Open-Book Paper 2008

Chemistry report: Radioactive decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

When an atomic nucleus is unstable it loses energy to obtain stability. It emits radiation in the form
of particles or electromagnetic waves. This process is called a radioactive decay and has several
forms such as α- and β-decay and nuclear fission.

The difference between these lies in the types of particles which are emitted when decay occurs.
During α-decay, an atomic nucleus of an element with the higher mass number, particularly such
that is heavier than 209Bi , ejects two protons and two neutrons in the form of an α-particle ( 4He
nucleus) forming another more stable element e.g. Plutonium nucleus undergoes α-decay to form
Uranium nucleus and α-particle, shown in Fig.1a (ref1.)In comparison, in β-decay a neutron in the
nucleus of an atom is converted into a proton an electron, which is then released as a β-particle. This
is shown in Fig.1b, where 14C nucleus forms a stable 14N nucleus and emits an electron known as β-
particle (ref.2&1).

Figure 1a: α-decay of Plutonium nucleus Figure 1b: β-decay of 14Carbon nucleus
239 235 14 14
Pu U+α C N+β

Mass number 239 = 235 + 4 Mass number 14 14

Atomic number 94 = 92 + 2 Atomic number 6 7

Number of neutrons 145 = 143 + 2 Number of neutrons 8 7

In α-decay the number of all nuclides must be Here a neutron in Carbon nucleus is converted
balanced. Plutonium decays to form an Uranium to a proton forming and new element Nitrogen
isotope and an α-particle. and a β-particle is emitted.

Both α- and β-decay are forms of natural radioactive decay and occur in natural Earth’s conditions
and do not need to be initiated by an external factor, in contrast to nuclear fission reaction which
needs to be initiated with a bombarding neutron, which causes the nucleus of an atom to oscillate
and become unstable. This triggers a division (fission) of nucleus into two new lighter nuclei of
approximately equal mass and one or more neutrons, which trigger further fission reactions(Fig.2)
(ref.2.1&3). Fission reaction does not occur naturally, but when it is under control it can be used to
generate energy. (ref.3)The main difference between fission and natural radioactive decay is that
fission reaction approximately evenly distributes mass and energy of the decay products to achieve
nuclear stability, whereas in natural decay the mass number of a radioactive element changes
slightly producing harmful radiation. It is significant that fission reaction is commonly occurring on
heavy nuclides in comparison to natural forms of decay which are present among a wide range of
unstable elements.
Figure 2a: Possible fission reaction of Uranium-235

1 235 89 144 1
n+ U → Kr + Ba +3 n
0 92 36 56 0

This example of fission reaction of 235U can be also represented as the liquid drop model of the nucleus
shown in fig.2b.

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Figure 2.b: The liquid drop model of Uranium-235 nucleus

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

1)235U nucleus absorbs a neutron. 2) Nucleus has excess energy and oscillates violently. 3) Motion produces a
neck on the unstable nucleus. 4) Coulomb forces stretch it out. 5) Fission occurs. 6)235U nuclei fissions:
144Ba and 89Kr are formed giving out three neutrons. (ref.2.1&3)

Diagram is derived from the original found in reference.3 using information and equation from ref.2.1.

Another form of nuclear reaction is the nuclear fusion. It’s a type of reaction in which lighter nuclei
can fuse together to form a heavier nuclei and in result form a new element. Stellar energy comes
from the fusion reactions, which naturally occur in stars due to excellent conditions of high
temperature and pressure which are required to overcome the electrical repulsion between
positively charged nuclei. (ref.4)Since the most abundant elements in stars are Hydrogen, Helium
and their isotopes, they play essential role in the synthesis of heavier elements such as Lithium
through the process of nucleogenesis. At the extremely high temperatures the combination of
fusion reactions is broad. Here are examples of some of the fusion reactions:
2 3 4 1
H + H → He + n ←Deuterium and tritium nuclei fuse together to form a helium atom and a neutron.
1 1 2 0
(ref2.2)

There are two routes in order to generate lithium through fusion and are presented in Figures
3.a&b:
Figure 3.a: Route 1 for the generation of Lithium:

4 3 7
He + H → Li
2 1 3

Here, a stable Helium nucleus with 2 protons and 2 neutrons, under specific conditions, fuses with a tritium
(hydrogen isotope with one proton and 2 neutrons) and one heavier nucleus forms having 3 protons and 4
neutrons, what makes it a stable Lithium nucleus. (ref2.2)

Figure 3.b: Route 2 for the generation of Lithium:

The second route of Lithium nucleogenesis comes in two stages. The first stage is nuclear fusion with the product of
Beryllium nucleus:

4 3 7
He+ He → Be ←At this stage two helium isotopes (stable helium nuclei and another one containing 2 protons
2 2 4
and a neutron) fuse together and form Beryllium atom, containing 4 protons and 3 neutrons in its nucleus.

7 7
Be + e ⁻ → Li +νe ←During the second stage, Beryllium-7 atom is bombarded with an electron, which changes
4 3
the structure of the nucleus (ref.2.2), so that one of the protons is converted to a neutron through the electron-
proton collision emitting an electron-neutrino.(ref.5).This indicates that number of protons changed from 4 to 3
making a new element Lithium by an impact of an electron. Also the number of neutrons has increased by one in

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Both fission and fusion are examples of nuclear reactions which allow generation of energy. Fission
reaction is characteristic for its occurrence on heavy, neutron-rich atoms and has to be initiated with
hitting neutron, which disturbs the stability of the nucleus causing the nucleus to split apart and
form two new nuclei and emitting several neutrons. An example could be the fission of Uranium
isotope which produces new elements and emits three neutrons which trigger further fissions.
Splitting of atoms generates enormous amounts of thermal energy. The generator, where fission
occurs needs to be cooled down to avoid eventual risk of explosion and this is achieved by installing
pipes running with cool substances such as molten sodium or CO2 gas, which warms up they go
around the reactor. This heats the water and formed steam is used to generate electricity.

In comparison, fusion reaction is characteristic for its specific conditions, which are; very extremely
high temperature and pressure. Nuclear fusion is the pioneer reaction of all nuclear reaction since it
is responsible for synthesis of majority of elements in the universe, starting with those simplest
ones, moving on to heavier ones. Its specific conditions allow a wide range of fusion products to be
formed. If fusion could be controlled on Earth, it would give enormous amounts of electricity.
However, controlling fusion is difficult compared to controlling fission, because it requires extreme
temperature and pressure essential for maintenance of plasma – ionised gases. On the other side
fusion generates at least 10 times more energy than it requires, what makes it better more efficient
process than nuclear fission.

In terms of control of both fission and fusion the requirements are varied due to the significant
difference in the course of reactions, requirements and the products formed. Table 1 compares the
control procedures during both reactions:
Table 1: The control of fission and fusion reaction in electricity generating
Nuclear reaction
Type of control
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Takes place in a nuclear Doughnut-shaped type of
Locus of the reaction
reactor. vessel.
Uranium-238 used to absorb Helium products are pumped
excess neutrons- rate of out to prevent disturbance of
reaction is slowed. reaction.
High temperatures and
Graphite moderator slows
pressures are required to
down neutrons to condition
Rate of reaction control enable efficiency and rate of
further fission.
reactions.
Control rods are used to vary Electromagnetism and carbon
the rate of reaction by coating of vessels are used to
increasing or decreasing avoid heat loss and improve
absorbance of excess neutrons. the efficiency.

The main advantages of using fission to generate electricity is that it’s relatively cheap and doesn’t
require new, developed technologies as opposed to nuclear fusion, which is still worked on since it is
very difficult to imitate stellar conditions on Earth. However fission reactions involve very dangerous
radioactive elements what can cause problems if eventual break down of a reactor occurs. This
method of generating electricity is unsafe and disposal of products is a major problem. It stands a
threat to the environment. On the other hand nuclear fusion is a safe process since it uses small

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amounts of fuel and its main advantage is that it is highly efficient and produces incredibly high
amounts of energy. Though a disadvantage of fusion is that the research and construction are
expensive, the Earth’s natural energy sources are limited and there’s a hope in nuclear fusion.
(ref2.1&2.2)

At the moment scientists face problems developing fusion power stations such as research on such
large scale is highly expensive and appropriate materials for some of the vessel elements are still to
be discovered, since those used today are causing problems e.g. Carbon coating of the vessel erodes
and products are impurities which disturb fusion of plasma.
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Bibliography:
Reference 1: Radiochemistry, David J. Malcome-Lawes, published 1979 by the MACMILLAN
PRESS LTD, ISBN0-333-26124-0, Chapters; 1.2-1.3

Reference 2.1: Article 1: “Lise Meitner, Radiochemist, physicist and co-discoverer of nuclear
fission”

Reference 2.2: Article 2: “Fusion, Powering the future?”

Reference 3: Particle Physics, Christopher Bishop, published 2002 by John Murray LTD, ISBN
0-71958589-9, Chapter 2: Fission and fusion

Reference 4: Astronomy: A Physical Perspective, Marc L. Kutner, published 2003 by PRESS

SYNDICATE OF UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, ISBN 0-521-52927-1, Chapter 9.2: Nuclear
physics and 9.3: Nuclear energy for stars.

Reference 5: AS Physics for AQA, COLLINS ADVANCED MODULAR SCIENCES, Franc Ciccotti
and Dave Kelly, published 2000 by HarperCollins Publishers LTD, ISBN 0-00-327755-0,
Chapter 3: The Fundamental particles.

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