r o f so m e f ra c t
,

i o n o cc u r r i n g i n f (as) v an i sh e s
F or e x a m p l e c o n s i d e r t
.

h e fu n c t i o n f (x) z (a: 1 ) (x2

i n u ou s e x c e p tw h en x2 1 0 t h ati s wh e n
,

Thi s fu n c t i on i s c o n t
t1
, ,

m=l or —1 F or i f is a no or —1) h as a

tfi it
.

d efi n i li m
e n e va l u e an d
mi
f ( x) f (a ) ,
509 .

t p t t i t
a

Wh en a: 1, he ex r e s s on i (x 1) as su m es h i
e n d e er m n a e

for m Bu t
l a)
im
f l im lim

c on t
l ac : 1
tf ( 1 ) t
'
z

an d by as s ig n i n g o h e va l u e we m ak e f i n u ou s wh en
(E 1 .

Wh e n a: f( )
1, i sco n t
s
o i n u ou s ;
is d fo r 1
21 1
f (as) 00 .

t
h e foll o w i n g fu n c t
$ ]
2 Co n s i d e r
. io n
1 1
m
+ a
1 1

2x + 1 1/ z z
+ i
Here f (0) h a s h e ti n d e er mt i tf m na e or oc / oo , 5 17
t i tf ( t
.

Bu if w e wr e a ) i t
hn c df e se o n o rm an d h en m ak e a a :pp roach 0
1

t
h r ou gh p os i t
i ve val u es w e h ave li m 2ac co , a n d th f li m f (x) z 1
ere o re

I f we wr i t t app r o a ch 0 t
.

he t
,

e f (as) i n t hi rd fo r m an d h en m ak e a: h r o u gh
t
1

n eg a i ve va l u e s , we h ave l im 2 I
co , an d t
h f e re o r e l im f (as) 3
h ro u gh val u e s wh ich ar e al t
.

i n ally if we m a k e a:appr o a ch 0 t
F er n a t
ely

n d n e g at n ota pp r o a ch a n y l i m i t
,

pos i ti ve a i ve f (a t ) w i ll
i n u ou s a t
He n c e f (x) i s d i sc o n t O No va lu e c a n b e a ss ig n e d t
.
,

o f 0) fo r
( .

which
ig f (x)

1025 F r om t
h d e e fin it
i on of con t
in u it
y in 1 02 3 i ti m m e di a e l y t
fo llows ,
1 8 9, h t
t a
 PR O P E R TIE S OF C O NTI NU O U S F U NC T I O NS 57 9

Th e su fii c i en td an c
n e es s a r y c on di t
i on that f ( x ) be c o n t
in u ou s
ti th t e fin i t
d efi n i t e va lu e a n d t ha t fo r eve ry
a a f( s a a
) h a ve a

th ll b t
,

p it
ios mb ve n u er 8 wh i c h can be a ss i g n ed i s a e p oss i bl e o

fi nd a c or r esp on d in g p os i t
i ve num ber 6 su h t
ch t a

[ ( )
f x f ( a) l 8 w h en eve r [ x a
] 5.

Th u s i n t
h e n eigh bo rh o o d of a v al u e o f so, as a , a t
whi ch

f( ) a
'
is c o n t i n u ou s v e r y s m a ll c h an g e s in t
h v l e a ue o f so a r e

t
,

acc om p an i ed by ve ry sm all ch an g e s in e a u e of f x
( ) h v l
an d th e c h an g e i n t tk n
,

h e v al u e of so c an b e a e s m al l e n ou g h
to m ak e t h e c orr e s p o n d i n g ch an g e i n t
h e v al u e o f f ( x ) a s s m al l
as we l
p e ase Th i s i s no tt ru e of f( ) x in -
an in t e r va l c on

t t t
.

t ai n i n g a v al u e of a :a wh i c h f ( or
) i s di s c o n i n u o u s . See h e

e x am pl e s i n 1 02 4 .

T h eorem tf t
1 h f ct
i If bo h o e un on s f ( x) and
¢( ) x a r e c on

t t i t f
.

t
i n u ou s a h ma, e sa e s ru e o
¢ (x) and f
a ls o o
ff ( ) x u n l ess <) 1 (a) 0
tt t
.

c on t
D

If f ( x ) is i n u ou s a h a, e sa m e is ru e o
f V f (x) .

Th i s f ol l o ws i m m e d i at e l y f ro m t
h d e e fin i t
i n o of con t i n u i ty
a t a, § 1 02 3 , an d t
h th e eo r e m s of 203 —2 05 , a cc or d i n g t o

w h i c h l im [ ( )
f x
q ( )]
!
) 3c lim f( ) 9c l im 1( ),
<) so an d so on

t
.

R eal fu n c ti on s I n wh a f ll o o ws a tw ill d e n o te a r ea l va r i a bl e,

t tk t
.

th a i s, o n e wh i c h l a e s rea v al u e s o n l y , a n d f ( a ) w i ll d e n o e
'

a r ea l fu n c t
i n o o f cc , t
h t
i a s, o n e wh i c h h a s r eal v al u e s wh e n a:

is r e al

ct
.

Nu m ber i n t erval s Th e p r a i e o f p i c c t u r i n g r e al n u m b e r s b y
t t gg tt
.

p o i nt s on a s r a i g h h f ll wi g lin e, 1 3 4, 209, su es s e o o n

t
c o n v e n i e n t n om e n c l a u re

L t c ll t b t
.

e h us bl g f ll
a l b ew a s se m a e o a rea nu m ers e een a

and b d b t h la i cl d d t
an h b i t l b
e m se ve s n u e e num er n er va a,

t itby t
, , ,

and p re h y b l (
r e se n b) e s m o a,

it td t h t 6 l t c ll
.

M b i g d
o r e o ve r , e n d un ers oo a a e us a a an

b t
h l ft d i g h t t i t h i tv l (
ft
,

e e ian r b) Al if ex r em es o e n er a a, . so,
 A CO LLE GE ALGE BR A

c
( a b) /2, le t h a t ( a b
)t i s di v
u s say id e d a 0 i nt o h e wo t tt
e u al i nt
,

q er va ls
( a , c ) an d ( c , b) ; an d so on .

Thu s ( 1 7 ) i s d ivi d ed a t 4 in t o t he t wo e qu al i n t er val s ( 1 (4

a n d at3 an d 5 i n to t he t h re e e qu al i n t
, , , ,

e r val s ( 1
(3 (5 , , ,

We say t
h t th f
a ct
i n f( e un o
)x c on tis
i n u ou s th r ou g h ou tt
h e

in ter va l
( a, b) i f i ti c ti s on n u o u s fo r e v e r
y v al u e of x i n hi s t
in te r v al .

Th eorem 2 If f ( x ) i s c o n t . h r ou g h ou t
i n u ou s t the i n t ( )
er va l a b ,

si n s t
,

a nd f a and f b a ve con t s in b
( ) ( ) h ra r
y g h e r e i ( a
) a n u m ber

x O su ch t
, ,

ha t
f ( x 0) 0 .

To fi x t
h id e ea s , su pp o s e h t
t f(
a a
) is t
h t
an d
f ( b) i a s

D i vide ( t y a, b b) i n
f q l i o an nu m er o e ua n t l y i tt h
e r v a s, s a n o e

t w q l i t l (
o e ua c) d ( c b)
n e r va s a, an

t B t
,
.

I ff ( c ) h i p d b i g
ou r iff ( )
e o r em 0 s r ov e 0 e n d o u 0

it t b t f ft h i t l ( t t
.
, ,

m us e ru e o c) c
( ) b
on e o h f( ) e n erva s a, or a x

titl ft tm i t t t t
,

i s a y s d e i i g h
ex re Th i f f( ) an a s r u s, c

t hi i t it
.

i s f ( c)
s d if f ( ) i
s ru e i t
o f (c a, an c s s ru e o

S l ct t i c c ll i t
, ,

e e hi i t l d f c
s n e r va
( an T h n or on ven e n e a a ,, e

f (a l ) is an d f ( bl ) i s
D e al w i h tt
hi i t s n
(er v al t d
a,, l t w
b, ) i t
h as w e h av e ju s ea

( a, b) , a n d so o n in d fi it
e ly W h ll i t
n e h lt
i tly c e s a e er u ma e om e

t l t it t
.

u
p o n an in e rv a e x remy f w h i c h f ( ) 0 w h i c
orh i h so s en

t gh t w
,

h e mo s o u h ll or e s a d e fin e a n e v e r e n di n g se q u e n
-
ce of

i t wi t i t l
,

n e r va l s hi n n e r v a s,

( 00 b) , ( an
( am
( a
n )
bu ) ,

su ch t
h t a f ( ) f( ) f( )
a ,
al ,
az ,
f( ) an , ar e

an d f ( b) ) f ( l ) :f ab ) ,
b ar e

I tf ll o o ws f r om 1 93 th t a as n i n c r e a se s a ,, an d b,,
ap p r o a ch t
h e sam e n u m be r as li i tF
m o r a ,, r e m a i n s l e ss t
h n a

tt
.

b an d n e v e r d e c r e a se s , an d b,, re m ai n s g re a h er a n a an d n e ve r
i n c r e as e s , an d li m ( b li m ( 6 0
t tt
.

Call h i s li m i ( o . Th e n f( ) x0 = 0 .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E BR A

am o n g t
h d i ff
e e r en t num b e rs in ( A) or a l e a st am o ng t
h e num

b e r s wh i ch ar e g r e a te r t
h t
h an os e in A
( ) .

By sim il ar r e aso ni n g 2 m ay b e p r ov ed .

If am o th d i ff
ng t mb f e e ren nu er s o an as se m bl a ge h e r e i s t
a g re a ttw c l l t
es h tn mb t
e h a a u er e m a xi m u m n u m be r of h e t
b l g ; if l t it i i
,

as s e m a e a e as s m n m u m nu m ber
t t
.
,

Th e su
p er i or li m i o f an a s se m bl ag e i s h e m ax i m u m nu m b e r ,
t
i f h er e tt t
b e o n e I f n o , i i s h e l e as n u m b e r wh i h i s g r e a e r t c t
t
.

t h an e v e ry n u m be r in h e asse m b l ag e
tf t
.

Th e i n fer i or li m i o an a sse m b l a g e i s h e m i n i m um n u m be r ,
t
i f h ere be on e If no ti t
i t
h g s e re a e stt nu m b e r wh i c h i s le ss
t
.
,

t h an e v er y n u m ber in h ble ass e m ag e

cont
.

An a sse m bl ag e l i k e 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, wh i c h ain s nu m be r s

g re a tt
er h a n e v e ry a ss i g n a bl e nu m b e r i s s a i d o h av e t t
he su p e

r i or l i it m 00 Si m i l ar ly an a sse m b l ag e l i k e 1 2, 3,
th t
,
. .

4, is s ai d o av e h e i n fe r i o r l i m i t oo

t t t
.

E v i d e n l y , if an a s sem b l ag e h as a fin i e s u p e r i o r li m i A,
t t
e i h e r i i s i s m a x i m u m n u m b e r o r we c a n fi n d i n h e a sse m t
b l ag e n u m b e r s wh i c h diffe r f ro m A as li t
t
l e as w e p l e a se .

By t
h e
“
v al u e s o f f( ) x in ( a, b) ”
we sh al l m e a n th ose whi ch
c or r e sp on d tvo al u e s o f x in ( a, b) An d i f t h i s as se m bl age
t
t
.

h as a m axi m u m or a m in i m u m v al u e we s h all c al l i h e a bs a

tm
,

lu e ax im u m or m in im u m va l u e o f f( ) x in ( a, b) Th e m ax i ~

t
.

m u m an d m in i m u m v al u e s
d e fin e d i n § 6 3 9 m ay or m ay no

be t
h e a bs o l u e t m a x i m u m an d m i n i m u m v a l u e s .

Th eorem 4 If f ( x ) i s c o n t i n u ou s t
h r ou g h ou t he in t
t er va l

e m a x i m u m a n d a n a bs o l u t
.

( a b,) i th a s a n a bs o l u t
,
e m i n im u m

va lu e i n a b
( ) ,
.

F or sin ce t
h e v al u e s o f f ( x ) i n ( a b) a re fi n i e 1 02 3 h ey t t
t t t t
, , ,

h av e fi n i e su p er i o r an d i n fe r i o r l i m i s Ca l l h e se li m i s A
t
.

an d p re s
p e c iv ely
t ttt
h t t
. .

We ar e o de m o n s ra e i a n
( a, b) h e re is a num be r
x0 s u ch h t
t f( a x0
) : A, an d a n u m be r so, su ch h t
t f( a xl
) :
P»
 PR O P E R TIE S OF C O NTI NU O U S F U NC TI O NS 58 3

As t
h p e ro o s o f
f t
h t
w th e se o e o r e m s ar e e sse n i lly t
t ah e s am e ,

we s h al l g i ve on ly t
h fi t f th e rs o em

t l
.

D i vid e b) i n t o o f e q u al in i nt o
( a, an y n u m ber e r v a s, sa
y
t
w o su c h in t
e r v al s Ev id t l y A w ill b t
en h p e e su e ri o r li m i t
f t tl t f t
.

o h e v al u e s of f (x ) in a eas h h lf
on e o e se a i n t e r v al s
h l f i tv l (
.

F or c o n v e n i en c e ca ll th i s a n er a a ,,

De al w i h h i t
tt e n e r v al
( a ,, b,) as we h av e j u st d e al twi t
h

( a, b) , an d so o n i n d e fin i tlye

t t
.

We h us o bt a i n a n e v e r e n d in g
-
se q u e n ce o f i n ter v al s wi hi n
i nt e r v al s,
b) :( a n ( a n)

in ea ch of wh i ch A i s t
h e s u p e r i or li m i t of t
h e v al u e s
of f(x )
t t
.

As n i s i n d e fin i e ly i n c r e a se d d b pp a ,, an a roa ch h e s am e

t
, ,,

n u m ber as l i m i
( see
I f we ca ll t
h i li i t t
s h f( ) A
m x 0, en x0

ti c b t tc t
.

F or i f no s n h f( ) e d Ad o x0 an en o e o n s antt s h ei r
tb c tt
, ,

d i ffe r e n c e m us e di ff
som e o n s an ,
as a
,
e r en t f r om 0 ,

so t h at
A — f ( x0) a . 1
( )
Si n c e f (x ) is co n t
i n u ou s a t x 0, we c an m ak e t
h i nt
e e r v al

s o sm all t
h tf
a o r e v e ry v al u e of x in w e h av e,
1 025 ,
[ (
f x) a
/2 .

An d s i n c e A i s h e t su pe r i or l im i tf t
h v o e al u e s o f f( ) x in
we c an ch o ose x in an d
( )
2 so t
h t 1 033a , ,

A — f (x ) a
/2 .

Bu t
itw ill t
h en f o l l o w f r o m ( 2) an d
( 3) t
h t a

A— f ( x 0) a .

Th e r e f o r e , s in c e ( 4) c o n t
ra d i ct
s
( ) ( )
1 1 is fal se ; t h at i s,
A f ( x 0) 0, or A as wa s tb o e p r ove d .
 A CO LLE G E ALG E B R A

Corol l ary If f ( x ) i s c on t
i n u ou s t h r o u g h ou tthe i n t
e r va l a b
( )
t ve r y v a l u e i n t
.

er m e d i a t
e to it
, ,

i w ill h a ve in ( a b
) e s m axim u m

t t
,

and m in im u m v a l u es in hi s in er va l .

For le t d tt
h 0 en o e e v al u e i n q u e s i on an d t c on sid er t
h e

fu n c t
i f (x ) c w hi c h i s
on 1 02 6 t c o n in u o u s i n ( a , b) ,
tt t
,
.

I f f ( mo) an d f (x l ) d e n o e he ab so l u e m ax i m u m an d m i n i
m u m v a l u e s o f f ( x ) i n ( a , b) f ( x o) o is an d f x l )
( c i s

t t t
,

Hen c e , 1 030, b e wee n x 0 an d x 1 h e r e i s a n u m b e r c all i x 2 ,

t t
,

su c h h at f ( x, ) c 0 o r f (x , ) c a s was o b e p ro v e d
t
,
.
,

Os c i ll at
i on of a fu n c t i on By h e os c i l l a ti o n of f ( x ) i n ( a , b)
t
t t t
.

i s m e an h e d i ffe re n c e b e we en h e su p e r i o r an d i nf e r i o r li m i t
s

of t
h e va l u e s o f f(x) in ( a, b) .

T h eorem 5 Le tf ( x
) be c on t
i n u ou s t
h r ou g h ou t( b ) a, If
t
.

t
.

any os i i ve n u m ber be a ss i g n ed, h o we ve r s m a l l, i i p s oss i bl e

p a

t d i vi d e b i nt o a fin i te n u m ber of equ a l i n t
er va ls i n c h of
o
( )
a, ea

wh i c h h e os c i ll a t
t i on of f ( x ) i s les s t
ha n a .

F or d i vid e
( a, t
b) i n
v l y to an y nu m ber o f e q u al in er a s, sa

i tt
n w o ch i t l
o su ch f t h i t i tt
n w
e r va s, e a q l o e se n u rn n o o e u a

i t l
n d
e r v a s, an Th p c tl t
so o n i tly y i ld i t e ro e ss m us u ma e e n er

ch f w h i c h t c il l t t
.

v l i
a s n ea h o i ff ( ) i l h e os a on o x s e ss an a

tt tb i ( b) t t h lf i t l
.

F if or h no l
ere m u s e n a, a e as on e a n e rv a

i wh i c h t c i ll t t t t
,

n h i f f( ) i
e os l h ; i
a hi i
on o x s no e ss an a n s, n

t h l f i t l i wh i ch t
u rn , a a h n c i ll t i
e r va f f( ) i t ln e os a on o x s no e ss

th an a
; d wit
an h td s o on ou en

L t t l wit
.

hie di g
s q c f i t
n eve r e n -
hi i tn se u en e o n erva s n n er

v al s be
( t i ,
( ab bl ) , ( Q 2?
( a )
n

an d , a s in 1 03 0, l e t li m a ,, l im x0

t t t( th
.

Si n c e f (x ) is con i n u ou s h gh r ou ou a, b) ; i as an ab s o

l u te m ax i m u m an d a n a b so l t i i
u e m n m u m v al u e in ea ch of t
h e

in t l (
e rv a s a, b) , ( d l,
( a 1 035
L t tt t t
.

f e d en o h e e ab s o l u e m ax im um an d f h e

a b l tm i
so u e n im u m v al u e of f (x ) in
 A CO LLE G E AL G E BR A

Theorem 1 If bo h tf t
h f ct
oi e un on s f (x y) and 1 ( x, y )
<; a re

c on t t
.

t t
,

in u ou s a a, b h m i t
e sa e s ru e
f f (x , y ) :
o
y) and
-

t
,

f(x, y ) y) ,
a ls o o
f f (x , ( x,
y) ,
u n l ess q
( a, b
) 0 .

If f (x , y) i s c on t
i n u ou s a tb t
h a, , e sa m e is t ru e o
f V
n

f (x , y) .

Th i s fo ll o ws i m m e di a tly f
e rom 1 040 an d 2 03 —2 05
wh t i t
t td t
h t
.

Nu m b er r eg i on s In f ll o ws i b de rs
‘

a o s o e un oo a

t
.

x d y d e n o e r ea l va r i a bles ,
an an d f (x y) a r ea l fu n c t
i on Of

t
,

h e se v ar i a b l e s ( c o m p ar e
As is sh o wn
i n § 38 2, p a i r s o f v al u e s o f x an d y m ay b e

pict u re d b
y p o i n s i n a p l a ne E t
vi de n l , i f e m
y p l oy i n g th i s t
m t t t t
. .

e h o d w e d ra w h e l i n e s wh 3h a r e h e gr ap h s o f h e e q u a
t 38 4 t ct
.

i on s x a, x b, y c y d, h e re an g l e b o u n de d
by t ti t
, ,

h e se lin es w il l on c h g
a n e ra
p h s c f a l l p a i r s o f v al u e s o f
x, y su ch t h atS x g b c g y a d tt
W i h h i s r e c a n gl e i n m i n d , t
s h al l c a l l t
.
,

we h e a s s e m b l ag e o f a ll s u ch p a i r s o f v al u e s o f x ,
y
t
h e nu m ber r eg i o n( a, b; c d)
t t tt
,
.

We say h at f (x y) is c on t
i n u ou s h r ou
g h ou he r eg i on

ti c t
,

( a, b; c d ) if i s o n i n u o u s fo r e ve r y p ai r o f v al u e s of x , y
,
t
,

in hi s r e g i on .

Th eor em 2 If f ( x, y) be con t
i n u ou s t
h r ou g h ou tth gi (
e re on a, b ,
t i t
.

c d), ,
i h as a m ax im u m an d a m i n i m u m va l u e hi
n gi s re on .

Si n c e f( x, y) is c on t
i n u ou s t
h tt h gi ro u gh o u
gi it e ve n re on , s

v al u es wi h i nt t
hi s r e g i on h fi it p i
av e d i f i
n e su e r or an n e r or

l im i t 1 03 2 1 04 0 C l l t
s, h a e se

l i m i tA d
.
,

s an n
tp t h t
.

W i (
e a re b; o rov e a n a,

c d) t h i l p i erey s a va u e a r x 0,

ch th t
, 0

su y ) A; d i i
a an s m

i g w i ll h w th t t
o

l ar r e a s o n n h s o a e re

“
is al so a v al u e p ai r x1, y1 su c h
X
t
h t
f( a x 1, I!
c on s t
ru c tt ct
“

F or he re an gl e

E F G H wh i h p i c ct
u re s t
h e nu m ber re g i o n
( a
,
‘

b c ,
d) , § 1 043 .
 PR O P E R TIE S OF C O NTI NU O U S F U NC TI O NS 587

By h e t v al u e s o ff ( x y ) i n E F G H we
”
s h al l m e an t
h v e al u e s

t
,

of f( x,
y) c o r r e sp o n d i n g o al l p a i r s O f v al u e s of x, y in
( a, b c, d )
tf ct i t
.

D i v i de E F G H i n q l n gl o h fig
ou r e ua re a es as n e u re .

E id t
v ly A wi l l b t
en h p i li i tf t h v l
e f f(
e su y) er or m o e a u es o x,

i
n a t l t ft
ea s h q
on e o t c t g l C ll t
e se h i q t u ar e r r e an es a s u ar e r

c tgl E F G H
.

re an e

D l wi t h t ctg l E F G H
I I I I.

ea h e w h v j
re an t d lt e as e a e us ea

i d fi it
I I I I

w i th E F G H d ly
an W th so o nbt i n v
n e n e e us o a n a e er

t t t
.
,

en di g n
q c se f cu eng l w i h i
e o c g l re an es n re an es,

E F G H, E 1 F 1 G 1 H 1 ’ E 71 F 71 G77 H11 ) ( 1)
in ea ch of wh i ch A i s t
h e su p e r i o r lim it of t
h v e al u e s of

Le t d tt
a ,,h en o e e a b s c i ssa of E n, a n d on i ts o r di na t
e As i s
tly i
.

p r ov e d in § 1 030, w h e n n i s i n d e fin i e n c r e a se d a ,, a n d a,,

ap p r o a ch d e fi n i te l i m i ts

t
.

I f li m a ,, x 0 an d li m 0, y o, h en f (xo , y o) A.

Fo r i f n o tl t, e A y o) a .

t
Si n ce f ( x y ) i s c o n i n u o u s a x 0 yo we c an so c h o o se t
t
, , ,

En F Ga n
t h a fo r e ve ry p ai r O f val u e s O f x , y i n t h i s r e c
'

t an g l e w e h av e, § 1 04 1 ,

f( x) _
f (x o y y o) ! a
/2 .

An d sin ce Ais h e t su p e r i o r lim i tf t

h v o e al u e s o f f(x y ) in
t
,

E n F n Ga ,
we c an so ch oo s e x, y i n E n F n G n Hn an d in ( )
3 th a

a
/ Z .
( )
4

F rom ( 3) an d
( )
4 i t
th en f o ll o w s h t
t a

A “

f (xo y 90) a .
( 5)
Bu t( 5) t t
c o n r ad i c s H e n c e ( 2 ) i s f al s e an d t
h f
e re o r e

yo) : A w,
tb as as o e de m on s ra ed tt .
 A CO LLE GE ALG E BR A

THE F UNDAME NT AL T HE ORE M OF ALGE BRA

We ar e n o w in a p o s i i n t
t p o o rov e t
h t a ever y r a t
i on a l in t~
e

gr a l e qu a t
i on has a r oo , t 7 97 . We p r o c e ed as f oll ows .

m +l
Th eorem . Gi ven <1; ( z) 1 bz m
cz kz “
wh er e
tc tt
,

b c
, ,
k d en o e on s a n s , r ea l or c om p lex a nd z a c om p lex
t
,

v a r i a bl e; i ti s a lwa
y s p os s i ble so o c h oos e z t
h t a 1 .

F or l e tt
h e e x p r ess i o n s fo r z an d b in t e rm s of a b sol u t e
v al u e an d am pli td u e, § 8 7 7 be

z p ( oos 0 i si n b l]
b ( c os ,
8 i si n B) .

Th e n bz p | b| [ 6 B) + i si n ( m 0+ 8 7 9, 8 8 1
m ~ c os
(
’"
m

F i rs t
ch o o se 9 so t
h t a m 0 B 1
( )
Th en ll ( c os W i si n
) l l,
m
he ”
p
m
b 7r
p b

si nce c o s 77 1 an d s i n W 0 . 87 7, 878

N ex t ch o o se p so t
h t 8 54
a , ,

w
< l p
b < l ( 2)
"
p .

If zo denotth e e v al u e o f 2 :whi ch c orre sp o n d s tt

oh v e al u es

of 0 an d p t
h ch us ose n , t
h en
[ ( )
4
3 zo 1 .

For si n c e ¢ ( z0) (1 p lb l)
m
ca
7
g
+1
kzg,

we h av e , 23 5,

— Pm
|
+1
I ( )I 1 b I p + Ik 1 , by
m
¢ S +
n
Z O C
p ,
0

Coroll ary . t
G i ven h e fu n c i on t f (2 ) aoz
u
al z
‘“ l
an ;
if f ( z) d oes no t va n i s h w h en z b ,
we can a l wa
ys c h oos e z so

t
h t a

Fo r i n f( ) z se tz b h an d d ev el o p b y Tay l o r s h e or e m , ’
t
§ 8 48 I t m a
y h a p p en h at t t t
c er ai n O f h e de r i v a i ve s f t
t
.

f an d so on v an i s h wh e n z b ; bu th y c e an n o t all v an i sh
 I ND E X

Nu m ber s f
re er tp
o ag es

Ab s ci ssa 138 Co m m e n su r ab l e , 37
Add i t tg tt it
,

i on of i n e r al e x p r ess i on s ,
93 Co m m u i
a ve la w of ad d i on ,
11 ,
of n u m b e r s , 1 0, 1 9, 3 5 , 50, 7 1 , 7 2 22 , 3 5 , 54 , 7 4 , 5 34 , 544
o f r adic als 2 7 4 of m u l ip l ic t
t i a on 1 4, 54,
o f rat
, ,

i o n al ex p ress i o n s 2 1 7 74
t i gt
,

o f s e r i e s 54 1 Co m p l e h
n q 1 8 7 300
e s u ar e ,

Am p l i t dit t93
, ,

u d e o f c o m p le x n u m b e r 48 8 Co n i c ffi ci
o n , n e e ss a r
y su en

tt79
, , ,

An gl e ci r c u la r m e as u r e o f 48 8 Co n s an s ,

ti it
,

An n u i t
,

i es 3 91 Co n nu y ff ct
i o 5 7 7 58 5
un on s ,

App r o x i m at l y t
, ,

i on s 48 55 453 o f r ea m 46s s e

Asse m b l age i n fi n i t g c f i fi i t i 5 20
, , , ,

e 3 Co n ver en e o n n e s e r es ,

Asso ci a t i ve l a w o f a dd i t b l t d c d it
, ,

i o n 1 1 22 a so u e an i l 533 on on a

l i m i t f 5 36
, , ,

3 5 , 54, 7 4, 521 s o

ip l ic t
t tt f 523 53 1
,

of m ul i a on 1 4, 2 3 , 3 5 , es s o

g tf c t
, , ,

5 4, 7 4 Con ve r en s i d fo a on nue r ac

Asy m p tt335
o e, t i 56 7
on ,

Co n ve r se , 92
B ase of p ower 39 Co Or di n a t eS , 38
t t
,

o f sy s em o f l o g ar i t
hm s, 37 7 Co r re s p o n d e n c e , on e -
o on e,
-
1
B i n o m i al t h eo r e m 2 56 28 3 , 5 5 4 Co s i n e , 489
B i n o m i a l s p ro d u c t t
, ,

s of 102 , 25 3 Cou n i g 9n

B iq u ad ra t tS t
, , ,

ic s 1 12 486 , , Cu b e ro o . ee Roo s

Cu b ic s , 1 1 2 , 48 3
Ca r d a n
’
s fo r m u l a for c u b ic 48 3 i rre d u ci b le c ase o f, 48 5 , 490
ty
,

Ch an c e , 409 Cy c lo -
sy m me r 2 48
t
,

Cl e ar i n g of fr a c i on s , 1 1 8 , 231
Co e ffici e n t86 D e gr ee qu at i on
of e 11 1
td tch
, ,

Co e ffi ci e n s, e a ed, 99 o f p o ly n o m i al 87
t i t o f p ro d u c t
,

u n d e er m n e d , meh d o o f, 1 52 98
tm i t D e n s it
y o f r at t
,

u n d e er n ed , h m e o re o f, 1 72 , i on al sy s e m 34
t
,

5 40 o f re al sy s e m 46
t
,

Co l o g a r i t
hm s, 386 D e r i va i ve s , 46 0
Co m b n ai t
i on s , 3 93 c t
D es ar es s ru le o f s
’
ig n s ,
447
 5 92 A COLLEG E ALGEBRA

De tm i
er n an t494,
E qu a t
i o n s, frac t
i on al , 1 1 1 , 231 ,
b o r d er i n g a, 505 300
c ofa c t o rs of 504 i d en t ic al 8 9
i n c on s i s ten t
, ,

d i a g o n a ls o f 496 1 33 146
t i n det e r m i n at
, , ,

e l e m e n s o f, 494 e 342 5 7 5

in t
, ,

e val u a t
i on o f, 505 e g r al 1 1 1

in t er d ep e n d e n t
,

i
m n o rs o f, 5 02 1 33 1 45
irrat
, ,

or d e r o f, 495 i o n al 1 1 1 2 8 8 3 1 3
p ro d u c t
, , ,

s o f 5 06 i rr e d u ci b le 445
p ro p e r t
, ,

i es o f 498 l i n e ar 1 12 1 3 9
tm l it
, , ,

er s o f, 496 er al 1 1 1

t l o g ar i t
,

D i ffe r e n c e s , m e h d o o f, 3 64 h m ic 390
t5 1 7
,

D i s c r i m i n an n u m e r ic a l 1 1 1 42 9 45 9

q u a d r at
, , , ,

of c u b ic 485 ic 1 1 2 2 98
Of q u a d ra t r at
, , ,

ic 304 i on al 1 1 1
D i st ri b u t
, ,

i ve la w 1 4 23 35 54 74 r e cip r o c a l 3 1 1 438 48 7

D i ve r g e n c e o f i n fi n i t t t
, , , , , , , ,

e se r i e s 52 0 ro o s of Se e R o o s

D i vi s i b i l i ty ex a c t
, .

2 8 15 5 1 6 1
, , , , s i m p le 1 12 1 1 8
, ,

D i vi s i o n o f i n t e g ra l e x p r e s s i o n s 1 07 , s i m u lta n e o u s s i m pl e , 1 2 7 , 1 43 ,
o f n u m b er s , 27 , 3 5 , 5 4, 7 3 , 48 9 508
o f r ad ic als 2 8 7 ,
s i m u lt
an e o u s , of high er d egre e
o f r at
,

i on al e x p re ss i on s 2 19 1 35 , 3 1 7 , 5 1 4
a n e o u s sy m m e t
,

o f se r i e s 5 46 si m u lt r ic 3 26
D i vi s i o n sy n t h et sol u t
, ,

ic 1 66 i o n o f 1 1 2 1 8 483
D i vi s i o n t
r a n s fo r m a t s ol u ti on o f b y fa c t o r i za t
, , , , ,

i o n 15 5 i on
b y a id o f u n d e t
, , ,

e r m i n e d c oe ffi

c ien s , t16 0 , 1 63 t f
r an s o r m a t
i o n o f, 1 14 , 1 2 9, 43 6
E rr o rs of a pp r o x i m a t
io n 55
t t
,

E li m in a i 1 3 1 1 43 3 1 7
on , E vo lu i on , 3 9, 5 6 , 7 6 , 83 , 26 0, 2 76
by d t i
, ,

t 508 5 14
.

e e r m n an s , 4 90
tt
,

t
E ll ip se , 33 4 E x pec ia o n , val u e o f, 41 1
E qu a l i t
y 3 8 3 2 34 4 5 7 2 E xpon e n ,i t
s g ne r al , 39
i rr at
, , , , , ,

a lg e b r a ic a n d n u m e r ic a l ,
18 , 7 5 ion al , 37 6
ru l es o f, 1 3 , 1 5 , 2 4, 36 , 5 4, 5 7 la ws o f, 5 7 , 2 7 9, 3 7 6
E qu a t
i on s , b i n o m i al , 3 1 3 , 490 ra t
i o n al , 2 79
t
b iqu ad r a
ic 1 12 486 E x p r ess i o n s , al g e b ra ic 85
m pl t 426 448 t
, , ,

co e e fin i e an d
'

in fi n it85 e,

d it in t d f ct
, ,

c o n on a
i l 1 10 eg ra l a n ra on a i l 85
i o n a l a n d i rrat
,

r at
,

c u b ic 1 1 2 483 , ,
i on al , 86
d e p re sse d
e q u i val e n t t 14
,

1 17 13 1 F ac or , 1 76
e x p o n en t highes t
,
n n , , ,

i al 390 , c o m m on , 196
5 94 C O LLE G E ALGE BR A

Nu m b er , tn a u r al , 6 Q u adrat
ic s 1 1 2 , 298 , 304
t i m u lt
,

ne g a ve i 18 s an e ou s 317
p os i t
, ,

i ve 18
r at
,

i o n al , 34 R a d ic al ex pr ess i on s s i m ple , , 2 77
r e al , 45 R a d ic al s , 27 1
Nu m b e r in t
e r va l s ,
5 79 i n d ex o f 2 7 1 ,

gi o n s 5 86
re s i m i l ar 2 7 3

Nu m b e rs t
, ,

h eo ry
,
o f, 211 s i m pl e 2 7 1 ,

R ad ic an d 2 7 1
R at
,

O d d s , 4 10 i o 69 3 47
R at
, ,

Or d i n a l , 7 , 33 , 45 i o n al i zat i on 2 8 5
t 1 38 R e m ai n d e r t
,

O rd in a e, h e ore m 16 9
tt5 1 2
,

O r igi n , 1 3 7 R esu l an s ,

Os ci ll a t
i on o f a fu nc t
i on 58 4 p p t
roi f 5 14
er es o

t
, ,

Ro ll ’
e s h m 46 7 e or e

tf q t
,

Par ab ola , 333 R oo s o i e 1 12 ua on s , 42 6

t t
,

Pare n h e se s , r u l e o f, 95 1 16
e x r an e o u s,

Pa r t
( fg
o ro u p) , 3 i m agi n ar y 444 448 , ,

Pe r m an e n c es of s ig n 446 i n fin i t e 2 29 3 06 43 9

tt i rr at
, , , ,

Per m u i
a on s, 3 93 i o n al 4 5 3
l o c at
,

o dd a n d e ve n , 492 i on of 452 458 475

m u lt
, , ,

Po l y n o m i a l s i n x, 87 iple 42 8 463
produ ct
, ,

s of 1 03 nu m b er o f, 42 7
t t
,

Po wers Se e E x p o n en s an d I n vo ra i o n al , 429
t p er i o r an d i n fe ri or l i m i t
.

lu i o n su s of

f ct
,

p er e26 0 430, 44 1 , 466

tic t
,

Powe r i
se r e s , 5 35 sy m me r fu n c i on s o f, 3 05,
c on ve rg en c e o f 535
p r o du c t t f i tg t
,

s o f 545 R oo s o n e ra l fu n c ion s , 260

q u ot i en t
,

s o f 5 46 ,
cu b e 266 ,

r e ver s i o n O f 5 48 s qu a r e 2 6 2

t tf
,

r an sfo r m a t
,

i o n o f 54 5 R oo s o nu m b e rs , 3 9, 56 , 7 6
Pr o b ab i l i t
,

y 409 c u b e 268 48 3
s c on t
,

Pr o d u c t
, ,

i n u e d 252 p r i n cip al 2 7 1
i n fin i t
, , , ,

e 564 s qu a r e 2 6 5 2 92 2 95 296

Pr o gr ess i o n s a r i t h m et tr igo n o m e t
, , , , ,

ic al 3 54 r ic e x p r ess i on o f,

ar it h m et
, ,

ic al o f highe r or der , ,
490
36 4
ge o m e t r ic a l 3 5 7 Sc al e , c om ple t
e 6

t
, ,

h a rm o n ic al 36 2 n a u ra l, 17
Pr o p o r t
,

i o n 34 7 Se qu e n c e of n u m b er s , 58

con t
,

i n u e d 3 50 , re g u l ar , 60
 I NDE X 5 96

Ser i es , t t
i g
al e rn a n ,
532 Su b tct
i
ra on of ra t
i o n al ex p r es
b i n o m i al , 5 38 , 553 i
s on s , 2 17
d ou b ly i n fin i te 5 43 o f s e r es , i 5 41
e x p on en t
,

i al 53 7 5 56 8
3515 2 91
geo m et ty t2 45
, ,

r ic 360 Sy m m e r a b sol u e ,

h y p e rg e o m e t
, ,

r ic 52 9 c y c l ic 248
i n fin i t
, ,

e 5 20

l o g ar i t t
,

h m ic 5 3 7 557 , , T ay or s
l ’
h e ore m , 46 1 , 55 1
re c u rr i n g 5 6 0 T erm 86
t426
, ,

Sign , r u l es o f, 95 ab so l u e ,

Si m u l t an e ou s , 127 Se e E qu a T ran sfo r m t

i f a on o e qu at
i on s 1 14,
t
.
,

i on s 1 29, 436
Si n e , 488 T r a n sp o s i t
i on of tm er s, 1 15
So lu t
i on s o f sy s e m s o f e u at q t
ion s ,

12 8 V a lu e , a b s o lu e t or n u m er ic al 18 ,
i n fin i t
,

e 2 30 3 18 7 5 , 4 88
in t
, ,

e gr a l 342 V ar i ab l e , 5 8 , 7 9
con t
,

nu m b e r o f, 51 7 i n u ou s 6 9
tS t V ar i at
,

Sq u ar e ro o ee R oo s io n 351
Stm t of i n t e gr a l fu n c t
.
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RETURN CIRCULATIO N DEPARTM ENT

Al l BO O KS MAY BE RECAl l ED AFTER 7 DAYS

.

Re n e w a ls a nd Re c ha rg e s m a y b e m a de 4 da y s p ri o r tt
oh de ue da t
e .

Bo o ks m a y b e Re ne w e d b y c a lli n g 642 3405

-
.

DUE AS STAMPED BELO W

UNIVERSITY O F CALIFO RNIA BERKELEY ,

FO RM NO . DOO , BERKELEY CA 9 4 7 2 0
,
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