Introduction
The influence of
information and advice
on competitive strategy
definition in small- and
medium-sized
enterprises
G. Ian Burke and
Denise G. Jarratt
The authors
G. Ian Burke is Director of the Beechworth Campus at La Trobe
University, Beachnorth, Australia. E-mail:
i.burke@latrobe.edu.au
Denise Jarratt is Professor of Marketing at Charles Sturt
University, Bathurst, Australia. E mail: djarratt@csu.edu.au
Keywords
Competitive strategy, Small to medium-sized enterprises
Abstract
Although strategy development in large corporations has been
well documented, the process of formulating strategy in small
firms has not been extensively investigated by researchers. The
process in small firms does not reflect exhaustive strategic
analysis, but rather, a personality driven, opportunistic or
instinctive approach, channelled through an emergent planning
process. This study builds on recent work examining the planning
patterns and approaches of small firms by integrating an
understanding of the nature and extent of information and
advice sought and received by the firm, and how that interaction
influences the formation of competitive strategy. Results of this
qualitative study point to more formal sources of advice such as
providers of professional advisory services being bypassed due
to a perceived lack of relevance of their information and
planning advice to the SME’s specific industry context.
Electronic access
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Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 7 · Number 2 · 2004 · pp. 126-138
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited · ISSN 1352-2752
DOI 10.1108/13522750410530039
126
At the commencement of the new millennium,
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are
being heralded as the engine of economic growth,
the incubator of innovation, and the solution to
decades of persistent unemployment. The
fulfilment of the enormous potential of the sector
has been a consistent theme since the
commencement of the industrial revolution.
Whilst the process of strategy definition to guide
business growth in large corporations has been
extensively debated (for example Chakravarthy,
1997; Hamel and Prahalad, 1994; Stalk et al.,
1992), the process of formulating and defining
strategy in the small firm has not been as easily
described or understood by business researchers.
The process does not reflect exhaustive strategic
analysis, but rather, a personality driven,
opportunistic or instinctive approach, channelled
through an emergent planning process. In defining
strategy, small business decision makers assimilate
information and advice from a wide array of
professional, business and personal sources.
This study into the influence of information and
advice on strategy definition in small-medium
enterprises builds on recent work examining the
planning patterns and approaches of small firms by
integrating an understanding of the nature and
extent of information and advice sought and
received by the firm, and how that interaction
influences the definition of competitive strategy. A
framework is given in support of the contention
that informally sourced information and advice
channelled through implicit planning processes
has the strongest positive influence on the way
competitive strategy for future quantitative
assessment is presented.
Literature review
How strategy is defined has been the subject of
extensive research since the 1960s. Chandler
(1962) described strategy as the process of
determining the organisation’s long-term goals
and objectives, of adopting a course of action and
allocating sufficient resources. This traditional and
implicitly rational definition of strategy was later
challenged by Mintzberg’s (1978) and Mintzberg
and Waters’s (1985) contention that strategy was
more a pattern of action resulting from whatever
intended (deliberate) or unintended (emergent)
strategies were realized. Mintzberg (1978)
postulated that strategy could be something more
than an explicit plan of action. His five strategy
dimensions which recognized “strategy as plan”,
“strategy as pattern”, “strategy as ploy”, “strategy
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
as perspective”, and “strategy as position” has
been the basis for opening up the definition of
strategy to a wider context of use. Since
Mintzberg’s contribution, strategy has become
much more than planning. Strategy is what the
firm does much more than what a firm says it is
going to do to compete in the marketplace. As
Mintzberg (1978) concludes, “strategy is not just a
notion of how to deal with an enemy or a set of
competitors or a market, as it is treated in so much
of the literature and in its popular usage. It also
draws us into some of the most fundamental issues
about organizations as instruments for collective
perception and action”.
Over a 40-year span, strategy has been
extensively examined and re-defined and is today
firmly situated as the pivotal construct of the
business planning process. A more contemporary
and comprehensive definition of strategy adopted
herein is “a fundamental pattern of present and
planned objectives, resource deployments, and
interactions of an organisation with markets,
competitors, and other environmental forces”
(Kerin et al., 1990). This definition is particularly
useful as it incorporates both the intended and
apparent manifestations of strategy in a dynamic
and responsive sense, and embraces a broad range
of participants.
Discussion on how strategy is formulated in
large organisations embraces resources and
capabilities that are critical for effective market
competition. Stalk et al. (1992) identified the
importance of a company distinguishing itself from
its competitors in the market place, with resources
and capabilities becoming paramount in a
company’s fight for market share. Strategic
alliances provide an avenue through which
organisations can access required resources and
capabilities. Organisations and researchers alike
must rethink strategy in terms of the key
capabilities they can access through strategic
alliances (Markides and Williamson, 1994).
In terms of individual capabilities, managers in
large corporations are encouraged to evaluate their
colleagues and senior managers in terms of their
ability to understand how industry might change in
the future (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994;
McClelland, 1994). Concern is raised about
current managers’ preoccupation with
restructuring and re-engineering as opposed to
energetically focussing their attention on the
outward and forward. Are managers of SMEs also
focussing their attention mainly on business
processes, rather than actively pursuing
information for strategy decision making?
The debate over how strategy is defined in
SMEs has been conducted on a number of broad
fronts, from the discussion of planning processes,
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to focusing on the individual personality of
entrepreneurs, and to the growth of a wide range of
commercially available advisory services providing
information on strategic choice. More recently,
examination of the alliances and networks of SMEs
has prompted researchers to take a realism (rather
than a positivist) perspective on the definition of
strategy in the everyday operating environment of
the small firm (Perry et al., 1997).
The formulation and defining of strategy in
SMEs has also been a consistent theme of the
marketing/entrepreneurship interface literature
comprising around 200 articles. While some
studies (Bracker and Pearson, 1986; Acklesberg
and Arlow, 1985; Gibb and Scott, 1985) addressed
the association between planning and performance
in SMEs, others (Boyd, 1991; Robinson and
Pearce, 1984; Miller and Cardinal, 1994) pointed
to the difficulty of even defining planning and
strategic planning, and of measuring constructs
such as planning formality and performance in the
small firm context.
Until recently, the formulation of strategy has
been seen as synonymous with the rational
planning model (Hanlon and Scott, 1995) and in
the marketing context as a hierarchical progression
from higher levels of corporate and business
planning (Walker et al., 1996). In small business,
however, market entry and survival strategies
predominate compared with market share and
product development in large corporations (Kinra,
1995). Mendelssohn (1991) suggests that
ignorance of the marketing concept in small firm
planning processes is a direct result of the inability
of small firms to articulate their long-term
objectives. Financial restraints and limited time for
managers to focus on strategic issues are also
tangible obstacles to strategic planning (Patterson,
1986). More recently, McCarthy and Leavy
(2000) have argued for the emergence of the
intuitive-learning model of strategy which sees
strategy being formulated from both deliberate
and emergent planning processes, the combination
of which depends on the interplay between the
entrepreneur, the industry context and the
ancestry of decisions within the firm.
The definition of strategy in SMEs is often
perceived as person centred rather than process
driven. The performance (in many cases the
survival) of small firms can be synonymous with
the success of the leadership style of the
entrepreneur. A review of the contribution of
strategy leadership style to organisational
performance by Nahavandi and Malekzedah
(1993) confirms Hitt and Tyler’s (1991) assertion
that the style and personality of the manager is
central to the strategy definition process. Evidence
of the link between manager personality and
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
strategy definition has been confirmed in several
research studies (Kets de Vries and Millar, 1986;
Noel, 1989; Kets de Vries, 1993; Bamberger,
1994) with the more recent suggestion (McCarthy
and Leavy, 2000) that strategy formulation may in
addition be induced by some “defining episode” or
crisis within the firm.
Family influences can be crucial in influencing
strategy definition. According to some estimates,
comments Kets de Vries (1993), “80 per cent of all
businesses are family controlled, in the widest
sense of the term, in that the family has a
significant say in the company’s strategic
direction”. Strategy definition in family businesses
reflects the belief system of the family, so much so
that “the family spirit will very much determine the
prevailing attitudes, norms, and values in the
company”. In reporting the findings of over 300
in-depth interviews with executives in family
controlled businesses, Kets de Vries concludes that
family logic often overrules business reason when
it comes to defining strategy. Difficulties arise
when “outsiders” opinions appear to conflict with
those of “insiders”, suggesting that family
influence may be a powerful screen through which
outsourced advice will have to pass before being
integrated within the process of formulating
strategy.
The range of information and advice available
from outsiders is rapidly increasing and, as a result,
the strategy definition process of small firms is
increasingly being influenced by the decision to
outsource a range of capabilities and activities not
considered core to the firm (Gupta and Zhender,
1994). Drtina (1994) posits this as the reversal of
an earlier trend towards vertical integration. From
a management accounting perspective, he sees a
number of advantages to do with cost, flexibility
and access to technology accruing to firms who
decide to outsource non-core activities. But what is
a “non-core” activity? “Some activities”, he
suggests, “are eliminated immediately as
candidates for outsourcing either because the
service cannot be contracted outside, or because
the firm must control the activity to maintain its
competitive position”. He recommends
benchmarking on the basis of productivity
measures on each activity eligible for outsourcing.
He demonstrates how the use of traditional
discount cash flow analysis might confirm
retaining an activity within an organisation,
whereas shareholder value analysis determines that
the activity should be outsourced. How then can
small firms decide when to outsource? Drtina
argues that in a strategic analysis, less tangible
qualitative factors may be more important than
discount cash flow results. Such intangibles are:
technical supremacy (access to superior expertise
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and systems); flexibility (of capital and human
resources); and, opportunities for innovation, but
warns of the intangible costs that may also result
from overt dependence upon an outsourcing
partner.
If an SME does decide to seek information and
advice from an outside source, where should it
look? Purchasing of management advice in the
market for advisory services is beginning to gain
attention in small business and accounting
journals (Kent, 1994; Bloom, 1992; Dawes et al.,
1992; Hopson et al., 1990; Reiss, 1990; Ziebarth,
1988; Kettering, 1986) and in other professional
publications. Accountants (not surprisingly) are
singled out as having the capacity to offer “value
added” advice on a broad range of management
issues. Their experience in delivering relevant and
timely advice to a diversified client base, and their
extensive knowledge of clients’ businesses suggests
they are well placed to satisfy in large part the need
for management advisory services. The
development of management advisory services
(MAS) capabilities in accountancy practices
creates value for their customers and themselves,
once the need for MAS can be identified (Reiss,
1990). This capability development however,
requires advisers themselves to adopt an
entrepreneurial approach to the development of
strategy (Leinicke and Fish, 1990), and to be
active in working with clients in pursuit of new
opportunities (Lehman, 1992). Despite this
capability and proximity of accountants to their
client base, it appears that small business
practitioners (and indeed their bankers) do not
perceive most chartered accountants as possessing
the necessary attributes required to provide the
range of advisory services necessary for planned
expansion (Sewell, 1994; Burke and Phelan,
1996). In a New Zealand based survey of public
accountants, small businesses, and associated
third party consultants and enterprises, Cameron
(1993) found that while accountants were
perceived as competent suppliers (though at a
lower than desired level) of compliance and
accounting-based advice, they generally failed on
the dimension of “actively seeking out client’s
problems”. These findings confirm Leinicke and
Fish’s (1990) call for a proactive and
entrepreneurial approach.
Is the strategy definition process then simply a
“make or buy” decision? Do SMEs have to choose
between “in-house” capabilities and information,
and a straight outsourcing alternative? The answer
appears to be that small firms are choosing other
solutions. In seeking to satisfy and retain
customers, firms can of course relate to other firms
as well as to end customers. A constant stream of
published research (Varadarajan and Rajaratnam,
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
1986; Johnston and Lawrence, 1988; Lewis, 1990;
Ring and Van de Ven, 1992; Lei, 1993; Bleek and
Ernst, 1993; Jarratt and Burke, 1995; Varadarajan
and Cunningham, 1995) has been produced on
strategic alliances. Benefits arising from alliances
(including advice) goes beyond the notion of
advice being an externality or unintended by-
product of alliances. Jarratt and Burke’s (1995)
research portrayed the formation of alliances as
purpose driven, inter alia, to gain expertise, access
and transfer knowledge, and broaden the resources
and capabilities dimension of the firm, all inputs to
the strategy definition process.
Personal friendships, rather than set criteria as
suggested in some of the literature (for example
Henricks, 1991) are argued to drive the formation
of many alliances between SMEs in non-
metropolitan areas. The literature suggests that
strategy definition will clarify the need for alliance
formation, however, the formation of business
partnership based purely on personal relationships
may themselves change the strategic direction of
the firm (Jarratt and Burke, 1995).
How do strategic alliances impact on the
strategy definition of small and medium sized
enterprises? Jarratt (1998) found that three major
dimensions describe strategic motivation or intent
in SME alliance formation. The three dimensions
each encompassed a “time” component, with
“enhancing current business performance”
reflecting an alliance’s impact on building current
capabilities, “creating new value” indicating the
contribution of an alliance towards future business
potential and “defending market position” forging
links to protect past business development against
market or environmental forces. Implementing a
partnering strategy will increase a firm’s ability to
network with other managers in industries aligned
with their own markets. Information about
customer needs, resources that can be linked to
support new product development and other
market information captured as a result of this
partnership will feed into future strategic
decisions.
Recently published evidence is now pointing to
a reliance by entrepreneurs on a combination of
inside and outside sources of information and
advice capable of influencing the strategic
definition of the firm. Leading the debate on how
entrepreneurial networks contribute to the strategy
definition processes within SMEs, writers such as
Hill et al. (1999) and Sparrow (1999) have
modelled a range of information sources impacting
on entrepreneurs in their day to day experience.
Such work illustrates the temporal evolution of
influence upon the definition of marketing strategy
by the entrepreneur.
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In the early “pioneering” stages of the business
life cycle, Hill et al. (1999) argue that the
entrepreneur is mainly reliant upon social
networks such as family and friends. The ability of
the firm to identify and pursue opportunities is
constrained by the collective experience of the
social network, and the major contribution of
information and advice gained from the social
network is associated with launching the
entrepreneurial venture. Thereafter, more
business-focused “professional” assistance and
information is sought over time to broaden the
experience and opportunity base of the
entrepreneur. Interestingly, results of this study
suggest that a progressive substitution of more
business-focused advice for less social advice does
not occur. Rather, such business-focused contacts
were episodic “forays” and weak in comparison
with the stronger more enduring ties to the social
influencers. “As the entrepreneurial firm grows
and develops”, they conclude, “it appears that the
contribution of social contacts continues
undiminished, contrary to what one might
expect”.
The context of this research is the Small-
Medium Enterprise sector (SMEs) in Australia
that is characterised by entrepreneurial owner/
managers with personal influence over the
competitive stance of the business. Drawing from
the literature, and within the definition of strategy
by Kerin et al. (1990) as “a fundamental pattern of
present and planned activities, resource
deployments and interactions of an organisation
with markets, competitors and other
environmental forces”, strategy definition in SMEs
can be illustrated in Figure 1 below.
Seen within this framework, strategy is defined
by:
Figure 1 Elements of strategy definition within small and
medium sized enterprises
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt Volume 7 · Number 2 · 2004 · 126-138

.
planned activities being carried out to achieve of the research conducted, and new frontier
stated objectives; theories and constructs surrounding the definition
.
resources and capabilities being deployed to and application of strategy in SMEs. As opposed to
action strategic decisions; the positivist school (exemplified by the “fit-
.
markets being entered, explored and learned model”), authors such as Hills and Forge (1992)
from; have sporned a “school of discovery” approach
.
competitors being engaged and benchmarked; where an outward focus on markets and customers
.
environments providing signals filtered has provided data and identified influences which
through personal and entrepreneurial can be integrated through behavioural processes
networks. and innovation within the SME context. As small
firms have a distinctive marketing style (Carson
From an examination of the literature a range of
et al., 1995) not consistent with large
issues has emerged relating to the nature of
organisational theory, researchers are encouraged
competitive strategy and the role of information in
to take an integrated approach to understanding
SME competitive strategy development
the entrepreneurial/marketing capabilities of small
appropriate for examination in a qualitative
firms and their influence on strategy formation.
context: The sample for the qualitative section of the
. What is competitive strategy to SME study was purposive and comprised managers/
managers? Are they focussing inwards on owners of 16 small firms, referred to as cases 1-16
structures and processes that increase (C1 to C16) across a broad range of industry
efficiency or are they looking forward, categories located in North East Victoria and
adapting for the future? Southern New South Wales Businesses ranged
.
What is SME managers’ approach to from micro services (one and two person
competitive strategy development and operations) such as electrical repairs and picture
planning? framing to medium manufacturing and sales
.
What is the role of the manager and other staff organisations (employing up to 30 persons).
in that process? Retail, wholesale, services, manufacturing,
.
Why is information sought from other construction and hospitality industries were
stakeholders in strategy decision making? represented in the sample, approximating the
.
How and why do external information sources profile of a cross-section of businesses in the
contribute to competitive strategy region. The number and selection of cases was
development? consistent with recommendations of Perry (1994).
The unit of analysis was the main decision- maker
in the firm. The research was interpretive in
Research method nature, aiming to identify and explore themes in
the data linking information and advice seeking
The objective of this study is to explain how
behaviour to the strategy definition process.
information and advice influence competitive The research was broken into two stages.
strategy definition in Small and Medium
Enterprises. Limited examples appear in the
literature (for example, Menon et al., 1999) that Stage 1 – exploratory qualitative research
take a more holistic and realistic view of the Eight unstructured depth interviews were
strategy definition process. In this sense, the study conducted with small business managers, the
builds on and combines two separately reported purpose of which was to identify the issues critical
lines of research: the debate over explicit verses to information and advice access and utilisation in
implicit planning processes in SMEs; and the the strategy development process to focus stage 2
identification of processes of outsourcing advice as of this inquiry (Sekaran, 1992). Data in the
a growing influence on the way the small firm interviews was gathered through note taking or
decides to compete. tape recording and transcribed after the interview,
Several writers contributing to the marketing/ categorising data on each transcription. Strauss
entrepreneurship interface literature (Churchill, (1987) recommends that coding of data should be
1992; Van de Ven, 1992; Aldrich, 1992; Carson, done early and frequently within the research time
1998) call for the in-depth use of qualitative and frame. Initially, an experiential approach to data
in-depth fieldwork in defining and understanding collection was adopted where respondents were
strategy in SMEs. “Expansion in the use of asked to relive or recreate strategy definition
qualitative research focusing on “understanding” experiences (Reynolds and Gutman, 1988).
phenomena and describing both the meaning and Validity in interviewing was enhanced by prior
implications of events”, conclude Carson and relationship building and by referencing questions
Coviello (1996), has resulted in enhanced validity against the participant’s reality of the decision
130
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
process (Minichiello et al., 1995). Probing was
used to clarify key aspects important to
respondents, and the causal nature of influences
on the processes and outcomes of strategy
formation. Later interviews adopted a more
structured approach, focussing on the issues that
emerged through the experiential approach.
Stage 2 – focus group
A focus group was conducted and taped with 8
entrepreneurs from small and medium enterprises.
The participants selected represented a reasonable
cross section of the regional business community,
comprising retail, wholesale, services,
manufacturing and micro-business elements.
Focus groups are a type of interview which
emphasise group interactions and are led by a
moderator who “focuses” the discussion on
relevant subject in a non-directive way (Calder,
1977; Byers and Wlicox, 1991). Compared with
other forms of information gathering focus groups
offer high levels of group interaction, involving real
people with experience in the field of interest
(McDaniel and Gates, 1996). While there is no
ideal group size, eight participants are an effective
number of participants (Fern, 1982). As
recommended by Tynan and Drayton (1988), a
Discussion Guide was developed from the key
issues raised in the depth interviews and can be
obtained from the authors. The purpose of the
focus group was to hone in on these key issues and
to allow interaction between the participants to
provide a group perspective. Tactful suppression of
dominant participants and encouragement of
more passive participants was used to assist
validity, as was recording the body language and
tone of the respondents during the interaction
(Gordon and Langmaid, 1988). In this way, the
combination of focus group data with other data
collection methods can be an effective way of
investigating small firm decision making processes
(Himes, 2000).
While the unstructured interviews produced
data which, when analysed, generated broad
themes, analysis of data from the more directed
focus group discussion provided further insights
into the extent to which businesses outsource for
information and advice, the nature of that advice,
and the reasons for outsourcing. The discussion
provided a deeper understanding of how the value
placed on different types of advice is determined,
and came to conclusions on the relative
importance of formal verses informal sources of
advice.
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Results
What is competitive strategy to SME
managers? Are they focussing inwards on
structures and processes that increase
efficiency or are they looking forward,
adapting for the future?
Respondents interviewed all saw themselves as
competitors in a marketplace. Their businesses
depend on the next sale or contract. Success, in
their eyes, is therefore inextricably bound up in
head to head competition with identified
competitors. Customers make the purchase
decision, and in this sense are the arbiters of value
(what they think they will get, for what they are
prepared to pay). Formulating competitive
strategy for many small businesses is about
creating better value offers for each quotation or
product line, rather than any generic competitive
strategy. Day to day cost advantages gained by
improved logistics, better technical advice, or
levels of customer service, can provide a
momentary (not necessarily sustained) advantage
over their competitor/s.
Managers are constantly aware of the
competitive dynamic of the marketplace, both in
terms of tracking and responding to customer
needs and in terms of competitive offers opposing
them.
Despite the vast array of information now
available to small firms, managers make
competitive decisions based on their own synthesis
of available information (asymptotic information)
and on their understanding and judgement of the
situation (bounded rationality). Unlike large
organisations with restrictive corporate
governance provisions, these are not decisions
which are planned to be announced at an annual
general meeting. On the contrary, they are
incremental updates of an ancestry of competitive
decisions which have led the firm to its present
competitive stance.
Incremental (emergent) strategy formation
proceeds within a planning context, and that, with
the exception of preparing proposals to access
additional capital, is largely an implicit planning
process bound up in the knowledge and
understanding of the major decision maker/s
within the firm. The current competitive strategy
based around product range, technological
solutions, advantageous cost structure, and
personal selling techniques is being constantly
re-formulated in an incremental but nonetheless
planned way, to better meet the changing needs of
customers and the constantly revised value offers
of competitors.
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
What is SME managers’ approach to strategy
development and planning?
Informal nature of planning
The level of planning is far less than it should be
(C2).
It’s certainly nothing fancy or sat down and
thought about. We never have business meetings
(C5).
These statements are typical of the responses
received when participants were asked about a
business plan. Apart from one reference to
preparing annual budgets, no evidence was found
for the existence of written business plans. Some
respondents blamed lack of time and resources.
Others were keen to point out that their businesses
were growing without such formal processes.
Probing deeper than this first level of response
did provide evidence that planning did take place,
albeit in an iterative, less formal manner. “I guess
I’m wrong in saying we don’t plan. We are
constantly thinking about ways the business can
develop. There is not the imperative to bring some
of those plans to fruition” (C2). To varying degrees
all respondents demonstrated an intuitive
understanding of their markets, their customers,
their competitors, and their competitive
challenges. Most indicated intentions to introduce
new systems or products in the future, some
identified the need for a new operational structure,
and one had a clear agenda for exporting. Whether
that plan would ever be brought to the surface and
formally stated by these respondents depended
upon the need to prepare some form of proposal to
obtain capital for expansion. Growth of the
business and the need to obtain capital is pointing
case 3 towards formalising her planning. “The
process is underway . . . The planning process is
probably not as formal as it should be . . . I know I
have to write a formal operations manual.
Everything currently is basically in my head . . . I’d
like to mechanise, which means capital investment
. . . I’ve got piles of information. I know that I have
to do everything by step.”
The perceived need for formal planning varied
in each case. Some didn’t have time. Some were
expanding and prospering without it. Others were
ignorant of the process. In all cases, however,
intuitive planning was taking place and strategy
was being refined on a day to day basis by the
information, advice and opportunities
encountered in the marketplace, supporting the
notion of strategy as a pattern.
Benchmarking to build competitive value
To know where their value offer ranks, businesses
actively benchmark themselves against the
competitive and analogous offers and practices.
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“We see them on the job. We drive past and stop
and watch what other people are doing” (C5).
This passive observation and learning was a
common approach of most respondents, and not
limited to competitors in their own industry. “One
of the greatest influences on me in my business is
watching what other businesses do in the
marketplace that have nothing to do with my
business”, commented one respondent, who
continued: “I really love to see how other
businesses go out and market themselves; how they
decide what they are really marketing to the
people” (C8).
What is the role of the manager and other
staff in that process?
Reliance on self
The notion of “self” was pervasive in both the data
collected and in the tone recorded of the small
business practitioners interviewed. When asked
who was involved in making competitive strategy
decisions within the firm, respondents were
unequivocal. “Two of us. Jointly to a degree. 90 per
cent of it is from our own judgement” (C2)
commented one, and “There’s just two of us”
mirrors another, “we were just friends and we
made a business. The first year we started business
there was just two of us and we turned over a
respectable amount of money and the next year it
was double that, the next year double that, so we
couldn’t see any point in asking anyone else for
financial advice” (C5). “I think I can cope with
everyday decisions myself” (C1) and “I do our
business face to face – I’m the one” (C3) were
other typical initial responses illustrating the self
assuredness and self reliance of many small
business managers who had built their enterprise
up from scratch and still had a high degree of
personal involvement and commitment to its
success. “If it’s got to be – it’s down to me” (C4)
best sums up the attitude of personal responsibility
which pervades the cases.
Probing below the surface, however, indicated
that “self” often includes other key stakeholders,
particularly staff and family. “I always involve the
staff. I ask them. This could be on a day to day
basis. “Will we do this? Do you think it’s a good
idea?” and I get them to answer – give me their
input, what they think” (C3). Another business
(C4) gets staff to interact with customers and
identify factors affecting evaluation of their service
experiences. In this sense, staff are both a valued
resource and key stakeholders in the decision
processes of the firm.
The sense of self, augmented and nested by the
presence and support of family is illustrated in case
6, the major decision maker in a mature (40 years)
family business. An elder brother had supported
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
the business start-up, and over time, two sons had
joined the firm. A recent major strategic decision
illustrates the level of family influence over the
strategy formation process. “It wasn’t such a
business decision from accountants or anything. It
was more a family decision”, the respondent
admitted. “I used to have to rely on passing traffic,
position was so important going back a few years.
My eldest sons decided that we should have a
building of our own”. In this case, what comprises
“self” was clearly undergoing a generational
transition, and the augmentation of influence and
advice from other family members (from inside
and outside) resulted in a successful strategic
change.
“Self” can be augmented from other sources as
well. Indeed, the propensity to seek advice from
sources external to the firm appears to be related to
the desire to acquire skills from other’s experience.
This was true of attending courses, learning from
representatives, or joining trade associations. This
then leads to the next theme derived from the data.
Why is information sought from other
stakeholders in strategy decision making?
Risk and resource constraints increase outsourcing for
advice
What prompts small firms to seek advice from
beyond “self”, from beyond the capabilities
existing within the firm? Evidence from the cases
suggests the desire to offset or minimise decision
risk, is a major trigger for outsourcing advice.
Some respondents reported specific examples of
requesting advice to offset risk in decisions, while
others generalised the link between advice and risk
aversion. “The more risk involved, the more I am
going to look for outside advice” (C2). Indeed,
external sources such as business advisors, small
business agencies and accountants were in some
instances used as checkpoints. Case 3 commented
“I see my accountant as someone that makes sure
that I am doing my job properly”.
Limited resources or capabilities within the firm
(including the manager’s time) were seen as
definite incentives to outsource for advice. “I’m
learning as I go and I’m getting better at it so
eventually I know that I’ll have it exactly right and I
won’t need their information” (C3). By seeking
external advice, practitioners are learning and
enhancing capabilities within the firm for future
decision making.
Limited time can be both a constraint and a
driver for outsourcing advice. Case 5 explained,
“When you are running a hands on business, you
don’t have time to run around to seek advice”. The
issue of who small business managers talk to and
network with is discussed next.
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How and why do external information
sources contribute to competitive strategy
development?
Information and advice from downstream stakeholders
have strategic merit
Customers as an important source of information
and advice was a constant theme emerging from
the data. “It is extremely important to take advice
from customers. They will certainly tell you very
quickly when you have stuffed up. They will also
give you feedback. The customers that we deal
with tend to know each other and tend to pass
around information, and that information is very
valuable” (C2). As a result, for this business, “We
have changed the way we operate the business on
advice from our customers”.
What was clear from the data was that “the
customer” represented different stakeholders (not
just the end user of the product or service).
Overall, respondents saw market intermediaries as
more important sources of advice than individual
end customers. Because this customer category
was a conduit to on-going business, respondents
felt that their advice should be heeded in order to
reinforce the trust on which the relationship relied.
Building and retaining these relationships with
channel members was critical to sourcing valued
information.
Actionability of advice is assessed through its impact on
profit and the practicality of implementation
The likelihood that information and advice would
be acted on and influence the firm’s competitive
strategy appeared from the data to depend upon
two factors; practicality and profitability. When
asked “what makes good advice?” respondents
agreed that advice needs to be practical and based
on hard experience: “Is it practical? Are our staff
capable of using the equipment?” and “It’s all to do
with profitability” (C5). “Being grass roots and
practical. The ones that fit into that criteria”
(C10), another confirmed, “it’s the relatability”
(C12). Such information, however, is not always
available to small business: “Most of the industry
information I get is functional and most of the
information that is strategic in it is big business
stuff and not really much help” (C10).
Advice has “value” which is assessed through
evaluation of the expertise of the adviser
Within the context of “re-living” strategy
formation experiences, respondents were asked to
identify the sources of information and advice
relevant to their decision processes and probed as
to why they are important.
SME managers calculate the value of advice by
comparing the cost of obtaining it with the
expected benefit it brings. Some are simply not
prepared to pay for information. They either
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt Volume 7 · Number 2 · 2004 · 126-138

expect to receive it as part of the current package,
or believe the advice will be irrelevant to their
business. “When you are paying them about
$2,000 per year to keep a cheque book, you don’t
want to pay them any more” (C5). “I really haven’t
found too many that understand the activities that
run in a wide range of businesses to be able to give
the advice that they sometimes feel they have the
qualifications to give” (C2).
Consistent with the depth interview data, the
critical measure of the value of advice as expressed
by the focus group was practicality: “Down to
earth information. Grass roots. From people who
have got their finger on the pulse and not sitting
away as a boffin in an office somewhere” (C11). All
depth interview respondents admitted to receiving
some form of advice from their accountant. Other
sources identified were: customers; own staff;
other business people; business advisors
(consultants); friends; Chamber of Commerce;
industry associations; family; strategic alliance
partners; government support agencies; and the
bank manager. The relative frequencies are
meaningless, however, it is salient to draw from the
data some of the attitudes which appear to prevail
in terms of the credibility of particular sources of
advice, and the perceived value of that advice.
Table I below lists the sources identified and
their perceived contribution.
Accountants were viewed as providing sound
advice relating to purchasing decisions, reporting
practices and tax matters, and tended to be only
consulted on strategy decisions post-event. “Our
accountant does all our books . . . Sometimes he . . .
gives me some advice” for example on “hire
purchase, or a loan” (C1), but not on competitive
strategy issues. For example, C2 and C6 indicated
their accountant lacked the in-depth knowledge of
their business to be a credible source of strategic
advice. “I wouldn’t use my accountant” to prepare
a strategic plan (C6). “I don’t believe that they
(accountants) understand the marketing process
fully. They are too financially oriented . . . I
certainly wouldn’t think of my bank manager as
being my business consultant”, and his solicitor is
consulted strictly for legal advice (C2). These data
indicate the contrast perceived between the value
of specific advice sought in areas of expertise and
the value of more strategic, market oriented
business advice from the same source. This finding
was confirmed from data produced in the focus
group.
The lack of credibility of specialist advisors in
providing practical strategic, market oriented
advice was related to specialist advisors lack of
knowledge about the particular industry, or the
business, or both. One member (C13) contended
that the business person themselves need to be
conversant with accounting issues just to be able to
extract the required accounting advice from their
accountant. “We have to be so careful to what we
class as an expert” (C8). Accountants, while
frequently consulted by SME managers, are not
seen as a credible source of strategic advice.
Customers, family members and staff are
regarded as credible sources of information and
advice for strategic decisions while consulting
business advisors and small business agencies were
viewed as remote from everyday business decision
making. The town Chamber of Commerce, a
voluntary membership group, was regarded as a
valuable source of shared experience from other
business practitioners. The value that could be
derived from the Chamber, relies on the
willingness of businesses to get involved in
Chamber activities (C4).

Table I Information sources and their contribution to strategy decisions

Source Contribution to strategy decisions
Accountant Functional advice sought on entitlements, leases, and financial matters
Buying group Attend meetings, interact with members, problem solving orientation, direct advice
Customers Feedback on strategy, needs and demand provide direction, market information, advice,
problem solving, referral chain, networking in small town
Chamber of Commerce Access to shared experiences of other business practitioners
Firm (in-house) Personal capabilities of the manager, firm’s capabilities, staff interaction, sharing ideas
Industry association Means of benchmarking, practical experience of hierarchy
Internet Technical information advice and support, potential marketing channel
Media News, current affairs, television, trade magazines, small business shows
Networks Business to business, people helping people, outside the region, risk reduction, security,
practical problem solving, informality
Representatives Knowledge from other stores, updating technology, accessible (mobile phone), city verses
country issues
Solicitor Limited advice, risk averse
Trade shows Non-buying environment, unbiased, non-threatening, free choice
Wholesalers/suppliers/ Technical training/update, problem solving, may be linked by representative
manufacturers

134
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
Industry associations were identified (C1, C3,
C7, C11, C12, C13) as both credible and valuable
sources of market intelligence and marketing and
technical/logistical advice, providing a window to
the broader marketplace. Advice from industry
associations was seen as specific to the competitive
environment in contrast with business networks
that provided the opportunity to discuss shared
experience and general trends. In terms of gaining
strategic information, both required less
commitment and involvement than membership of
the Chamber of Commerce.
The importance of strategic alliance partners
was clearly demonstrated from the cases. For
example, the whole basis and philosophy of one
SME was transformed when the business linked
up with a major supplier. “Their advice has never
been wrong – they’ve been spot on every time”
(C6). Source credibility appears to be based on
demonstrated success. A small business can
acquire knowledge and learning from partner firms
and successfully apply it in their arena, thereby
enhancing the skills within the firm while
minimising decision and business risk.
A personal friendship frequently underpins
relationships with valued information sources.
“I’ve got a friend who runs a very similar business
. . . His advice is very good because he’s been in the
business 20 years . . . we listen to that advice
because he’s got the runs on the board and you
know that his advice is going to be good” (C5). “I
have a couple of other friends who are entirely in
different lines of things in life, but very successful.
If I’ve got a problem, I discuss it with them, rather
than with someone else” (C6). “I have just advised
someone recently who is going into business to go
and talk to people who are in business who are very
similar to themselves and they will offer
information” (C8), supporting the credibility of
business networks as a source of advice. These
data emphasise the value placed on advice from
quite informal sources seemingly unrelated to the
specific business, value that is again predicated on
respect, trust, experience and business success.
Networks and networking were seen by the
group as the most credible source of advice for
their business, despite the fact that the network
partner may not even be in the same industry.
“Networked businesses are the most profitable
businesses in the world, and its because its people
helping people . . .” (C12). Firms used networking
to reduce risk, for example, “If you are networking
with other businesses you feel less threatened . . .
You feel a bit more secure in what you are doing”
(C11). In the network, the problem solving
experiences of others become the practical
solutions of the business.
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In summary, the value of the advice was
assessed through evaluation of the expertise of the
advisor in relation to the decision being made. In
terms of decisions on competitive strategy, sources
were allocated either high or low value status (see
Table II).
The rate of technological change influences the search
for information and advice
Focus group data indicate that the rate of technical
change was itself a driver of information search.
Case 8 reported: “It’s a very trendy type of
business we are in and we have to keep up with the
cutting edge of the technology. We have to receive a
lot of information back from suppliers, technical
training, on a very regular basis. This is a very
fundamental part of our strategy”. Small
businesses cannot afford to make mistakes in
adopting and on-selling new technologies. Equally
in manufacturing, “if we haven’t got ourselves on
that cusp of technology then we have no idea where
the market is . . . (and) we will eventually fold
because of that”, providing further evidence that
“keeping up with technical innovation, with new
technology . . . can provide an advantage” (C11).
In both cases, the data suggest it is not the
technological nature of the information per sethat is
sought, but the competitive advantage that may
result from following that information or advice.
The need to keep abreast of technological
change did not emerge from the depth interviews
despite some of the businesses employing
technology (for example, C2 used e-commerce;
C3,C4, and C7 scanners; and C5 heavy
equipment). The inclusion of two respondents (C8
and C11) clearly reliant on being at the forefront of
technology in their field, and the opportunity for
the theme to be further discussed and qualified by
other group members, may explain the dichotomy
in responses. A further explanation may be that
some firms are reactive to customer demand,
Table II Value of sources for strategic advice
High-value sources of strategic Low-value sources of strategic
advice advice
Business associates Professional associates
Internal to the firm Accountants
Other business colleagues Bank advisors
Buying groups Business and financial
Customers and channels Advisers
Industry associations Solicitors
Representatives and suppliers
Personal associates
Networks and friendships
Promotional
Internet
Media
Trade shows
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
successfully using current or outdated technology
in markets where other attributes [reputation (C4,
C5, C6), service (C7), location (C1, C2) and
seasonality (C3)] are more important selection
criteria than an edge in technology. Proactive
firms, far from being happy with a satisfycing
response to demand [or indeed driven by the
technology hungry nature of that demand (e.g. for
digital projection equipment)], actively seek out
new technical solutions for customers. Customer
demand is the common theme determining the
rate at which businesses need to seek out new
technology. Case 12 summed it up by stating
“You’ve got to be out there giving the customer
what they want, and not in the sense of the
product, we can do that pretty easily, but its more
where is the industry going”, underscoring the
linkage between trends, technology and customer
expectations.
Conclusions
The results from this research into SMEs revitalise
Mintzberg’s early notions of strategy as an explicit
plan, and as an implicit pattern of behaviour.
Overtime, it was anticipated that a firm would
move from informal to formal information sources
to support strategy definition, taking advice from
those specialising in providing information
services to SMEs, and moving from an implicit to
an explicit planning approach. This investigation
did not support this change in information source,
nor movement in planning format. It appears that
informal sources such as Chambers of Commerce,
business alliances, and industry groups are
preferred over the more formal sources, with the
formal sources being generally regarded as
providing information and advise that is not
specific to the context in which SMEs operate.
These formal information providers appear
concerned about the legal implications of the
advice they provide, and this cautiousness tends to
render the information provided through these
sources irrelevant in the strategic decision-making
process. The findings from this qualitative study
are consistent with the recent work of Hill et al.
(1999) supporting the importance of personal,
business relationships in providing information for
decision making. These relationships are founded
on trust, and the knowledge that the business
partner will act benevolently, thus providing advice
that is in their business partner’s best interest.
The research has provided new evidence on how
small business managers make judgements about
the information and advice they receive. Such
judgements are predicated on notions of value (of
the information to the firm) and credibility (of the
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Volume 7 · Number 2 · 2004 · 126-138
source). The bias towards informal sources is the
result of the weighted product of the value and
credibility of the advice. The data further suggests
that networking through business and personal
circles is an effective method of filtering
information and advice for value and credibility,
and that the actionability of advice in turn depends
upon its practicality and expected profitability.
The literature (see Stalk et al., 1992, Markides
and Williamson, 1994, Prahalad and Hamel,
1990) suggests that organisations and researchers
alike must rethink strategy in terms of the key
capabilities they can access through strategic
alliances. Businesses are now working closer
together, sharing information and other resources
to create new business opportunities, build greater
value for their current clients and defend against
competitor aggression (Jarratt, 1998). These
findings confirm the important contribution of
information from business partners in setting the
strategic direction of SMEs.
Personal relationships and family members, an
increasing trend to capture information via
electronic means, increasing awareness by business
managers/owners of the variety of reliable
information sources that can be accessed, a
growing capability to access that information, and
data available though industry groups and business
alliances that directly link to the market in which
they are competing, provide a range of information
sources and capabilities to support in-company
strategy formation. Little support was evident for
information and strategic advice obtained from
recognised business advisors. This conclusion will
be of concern to business consultants,
accountants, banks and government business
support agencies that are providing information
services and business advice to SMEs. Whilst
valued for their specialised areas of advise, they do
not appear to be offering the support required by
these business managers for strategy decision
making. The ready access to industry specific
information and business networks are providing
managers with greater confidence to define the
strategic direction of their business. While they
remain happy to receive accounting support,
agents providing this service do not generally
appear to have the credibility to provide advice for
other areas of decision making, nor advice on how
the business should develop for the future.
It is important for business advisers to
understand that if they wish to provide strategic
advice for SMEs they will need to become more
involved in understanding the business operations
of and the challenges facing small business
operators relevant to their specific industry
context. The literature confirms the importance of
strategic decision making being made on
Influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in SMEs
G. Ian Burke and Denise G. Jarratt
information that is specific to the context of the
business and that includes data about the breadth
of stakeholders that impact on business
performance. The challenge for advisers is to
develop relevant advice that can guide their
clients” business growth and profitability.
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