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flower
ARTICLE

 Introduction
 Form and types
 Pollination
 Cultural significance

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BY The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica | View Edit History

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Fargo, North Dakota: sunflower field

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flower, the characteristic reproductive structure of angiosperms. As popularly used, the

term “flower” especially applies when part or all of the reproductive structure is
distinctive in colour and form.

In their range of colour, size, form, and anatomical arrangement, flowers present a
seemingly endless variety of combinations. They range in size from minute blossoms to
giant blooms. In some plants, such as poppy, magnolia, tulip, and petunia, each flower is
relatively large and showy and is produced singly, while in other plants, such
as aster, snapdragon, and lilac, the individual flowers may be very small and are borne
in a distinctive cluster known as an inflorescence. Regardless of their variety, all flowers
have a uniform function, the reproduction of the species through the production of seed.

petunia
Pink variegated flowers of a common garden petunia (Petunia ×atkinsiana).
Peter Firus, Flagstaffotos
lilac
Common lilac (Syringa vulgaris).
Courtesy of the State of New Hampshire; photograph, Ernest Gould
BRITANNICA QUIZ

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Form and types
Basically, each flower consists of a floral axis upon which are borne the essential organs
of reproduction (stamens and pistils) and usually accessory organs (sepals and petals);
the latter may serve to both attract pollinating insects and protect the essential organs.
The floral axis is a greatly modified stem; unlike vegetative stems, which bear leaves, it
is usually contracted, so that the parts of the flower are crowded together on
the stem tip, the receptacle. The flower parts are usually arrayed in whorls (or cycles)
but may also be disposed spirally, especially if the axis is elongate. There are commonly
four distinct whorls of flower parts: (1) an outer calyx consisting of sepals; within it lies
(2) the corolla, consisting of petals; (3) the androecium, or group of stamens; and in the
centre is (4) the gynoecium, consisting of the pistils.

flower parts
Parts of a flower.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

(Left) Generalized flower with parts; (right) diagram showing arrangement of floral parts in cross
section at the flower's base
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The sepals and petals together make up the perianth, or floral envelope. The sepals are
usually greenish and often resemble reduced leaves, while the petals are usually
colourful and showy. Sepals and petals that are indistinguishable, as in lilies and tulips,
are sometimes referred to as tepals. The androecium, or male parts of the
flower, comprise the stamens, each of which consists of a supporting filament and an
anther, in which pollen is produced. The gynoecium, or female parts of the
flower, comprises one or more pistils, each of which consists of an ovary, with an
upright extension, the style, on the top of which rests the stigma, the pollen-receptive
surface. The ovary encloses the ovules, or potential seeds. A pistil may be simple, made
up of a single carpel, or ovule-bearing modified leaf; or compound, formed from several
carpels joined together.
pistil
Lily with a pistil surrounded by stamens.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
A flower having sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils is complete; lacking one or more of
such structures, it is said to be incomplete. Stamens and pistils are not present together
in all flowers. When both are present the flower is said to be perfect, or bisexual,
regardless of a lack of any other part that renders it incomplete (see photograph). A
flower that lacks stamens is pistillate, or female, while one that lacks pistils is said to
be staminate, or male. When the same plant bears unisexual flowers of both sexes, it is
said to be monoecious (e.g., tuberous begonia, hazel, oak, corn); when the male and
female flowers are on different plants, the plant is dioecious (e.g., date, holly,
cottonwood, willow); when there are male, female, and bisexual flowers on the same
plant, the plant is termed polygamous.

A perfect flower with floral structures in multiples of three, Tulipa (tulip) has a three-lobed stigma,
six stamens, and six distinct perianth parts.
© Harry Haralambou/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Compare the Rafflesia arnoldii's massive bloom with Amorphophallus titanum's
towering inflorescence
An overview of the world's largest blooms: the monster flower (Rafflesia arnoldii) and the titan arum
(Amorphophallus titanum). To attract pollinators, both produce a rotting-meat scent, which has
earned them the nickname “corpse flower.”
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.See all videos for this article
A flower may be radially symmetrical (see photograph), as in roses and petunias, in
which case it is termed regular or actinomorphic. A bilaterally symmetrical flower, as in
orchids (see photograph) and snapdragons, is irregular or zygomorphic.
The radiate head of the treasure flower (Gazania rigens), a daisylike inflorescence composed of disk
flowers in the centre surrounded by marginal ray flowers.
E.S. Ross

Bilateral symmetry of the orchid (Vanda)

E.S. Ross
Pollination
The stamens and pistils are directly involved with the production of seed.
The stamen bears microsporangia (spore cases) in which are developed
numerous microspores (potential pollen grains); the pistil bears ovules, each enclosing
an egg cell. When a microspore germinates, it is known as a pollen grain. When the
pollen sacs in a stamen’s anther are ripe, the anther releases them and the pollen is
shed. Fertilization can occur only if the pollen grains are transferred from the anther to
the stigma of a pistil, a process known as pollination.
how flowering plants reproduce
Reproduction in flowering plants begins with pollination, the transfer of pollen from anther to
stigma on the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant (self-pollination) or
from the anther on one plant to the stigma of another plant (cross-pollination). Once the pollen grain
lodges on the stigma, a pollen tube grows from the pollen grain to an ovule. Two sperm nuclei then
pass through the pollen tube. One of them unites with the egg nucleus and produces a zygote. The
other sperm nucleus unites with two polar nuclei to produce an endosperm nucleus. The fertilized
ovule develops into a seed.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
There are two chief kinds of pollination: (1) self-pollination, the pollination of a stigma
by pollen from the same flower or another flower on the same plant; and (2) cross-
pollination, the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower of one plant to the stigma
of the flower of another plant of the same species. Self-pollination occurs in many
species, but in the others, perhaps the majority, it is prevented by such adaptations as
the structure of the flower, self-incompatibility, and the maturation of stamens and
pistils of the same flower or plant at different times. Cross-pollination may be brought
about by a number of agents, chiefly insects and wind. Wind-pollinated flowers
(see photograph) generally can be recognized by their lack of colour, odour, or nectar,
while animal-pollinated flowers (see photograph) are conspicuous by virtue of their
structure, colour, or the production of scent or nectar.
self-pollination
The process of self-pollination in an angiosperm.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Most plants depend on a carrier, such as a bee, to bring pollen to them from another plant.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

sedge
Spikes of sedge (Carex pendula) showing reduced floral parts adapted to wind pollination. The
pollen bursts forth from the pendulous inflorescences as they sway in the wind.
© Stephen Dalton/Natural History Photographic Agency
iris
A blue iris (Iris) with contrasting yellow nectar guides indicating the location of the nectar to the
honeybee (Apis mellifera). Flecks of pollen grains dislodged from the stamens by the foraging bee
can be seen on the bee's body.
© G.A. Maclean/Oxford Scientific Films

Uncover how flowers attract their pollinators

How flowers attract pollinators.
© MinuteEarth (A Britannica Publishing Partner)See all videos for this article
After a pollen grain has reached the stigma, it germinates, and a pollen tube protrudes
from it. This tube, containing two male gametes (sperms), extends into the ovary and
reaches the ovule, discharging its gametes so that one fertilizes the egg cell, which
becomes an embryo, and the other joins with two polar nuclei to form the endosperm.
(Normally many pollen grains fall on a stigma; they all may germinate, but only one
pollen tube enters any one ovule.) Following fertilization, the embryo is on its way to
becoming a seed, and at this time the ovary itself enlarges to form the fruit.
Cultural significance
Flowers have been symbols of beauty in most civilizations of the world, and flower
giving is still among the most popular of social amenities. As gifts, flowers serve as
expressions of affection for spouses, other family members, and friends;
as decorations at weddings and other ceremonies; as tokens of respect for the deceased;
as cheering gifts to the bedridden; and as expressions of thanks or appreciation. Most
flowers bought by the public are grown in commercial greenhouses or horticultural
fields and then sold through wholesalers to retail florists. See also articles on individual
flowers (e.g., carnation; lotus; petunia; rose; tulip).
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated
by  Adam Augustyn.