Department of Civil Engineering

School of Engineering, University of Nairobi

Lecture Notes Hydrology

Dulo S.O
E-mail: sodulo@uonbi.ac.ke
 Content
• Definition of stream gauging
• Velocity profiles
– Cross section variation and distribution
• Velocity measurements
– Instruments and methodology
• Flow determination
– Methods and analysis
 Stream gauging
• This is the measurement of the discharge or
stage of a river.
• End product are either
– Time – discharge curves
– Or Stage (Water level) –discharge curves
• Basically an open channel flow system in
hydraulics
– Chezy formula
– Manning formula
 Site factors for gauging
Stable control - bedrock, non-erosive channel, man-
made structure
locate gauge a short distance above control
want minimal backwater or tidal influence
straight reach above gauge for 4-5 channel widths
No local inflows or outflows- groundwater or flood
bypasses
must be accessible at all times
securely mounted structure
stable confining banks
good to have a benchmark nearby for datum
good to have an auxiliary stage nearby- staff gauge
 Other considerations

Few eddies or areas of zero velocity

Few instream obstacles
Relatively consistent cross-section profile
Velocity and depth do not exceed
instrument capabilities or personnel height
How do we measure how much water
is in a stream?
Volumetric measurements-
Work on very low flows, collect a known
volume of water for a known period of time
Volume/time is discharge or Q
Cross-section/velocity measurements
Dilution gauging with salt or dye
Artificial controls like weirs
Empirical equations, e.g. Manning’s eqn or
Chezy eqn.
 Manning’s Equation
• In 1889 Irish Engineer, Robert Manning presented
the formula:

1 23 12 Equation 7.2
v R S
n
• v is the flow velocity (m/s)
• n is known as Manning’s n and is a coefficient of roughness
• R is the hydraulic radius (a/P) where P is the wetted perimeter (m)
• S is the channel bed slope as a fraction
Discharge from Manning’s equation

• Q = vA equation 7.1
– v =(1/n) R2/3 S1/2 (equation 7.2)
– R= A/P, hydraulic radius
– A = width x depth
– P= wetted perimeter
– S = water slope (m/m)
– n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
 Parameters for Manning’s equation

Water surface

Cross sectional area = A

Wetted perimeter = p area of stream in contact with

bottom and sides
R = hydraulic radius = A/p
 Table 7.1 Manning’s n Roughness Coefficient
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

Streams on a plain
Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.03 0.033

Clean, winding, some pools, shoals, weeds & 0.033 0.045 0.05
stones

Same as above, lower stages and more stones 0.045 0.05 0.06

Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.05 0.07 0.07

Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.1 0.15

with heavy stand of timber and underbrush

Table 7.2. Values for the computation of the roughness coefficient (Chow, 1959)
Channel Conditions Values
Material Involved Earth n0 0.025
Rock Cut 0.025
Fine Gravel 0.024
Coarse Gravel 0.027
Degree of irregularity Smooth n1 0.000
Minor 0.005
Moderate 0.010
Severe 0.020
Variations of Channel Cross
Gradual n2 0.000
Section
Alternating Occasionally 0.005
Alternating Frequently 0.010-0.015
Relative Effect of Obstructions Negligible n3 0.000
Minor 0.010-0.015
Appreciable 0.020-0.030
Severe 0.040-0.060
Vegetation Low n4 0.005-0.010
Medium 0.010-0.025
High 0.025-0.050
Very High 0.050-0.100
Degree of Meandering Minor m5 1.000
Appreciable 1.150
Severe 1.300

n = (n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 ) m5 Equation 7.12

http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes013_24.html
Mountain
Stream-
Bottom with
cobbles and
large boulders

http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes101_41.html
 Flow types
• Can be uniform or non-uniform flow
• Is a function of
– Bed slope
– Channel section
– Channel characteristics
 Velocity Profile

0.2

0.6 depth

0.8

If stream is deep, take average of measurements at 0.2 and 0.8

Velocity Distribution In A Channel

Depth-averaged velocity is above

the bed at about 0.4 times the depth
MEASURING EQUIPMENTS
 Currentmeters
Vane type
Cup type
Propeller type
 Pygmy currentmeter
Rotations make clicking
sound in headphones

If current strong
may need weight
 Current meter calibration
Use an open channel
Make several run of the meter in a
measured length of the channel, L(m)
Each run record the rev per min (r) of the
meter and the corresponding time t (sec)
Calculate the speed v, as L/t
Plot rpm (r) versus speed (v)
 Current meter calibration (rating curve)
601

501

Rating Curve
401
velocity in m/s

301

velocity
Linear (velocity)

201

101

1
1 10

meter speed in RPM

USGS STREAM GUAGE NETWORK
stream gauging network.
How a streamflow gauging station works.
Technology and methods used to collect
streamflow data.
The current gauges will provide data on water
levels and flows on the watercourses. This real-
time information will aid in forecasting possible
flooding.
 GOES DOMSAT

Hydrologic
Stations
User Operations
Wallops, Virginia
Command and Data
( Internet )
Acquisition Center

Stage
 Stage can be sensed using
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Pacific Cr. near Moran, WY

Orifice
Orifice LineLine
Water velocity in each sub-section estimated
using a current meter to measure water velocity
at selected locations
Stream discharge is sum of discharges in
all sub-sections
Total Discharge = ((Area1 x Velocity 1) + (Area2 +
Velocity2) + ….. (Arean x Velocityn))
 Discharge measurements are used to develop
rating curves

100

Rating Curve
Stage (m)

10

Discharge Measurements
1
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Discharge (cumecs)
Discharge must be measured at all stages

100
Stage (m)

10

1
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Discharge (cumecs)
The radar sensor (non-contact
sensor) is used to measure
stage. The sensor can be placed
under a bridge.

Eldoret WWTW
 Some Commonly Used Acoustic
Doppler Current Profilers
RDI Rio
RDI Grande
StreamPro ADCP

SonTek
SonTek Mini-
ADP ADP
Side-Looking Doppler Current Meter
OPERATIONAL METHODS
FOR STREAM FLOW
MEASUREMENTS
Technology and Methods Transformation

1996

1890
2001
 Wading
the meter is mounted on
the staff with the wieght
The gauger holds the
meter on a staff upstream
and away from him.
Only recommended for
slow shallow streams.
Protective clothing must
be worn.
 Tethered Boats
Use of Boats
The gauging is done as the
section is traversed by
powerboat. The risk of boat over
toping must be minimized.
The sampling must ensure the
crossing remain straight against
stream flow current.

Manned boat
 Use of Cableways
The cable secured at
both banks of the river
enables a remote control
of the meter as the sapling
is done on the cross-
section.
The sampling is done
for all the verticals from
the bank.
Use of Cable cars
The gauge is
lowered from the car
moving along guide
cables above the river
cross-section.
The sampling is
done for all the
verticals from the car.
Use of existing Structures
 Continues Slope-Area Measurement
Eight crest-stage gages, instrumented with pressure transducer, are used to
monitor a slope-area reach at the Babocomari River gaging station in Southern
Arizona.

Discharge Computed Using Left Bank Water Surface Elevations

900

800
700
Discharge CFS

600
X2 - X3
500
X3 - X4
400
X2 - X4
300

200
100

0
12:28 12:57 13:26 13:55 14:24 14:52
Time
 Flow determination methods
• Velocity Area Method
• Slope Area Method
• Chemical Gauging
• Use of existing structures
 Velocity – Area Method of discharge
measurement

By measuring the cross-sectional area of the stream and the

Average stream velocity, you can compute discharge

Q = VA units are L3/t (volume / time)

Where Q is discharge
V is velocity
A is cross-sectional area
Velocity – Area method of discharge measurement.
Calculation using the mid-section method

Tape measure (x) - horizontal location of measures taken from tape

Water surface

Measurement represents mid-section of a polygon

Velocity measured 0.6d from water surface (0.4d from bottom)

Record x value (tape distance), y value (total depth at measurement

site, and velocity at 0.6d
 Mid-point method of calculating discharge (Q)
Location of depth and velocity measurements

Area included

Area not included

Key Assumption: Over estimation (area included) = Under estimation (area not included),
therefore cross-section area is simply the sum of all the sections (rectangles), which is much
easier than taking the integral! However, the hypotenuse of each over-under estimation
triangle can be used to calculate the wetted perimeter.
 Mean - section method of calculating discharge (Q)
Location of depth and velocity measurements

Area included

Area not included

Key Assumption: Over estimation (area included) = Under estimation (area not included),
therefore cross-section area is simply the sum of all the sections (rectangles), which is much
easier than taking the integral! However, the hypotenuse of each over-under estimation
triangle can be used to calculate the wetted perimeter.
 How many subsections?
• Subsections should be at least ~0.1 m wide
• Each subsection should have 10% or less of
total discharge
• Number of subsections should be within
your capabilities in a reasonable amount of
time
 Equation for computing subsection
discharge - qi
Equation for computing q in each subsection
X = distance of each velocity point along tape
Y = depth of flow where velocity is measured
V = velocity

Q = total discharge = sum of qis

 Velocity determination
• Single point
• Two point
• Multiple point
Photo showing river gauging process
 Float method of discharge
measurement
• Gives good estimates when no equipment is
available
• Use something that floats that you can
retrieve or is biodegradable if you can’t
retrieve it
– E.g. oranges, dried orange peels, tennis balls
Float method of velocity measurement
• Three people are needed to run the float test.
One should be positioned upstream and the
other downstream a known distance apart, one
in the middle to record data.
• The upstream person releases the float and starts
the clock and the downstream person catches
the float and signals to stop the clock. The
recorder writes down the time of travel of the
float.
Float method of velocity measurement

•Velocity is the distance traveled divided by the

time it takes to travel that distance.

•You should conduct at least 3 float tests and take

an average velocity.

•With an estimate of cross-sectional area, discharge

can be computed as
•Q = VA
•where V is average velocity
 Float Method

surface velocity = distance / time

average velocity = (0.8*surface velocity)
Float method in action
The slope area method for stream
flow measurement.
• The method involves the use of hydraulic
equations for open channel flow for
calculation of the velocity, namely the
Manning’s equation and the Darcy
equation.
• The area is determined by hydrographic
survey of the cross-section.
 Dilution gauging method
• Use a chemical tracer, dye or salt
– Exotic to stream
– Stable
– Non-toxic
– Cheap
– Detectable
• Do mass balance on concentrations
upstream and downstream
 Constant injection method
• Inject at known rate for some time period
• Do mass balance

• C1qT = C2 (Q + qT)
– C1 is concentration of tracer upstream
– qT rate of input of tracer upstream
– C2is equilibrium concentration of tracer downstream

• Q = qT (C1 – C2 )
C2
 Stream flow estimate using
Stage- elevation
•The stage of a stream is the elevation of the water
surface above a datum.

•The most commonly used datum is mean sea level.

•Gauges are used to measure the stage of streams.

•Types of gauges:
- recording
- non-recording
 Fixed Gauging Stations - Weirs
Stable cross section with simple geometry
rating curve – just measure stage
 How do we measure the stage?
Non- recording gauges

Staff Gauge

Estimating Peak Flow

Debris Line Crest Gauges - Cork

Continuous Measurement - Water Level Recorders
THE STAGE OF A STREAM

Float moves up / down with water surface

How can we relate stage to discharge?
Rating Curve – relates stage to discharge

Empirical relationship
from observations
Measure discharge
at different flows
 Rating curve

We can do this is Excel

Fit a mathematical equation

Plains stream-full stage,
no rifts or deep pools

http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes020_27.html
 Determine the flow through a river cross- section
by the mean and mid section
Chainage Velocity V0.2 Velocity V0.6 Velocity V0.8 Depth
(m) m/s m/s m/s (m)

0 0 0 0 0
5 0.22 0.30 0.24 0.7
10 0.32 0.34 0.30 1.3
15 0.30 0.34 0.28 1.7
20 0.31 0.36 0.27 1.9
25 0.30 0.38 0.28 2.0
30 0.32 0.38 0.30 1.8
35 0.30 0.36 0.28 1.5
40 0 0 0 0
 Determine the flow through a river cross- section
by the mean and mid section
Chainage Velocity V0.2 Velocity V0.6 Velocity V0.8 Depth
(m) m/s m/s m/s (m)

0 0 0 0 0
0.5 0.22 0.30 0.24 0.7
1.0 0.32 0.34 0.30 1.3
1.5 0.30 0.34 0.28 1.7
2.0 0.31 0.36 0.27 1.9
2.5 0.30 0.38 0.28 2.0
3.0 0.32 0.38 0.30 1.8
3.5 0.30 0.36 0.28 1.5
4.0 0 0 0 0
 Course work
• Discuss the results obtained in the two sets
of example with reference to
– Types of flow (5marks)
– Accuracy of method (5marks)
– Shortfall or error sources (5marks)
– Section properties and flow (5marks)
• Submission to be on the 5th December.
 CAT – FCE 425

• 14th to 21st of December 2012