ETHICS

LESSON 1
BASIC CONCEPTS IN PHILOSOPHY

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define philosophy, moral philosophy, ethics, moral and non-moral standards;
2. Analyze the importance of philosophy and ethics;
3. Describe the importance of rules and examples; and
4. Distinguish moral standards, non-moral standards and instinctive outcome.

Introduction
In most, if not all, schools, Logic is offered as a first course in philosophy. In such a case,
most of the students in Logic may have not have adequate background in Introductory
Philosophy. Therefore, to help the students gain insight on the nature or the general notion
about what philosophy is, it is deemed necessary to orient them on this topic before they go to
the study of Ethics.

Meaning of Philosophy

Philosophy may be defined in two ways: nominal (etymological) and real.

Etymological Definition of Philosophy

The term philosophy is derived from the Greek words “philos” or “philein” (to love, to
desire) and “sophia” (wisdom). Putting them together, we have “philo” + “sophia" or philosophy
which literally means love of wisdom. Thus, a philosopher is a “lover of wisdom” just like
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

Wisdom, in this broadest sense, connotes knowledge – knowledge directed to the

fundamental and pervasive concerns of existence. Wisdom is not the wisdom of book learning,
fact acquiring and being a dean’s lister or topnotcher in the licensure examinations or a
technical skill of professional people. Wisdom is all-encompassing. It is understanding on how
we ought to live. It is how you systematically organize, structure and relate all available data and
experiences. Wisdom in philosophy consists of participation in life – the way you change things,
to solve human problems or how you discover the meaning of life. In short, the wisdom in
philosophy is in how you help yourself think more clearly, precisely and systematically.

Pythagoras Gorgias Herodotus

It was Pythagoras (580 – 500 B.C.), a Greek mathematician and philosopher, who
coined the word “love of wisdom”. He founded the Pythagorean school known as
Metempsychosis which stressed that the soul of man imprisoned in his body could be purified
through self-examination and strict discipline. The so-called Pythagorean Theorem is also
attributed to his school which stress that the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the
sum of the squares on the other sides.

In one of his travels in an ancient Greek kingdom, he was asked by the king if he was a
Sophos (a wise man), he said that he was not, but only a “lover of wisdom.”

Gorgias (485 – 380 B.C.), a Greek orator and Protagoras (580 – 500 B.C.), a Greek
mathematician, who were famous sophists (Greek word, sophists) in ancient Greece were the
forerunners of the Aristotelian logic and Socratic dialectic. They were the first to systematize the
laws of thought but later, they emphasized material success and the ability to argue any case
irrespective of its truth. Their pretenses in professing truth fell in disrepute and their arguments
were later on dubbed as sophism.

Originally, the term “philosophy was given literal meaning by Herodotus (485 – 425
B.C.), a Greek historian known as the “Father of History” and Gorgias (485 – 380 B.C.), a Greek
orator and also a Sophist. They used the term in a restricted sense to refer to philosophy as
theoretical knowledge, that is, knowledge studied for its own sake.

Today, however, the study of philosophy has been expanded from its traditional meaning
to include the study of man, matter and universe.
Real Definition of Philosophy

Since philosophy is too comprehensive and to various authors define philosophy

according to what they think, what they believe, and what they ought to be done in the subject.
Here are some of the definitions of various authors:

1. Philosophy is a process by which men ponder, discuss or argue over the use,
application, limits or meaning of important ideas (Bresman and Gould, 1977).
2. Philosophy is quest for wisdom; an attempt to provide a vision of the world that is
systematic and clear, in which the connection between significant facts are made
manifest. It is the search for first thing (first principles) and last things (ultimate
implications) (Minton and Shipka, 1982).
3. Philosophy is asking the right question that initiates philosophical thinking and direction
(Barry, 1983).
4. Philosophy is the sum of all man’s beliefs and views about the world which guide his
actions (Ariola, 1989).
5. Philosophy is the art of questioning everything; the goal of philosophy is wisdom and the
wisdom requires questioning what is questionable (Kolak and martin, 1990)
6. Philosophy focuses on conceptual clarity and understanding from ignorance to
knowledge (Earle, 1992).
7. Philosophy is the love or pursuit of wisdom; the search for the basic principles (The New
Webster’s Dictionary of the English language, 1995).
8. Philosophy is the science of the things by their ultimate principles and causes, as known
by natural reason alone (Pinon, 1995).
9. Philosophy is an attempt to see the wonders at our existence and at our place in the
scheme of things (Melchert, 1999).
10. Philosophy is a systematic, reflective, critical, primarily reason-bound inquiring into the
basic assumptions and guiding beliefs that people use to make sense of any dimension
of their live (Christensen, 1999).
11. Philosophy is a human search for meaning; an intellectual quest that goes beyond the
boundaries of concrete knowledge, towards the realm of the abstract where the
inquisitive mind finds some satisfaction and wonder (Gualdo, 2000).
12. Philosophy is the never-ending search for the total human meaning of our experiences.
It is a discipline that attempts to look for answers to man’s inquisitive mind that begins in
wonder and ends in awe (Bauzon, 2002).
 13. Philosophy is a rational critical thinking of a more or less systematic kind about the
conduct of life, the general nature of the world, and the justification of belief
(Encyclopaedia Americana, 2003).

Thus, philosophy may be viewed as an activity undertake by men who are deeply
concerned about who they are and what everything is all about in this world. The essence of
philosophy is asking the right question that gives the right direction. In asking the right question,
philosophical thinking and imagination play a significant part. In philosophy, the person does not
only accept unquestioningly the apparent order of things in the material world. Instead, he
wonders about them, deals creatively with them, goes beyond to see what is not readily
apparent, then conceive of possibilities and alternatives in approaching them. In the process, he
formulates questions about it to serve as his direction. Philosophy answers questions through
intensive application of reason, the philosopher criticizes old answers, rectifies and for new ones
– to be able to create.

Importance of Philosophy

We all become philosophers at any crucial moment in life. The general framework of
beliefs and values we profess, the world view that impregnate our experience with meaning, are
expressions of our essential human capabilities that make us distinctly human. Our
philosophical reflection is an important part of our self-assessment, happiness and our
professional growth. What then is the value of philosophy?

1. Philosophy as a subject enables the student to study, learn, and master the various
branches and divisions of philosophy and the theories and beliefs of philosophers. It
empowers the student to think, conceptualize, analyse, compare, evaluate, and
understand things. Thus, student is able to articulate his understanding of the
contribution of each philosopher (traditional and modern) to philosophical problems
relating to knowledge, reality and value.
2. Philosophy helps the student to develop the ability to form opinions and beliefs. He
thinks, evaluates and decides what could be “better” or “best” for him.
3. Philosophy helps the student to be resilient and philosophically calm in the face of
disorder and doubts, uncertainty, indefiniteness and chaos. By being flexible he is able
 to persevere and put things in their proper perspective and outlook in the face of
upheaval.
4. Philosophy deepens the student’s self-awareness. A self-aware student does not
harbour illusions and rationalizations to justify his beliefs and actions.
5. In relation to deepening of self-awareness, philosophy also increases the student’s self-
awareness and awareness of the world. When awareness increases, he becomes more
dynamic, more critical and more discerning of the significant influence of his life.
6. Philosophy helps student to be creative. By being creative, he develops a philosophical
perspective on problems, issues and concerns that is unique and distinctive. He
engages his life on a deeper level to give meaning to it.
7. Philosophy helps the student to be imaginative. By being imaginative, he is able to deal
openly with new possibilities and changes in how he sees things.
8. Philosophy provides the student with better intellectual perspective and outlook. He
becomes more tolerant, more open-minded, less biased and more sympathetic to views
that might even conflict or compete with his own view.
9. Philosophy gives the student personal freedom – the freedom from biases, prejudices
and conviction, and tyranny of customs that have grown up in his mind. By being free he
can make suggestions and decisions and act according to those decisions.
10. Philosophy helps the student to refine his power of analysis – the power to think
critically, reason, evaluate, theorize and justify. The powers of analysis are the tools of
philosophy. These tools enable him to apply to them constructively to his own affairs.

Top Five (5) Reasons to Study Philosophy

1. Philosophy is a fascinating subject matter.

Philosophy seeks not simply knowledge, but deep understanding and wisdom.
Philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand themselves,
the world they live in, and the relations to the world and each other. Those who study
philosophy are engaged in asking, answering, evaluating and reasoning about some of
life’s most basic, meaningful, and difficult questions, such as:
 What is to be human?
 Is there a God?
 What is truth? Is anything true? How can we tell it is true?
 How do words come to have meaning?
  Do mathematical objects exists?
 What is time? Is time really real?

In studying philosophy, you’ll have a chance to grapple with these questions to

yourself and to think about what others – some of the greatest philosophers of
the past and present, as well as your fellow students – think about them.

2. A wide variety of interesting courses taught by outstanding professors.

There are philosophy courses that address moral issues, others that focus on the
nature of science and technology, and many that explore some of the most important
philosophical works written across the history. Some of the courses are broad survey
courses, others are in-depth studies of particular issues, texts, or philosophers.
3. Skill development of students
Far from being an abstract and useless field, philosophy is among the most
practical courses of study. Taking philosophy courses imparts skills that will be useful not
only in any career but also in your personal life. The study of philosophy will enable
student to think, carefully, critically, and with clarity, take a logical approach to addressing
challenging questions and examining hard issues, reason well and evaluate the
reasoning of others, discuss sensibly and write effectively.
Philosophy develops intellectual abilities important for life as a whole, beyond the
knowledge and skills required for any particular profession. It enhances analytical,
critical, and interpretative capacities that are applicable to any subject matter and in any
human context.
4. Great preparation for any career or graduate study
Most students of philosophy don’t go on to become philosophy professors. But
they do go on to get good jobs in a wide range of fields, including law, medicine,
business, education, journalism, public policy, government, religion, communication
fields, public relations, retail management, social service and many more.
5. For personal development
The study of philosophy can be truly enriching and highly gratifying and it is
excellent preparation for lifelong learning and an enhanced intellectual, political and
social existence. Philosophy’s critical skills also provide the best defense against popular
foolishness and falsehoods.
Branches of Philosophy

Division Focus Questions

Metaphysics Study of existence; the Why am I here?

fundamental questions of reality Where will I go later in life?
Epistemology Study of knowledge; how we know How do I know that I know?
about reality and existence Why do I know about it?
Logic Study of reasoning and argument Why is it valid?
How do you argue correctly?
Ethics/ Study of action How should you act?
Moral Philosophy Is it morally right?
Aesthetics/ Study of art and beauty What is beauty?
Axiology Is it an art or pornography?

Schools of Philosophy

The schools may be classified according to eastern and western philosophy. Eastern
philosophy includes Taoism, Confucianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, among
others. Western philosophy may be divided into Ancient, Medieval and Modern Schools. These
schools are presented in the following:

1. Ancient and Medieval School of Philosophy

 Aristotelianism (derived from Aristotle) – is the excessive use of discursive reason and
abstract aspects in proving scheme of things.
 Atomism (Greek word atoma, “cannot be divide”) - rational explanation of the general
aspects of phenomena.
 Eleaticism - deals with existence, thought and expression coalesced into one
 Epicureanism (derived from the philosophy taught by Epicurus) or Hedonism - means
that happiness is the chief good.
 Monasticism - moral and physical disciplines based on worldly renunciations
 Platonism (derived from the teaching of Plato) - deals with the doctrine of forms and
numbers.
 Pythagoreanism (derived from the teaching of Pythagoras) - deals with the
metaphysics of numbers and reality – that reality is mathematical in nature.
  Scholasticism – an intellectual discipline which shows the doctrines of the church are
constant with reasons.
 Skepticism - raising doubts about any knowledge beyond the control of directly felt
experience about the world so that one still looks for truth.
 Sophism - deals on a whole series of questions in order to seek ample solutions along
clearly defined lines.
 Stoicism - deals on the conduct of man characterized by peace of mind and certainty of
moral truth.

2. Modern Schools of Philosophy

 Analytical and Linguistic are concerned with the close and careful examinations of
concepts.
 Developmentalism is a child-centered point of view based on a careful study of the
child.
 Disciplinism refers education of the whole man through appropriate discipline.
 Empiricism (from Greek word emperia, “experience”) means that what is true and real
are those that are confirmed by actual experience.
 Existentialism deals on the interpretation of human existence in the world that stresses
concreteness and its problematic character.
 Humanism stresses personal culture, individual freedom and development as the best
way toward full and rich lives.
 Idealism deals with reality as spirit or consciousness and whatever that exists are
chiefly mental or ideas and abstraction and laws are fundamental in reality, not sensory
things
 Naturalism is concerned with the natural goodness of man and the formation of society
based upon the recognition of natural rights.
 Phenomenology concerned with phenomena or events that are common experienced.
 Positivism deals with knowledge of the matter that is based on positive data of
experience and is beyond pure logic and mathematics.
 Pragmatism is concerned with what is true and real that are useful, workable and
practical.
 Rationalism deals with reason as the chief source and test of knowledge.
 Realism refers to the philosophy that is concerned with the activities of life and
understanding of the individual in the society which he lives
  Utilitarianism deals with the philosophy that an action is right if it provides happiness of
individual and everyone affected, it is wrong if it promotes dissatisfaction and
unhappiness.

Sub-fields of Philosophy

Philosophy can be sub-divided into several sub-fields; each has its own particular
doctrine in answering key questions. These sub-fields are described briefly in this section:

 Philosophy of Arts deals on aesthetic value, expression, and other concepts that critic
employs.
 Philosophy of Education deals with speculation and application of philosophical
method in the study of its issues and problems.
 Philosophy of History deals with description of events and actions of man’s past
happenings and those that are to happen in man.
 Philosophy of Language deals with languages their meanings and how to use and
manage the language to man’s existence.
 Philosophy of Law deals with the formulation of theories and concepts to help man,
understand its nature, its sources of authority an role in society.
 Philosophy of Logic deals with the laws of thought, rules of right reasoning, principles
of valid argumentation and truth based solely on the meaning of the term they contain.
 Philosophy of Mathematics is concerned on the critical examination of basic
mathematical entities, mathematical theories and number system.
 Philosophy of Mind deals with the nature of the mind, desire, emotion, pleasure, and
pain and how they enter into the explanation of human action.
 Philosophy of Nature deals with whatever issues regarding the actual features of
nature as reality and is divided into philosophy of physics and biology.
 Philosophy of Politics deals with the questions of the origin of the state and authority
and the law of the land.
 Philosophy of Psychology deals on the actual theories and research efforts of
contemporary psychologists.
 Philosophy of Reading deals on a set of beliefs on how reading should be taught
based on research and current thinking about reading.
  Philosophy of Religion deals on situations, experiences, issues and problems relating
to religion and its methodology.
 Philosophy of Science provides intellectually and accurately satisfying explanations of
a broad range of natural phenomena.
 Philosophy of Society deals with questions about personal morality in relation to man’s
existence as member of society.

Moral Philosophy

Moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy that contemplates what is right and
wrong. It explores the nature of morality and examines how people should live their lives in
relation to others.

Branches of Moral Philosophy (Areas of Study in Ethics)

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions,

and how their values (if any) can be determined. Meta-ethics answers the questions:
What is morality? What is justice? Is there truth? How can I justify my belief as better
than the beliefs held by others?
2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of
action. Normative ethics answers the question: What we ought to do?
3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in special
situation or a particular domain of action. Applied Ethics answers the question: Should
we lie to help a friend or co-worker?

Reference:

Ariola, M. (2018). ETHICS Manila: Unlimited Books Library Services & Publishing Inc