FINAL PROJECT: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

I. INFORMATION
SYSTEM

What is an Information System?

is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system for gathering, processing, storing, and distributing data.
Information systems are made up of four components from a sociotechnical standpoint: task, people,
structure (or roles), and technology. Information systems are described as a set of components that work
together to gather, store, and process data, with the data being utilized to give information, contribute to
knowledge and create digital products that help people make better decisions.
A computer information system is a group of humans and computers that works together to analyze and
interpret data. In certain cases, the phrase is simply used to refer to a computer system having software
installed.
Information Systems is an academic study of systems with a focus on information and the related
networks of computer hardware and software that individuals and organizations use to gather, filter,
analyze, produce, and disseminate data.
An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage,
inputs, outputs, and the aforementioned communication networks. In many organizations, the department
or unit responsible for information systems and data processing is known as "Information Services".
Information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An
information system is a form of a communication system in which data represent and are processed as a
form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language that
supports human decision-making and action. Information systems are the primary focus of study for
organizational informatics.

COMPONENTS OF IS

The main components of information systems are computer hardware and software, telecommunications,
databases and data warehouses, human resources, and procedures. The hardware, software, and
telecommunications constitute information technology (IT), which is now ingrained in the operations and
management of organizations.

MAJOR TYPES OF IS

a. Transaction Processing Systems

To carry out its everyday business activities, any company must handle transactions. Any event
or activity that has an impact on the organization is called a transaction. Transactions may change
from one company to the next depending on the nature of their business. Order entry, reception of
products, shipping, and so on are examples of transactions in a manufacturing unit, whereas
deposits and withdrawals, check to cash, and so on are examples of transactions at a bank.
 b. Office Automation Systems
An office automation system (OAS) is a set of communication technologies, computers, and
people that work together to do official activities. It manages office transactions and assists with
official operations at all levels of the organization. These tasks can be classified into two
categories: clerical and management.

 Word Processing
Word processing is a sort of computerized document preparation that includes letters,
reports, memoranda, and any other type of printable content. The text is typed into the
computer's keyboard and shown on the monitor.
 Email
E-mail, or electronic mail, is a method of sending and receiving messages or documents
using computers and communication lines. This speeds up letter delivery while
simultaneously lowering the time and expense of sending paper mail. E-mail not only
allows you to send text messages, but it also allows you to transmit photographs, audio,
video, and a variety of other sorts of data.
 Voice Mail
Voice mail is a useful call service that allows you to record and save phone messages in
your computer's memory. These communications can be retrieved at any time by the
intended recipient.
c. Knowledge Work Systems
A knowledge work system (KWS) is a customized system designed to encourage knowledge
development while also ensuring that knowledge and technical skills are properly incorporated
into the organization. It provides knowledge workers with visual, analytical, communications,
and document management tools to assist them in developing and disseminating new information
and knowledge. some examples of knowledge work systems are computer-aided design
(CAD)systems, virtual reality systems, and financial workstations.
 Computer-aided design (CAD) systems
These systems employ computers and graphical software to automate the production and
editing of designs. The design parameters for the tooling and production process can be
provided by the CAD program. When creating a manufacturing process, saves a lot of
time and money.
 Virtual Reality System
In terms of visualization, rendering, and simulation, these technologies outperform CAD
systems. They create computer-generated simulations that appear virtually genuine using
interactive graphics software. They may be employed in a variety of settings, including
education, science, and business.
 Financial Workstations
They're utilized to bring together a variety of data from both internal and external
sources. Contact management data, market data, and research reports are all included in
this data
d. Management Information Systems
Middle managers' planning, controlling, and decision-making activities are all supported by
management information systems. A management information system (MIS) gathers transaction
data from underlying TPSs, compiles it, and generates reports, displays, or answers as
information products.
 e. Decision Support Systems
A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based interactive information system that, like
MIS, is used at the management level of a company. In contrast to MIS, however, it processes
data to assist managers in their decision-making.
f. Executive Support Systems
 is a computer-based information system that aids decision-making at the highest level of an
organization. It is a subset of MIS. Judgments made with the assistance of an executive support
system are non-routine decisions that have far-reaching implications for the whole business,
necessitating judgment and sight.

II. ELEMENTS OF IS

The computer age introduced a new element to businesses, universities, and a multitude of other
organizations: a set of components called the information system, which deals with collecting and
organizing data and information. An information system is described as having five components.

a. Computer hardware
This is the physical technology that works with information. Hardware can be as small as a
smartphone that fits in a pocket or as large as a supercomputer that fills a building. Hardware also
includes the peripheral devices that work with computers, such as keyboards, external disk drives,
and routers. With the rise of the Internet of things, in which anything from home appliances to
cars to clothes will be able to receive and transmit data, sensors that interact with computers are
permeating the human environment.
b. Computer software
The hardware needs to know what to do, and that is the role of software. The software can be
divided into two types: system software and application software. The primary piece of system
software is the operating system, such as Windows or iOS, which manages the hardware’s
 operation. Application software is designed for specific tasks, such as handling a spreadsheet,
creating a document, or designing a Web page.
c. Telecommunications
This component connects the hardware to form a network. Connections can be through wires,
such as Ethernet cables or fiber optics, or wireless, such as through Wi-Fi. A network can be
designed to tie together computers in a specific area, such as an office or a school, through a local
area network (LAN). If computers are more dispersed, the network is called a wide area network
(WAN). The Internet itself can be considered a network of networks.
d. Databases and data warehouses
This component is where the “material” that the other components work with resides. A database
is a place where data is collected and from which it can be retrieved by querying it using one or
more specific criteria. A data warehouse contains all of the data in whatever form that an
organization needs. Databases and data warehouses have assumed even greater importance in
information systems with the emergence of “big data,” a term for the truly massive amounts of
data that can be collected and analyzed.
e. Human resources and procedures
The final, and possibly most important, component of information systems is the human element:
the people that are needed to run the system and the procedures they follow so that the knowledge
in the huge databases and data warehouses can be turned into learning that can interpret what has
happened in the past and guide future action.

III. DATABASE

What is Database?
a database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed electronically from a computer system.
Where databases are more complex they are often developed using formal design and modeling
techniques.
The database management system (DBMS) is the software that interacts with end-users, applications, and
the database itself to capture and analyze the data. The DBMS software additionally encompasses the
core facilities provided to administer the database. The total of the database, the DBMS, and the
associated applications can be referred to as a "database system". Often the term "database" is also used
loosely to refer to any of the DBMS, the database system, or an application associated with the database.
Computer scientists may classify database-management systems according to the database models that
they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These model data as rows and columns
in a series of tables, and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s, non-
relational databases became popular, referred to as NoSQL because they use different query languages.

TYPES
a. OF DATABASE
Hierarchical databases
Just as in any hierarchy, this database follows the progression of data being categorized in ranks or
levels, wherein data is categorized based on a common point of linkage. As a result, two entities of
 data will be lower in rank and the commonality would assume a higher rank. Refer to the diagram

below:

Another perspective advises visualizing the data being organized in a parent-child relationship, which
upon addition of multiple data elements would resemble a tree. The child records are linked to the parent
record using a field, and so the parent record is allowed multiple child records. However, vice versa is not
possible.

Notice that due to such a structure, hierarchical databases are not easily salable; the addition of data
elements requires a lengthy traversal through the database.
b. Network Databases
In Layman’s terms, a network database is a hierarchical database, but with a major tweak. The child
records are given the freedom to associate with multiple parent records. As a result, a network or net
of database files linked with multiple threads is observed. Notice how the Student, Faculty, and
Resources elements each have two-parent records, which are Departments and Clubs.

Certainly, a complex framework, network databases are more capable of representing two-directional
relationships. Also, conceptual simplicity favors the utilization of a simpler database management
language. The disadvantage lies in the inability to alter the structure due to its complexity and also in its
being highly structurally dependent.
c. Object-Oriented Databases
Those that are familiar with the Object-Oriented Programming paradigm will have no trouble
understanding this database schema. Information saved in a database may be represented as an object
 that responds to the database model as an instance. As a result, the object may be accessed and
invoked with ease. As a result, the database's workload is significantly decreased.

We have multiple objects linked to one another using methods in the diagram above; the livesAt()
method may be used to acquire the address of the Person (represented by the Person Object).
Furthermore, these objects have attributes, which are the database data items that must be defined.
The Berkeley DB software library, which employs the same conceptual backdrop to give rapid and
extremely efficient replies to database queries from the embedded database, is an example of such a
paradigm.
d. Relational Databases
These databases, together with associated administration systems, are considered to be the most
mature of all databases. Every item of information in this database has a link with every other piece
of information. Because every data item in the database has a unique identification in the form of a
record, this is the case.
Note that in this model, all data is tallied. As a result, a primary key is used to link each row of data in
the database to another row. Similarly, every table has a foreign key that connects it to another table.
Look at the diagram below to see how the 'Keys' idea is utilized to connect two tables.

It has grown extremely

popular as a result of
the development of
tables to arrange data. As a result, they're commonly integrated into Web-Ap interfaces to function as
 perfect data stores. What makes it even more appealing is how simple it is to learn it because the language
used to connect with the database is basic (SQL in this case) and straightforward.
e. NoSQL Databases
A NoSQL database, which stands for non-SQL or non-relational, is a database that allows for data
storage and retrieval. This information is represented in ways other than tabular relationships seen in
relational databases. Design simplicity, horizontal scaling to clusters of computers, and tighter control
over availability are all advantages of a NoSQL database. The data structures used by NoSQL
databases differ from those used by relational databases by default, which allows NoSQL to perform
some operations faster. The applicability of a NoSQL database is determined by the issue it is
supposed to answer. NoSQL databases' data structures are sometimes seen to be more flexible than
relational database tables.

IV. IMPORTANCE OF DATABASE

Database management systems play an important role in businesses as well as an organization just for the
reason that it is providing a highly efficient method to handle different types of data. A few basic data
elements which can easily be managed by the database are employee records, payroll, student
information, inventory, project management, and accounting. These systems are hence all in all built to be
highly versatile.
Without database management, tasks have to be performed manually and take greater time. Data can be
classified and structured to swimsuit the wants of the organization or any company. Data is entered into
the system and accessed on activities groundwork via assigned users. Each consumer may additionally
have an assigned password to acquire access to each section of the system. Multiple customers can use
the system at the same time in special ways.
They alleviate the need for a human to search through millions of filing cabinets to find a particular
record. They are a standardized and performant way for programs to store, retrieve, and mutate data.
There are quite a few things that would be very difficult if not impossible without databases. The Internet,
GPS, Electronic Banking, and much more.So probably the importance is that it allows for, or makes
easier, tons of other interesting and useful stuff.
You might not realize it, but databases are everywhere. Whether or not you know very much about them,
or even care to, their effect on our daily lives is extensive. From weather applications to the movies you
watch online, databases are responsible for many of the services we utilize daily. We have collected a few
of the more well-known examples of how databases enhance your day-to-day life below.

 Online Television Streaming

Any online streaming service, such as Hulu or Netflix, uses databases to generate a list of TV shows and
movies to watch, track an individual’s show preferences, and provide a list of recommended viewing. The
power required to analyze such an enormous amount of data is done through highly-specialized database
management technology, such as Cassandra. In fact, Hulu has recently been relying heavily on Cassandra.

 Social Gaming
Gaming done across social networks is extremely data-intensive. Gathering individual player information
from around the globe and serving it to players on demand requires a high availability database software.
 One example is the popular Game of Thrones Ascent, a free role-playing game launched by Disruptor
Beam and based on the hit HBO series, Game of Thrones.

 Personal Cloud Storage

If you save photos or documents to your smartphone or tablet, it’s likely your data is stored in “the
cloud,” a large, central storage environment with a small portion dedicated just to you. Syncing this data
across your devices requires powerful databases able to call up your data at a moment’s notice, wherever
you are.

 Sports
Fan participation in national sports doesn’t just utilize the power of the database, it depends upon it. From
fantasy football leagues to March Madness brackets, they all depend on huge databases full of player
statistics, game performances, injury reports, and more, all calculating the odds of a win on a weekly
basis.

 Finances
From the stock market to your local bank, databases are abundant across the financial world. Tracking the
vast amount of information behind the world’s daily transactions, not to mention the financial models that
analyze that data to predict future activity, requires extremely powerful databases.

 Government Organizations
Government organizations around the world are constantly collecting data for research, defense,
legislation, and humanitarianism purposes, to name a few. This data is collected, stored and analyzed
using powerful and far-reaching database services.

 Social Media
Every social media platform stores reams of user information in databases used to recommend friends,
businesses, products, and topics to the end user. This cross-referencing of data is immensely complex and
uses highly reliable and capable database software, including for example, MySQL which is used in
Facebook data centers.

 Healthcare
Doctor’s offices and healthcare organizations, among others, store extensive amounts of patient data for
easy accessibility. The databases behind this collection of information are not only large and complex, but
are also secure and protected by HIPAA Compliance standards. Healthcare.gov relies on a NoSQL
database to manage their health insurance information.

 Weather
Predicting the weather across the globe is incredibly complex and depends on a myriad of factors, all
gathered, stored and analyzed within databases, ready to deliver today’s weather to your local TV station
or smartphone app. The Weather Company, for example, takes in over 20 terabytes of data per day.
V. NETWORK

What is a network?
 A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by network nodes.
The computers use common communication protocols over digital interconnections to communicate with
each other. These interconnections are made up of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of
network topologies. The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers,
networking hardware, or other specialized or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by network
addresses and may have hostnames. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes, rarely changed
after initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by
communication protocols such as the Internet Protocol.
Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the transmission medium used to carry
signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic, network size, topology, traffic
control mechanism, and organizational intent.
Why the internet is called a network of networks?
The Internet is a worldwide collection of networked computers, which are able to exchange information
with each other in a very fast manner. The Internet is called a network of networks because it is a global
network of computers that are linked together by cables and telephone lines making communication
possible among them. It can be defined as a global network of over a million smaller heterogeneous
computer networks.
Advantages and disadvantages of networks:
 Advantages, Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone
licenses. Files can easily be shared between users. Network users can communicate by email and
instant messenger. Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone
machines. Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.

 Disadvantages, Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive. Managing a large
network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually needs to be employed. If
the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. Email might still work
if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used but are isolated. Viruses can spread to
other computers throughout a computer network. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with
wide area networks. Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

VI. NETWORK TYPES

a. LAN (Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as a
building, office. LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc. It is less costly as it is built with
inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables. The data is transferred at
an extremely faster rate in the Local Area Network. Local Area Network provides higher security.
b. PAN (Personal Area Network)
 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of
10 meters. Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network. Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the
idea of the Personal Area Network. Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet. Personal
computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones,
media players, and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Networks:

o Wired Personal Area Network
o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by

simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

c. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network. Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens
and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line. The most
widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc. It has a
higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

d. WAN (Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries. A Wide Area Network is quite a bigger network than a LAN. A
Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fiber optic cable, or satellite links. The
internet is one of the biggest WANs in the world. A Wide Area Network is widely
used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
 o Last-mile: A telecom company is used to provide internet services to customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their homes with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

VII. Physical and Logical Topology

What Does Physical Topology Mean?

The interconnected structure of a local area network is referred to as physical topology

(LAN). The physical topology is defined by the method used to link the physical devices on
the network to the cables, as well as the type of cabling utilized. This is in contrast to logical
topology, which characterizes the performance of a network's media signals and how it trades
device data.

What Does Logical Topology Mean?

 A logical topology is a concept in networking that defines the architecture of the communication
mechanism for all nodes in a network. Using network equipment such as routers and switches, the
logical topology of a network can be dynamically maintained and reconfigured.

Logical topologies contrast with physical topologies, which refer to the physical interconnections of
all devices in the network.

Difference between Physical and Logical Topology :

Physical Topology Logical Topology

Depicts the physical layout of the network. Depicts logistics of the network concerned with
the transmission of data.

The layout can be modified based on needs. There is no interference and manipulation involved
here.

It can be arranged in star, ring, mesh, and bus It exists in bus and ring topologies.
topologies.

This has a major impact on the cost, scalability, and This has a major impact on the speed and delivery
bandwidth capacity of networks based on the selection of data packets. It also handles flow control and
and availability of devices. ordered delivery of data packets.

It is an actual route concerned with the transmission. It is a high-level representation of data flow.

Physical connection of the network. Data path followed of the network.

VIII. Internet

What is Internet?

The Internet is a system design that allows diverse computer networks throughout the world to
communicate, revolutionizing communications and business. The Internet, sometimes known as a
"network of networks," first appeared in the United States in the 1970s but did not become widely
known until the early 1990s. By 2020, it is expected that 4.5 billion individuals, or more than half of
the world's population, would have Internet connectivity.

The Internet has such a broad and powerful capability that it may be used for nearly any information-
based purpose, and it is accessible to anybody who connects to one of its constituent networks. It
facilitates human contact through social media, electronic mail (e-mail), "chat rooms," newsgroups,
and audio and video transmission, as well as allowing people to collaborate from various locations.
 Many programs, like the World Wide Web, can use it to access digital information. The Internet has
spawned a huge and growing number of "e-businesses" (that conduct the majority of their sales and
services online.

Why the internet is important?

1. Uses of the Internet in Education: For kids to study throughout their lives, the Internet is a
fantastic resource. They can study new things on the internet and even gain degrees through
online education programs. Teachers can also utilize the internet to reach out to kids all over the
world and teach them.
2. Internet Use to Speed Up Daily Tasks: The Internet is quite useful in our day-to-day activities.
It allows us to see our notifications and emails, for example. Apart from that, users can use the
internet to send money, shop, and order food online, among other things.
3. Use of the Internet for Shopping: Anyone can order things online with the help of the internet.
As internet shopping has grown in popularity, businesses have responded by offering substantial
discounts to their clients.
4. Internet for Research & Development: Because it is powered by online research, the Internet
plays a critical role in research and development. Small businesses to large colleges all profit
from the internet.
5. Business Promotion and Innovation: The Internet is also used to sell products by using various
e-Commerce solutions. The result is new services and businesses starting every day thereby
creating job opportunities and reducing unemployment.
6. Communication: Without a doubt, the internet is the most powerful medium of communication
at present. It connects people across different parts of the world free and fast.

IX. Internet Protocols

What is the Internet Protocol (IP)?

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a collection of rules for routing and addressing data packets so that they
can transit across networks and reach their intended destination. Data traveling over the Internet is
broken down into smaller units known as packets. Each packet has IP information attached to it,
which helps routers send packets to the correct location. Every device or domain that connects to the
Internet is given an IP address, and data arrives where it is needed as packets are routed to the IP
address assigned to them.

Depending on whether transport protocol is used in conjunction with IP, packets are handled
differently after they arrive at their destination. TCP and UDP are the most widely used transport
protocols.

Historically, IP was the connectionless datagram service in the original Transmission Control
Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974, which was complemented by a connection-
oriented service that became the basis for the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The Internet
protocol suite is therefore often referred to as TCP/IP.The first major version of IP, Internet Protocol
Version 4 (IPv4), is the dominant protocol of the Internet. Its successor is Internet Protocol Version 6
(IPv6), which has been in increasing deployment on the public Internet since c. 2006.
 For example, When an email is sent from an email server using the simple mail transfer protocol
(SMTP), the TCP layer of that server divides the message into numerous packets, numbers them, and
then sends them to the IP layer for transit. Each packet will be transmitted to the destination email
server at the IP layer. While each packet is bound for the same destination, the path they travel to get
there may differ. When it comes, the IP layer passes it on to the TCP layer, which reassembles the
packets into the message before passing it on to the email program, where it appears in the Inbox.

Function of Internet Protocol

The Internet Protocol is in charge of addressing host interfaces, encapsulating data into datagrams
(including fragmentation and reassembly), and routing datagrams from a source host interface to a
destination host interface across one or more IP networks. A datagram consists of two parts: a header
and a payload. The source IP address, destination IP address, and additional metadata required to
route and deliver the datagram are all included in the IP header. The data that is transported is
referred to as the payload. Encapsulation is the process of nesting the data payload in a packet with a
X. Types header.
of Internet Protocols

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a popular communication protocol that is used for communicating over a network. It divides
any message into a series of packets that are sent from source to destination and there it gets
reassembled at the destination.

2. Internet Protocol (IP)

IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with TCP. The IP addresses in
packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it reaches the destination
system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the networks.

3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily

for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking between different applications.

4. Post office Protocol (POP)

POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.

5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)

SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing E-Mail.

6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another. Types of files may include program
files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for
creating links. These links may be in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server
principles which allow a client system for establishing a connection with the server machine for
making a request. The server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds
accordingly.

8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the
communication among two computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web
server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web server
(response) in the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done
in an encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or modification
of data throughout the transfer of packets.

9. Telnet

Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The connecting process here
is termed as remote login. The system which requests for connection is the local computer, and the
system which accepts the connection is the remote computer.

10. Gopher

Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as displaying documents
from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.
XI. World Wide Web

Historical Background
The World Wide Web is a fascinating place to explore and innovate. It is based on the principle of
hypertext. This entails connecting two documents so that the second may explain a phrase or topic in
the first. Let's imagine you're reading a salmon-related paper and you get to a place where the word
"roe" is highlighted in some way (typically underlined and/or in color) to make it stand out from the
rest of the text. You may see a page that describes what roe are and may add certain characteristics of
salmon roe if you move your mouse over the term "roe" and click once (not twice as in operating
systems!). Isn't it exciting? It's a means of adding definitions and supplementary explanations without
interrupting the flow of the text for those who don't require it.
This approach has been implemented in several electronic encyclopedias, some with rather intriguing
audiovisual things in place of written explanations. (In fact, the notion of hypertext predates the
WWW.) The images and sound capabilities of the World Wide Web are another interesting feature.
For a more engaging bundle, you may link papers to photographs, pictures, and music samples. For
example, if you click on the word "lion," you'll hear it roar. Many people who use their home pages
on the Internet as business cards add a photograph of themselves or their family on the page. (See, for
example, my home page.) The initial page or screen of a World Wide Web site is known as the home
page.
The World Wide Web is a web of information and relationships that goes beyond hypertext and
audiovisuals. Each item you select on a Web site will either redirect you to another part of the site or
to another part of the Internet. You can always retrace your steps to go back to where you were.
What's In A Name?
Just to mention this so that you won't be confused later, the Web has a number of different acronyms
and abbreviations. It can be referred to in any of the following ways:
World Wide Web (three syllables)
WWW (nine syllables)
W3 (four syllables)
the Web (two syllables)

Who Invented the WWW?

Tim Berners-Lee, a computer scientist at CERN, invented the World Wide Web (which you are now
using; you may recall a reference to it in Dan Brown's Angels and Demons.) The "Web" was
originally conceived and developed for large high-energy physics collaborations that have a demand
for instantaneous information sharing between physicists working in different universities and
 institutes all over the world. Tim and Robert Cailliau co-wrote the original WWW client (a browser-
editor running on NeXTStep, a Macintosh relative) and server, as well as most of the communications
software, defining URLs, HTTP, and HTML.
The World Wide Web was created as a tool for collaboration in the field of high-energy physics.
From then, it quickly expanded to other fields and developed to its current magnitude. It has been a
huge success as a simple method to get information. However, there is another side to the Internet: its
potential as a medium for inter-personal communication. Here's some history on the World Wide
Web's early development, a quick summary of its current condition, and an introduction to the
principles that underpin it.
Despite all of this enthusiasm for electronic communication, there remained still barriers to successful
information transmission in the 1980s. There existed a wide range of computer and network systems,
with few features in common. Many inconsistencies and intricate systems required users to
comprehend. Different sorts of information have to be accessed in various ways, utilizing a variety of
technologies.
Different sorts of information have to be accessed in different ways, requiring users to put in a
significant amount of work. As a result, there was a lot of dissatisfaction and inefficiency.
Berners-creation Lee's of the World Wide Web flourished in this fertile ground. Scientists could
finally obtain information from any source in a consistent and straightforward manner thanks to the
World Wide Web. The broad acceptance of the Internet at the time allowed for the debut of this
breakthrough notion. This established a de facto standard for computer communication, upon which
the WWW could be developed. It also created a "virtual community" of passionate computer and
communications specialists, whose attitude aided advancement through the flow of knowledge across
the Internet. Berners-Lee initially proposed such a system at CERN in 1989, and he and Cailliau
modified it in 1990.
Prototype software for a simple system was already being exhibited before the end of the year. To
increase system adoption, it was critical to provide access to current data without requiring it to be
converted to a new format. The CERN Computer Centre's documentation and help service, as well as
the then-dominant Usenet newsgroups, were used to accomplish this. All of this data was instantly
accessible using a basic WWW browser that could be launched on any device.
This browser was included in the early system, along with an information server and a library that
provided the necessary functionality for developers to create their own software. This was made
available to the high-energy physics community in 1991 via the CERN program library (via FTP),
allowing a wide range of universities and research labs to begin using it.
XII. Computer Security Risk

What Is a Computer Security Risk?

A computer security risk is really anything on your computer that may damage or steal your data or allow
someone else to access your computer, without your knowledge or consent. There are a lot of different
things that can create a computer risk, including malware, a general term used to describe many types of
bad software. We commonly think of computer viruses, but, there are several types of bad software that
can create a computer security risk, including viruses, worms, ransomware, spyware, and Trojan horses.
Misconfiguration of computer products as well as unsafe computing habits also pose risks.
computer security risk is an event or action that could cause a loss of data or damage to hardware or
software. It could result from unpatched software, misconfigured software or hardware, and bad habits
(e.g., using "1234" as your password). Any illegal act involving a computer security risk is a considered a
computer crime.
Some Examples of Computer Security Risk.
1. Malware
Malware is malicious software such as spyware, ransomware, viruses and worms. Malware is activated
when a user clicks on a malicious link or attachment, which leads to installing dangerous software. Cisco
reports that malware, once activated, can:

 Block access to key network components (ransomware)

 Install additional harmful software
 Covertly obtain information by transmitting data from the hard drive (spyware)
 Disrupt individual parts, making the system inoperable
2. Emotet

The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) describes Emotet as “an advanced,
modular banking Trojan that primarily functions as a downloader or dropper of other banking
Trojans. Emotet continues to be among the most costly and destructive malware.”
3. Denial of Service

A denial of service (DoS)is a type of cyber attack that floods a computer or network so it can’t
respond to requests. A distributed DoS (DDoS) does the same thing, but the attack originates from a
computer network. Cyber attackers often use a flood attack to disrupt the “handshake” process and
carry out a DoS. Several other techniques may be used, and some cyber attackers use the time that a
network is disabled to launch other attacks. A botnet is a type of DDoS in which millions of systems
can be infected with malware and controlled by a hacker, according to Jeff Melnick of Netwrix, an
information technology security software company. Botnets, sometimes called zombie systems, target
and overwhelm a target’s processing capabilities. Botnets are in different geographic locations and
hard to trace.
4. Man in the Middle

A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack occurs when hackers insert themselves into a two-party
transaction. After interrupting the traffic, they can filter and steal data, according to Cisco. MITM
attacks often occur when a visitor uses an unsecured public Wi-Fi network. Attackers insert
themselves between the visitor and the network and then use malware to install software and use data
maliciously.
5. Phishing

Phishing attacks use fake communication, such as an email, to trick the receiver into opening it and
carrying out the instructions inside, such as providing a credit card number. “The goal is to steal
sensitive data like credit card and login information or to install malware on the victim’s machine,”
Cisco reports.
6. SQL Injection
 A Structured Query Language (SQL) injection is a type of cyber attack that results from inserting
malicious code into a server that uses SQL. When infected, the server releases information.
Submitting the malicious code can be as simple as entering it into a vulnerable website search box.
7. Password Attacks

With the right password, a cyber attacker has access to a wealth of information. Social engineering is
a type of password attack that Data Insider defines as “a strategy cyber attackers use that relies
heavily on human interaction and often involves tricking people into breaking standard security
practices.” Other types of password attacks include accessing a password database or outright
guessing.

XIII. Internet and Network Attack

What Is a Network Attack?

A network attack is an attempt to gain unauthorized access to an organization’s network, with the
objective of stealing data or perform other malicious activity. There are two main types of network
attacks:
Passive: Attackers gain access to a network and can monitor or steal sensitive information, but
without making any change to the data, leaving it intact.
Active: Attackers not only gain unauthorized access but also modify data, either deleting, encrypting
or otherwise harming it.
We distinguish network attacks from several other types of attacks:

 Endpoint attacks

gaining unauthorized access to user devices, servers or other endpoints, typically compromising
them by infecting them with malware.
 Malware attacks

infecting IT resources with malware, allowing attackers to compromise systems, steal data and do
damage. These also include ransomware attacks.
 Vulnerabilities, exploits and attacks
exploiting vulnerabilities in software used in the organization, to gain unauthorized access,
compromise or sabotage systems.

 Advanced persistent threats

these are complex multilayered threats, which include network attacks but also other attack types.
In a network attack, attackers are focused on penetrating the corporate network perimeter and gaining
access to internal systems. Very often, once inside attackers will combine other types of attacks, for
example compromising an endpoint, spreading malware or exploiting a vulnerability in a system
within the network.

Network Protection Best Practices

Segregate Your Network
A basic part of avoiding network security threats is dividing a network into zones based on security
requirements. This can be done using subnets within the same network, or by creating Virtual Local
Area Networks (VLANs), each of which behaves like a complete separate network. Segmentation
limits the potential impact of an attack to one zone, and requires attackers to take special measures to
penetrate and gain access to other network zones.
Regulate Access to the Internet via Proxy Server
Do not allow network users to access the Internet unchecked. Pass all requests through a transparent
proxy, and use it to control and monitor user behavior. Ensure that outbound connections are actually
performed by a human and not a bot or other automated mechanism. Whitelist domains to ensure
corporate users can only access websites you have explicitly approved.
Place Security Devices Correctly
Place a firewall at every junction of network zones, not just at the network edge. If you can’t deploy
full-fledged firewalls everywhere, use the built-in firewall functionality of your switches and routers.
Deploy anti-DDoS devices or cloud services at the network edge. Carefully consider where to place
strategic devices like load balancers – if they are outside the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), they won’t
be protected by your network security apparatus.
Use Network Address Translation
Network Address Translation (NAT) lets you translate internal IP addresses into addresses accessible
on public networks. You can use it to connect multiple computers to the Internet using a single IP
address. This provides an extra layer of security, because any inbound or outgoing traffic has to go
through a NAT device, and there are fewer IP addresses which makes it difficult for attackers to
understand which host they are connecting to.
Monitor Network Traffic
 Ensure you have complete visibility of incoming, outgoing and internal network traffic, with the
ability to automatically detect threats, and understand their context and impact. Combine data from
different security tools to get a clear picture of what is happening on the network, recognizing that
many attacks span multiple IT systems, user accounts and threat vectors.
Achieving this level of visibility can be difficult with traditional security tools. Cynet 360 is an
integrated security solution offering advanced network analytics, which continuously monitors
network traffic, automatically detect malicious activity, and either respond to it automatically or pass
context-rich information to security staff.
Use Deception Technology
No network protection measures are 100% successful, and attackers will eventually succeed in
penetrating your network. Recognize this and place deception technology in place, which creates
XIV. decoys CONCERNS
HEALTH across your network,
OF tempting attackers to “attack” them, and letting you observe their plans
and techniques.
COMPUTER USE

HEALTH CONCERNS OF COMPUTER USE

The increased usage of computers has resulted in serious health risks. Computer users should take
preventative measures to reduce their risk of health problems. The parts that follow go into computer
health dangers and how to avoid them, as well as steps users, may take to maintain the environment
healthy.
Computers and Health Risks
The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that work-related musculoskeletal disorders account for one-
third of all job-related injuries and illnesses. A musculoskeletal disorder (MSD), also called repetitive
strain injury (RSI), is an injury or disorder of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
Computer-related RSIs include tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome. RSIs are the largest job-related
injury and illness problem in the United States today. OSHA (occupational safety and Health
Administration) has developed industry-specific and task-specific guidelines designed to prevent
workplace injuries related to computer usage. Tendonitis is inflammation of a tendon due to some
repetitive motion or stress on that tendon. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is inflammation of the nerve
that connects the forearm to the palm. Repeated or forceful bending of the wrist can cause CTS or
tendonitis of the wrist. Symptoms of tendonitis of the wrist include extreme pain that extends from
the forearm to the hand, along with tingling in the fingers. Symptoms of CTS include burning pain
when the nerve is compressed, along with numbness and tingling in the thumb and first two fingers.
Computer users sometimes suffer from tendonitis or CTS. Factors that can cause these disorders
include prolonged typing, prolonged mouse usage, or continual shifting between the mouse and the
keyboard. If untreated, these disorders can lead to permanent damage to your body.
Computer Addiction
Computers can provide hours of entertainment and enjoyment. Some computer users, however,
become obsessed with the computer and the Internet. Computer addiction is a growing health
problem. Computer addiction occurs when the computer consumes someone’s entire social life.
Internet addiction disorder (IAD) describes the condition attributed to users who are dependenton or
abusing the Internet.
Symptoms of a user with a computer addiction include the following:
• Craves computer time
• Overjoyed when at the computer
• Unable to stop computer activity
• Irritable when not at the computer
• Neglects family and friends
• Problems at work or school
Green Computing
Green computing involves reducing electricity and environmental waste during computer use. People
use and often waste, resources such as electricity and paper while using a computer. Society has
become aware of this waste and is taking measures to combat it.
Most personal computers, display devices, and printers comply with the guidelines of the ENERGY
STAR program. For example, many devices switch to standby or power save mode after a specified
number of inactive minutes or hours.
You should not store obsolete computers and devices in a basement, storage room, attic, warehouse,
or any other location. Computers, monitors, and other equipment contain toxic materials and
potentially dangerous elements including lead, mercury, and flame retardants. In a landfill, these
materials release into the environment. Recycling and refurbishing old equipment are much safer
alternatives for the environment. Manufacturers can use the millions of pounds of recycled raw
materials to make products such as outdoor furniture and automotive parts.
XV. Ethics and Society

What are Ethics?

Ethics are a structure of standards and practices that influence how people lead their lives. It is not
strictly implemented to follow these ethics, but it is basically for the benefit of everyone that we do.
Ethics are unlike laws that legally mandate what is right or wrong. Ethics illustrate society’s views
about what is right and what is wrong.
Computer Ethics
Computer ethics are a set of moral standards that govern the use of computers. It is society’s views
about the use of computers, both hardware, and software. Privacy concerns, intellectual property
rights, and effects on society are some of the common issues of computer ethics.
Privacy Concerns
Hacking – is an unlawful intrusion into a computer or a network. A hacker can intrude through the
security levels of a computer system or network and can acquire unauthorized access to other
computers.
Malware – means malicious software which is created to impair a computer system. Common
malware is viruses, spyware, worms, and trojan horses. A virus can delete files from a hard drive
while spyware can collect data from a computer.
Data Protection – also known as information privacy or data privacy is the process of safeguarding
data that intends to influence a balance between individual privacy rights while still authorizing data
to be used for business purposes.
Anonymity – is a way of keeping a user’s identity masked through various applications.
Intellectual Property Rights
Copyright – is a form of intellectual property that gives proprietary publication, distribution, and
usage rights for the author. This means that whatever idea the author created cannot be employed or
disseminated by anyone else without the permission of the author.
Plagiarism – is an act of copying and publishing another person’s work without proper citation. It’s
like stealing someone else’s work and releasing it as your own work.
Cracking – is a way of breaking into a system by getting past the security features of the system. It’s
a way of skipping the registration and authentication steps when installing software.
Software License – allows the use of digital material by following the license agreement. Ownership
remains with the original copyright owner, users are just granted licenses to use the material based on
the agreement.

Effects on Society
Jobs – Some jobs have been abolished while some jobs have become simpler as computers have
taken over companies and businesses. Things can now be done in just one click whereas before it
takes multiple steps to perform a task. This change may be considered unethical as it limits the skills
of the employees.
There are also ethical concerns on the health and safety of employees getting sick from constant
sitting, staring at computer screens, and typing on the keyboard or clicking on the mouse.
Environmental Impact – The environment has been affected by computers and the internet since so
much time spent using computers increases energy usage which in turn increases the emission of
greenhouse gases.
There are ways where we can save energy like limiting computer time and turning off the computer
or putting on sleep mode when not in use. Buying energy-efficient computers with the Energy Star
label can also help save the environment.
Social Impact – Computers and the internet help people stay in touch with family and friends. Social
media has been very popular nowadays.
Computer gaming influenced society both positively and negatively. Positive effects are improved
hand-eye coordination, stress relief, and improved strategic thinking. Negative effects are an
addiction of gamers, isolation from the real world, and exposure to violence.
Computer technology helps the government in improving services to its citizens. The advanced
database can hold huge data being collected and analysed by the government. Computer technology
aids businesses by automating processes, reports and analysis.