TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
CHAPTER 1
Forces and Motion

4 Electricity
CHAPTER 2

8 Waves
CHAPTER 3

10
CHAPTER 4
Energy Resources and Energy Transfer

12
CHAPTER 5
Solids, Liquids and Gases

14
CHAPTER 6
Magnetism and Electromagnetism

17
CHAPTER 7
Radioactivity and Particles

19
CHAPTER 8
Astrophysics
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
increase in displacement
1. FORCES AND MOTION Average velocity=
time taken
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
1.1 Movement and Position 𝑎=
change in velocity
= t
v−u

• Speed is a scalar quantity. time taken

total distance,s
Negative acceleration is known as deceleration.
Average speed, v = total time,t • Velocity-time graphs:
o They indicate the velocity of a particle within a given
amount of time. The gradient of velocity-time graphs
indicates acceleration.
• Area under the graph of a velocity-time graph indicates
• Units for speed: m/s, km/h, cm/s, mph
distance as,
However, in the IGCSEs, we use metric units. Hence,
Total distance, 𝑠 = 𝑣 × 𝑡
always use m/s.
• Distance-time graphs:
o They indicate how much a vehicle has travelled within
a given interval. The gradient (slope) of distance-time
graphs indicates speed.
Distance y2 −y1
o 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = =
Time x2 −x1

1.2 Forces and Shape

The steeper the gradient, the higher the speed. As it can
be seen in the above graphs
o Graph (a) has zero speed.
o In Graph (b), Object A has higher speed than Object B.
o Speed is increasing in Graph (c).
o Speed is decreasing in graph (d).
o Lastly, speed is constant in graph (e).
• Vector quantities have both magnitude as well as
direction.
• For example, displacement is distance but with a
particular direction whereas velocity is speed with a
particular direction.
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• Force is a vector quantity
o Some examples of forces are: friction, upthrust, weight,
normal reaction force, etc. Its unit is Newton (N).
• In most situations there will be more than just one force
acting on the object.
• Unbalanced force can be calculated by taking into
account the magnitude and direction of the forces acting
on a particular object.
• If forces are unbalanced, it can cause the object to
change the way it moves. If balanced, the forces will
have no effect.
• Friction is the force that causes moving objects to slow
down and finally stop. Friction occurs when solid objects
rub against other solids, and also when objects move
through fluids.
• Forces can also change the shape of an object. These
changes in shape can be both temporary or permanent.
• Ex - elastic band, it returns to its original position after
being stretched (temporary).
• Ex – glass (permanent)
• Springs stretch when force is applied and returns to its
original position after force is removed.
• Hooke’s Law:
o This law states that the extension of the spring is
directly proportional to the force applied. The graph
obtained by plotting force against extension is a
straight line passing through the origin.
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
o It is applicable only up to a certain point called the limit
of proportionality. This is the point where the spring
stops obeying Hooke’s law and starts to stretch more
for each increase in the load force.
o Once elastic limit has reached, the spring will not
return to its original length.
• Elastic bands are made of rubber. When they are
stretched, graphs like this are achieved.
1.3 Forces and Movement
• If there are unbalanced forces acting on an object, the
object may accelerate or decelerate depending on the
direction of the unbalanced force.
• The acceleration depends on the size of the unbalanced
force and the mass of the object.
• The graph of force against acceleration, when mass is
constant, is a straight line passing through origin.
• Therefore, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑎.
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• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• Brakes on cars and bicycles work by increasing the
friction between the rotating wheels and the body of the
vehicle.
• However, if the road is wet, or the tires are in bad
condition, frictional force will be smaller. If the brakes
are applied too hard, the tires will not grip the road
surface and the car will skid.
• It can take a driver an amount of time to react to a new
object or situation in front of them. The time they take
to react is known as reaction time.
• The amount of distance travelled during this reaction
time is known as thinking distance.
• The distance travelled within the time when brakes are
first applied and the car stops is known as braking
distance.
• The weight of an object is the force that acts on it
because of gravity.
• 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
• An object moving through air experiences a force that
opposes its movement known as air resistance or drag.
• The size of the drag force acting on an object depends on
its shape and its speed.
• The drag coefficient is a measure of how easily an object
moves through the air.
Velocity–time graph for a free-fall parachutist reaching
terminal velocity:
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
1.4 Momentum •The point through which the entire weight of a body acts
• Momentum is a measure of how difficult it is to stop is known as its centre of gravity.
something that is moving.
p = mv
• The rate of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the force applied to that object.
(𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢)⁄ •The position of the centre of gravity of an object will
• Rate of change of momentum = 𝑡 affect its stability. The lower the centre of gravity, the
• The total momentum of objects that collide remains the
more stable the object.
same: momentum before the collision = momentum
after the collision
• Rockets also use the law of conservation of momentum 2. ELECTRICITY
to propel the spacecraft through space.
2.1Mains Electricity
• Seatbelts and crumple zones of cars are used to increase
• Power is measured in joules per second or watts.
time of impact, so that the momentum can be changed.
o𝑃 = 𝑙 𝑉
• The less the momentum, the less the passengers will be
o Watts = ampere x volts
affected.
• Energy = power x time
• Newton’s three Laws of Motion:
o 𝐸 = 𝑃t
• Newton’s First Law: o Joules = Watt x seconds
o An object will not change its motion unless acted on by • Varying current or voltage in an appliance is called an
an unbalanced force. alternating current (a.c.) or alternating voltage.
• Newton’s Second Law: • Currents and voltages that are always in the same
o The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to direction and have the same value is called direct current
the net force and inversely proportional to its mass. (d.c.) or direct voltage.
• Newton’s Third Law:
o For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
• Ex. when you sit down, your weight pushes down on the
seat. On the other hand, the seat pushes back on you
with an equal force in the upward direction.
• Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant provided no external force acts on the system.
𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵

1.5 The Turning Effect of Forces

•All objects are turned around a fixed point called a pivot.
•The turning effect of the force depends on both the size
of the force applied and on the distance from the hinge or
pivot at which it is applied. • How devices are protected:

•Moment (Nm) = force (N) × perpendicular distance from FUSE CIRCUIT BREAKER
pivot, d (m)
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
•An object will be in balance if: sum of anticlockwise
moments = sum of clockwise moments A fuse protects a circuit. An automatic switch
Thin piece of wire which which if current rises over
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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
overheats and melts if a specified value, the • charge, Q (coulombs) = current, I (amps) x time, t
current is too high. It is electromagnet pulls the (seconds)
placed on the live wire contacts apart, breaking • 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
before the switch. This the circuit. The reset • energy transferred, E (joules) = charge, Q (coulombs) x
prevents overheating and button is to rest voltage, V (volts)
catching fire. A fuse will everything. It works like a • 𝐸 = Q𝑉
have a specific current fuse but is better because There are two main types of electrical circuit:
value (e.g. 13 amps.) So it can be reset. o Series circuit
when choosing a suitable o Parallel circuit
fuse you must use the one • The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
above minimum value but • The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so
less than maxiumum value the total current is always greater than the current in
one branch
• Some modern appliances use casings made from an • Combining resistors
insulator such as plastic. This is known as insulation. o In Series: 𝑹𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
• If all the electrical parts of an appliance are insulated in o In Parallel: 𝑹𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏
𝟏
𝟏
⁄𝑹 + ⁄𝑹
this way, so that they cannot be touched by the user, the 𝟏 𝟐
appliance is said to have double insulation. Appliances o The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is less
that have double insulation use a two-wire flex. There is than that of either resistor by itself and the current in
no need for an earth wire. the two resistors in greater in the source than in the
individual resistors and is equal to the sum of the
• Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case: currents in all the resistors connected in parallel.
o Many electrical appliances, • Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
have metal cases, the earth wire o If one lamp breaks, the other still works
creates a safe route for current o Each lamp gets maximum PD
to flow through if the live wire • In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the
touches the casing components combined
o Earth terminal connected to • In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents
metal casing, so in such a case, in the separate branches.
the current goes through earth wire • The relationship between current, voltage and
instead of causing an electric shock. resistance is expressed by Ohm's Law.
o A strong current surges through earth wire because it • This states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly
has very low resistance proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
o This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the
• The wires of a heating element are designed to have a temperature remains constant.
high resistance so that as the current passes through • Circuit symbols:
them, energy is transferred and the element heats up. CELL
• We use this heating effect of current in many different
appliances in our homes such as kettles, dishwashers,
BATTERY OF
electric cookers, etc.
CELLS
2.2 Current and Voltages in circuits Or
• An electric current is a flow of charge.
• Electrons flow easily through all metals, so they are
labelled as good conductors of electricity. POWER SUPPLY
• Electrons do not flow easily through plastics - they are
A.C. POWER
poor conductors of electricity, or, an insulator.
SUPPLY
• We measure the size of the current in a circuit using an JUNCTION OF
ammeter. CONDUCTORS
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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
LAMP

FIXED RESISTOR
THERMISTOR

VARIABLE Current voltage graph for a filament bulb:

RESISTOR
LIGHT
DEPENDENT
RESISTOR
HEATER
SWITCH
Current voltage graph for a diode:
EARTH OR
GROUND
ELECTRIC BELL

BUZZER

MICROPHONE
• Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass and wood do not
LOUDSPEAKER allow electricity to flow through them easily. They are
electrical insulators.
MOTOR • Types of resistors:
o Variable resistor is used to control the size of the
GENERATOR
current in a bulb.
o If the resistance is decreased, there will be a larger
AMMETER
current and the bulb shines more brightly.
o If the resistance is increased the current will be smaller
VOLTMETER
and the bulb will glow less brightly or not at all.
GALVANOMETER o A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes
with small changes in temperature.
POTENTIAL
DIVIDER
RELAY COIL

TRANSFORMER

DIODE
o A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that
LIGHT-
changes when light is shone on it. In the dark its
EMITTING DIODE
resistance is high but in light, its resistance is low.
FUSE
o Diodes are very special resistors that allow charges to
2.3 Electrical Resistance flow in one direction. Some diodes glow when charges
flow through them. They are called light emitting
• V (volts) = I (amps) x R (ohms)
diodes (LEDs).
• We measure resistance in units called ohms (𝛺).
Current voltage graph for a wire:

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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1

2.4 Electric Charge

• Painting an awkwardly shaped object with a spray gun
• 2 types of charges: positive and negative.
can take a long time and use a lot of paint. Hence,
• Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
electrostatic spraying is used to make the process much
• SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
more efficient.
• The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected
• Uses of static electricity:
using a leaf electroscope.
o Electrostatic Paint Spraying
o If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are
o Inkjet Printers
induced.
o Photocopiers
o The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or
o Electrostatic Precipitator
negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the
• Problems of static electricity:
other type of charge so they repel each other.
o As aircraft fly through the air, friction causes them to
become charged with static electricity. Solution: Earth
the plane with a conductor as soon as it lands, before
refuelling.

3. WAVES
3.1 Properties of Waves
• Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to
place.
• All atoms contain small particles called protons, • Wavefronts are created by overlapping lots of different
neutrons and electrons. waves. A wavefront is a line where all the vibrations are
CHARGE MASS(AMU) LOCATION in phase and the same distance from the source.
PROTON +1 1 Nucleus • Equation:
NEUTRON 0 1 Nucleus 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
ELECTRON -1 0 Orbitals
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
• If an atom gains extra electrons, it is then negatively • Frequency: It is the number of waves passing any point
charged. per second measured in hertz (Hz)
1
• If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged. 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
• An atom that becomes charged by gaining or losing 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
electrons is called an ion. 1
𝑓=
• When electrical insulators of different materials are 𝑇
rubbed together, they become charge. • Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds
• Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the
compression of a longitudinal wave
• Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
• Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to
the corresponding point on the next wave in length

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• Amplitude: maximum displacement of a wave from its
undisturbed point.
Transverse waves
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
3.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) is a
continuous spectrum of waves, which includes the
visible spectrum
• All electromagnetic waves:
o Travel at the speed of light: approximately 3 × 108m/s.
o They travel at around the same speed in air too.
o Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel through
a vacuum)
o Can transfer energy
o Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy in
Longitudinal waves
some way
o Are transverse waves

Travelling waves in Travelling waves in

which oscillation is which oscillation is
perpendicular to parallel to direction of
direction of travel travel.
Has crests and Has compressions and
troughs rarefactions • Applications:
For example, light, For example, sound o Radio waves: radio and television communications
water waves and waves o Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
vibrating string o Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues
o Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and
• At higher frequencies, the water waves have shorter grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder
wavelengths. The speed of the waves does not change. alarms
• Plane (flat) mirrors produce a reflection. o X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer
• Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into our eyes, cells) and security
but we see them behind the mirror. o Safety issue: is a mutagen, it causes cancer (mutations)
• The image has these properties: o Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and
o Image is the same size as the object colour (used in lasers)
o Image is the same distance from the mirror as object o UV light causes the skin to tan, but overexposure (too
o A line joining corresponding points of much) will lead to sunburn and blistering.
the image and object meet the o Gamma rays, like x-rays, are highly penetrating rays
mirror at a right angle and can cause damage to living cells. This can cause
o Image is virtual: no rays actually pass mutations which can lead to cancer.
through the image and the image o Gamma rays are also used to sterilize medical
cannot be formed on a screen instruments, to kill microorganisms so that food will
• Doppler effect: It is the change in keep for longer and to treat cancer using radiotherapy.
wave frequency during the motion
between a wave source and its observer.
• For example, when a sound object moves towards us,
the frequency of the sound waves increases and hence a 3.3 Light Waves
higher pitch is produced. • Light waves are transverse waves that can be reflected
and refracted.
• Laws of reflection:
o Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
o The incident ray, reflected ray and normal are
always on the same plane (side of mirror)
• Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to
the surface of material.
• If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
there is no refracted ray, there is total internal
reflection.
• If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle the
incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a weaker
reflected ray.
o Sound waves are longitudinal: they have compressions
and rarefactions and oscillate backwards and forwards.
o Sound waves need a medium to travel through as it
moves due to oscillating particles.
• Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal
wave
• Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave

• The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

• The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.
• The average person can only hear sounds that have a
frequency higher than 20 Hz but lower than 20 000 Hz.

• Total internal reflection: It only occurs when rays of light

are travelling towards a boundary with a less optically
dense medium (a medium with a lower refractive index).
• Use of total internal reflection: Optical fibres,
submarines, etc.
• As the fibres are very narrow, light entering the inner
core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at an
angle that is greater than the critical angle.
• No light escapes across this boundary, providing a path
that the light follows even when the fibre is curved. 4. ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY TRANSFER
• Different materials can bend rays of light by different
amounts. We describe this by using a number called the
4.1 Energy Transfers
• For energy to be useful, we need to be able to transfer it
refractive index (n).
from one form to another.
• The refractive index of glass is about 1.5 and water is 1.3. • When transferring energy, some energy might be
• We can use the equation below to calculate the wasted.
refractive index of a material: • Unwanted energy transfers reduce efficiency.
sin(𝑖) • The principle of conservation of energy states that:
𝑛= Energy is not created or destroyed in any process (only
sin(𝑟)
(where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of transferred from one form to another).
refraction) • Sankey diagrams are a simpler and clearer way of
• Another equation can be extracted: showing what happens to an energy input into a system.
1 • The energy flow is shown by arrows whose width is
sin(𝑐) = proportional to the amount of energy involved. Wide
𝑛
arrows show large energy flows, narrow arrows show
3.4 Sound Waves small energy flows.
• Sounds are produced by objects that are vibrating.
• Speed of sound can be calculated using, d = vt.
• Some other properties of sound:

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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another
by means of electromagnetic waves. It does not require
a medium.
• Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is
part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
MATT WHITE SILVER
BLACK
EMITTER Best Worst
• Real systems always have an unwanted energy output so REFLECTOR Worst Best
can never have 100% efficiency. ABSORBER Best Worst
• The efficiency of an energy conversion system is defined • An emitter sends out thermal radiation.
as: • A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad
efficiency =
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
× 100 absorber.
total energy output • An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat
• Efficiency does not have a unit because it is a ratio. up more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly.
• The amount of radiation also depends on the surface
4.2 Thermal Energy temperature and surface area of a body.
• Thermal or heat energy is energy that is stored in 'hot'
• Consequences of energy transfer include:
matter.
o Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it
• Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat) conducts heat
energy through a substance by the vibration of the o Convection currents create sea breezes. During the
atoms within the substance. The substance itself does day the land is warmer and acts as heat source. During
not move. the night the sea acts as the heat
• Conduction is the flow of heat through matter from source.
places of higher temperature to places of lower o A black saucepan cools better than
temperature without movement of the matter as a a white one, white houses stay
whole. cooler than dark ones.
• In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its
atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the 4.3 Work and Power
adjacent atoms. • The gravitational potential energy of an object that has
• In metals – conduction happens in the previous way and been raised to a height, h, above the ground is given by:
in a quicker way –electrons are free to move, they travel gravitational potential energy,
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass • 𝑮𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
on the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever • The kinetic energy of a moving object is calculated using
heat is required to travel quickly through something the equation,
• Bad conductors (insulators) are used to reduce the 𝐾. 𝐸 = ½ 𝑚𝜈2
amount of heat lost to the surroundings • In some cases, work done of object = gain in GPE before
• Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from hitting the ground
places of higher temperature in places of lower • Work transfers energy to an object:
temperature by movement of the fluid itself. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which • Power is the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of
are warmer become less dense and rise. doing work.
• They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
a cycle called convection current. • Power = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
• As particles circulate, they transfer energy to other
particles. If a cooling object is above a fluid it will create
a convection current as well.

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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
4.4 Energy Resources and Electricity cells: made of Variable amount
Generation materials that of sunshine in
• Renewable sources are not exhaustible deliver electrical some countries
• Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible current when it
TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES absorbs light
Solar panels:
Fuel: burnt to • Cheap • Harmful
absorbs energy
make thermal • Plentiful wastes:
and use it to
energy, makes • Low-tech o Greenhouse/
steam, turns heat water
pollutant gas
turbine o Radiation • The sun is the source of energy for all our energy
Wave energy: No greenhouse Difficult to build resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal
generators gases produced • In the sun, energy is created through a process called
driven by up and nuclear fusion: hydrogen nuclei are pushed together to
down motion of form helium.
waves at sea.
Tidal energy: • No • Expensive 5. SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
dam built where greenhouse • Can’t be built
river meets sea, gases everywhere
5.1 Density and Pressure
lake fills when produced
tides come in & • Solids, liquids and gases have different properties and
empties when characteristic
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
tide goes out; • Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
water flow runs 𝑚
𝜌=
generator 𝑣
Hydroelectric: • Low impact on • Few areas of • The units for density are
river & rain fill environment the world o kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) or,
up lake behind • Energy suitable o grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
dam, water produced at • Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
released, turns constant rate 𝐹
turbine  𝑃=
𝐴
generator • Gases also exert pressure on things around them. The
Geothermal: No CO2 Deep drilling pressure exerted by the atmosphere on your body is
water pumped produced difficult and about 100,000 Pa.
down to hot expensive • mass of water, 𝑚 = (𝐴 𝑥 ℎ) 𝑥 𝑝
rocks rising as • This equation can be used for calculating pressure
steam differences in other liquids or gases, as long as you know
Nuclear fission: Produces a lot of Produces their densities.
uranium atoms energy with very radioactive waste • Density of a liquid: Place measuring cylinder on balance.
split by shooting little resources Add liquid. Reading on measuring cylinder = V, change in
neutrons at mass on balance = m. Use formula.
them • Density of solid:
Wind: windmills No CO2/ Few areas of the o Finding the volume: To find out volume of a regular
are moved by Greenhouse world suitable. object, use mathematical formula. To find out volume
the breeze. They gasses produced of an irregular object, put object into a measuring
generate cylinder with water and the rise of water is the volume
electricity from of the object.
kinetic energy. o Finding the mass: Use balance
Solar cells/ No CO2
photovoltaic produced
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• An object will float in a fluid if its density is lesser than • Specific heat capacity is the energy required to change
the density of the liquid, i.e. The volume of fluid the temperature of an object by one degree Celsius per
displaced has a greater mass than the object itself. kilogram of mass (J/kg °C).
• Equation: 𝛥𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇
pressure difference = height × density × gravitational • When you supply energy to a substance you would
field strength expect its temperature to rise and this is generally true.
∆P = 𝜌h𝑔 • The more the kinetic energy in a gas, the faster its
particles move and therefore the gas is at a higher
5.2 Solids, Liquids and Gases temperature.
• The pressure gases exert on a container is due to the
particles colliding on the container walls.
• The greater the kinetic energy in gasses the faster they
move and the more often they collide on the container’s
walls.
• Therefore, the volume is constant, then increasing the
SOLID LIQUID GAS temperature will increase the pressure.
Fixed shape and Fixed volume but No fixed shape • Thus, if there is a change in momentum of the particles,
volume changes shape or volume, gases the kinetic energy decreases, decreasing the collisions on
depending on its fill up containers the container walls and thus the pressure.
container • GAS LAWS:
o Charles' Law- gives the relationship between volume
Strong forces of Weaker Almost no and temperature if pressure and amount of gas are held
attraction attractive forces intermolecular constant. Volume and temperature are inversely
between than solids- forces- large proportional.
particles- medium distances o Boyle's Law - states that the volume of a given amount
particles close to distances between of gas held at constant temperature varies inversely with
each other. between particles the applied pressure when the temperature and mass
particles are constant.
Fixed pattern No fixed pattern, Particles far o Pressure law - states that for a fixed mass of gas
(lattice) liquids take apart, and move the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin
shape of their quickly temperature once the volume is kept constant.
container 𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Atoms vibrate Particles slide Collide with each o If the volume increases and the temperature stays
but can’t change past each other other and constant, the particles hit the surface less often, thus
position ∴ fixed bounce in all decreasing the pressure.
volume and directions 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
shape
• Some other properties: 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
o The constant is valid at a fixed mass of gas at a constant
temperature.

• At a temperature of - 273℃, the pressure of the gas

would be zero. This temperature is known as 'absolute
zero'.

PAGE 12 OF 19
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
o Heating a magnet to a high temperature also
demagnetize it.
o Stroking with another magnet to destroy the alignment
of poles
o Place magnet with poles opposite to that which is
induced by a d.c. current and insert into coil with d.c.
current
o Most efficient method: place magnet inside a solenoid
connected to an alternating current (a.c.) supply.
SOFT IRON STEEL
Gets magnetized faster Slow to be magnetized
• To convert from a Celsius scale (in °C) to a Kelvin scale but loses its but retains acquired
temperature (in K), add 273 to the Celsius scale magnetism as soon as magnetism for a long
temperature: inducing magnet is time.
o temperature in K = temperature in ℃ + 273 removed.
High susceptibility but Low susceptibility but
6. MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM low retentivity high retentivity
Use: core in the Use: making magnets.
6.1 Magnetism and Electromagnetism transformer
• Magnets have a magnetic field around them
• They 2 opposite poles (North and South) which exert
forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike PERMANENT MAGNET ELECTROMAGNET
poles attract. This is caused by the interaction of DESIGN Hard magnetic material Uses a solenoid to
magnetic fields. create magnetic
o Therefore, if magnets are facing each other with field
opposite poles, they will come together given a small
space between them USE When magnetism is Wwhen magnetic
• They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent needed over long field needs to be
or temporary) magnetism in them. periods – fridge doors turned on & off -
• Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material scrap metal
• The direction of an electric field at a point is the moving
direction of the force on a positive charge at that point • Magnetic field lines:
• Induced Magnetism: o show the shape of the magnetic field
o Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in o show the direction of the magnetic force
them; the material becomes a magnet as well. o show strength of magnetic field
o The side of the material facing the magnet will become • If two magnets are placed near each other, their
the opposite pole as the magnet. magnetic fields overlap and affect each other. We can
• Methods of inducing magnetism: investigate this using iron filings or plotting compasses.
o A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized • A uniform magnetic field is one where strength and
when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is direction is the same everywhere.
usually weak.
o It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with
one end of a magnet
o Most effective method: place it in a solenoid and pass a
large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil.
• Methods of demagnetisation:
o If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are
thrown out of line and it becomes demagnetized.

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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• When there is a current in a wire a magnetic field is
created around it. This is called electromagnetism.
• The direction of the magnetic field can be found out by
using the right-hand grip rule.
• The strength of the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire can be increased by:
o increasing the current in the wire
o wrapping the wire into a coil or solenoid (a solenoid is
a long coil).
• The shape of the magnetic field around a solenoid is the
same as that around a bar magnet.
• The strength of the field around a solenoid can be
increased by:
o increasing the current in the solenoid
o increasing the number of turns on the solenoid
o wrapping the solenoid around a magnetically soft core
such as iron.
6.2 Electric Motors and Electromagnetic
Induction
• Electromagnetic Induction: If a wire is passed across a
magnetic field/changing
magnetic field, a small
EMF is induced and can
be detected by a
galvanometer.
• The direction of induced
EMF opposes the change
causing it.
• The induced EMF can be increased by:
o moving the wire faster
o using a stronger magnet
PAGE 14 OF 19
o Increasing length of wire in magnetic field, e.g.,
looping the wire through the field several times.
• The current and EMF direction can be reversed by:
o moving the wire in the opposite direction
o turning the magnet round so that the field direction is
reversed
• Fleming’s right-hand rule gives the current direction:
Bar magnet pushed into coil
• The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:
o moving the magnet faster
o using a stronger magnet
o increasing the number of turns in the coil
• If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the
induced EMF (and current) is reversed
• Using South pole instead of North pole reverses
direction of induced EMF (and current)
• If the magnet is held still, there is no EMF
• An induced current always flows in a direction such that
it opposes the change which produced it.
• When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of the
coil and magnet next to each other are the same.
• When the magnet is moved away the poles are opposite
(opposite poles attract).
• The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the
direction in which the current is induced.
• The direction of the current is given by the right-hand
grip rule:
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• The fingers point in the conventional current direction • The iron core gets magnetized by the incoming current
and the thumb gives the North Pole. and this magnetism then creates a current in the leaving
• In a direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in a singular wire.
direction. • The power is the same on both sides (assume= 100%
• In an alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow is efficiency).
reversed in regular time periods. • You can figure out number of coils and the voltage with:
• A.C Generator: 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
=
o The coil is made 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
of insulated 𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃
copper wire and is =
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
rotated by turning
the shaft; the slip 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
rings are fixed to = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
the coil and rotate 𝑉𝑃 × 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 × 𝐼𝑆
with it.
o The brushes are 2 (Under 100% efficiency)
contacts which rub • When magnetic field is
against the slip rings and keep the coil connected to changed across the
the outside part of the circuit, usually made of carbon. primary coil by
o When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, connecting it with A.C. an
so an EMF is generated, which makes a current flow. e.m.f. induces across the
o Each side of the coil travels upwards then downwards secondary coil.
then upwards etc. so the current flows backwards • The iron core channels the alternating field through the
then forwards then backwards etc. so it is an secondary coil, inducing an alternating e.m.f. across it.
alternating current. • A step-up transformer increases the voltage and a step-
down transformer decreases it.
• Transformers used to make high voltage AC currents.
• Since power lost in a resistor 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 × 𝑅, having a lower
current will decrease the power loss.
• Since transmission cables are many kilometres long they
have a lot of resistance, so a transformer is used to
increase the voltage and decrease the current to
decease power lost.
• The advantages of high-voltage transmission:
o Less power lost
• The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal since o Thinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since
field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and 0 when current is reduced
the coil is vertical, since it is cutting NO field lines.
• The EMF can be increased by: Magnetic field around a Magnetic field around a
o increasing the number of turns on the coil current carrying wire current carrying solenoid
o increasing the area of the coil
o using a stronger magnet
o rotating the coil faster
• AC currents can be increased or decreased by using a
transformer.
• Consists of a primary coil, a secondary coil and an iron
core.
• Increasing the strength of the field
• Increasing the current increases the strength of the field
PAGE 15 OF 19
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the PENETRATION Stopped Stopped by Only
strength increases the strength of the field. by paper aluminium reduced by
• Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic lead
field direction (right-hand rule). EFFECT FROM Deflected Very Not
• The direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the FIELDS deflected deflected
direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that IONIZING Very Weak Very weak
point EFFECT strong
• Magnetic effect of current is used in a relay and a circuit SPEED 1⁄ 𝑐 9⁄ 𝑐 𝑐
10 10
breaker. • Depending on their charge, they will be affected by
electric and magnetic fields.
7. RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES • The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a
7.1 Atoms and Radioactivity particle (decay products).
• The nucleus changes when undergoing alpha or beta
• Atoms consist of: decay
o Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons Alpha decay: An element with a proton number 2 lower
(positively charged) and neutrons. These two types of and nucleon number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is
particles are called nucleons. They are bound together made (2p + 2n)
by the strong nuclear force.
o Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit e.g. 226
88Ra →
222 4
86Rn + 2𝛼
nucleus in shells
Beta decay:
• This is proved by Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment1
• A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an
• Proton number: number of protons in an atom
antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon
• Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons + number but with a proton number 1 higher e.g.
neutrons) in an atom
e.g. 131 131 0
53𝐼 → 54𝑋𝑒 + −1β + 0v
0
• The following is the nuclide notation for atoms
Gamma emission:
• Gamma emission causes no change in mass number or
atomic number; they just emit energy
• Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number
• Isotope: however they emit energy as their particles rearrange
o Atoms of the same element that have different themselves to become more stable
numbers of neutrons e.g., Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. 7.2 Radiation and Half-Life
o There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
isotopes. • The unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq). It is a
o Radio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break down measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating
giving radiation per second.
• Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space & time • Background radiation: small amount of radiation around
ALPHA BETA (𝜷) GAMMA us because of radioactive materials in the environment.
(𝜶) (𝜸) Mainly comes from natural sources such as soil, rocks,
NATURE Helium One high Electro- air, building materials, food and drink – and even space.
nucleus (2 speed magnetic Sources of Background Radiation:
protons electron radiation
and 2
electrons)
CHARGE +2 -1 none

PAGE 16 OF 19
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• A Geiger-Müller (GM) tube can be used to detects 𝛼, 𝛽
and 𝛾 radiation.
• Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable
arrangement of neutrons and protons) is altered to
make a more stable arrangement.
• Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half the
nuclei present in any given sample to decay.
• Some nuclei are more stable than others.
• Remember to factor background radiation in half-life
calculations involving tables and decay curves.
• The rate of decay, C, corrected for background radiation,
is proportional to the amount of radioactive isotope
present. If we plot a graph of C against time, t, we can
measure the half-life from the graph.
• Half-life calculations: Graphs of activity, in becquerels,
against time can be used to find the half-life of an
isotope, and this half-life information can be used to
make predictions of the activity of the radioisotope at a
later time.
7.3 Applications of Radioactivity
• Uses:
o Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays
kill cancer cells using cobalt-60
o Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is detected
using a Geiger counter.
PAGE 17 OF 19
o Archaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon
dating.
• Radioactive material is stored in a lead container
• Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
• Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
• Left out of its container for as short a time as possible
7.4 Fission and Fusion
• Nuclear reactions involve a change in the qualities of
atoms. Heavy atoms split into lighter atoms and other
pieces in a process called fission.
• Lighter atoms may be forced to join together to make
heavier atoms in a process called fusion.
• Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
• It is used because its nuclei can be split by a neutron.
The process of splitting an atom is called fission.
• In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is
absorbed by a nucleus of U-235.
• The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and
splits apart.
• The fragments of this decay are the two daughter nuclei
of barium-144 and krypton-89.
• The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy.
• If more than one neutron from each fission causes
fission in surrounding nuclei, then the reaction gets
faster and faster. This is called a chain reaction.
• Each fission results in more nuclei splitting apart.
• If the process is allowed to take place in a nuclear
reactor, the reactor core overheats, resulting in a
nuclear explosion with the sudden release of enormous
amounts of heat energy and radiation.
• In a nuclear reactor the process is controlled so heat
energy is released over a longer period of time.
• The heat produced in the core or heart of the reactor is
used to heat water.
• The steam produced then drives turbines to turn
generators.
• In the reactor, graphite is used as a moderator.
 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• The moderator absorbs some of the kinetic energy of the • On the Moon, the gravitational field strength is only one
neutrons to slow them down. sixth that of the Earth's.
• The control rods are made of boron or cadmium. • The distance moved by a satellite is the circumference of
• They absorb the neutrons and take them out of the a circle with the radius, r.
fission process completely. • The time period, T, is the time for one complete orbit.
• The reactor vessel is made of steel and surrounded by a
concrete layer which prevents any radiation escaping. 2 𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
• Fusion is the energy source for stars. 𝑇
• The problem in fusion is creating the very high
temperatures needed to make the deuterium and 8.2 Stellar Evolution
tritium nuclei collide. • Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way.
• Enough energy to overcome the repulsive force between • The colours of stars tell us about their temperatures. A
the positive electric charge in the nuclei of each isotope very hot star emits blue in its spectrum and therefore
is needed. looks blue, a medium star like our Sun looks yellow and
cooler stars appear red.
• There are three different ways in which astronomers
8. ASTROPHYSICS
describe the brightness of a star:
8.1 Motion in the Universe o The apparent brightness or magnitude of a star. This is
• The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies. the easiest method and is simply a measure of how
• A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars. bright a star is as seen from the Earth.
o The absolute brightness or magnitude. This is a
• Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy.
measure of how bright stars would appear if they were
• There is always a force of attraction between any two
all placed the same distance away from the Earth.
objects. This attraction is due to the masses of the
o The luminosity of a star. This measures how much
objects. This force is called gravitational force.
energy in the form of light is emitted from a star's
• The size of this force depends on the:
surface every second.
o masses of the two objects
• When a star first forms, gravitational forces are pulling
o distance between the masses.
particles together.
• The Sun is the gravitational attraction between this mass
• When nuclear reactions begin, the high temperatures
and each of the planets that holds the Solar System
create forces that try to push the particles When these
together and causes the planets to follow their curved
two forces are balanced, the star is said to be in its main
paths.
stable period.
• Those planets that are closest to the Sun feel the
• A star in this main stable period is referred to as a main
greatest attraction and so follow the most curved paths.
sequence star.
• Planets that are the furthest from the Sun feel the
• Towards the end of this stable period, there are less
weakest pull and follow the least curved path.
hydrogen nuclei and eventually the hydrogen fusion
• A satellite is an object that orbits a planet. There are two
reactions stop.
types of satellite: natural and artificial (human-made).
• As the star shrinks in size there is a large increase in
• Comets are large rock-like pieces of ice that orbit the
temperature. So high that fusion reactions between
Sun. They have very elliptical (elongated) orbits which at
helium nuclei begin. The energy released by these
times take them very close to the Sun.
reactions causes the star to expand to many times its
• The strength of gravity on a planet or moon is called its
original size.
gravitational field strength, and given the symbol g.
• As it expands it becomes a little cooler and more of its
Different planets have different masses and different
light energy is emitted in the red part of the spectrum.
radii.
The star is changing into a red giant.
• The larger the mass of a planet the greater its
• Sometime later when most of the helium nuclei have
gravitational field strength.
fused (joined) together, new nuclear reactions begin, but
• The larger the radius of a planet the smaller the
now the compressive or squashing forces are larger and
gravitational field strength at its surface.
the star begins to get smaller or contract.
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 EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS//4PH1
• This contraction causes an increase in temperature so
the star again changes colour.
• It now emits more blue and white light. It has changed
into a white dwarf star.
• Finally, as a white dwarf star cools it changes into a cold
black dwarf star.
• A star that is much larger than our Sun will expand into a
large red supergiant.
• As it contracts it becomes unstable. It explodes throwing
dust and gas into space to form a new stellar nebula.
This exploding star is called a supernova.
• Any matter remaining will form a very dense neutron
star. If the neutron star has a mass that is approximately
five times greater than that of our Sun or more, it
collapses further to become a black hole.
• The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram): shows
the relationship between the brightness, temperature
and classification of a star.
PAGE 19 OF 19
8.3 Cosmology
• The Universe is expanding and at some time in the past,
all the matter in the Universe was in one place just
before an explosion. This theory is called the Big Bang
theory.
• The equation below shows us how to calculate the speed
at which a star or galaxy is moving relative to us. change
in wavelength,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, ∆λ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑦, 𝑣
=
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑡ℎ, λ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑐
𝜆 − 𝜆0 𝛥𝜆 𝑣
= =
𝜆0 𝜆0 𝑐
• The Doppler effect is a property of all waves.
• When astronomers look at light spectra from distant
stars and galaxies, they can see the Doppler effect.
• In the 1960s scientists detected this afterglow of energy.
• They are microwaves and can be detected in all
directions in the Universe. They became known as
cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation.
• Red-shift indicates that the source of the light waves is
moving away from the observer. Blue-shift would
indicate that the source of light is moving towards the
observer.
• When we compare the light emitted from all the
different galaxies a clear pattern emerges.
• Almost all the galaxies emit light with red-shift.
• The further away a galaxy is the greater the red-shift and
therefore the faster it is moving away from us.