Topic 1: Statistical Analysis 01/27/2011

1.1.1 State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data.
Error bars can be used to show either the range of the data or the standard deviation

1.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values.

Mean: the average, or the sum of the values given divided by the number of values
Calculate the mean of 7, 9, 11, and 17
44/4 = 11

Standard deviation: is a measure of how the individual observations of a data set are
dispersed or spread out around the mean.
Calculate standard deviation using calculator or excel. In excel use “=STDEV(X1:X2)”

1.1.3 State that the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of
values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of
the mean.
Standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean. 68%
of the values fall within +/-1 SD of the mean, 95% of the values fall within +/-2 SD’s of the
mean.
 1.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and
the spread of data between two or more samples.
Standard deviation shows the variation around the mean. A small standard deviation
indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value. Conversely, a large
standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean.
- SD tells you how many extremes are in the data
 Many extremes = large SD
 Few extremes = small SD
- Widespread variation in data set makes you question the experimental design.
- If you only calculate the mean, variability in the data would not be recognized
- Allows you to ask the question – ‘why is the information the way it is’?

How can you tell if an SD is large or small?

- If the SD is close to or greater than 1/3 of the mean that is a large SD
- Anything below 1/3 of the mean is a small SD and is suggesting that the experiment
is more reliable

1.1.5 Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using
calculated values for t and the appropriate tables.
The t-test is used to determine whether or not the difference between two sets of
data is a significant (real) difference.
A t-test can be used to support/reject the null hypothesis (H0)
 It compares 2 sets of data.
E.g. – Heights or bean plants grown in sunlight
Heights of bean plants grown in shade.

Things to remember about the t-test

50% or 0.5 = not a significant (real) difference.
95% or 0.05 = significant (real) difference.

1.1.6 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a
causal relationship between two variables.
- Observation = correlation
- Correlation does not equal causation
- Evidence from specially designed experiments shows cause.

 Correlation is a measure of the association between 2 factors

 Positive correlation
o The increase in one factor is associated with a increase in the other
factor. E.g. increase training = faster running
 Negative correlation
o The increase in one factor is associated with a decrease in the other
factor. E.g. increase smoking = decrease running speed
 No correlation
o Increase in one factor is not associated with a consistent change in the
other factor. E.g. the speed you write and the speed you run
 An association in which all values closely follow the trend is described as being a
strong correlation

An association in which there is much variation, with many values being far from the
trend, is described as being a weak correlation
 A value can be given to the strength of the correlation (r)
o R = +1  a complete positive correlation
o R = 0  no correlation
o R = -1  a complete negative correlation

Note: Just because event X is regularly followed by event Y, it does not necessarily
follow that X causes Y.
▪Experiments are needed to provide evidence for causation.
 Example Relationship –
correlation/causation
Smoking  lung cancer? Both

1) Cars with low mileage per litre of fuel cause Correlation

global warming.

2) Drinking red wine protects against heart Causation

disease.

3) Tanning beds cause skin cancer Strong positive

correlation
4) UV rays increase the risk of cataracts No correlation
Topic 2: Cells 01/27/2011

2.1 Cell Theory

2.1.1 Outline the cell theory
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory

165 Hooke – examines cork under microscope
1674 Leeuwonhoek – observes simple organisms in pond water
1838 Schleiden – studies plant tissue under microscopes
Schwann – studies animal tissue under microscopes
Virchow – proposes the Cell Theory

2.1.3 State the unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life
Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life including metabolism,
response, homeostasis, growth, reproduction and nutrition.

2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit
Remember:
1m = 1000mm
1mm = 1000 μm
1μm = 1000 nm

A molecule = 1 nm
Thickness of cell membrane = 10 nm
Viruses = 100 nm
Bacteria = 1μm
Organelles = up to 10 μm
Eukaryotic cells = 10 to 100 μm
 2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of
specimens in images of known magnification
Magnification = size of image/actual size of specimen

2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting
cell size
The smaller an object is the larger the surface area to volume ratio
Cells remain small due to surface area to volume ratio being a factor limiting cell size
In a cell, the rate of heat and waste production and rate of resource consumption
are functions (depend on) of volume
Cells with more surface area per unit volume are able to move more materials in and
out of the cell via the cell membrane which control movement of materials into and out of
the cell
A large cell has relatively less surface area to bring in needed material and to rid the
cell of waste, than a small cell. Because of this, cells are limited as to the size they can attain
and still be able to carry out the functions of life efficiently

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties

Multicellular organisms show emergent properties. This means that the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts. These properties result from the complex interactions that
occur between cells

2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out

specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others
Cells in Multicellular organisms become specialized for more particular function. The
chance of a cell from a generic (unspecialized) cell into a specialized cell is called
differentiation. All cells in an individual have the same genes, however, genes are ‘switched
on’ or ‘switched off’ according to the needs of the cell
Each cell contains all the genetic information for the production of the complete
organisms. However, each cell becomes a specific type of cell dependant on which DNA
segment becomes active

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to
differentiate along different pathways
Stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along
different pathways.
 Adults have stems cells in the tissues in their bodies that need to be frequently
replaced such as the skin. Stem cells have the ability to produce a wide range of cells which
means that they are pluripotent. They retain their ability to divide and produce many
different cells by cell division and the process of differentiation. For example, one type of
stem cells in the bone marrow produce a variety of red and white blood cells.

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells

Bone marrow transplants are one of the many therapeutic uses of stem cells. Stem
cells found in the bone marrow give rise to the red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets in the body. These stem cells can be used in bone marrow transplants to treat
people who have certain types of cancer. 
When a patient has cancer and is given high doses of chemotherapy, the
chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but also the normal cells in the bone marrow. This
means that the patient cannot produce blood cells. So before the patient is treated with
chemotherapy, he or she can undergo a bone marrow harvest in which stem cells are
removed from the bone marrow by using a needle which is inserted into the pelvis (hip
bone). Alternatively, if stem cells cannot be used from the patient then they can be
harvested from a matching donor. After the chemotherapy treatment the patient will have a
bone marrow transplant in which the stem cells are transplanted back into the patient
through a drip, usually via a vein in the chest or the arm. These transplanted stem cells will
then find their way back to the bone marrow and start to produce healthy blood cells in the
patient. Therefore the therapeutic use of stem cells in bone marrow transplants is very
important as it allows some patients with cancer to undergo high chemotherapy treatment.
Without this therapeutic use of stem cells, patients would only be able to take low doses of
chemotherapy which could lower their chances of curing the disease. 

2.2 Prokaryotic cells

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E.coli) as
an example of a prokaryote
 2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure
Part Function
Cell Wall Protects and maintains the shape of the cell
Plasma Controls the movement of materials in and out of the
membrane cell and also plays a role in binary fission
Cytoplasm All cellular processes take places here as there is no
compartmentalization
Pili Used for attachment to other bacterial cells for
transport of DNA from one cell to another
Flagellum Cell motility
Ribosomes The sites of protein synthesis
Nucleoid Cell control and reproduction
 2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E.coli

2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission

Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Binary fission is a method of asexual
reproduction involving the splitting of the parent organism into two separate organisms.

2.3 Eukaryotic cells

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of
an animal cells
2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure
Part Function
Lysosome A specialised compartments in the
cytoplasm of cells that contains enzymes
responsible for breaking down substances
in the cell.
Nucleus An organelle that contains the
DNA and controls its metabolism, growth
and reproduction.
Mitochondria The site of aerobic respiration
(energy production).
Golgi apparatus Consisting of stacks of flat
membranous sac that modify, store, and
route products of the endoplasmic
reticulum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum A system of membranous tubes
and sacs containing ribosomes, which
function in the manufacture of
membrane-bound proteins.
Ribosomes Involved in the production of
polypeptides (proteins).
2.3.3 Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells

2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Naked DNA DNA associated with proteins
DNA in cytoplasm DNA enclosed in a nucleur
No mitochondria envelope (membrane)
70s ribosomes Mitochondria are present
No internal membranes 80s ribosomes
Internal membranes that
compartmentalize their functions (i.e
they have membrane bound organelles)
 2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells
Plant Cells
Plant cells have chloroplasts
Plant cells have a cell wall
Plant cells have large vacuoles
Plant cells show carbohydrates as
starch
Exterior of cell includes an outer
cell wall with a plasma membrane just
inside
Because a rigid cell wall is
present, this cell type has a fixed, often
angular, shape
Animal Cells
Animals do not contain
chloroplasts
Animal cells do not have a cell
wall
Animal cells usually do no have
them or they are very small
Animal cells usually do not have
them or they are very small
Animal cells show carbohydrates
as glycogen
Without a cell wall, this cell is
flexible and more likely to be a rounded
shape
 2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components
The plants cell wall maintains cell shape, prevents excessive water uptake, and holds
the whole plant up against the force of gravity
Animal cells secrete glycoproteins that form the extracellular matrix. This functions
in support, adhesion and movement.

2.4 Membranes
2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids

help to maintain the structure of cell membranes
- The head of the phospholipid is polar and hydrophilic (“water-loving’), and these
heads make up the outside of the phospholipid bilayer.
- The tail of the phospholipid that is located inside the membrane is non-polar and
hydrophobic (‘water-hating’).
- Because one end of the phospholipid is hydrophobic and the other is hydrophilic,
phospholipids naturally form bilayers in which the heads are facing outward (toward the
water), and the tails are facing inward (away from the water). Therefore, the characteristics
of phospholipids enable the phospholipids to form a stable structure.

2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins

Hormone-binding sites
 Immobilized enzymes
Cell adhesion
Cell-too-cell communication
Channels for passive transport
Pumps for active transport

2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to
a region of low concentration.

Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable

membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute
concentration.

2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and

facilitated diffusion
The passive movement implies that there is no expenditure of energy in moving the
molecules from one side of the membrane to the other

Simple diffusion - This occurs across the plasma membrane. Substances transported
this way include water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and lipid-soluble substances such as steroids.
Diffusion is one type of passive transport. Particles of a certain type move from a
region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. However, in a living system,
diffusion often involves a membrane. E.g., oxygen gas moves from outside a cell to inside.

Facilitated diffusion - is the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via
special transport proteins that are embedded within the plasma membrane.
Protein channels – form a water-filled pore or channel in the membrane. This allows
charged substances (usually ions) to diffuse across membranes. Most channels can be gated
(opened or closed), allowing the cell to control the entry and exit of ions.
Carrier proteins – have a binding site for a specific solute and constantly flip between
two states so that the site is alternately open to opposite sides of the membrane. The
substance will bind on the side where it is at a high concentration and be released where it
is at a low concentration. Substances transported this way include glucose amino acids

2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across
membranes
 Active – requires the expenditure of energy
(Adenosine triphosphate - ATP)

Active transport is the pumping of substances across

a membrane by a protein pump molecule. The protein binds
a molecule of the substance to be transported on one side of
the membrane, changes shape, and releases it on the other
side. The proteins are highly specific, so that there is a
different protein pump for each molecule to be transported.
The protein pumps use energy (in the form of ATP) for this
process. It is the only transport mechanism that can
transport substances against a concentration gradient.

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between
the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane
Vesicles are membranous sacs in which materials are stored and transported
throughout the cell. In order for the materials within a vesicle to go through a membrane
(the membranes of organelles, or the cell's plasma membrane), the membranous vesicle
becomes part of the organelle’s membrane or the plasma membrane, releasing the
materials inside. The materials that were inside the vesicle are now free on the opposite
side of the membrane. In this way, vesicles are used to transport material between rough
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.

2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break
and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis
Endocytosis is the movement of material into a cell by a process in which the plasma
membrane engulfs extracellular material, forming membrane-bound sacs that enter the
cytoplasm.

Exocytosis is the movement of material out of a cell by a process in which

intracellular material is enclosed within a vesicle that moves to the plasma membrane and
fuses with it, releasing the material outside the cell.

The cell membrane is fluid in that it is constantly in motion. The movement of the
phospholipids changes the membrane's shape, and allows for temporary holes in the
membrane that let materials flow in and out of the cell. If the membrane were not fluid in
nature, it would not be able to fuse with vesicles in endocytosis and exocytosis.
 2.5 Cell Division
2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis
and cytokinesis
Phases of Major events
interphase
G1 Growth of cell and increase in number
of organelles
S Replication of chromosomes with
copies remaining attached to one another
G2 Further growth occurs, organelles
increase in number, DNA condenses to form
visible chromosomes, microtubules begin to
form Outline
Overall Cell is performing the tasks
Mitosis
appropriate to its type – e.g. a pancreas cell
may be secreting insulin to reduce glucose During
Mitosis levels in the body the
replicated chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell thus providing the
same genetic material to each of these locations.
When the chromosomes are at the poles of the cell, the cytoplasm divides to form
two distinct cells from the larger parent. These two cells have the same genetic materials
and are referred to as daughter cells.
Mitosis involves 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

Outline Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the final phase of cell division. It occurs at the end of Mitosis
The table below summarises the 2 types of cytokinesis:
Cell Example Description of cytokinesis

Animal Cell membrane pinches

inward forming cleavage furrows
that ultimately separate the two
cells
Plant Cell plate forms from inside
producing the rigid cell walls that
separate the two cells
 2.5.2 State that tumors (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and
that these can occur in any organ or tissue
Tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and these can occur in
any organ or tissue.

2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many
metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in
the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts
Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions
occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of
mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.

2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase)

PROPHASE
Chromosomes condense by supercoiling, becoming visible
Centrioles move to opposite poles
Nucleolus disappears
Nuclear membrane disappears
Microtubular spindle apparatus forms at each pole

METAPHASE
Spindle microtubules attach to chromosome centromeres
 Chromosomes move to the equator

ANAPHASE
Centromeres split as spindle microtubules pull chromatids to opposite poles (after
centromeres split, sister chromatids are known as sister chromosomes)
Sister chromosomes move to opposite poles as microtubules shorten

TELOPHASE
Sister chromosomes have arrived at poles
Spindle disappears
Centrioles replicate
Nuclear membrane becomes visible Nucleolus becomes visible
Chromosomes decondense, becoming chromatin

2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei

Mitosis involves a series of steps that starts with the replication of the chromosomes
and therefore DNA. Each chromosome consists of an identical sister chromotid. The
chromosomes condense and the nuclear membrane begins to break down, once the nuclear
membrane has broken down completely the chromosomes line up alone the equator
(Metaphase), here spindle fibres attach to the opposite sides of the chromosomes, the
centromeres split and the sister chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles (anaphase). At
this point, identical daughter cells are formed.
The steps are directly related to the phases of mitosis – prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.

2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual
reproduction involve mitosis
Growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve
mitosis.
The Chemistry of Life 01/27/2011

3.1 Chemical elements and water

3.3.1 State that the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things
are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
The most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things are:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen

3.1.2 State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms,
including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium
A variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including:
 Sulphur
 Calcium
 Phosphorus
 Iron
 Sodium

3.1.3 State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 3.1.2
Element Example role in Example role in Example role in
plants animals prokaryotes
Sulphur (S) In some amino acids In some amino acids In some amino acids

Calcium (Ca) Co-factor in some Co-factor in some Co-factor in some

enzymes enzymes and enzymes
component of
bones
Phosphorus (P) Phosphate groups in Phosphate groups in Phosphate groups in
ATP ATP ATP
Iron (Fe) Is cytochromes In cytochromes and In cytochromes
in haemoglobin

Sodium (Na) In membrane In membrane In membrane

function function and function
sending nerve
impulses
 3.1.4 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of water molecules to show
their polarity and hydrogen bond formation

3.1.5 Outline the thermal, cohesive, and solvent properties of water

 Name of Outline of Significance to living organism
property property
Cohesio Water molecules Columns of water can be
n stick to each other sucked up through trees without
because of the hydrogen breaking. Mosquito larvae use the
bonds that form between surface of water as a habitat even
them though they are more dense than it,
they do not sink
Solvent Many substance Allows many substances to be
properties dissolve in water due to its carried dissolved in water in the blood
polarity. Including Na+ and of animals and the sap of plants.
C6H12O6 Water can be used as a transport
medium
Heat Water has a large Water temperature is quite
capacity heat capacity due to the stable. Useful for habitats. Blood can
strength of hydrogen carry heat from warmer body parts to
bonds (hard to break) cooler
Boiling The boiling point of In natural habitats, water
point water (100ºC) is high, rarely boils. Living organism could not
because to change it from survive otherwise. Ice that forms on
a liquid to a gas all of the the surface insulates the water
Thermal properties

hydrogen bonds between underneath thus living organisms can

the water molecules have survive there
to be broken
The Water can Evaporation of water from
cooling effect of evaporate at plant leaves (transpiration) and form
evaporation temperatures below the human skin (sweat) has useful
boiling point. Hydrogen cooling effect. Water can be used as a
bonds have to be broken coolant
to do this. The energy
needed to break the
bonds is taken from the
liquid water, cooling it
down.
 3.1.6 Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living
organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium.
Propert Use in living things
y
Coolant Water has a high specific heat capacity which means that water
can give off a great deal of heat without changing temperature greatly.
Water has a high heat of vaporisation this means that water absorbs a
great deal of heat when it evaporates which makes it an excellent cooling
mechanism for living organisms e.g. through perspiration
Medium The solvent properties of water make it a good medium for
for metabolic metabolic transport that is many different substances dissolve in water
transport because of its polarity. Most chemical reactions in living organism take
place with all of the substances involved in the reactions dissolved in
water.
The fact that water is below boiling point almost everywhere on
earth and is in a liquid state makes it a good medium for metabolic
transport
Transpo Water has strong cohesive properties that are strong pulling
rt Medium forces that can be exerted to move the molecules to where they are
needed. E.G. columns of water move up plants.
The solvent properties of water allow many substances to be
carried dissolved in it in the blood of animals and the sap of plants.
 3.2 Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
3.2.1 Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds
Organic – compounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms (except
hydrogen carbonates and oxides or carbon)

Inorganic – compounds that contain carbon but are widely found in the environment
(e.g. Carbon Dioxide)

3.2.2 Identify amino acids, glucose, ribose and fatty acids from diagrams showing their
structure
Structure Name Identifiable
Characteristics
This is the
generalised structure as each
of the twenty amino acids
have their own specific
structure. The thing to look
Amino
out for when identifying the
acid
amino acid structure is the R
group, it is here that each of
the twenty amino acids have
a specific molecule attached
that identifies them.
When identifying
glucose, count the carbons –
it is a 6 carbon
monosaccharide in a ring
Glucose shape (6 points on the ring)

Very similar to
glucose, except that it is a 5
point monosaccharide, and
Ribose only has 5 points on its ring.
(Pentagon)

Fatty Must have a methyl

Acids (CH3) group at one end, and
a COOH group at the other
end. The number of carbons
in the middle, is how we
identify which fatty acid it is
Sometimes the
number of carbons in the
 middle can be written as
(CH2)n

3.2.3 List three examples each of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

Carbohydr Example
ate
Monosacc  Glucose
haride’s  Galactose
 Fructose
Disacchari  Maltose
de’s  Lactose
 Sucrose
Polysacch  Starch
arides.  Glcogen
 Cellulose

3.2.4 State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose,
sucrose and cellulose in plants
Carbohydr Function in Animals
ate
Glucose Chemical fuel for cell respiration
(monosaccharide
)
Lactose Makes up some of the solutes in milk
(disaccharide)
Glycogen Stores glucose in liver and muscles
(polysaccharide)
 Carbohydr Function in Plants.
ate
Fructose Found in many fruits – it makes them sweet
(monosaccharide
)
Sucrose Often transported from leaves of plants to other locations in
(disaccharide) plants by vascular tissue for energy
Cellulose One of the primary components of plant cell walls – gives them
(polysaccharide) strength
3.2.5 Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides; between fatty acids, glycerol and
triglycerides; and between amino acids and polypeptides
Hydrolysis:
 When animals eat food, the food is digested (or hydrolysed) into the building blocks.
Once these building blocks are transported to body cells, they are bonded together
to form large molecules once again
 Foods are broken down in your alimentary canal. The digestive enzymes that
accomplish this are hydrolysing enzymes
 Each reaction is called a hydrolysis reaction and requires a molecule of water as a
reactant. This is a good way to recognize hydrolysis reactions – water is always ‘split’
as part of the reaction
 When larger molecules split up to release base unit molecules, water is added back
to the new molecules. This is called hydrolysis
Examples of Hydrolysis
 Hydrolysis of a disaccharide to two monosaccrides:
o Lactose + water  glucose + galactose
 Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide to many monosaccharides
o Starch + (many) water  (many) glucose
 Hydrolysis of a triglyceride to glycerol and fatty acids:
o Trygylceride + 3 water  glycerol + 3 fatty acids
 Hydrolysis of a polypeptide (protein) to amino acids:
o Protein + (many) water  (many) amino acids

Condensation:
 Condensation are in many ways the opposite of hydrolysis reactions
 In cells, condensation reactions occur to re-form the larger biochemically important
molecules
 In condensation reactions, the water molecule is a product rather than a reactant
 Condensation reactions use a catalysing enzyme, these create covalent bonds rather
than breaking them
 Condensation reactions release a water molecule when base unit molecules join to
make larger molecules
Example of Condensation
 Condensation of amino acids to form a polypeptide
o (many) amino acids  protein + (many) water
o monosaccharides joins to form a polysaccharide
3.2.6 State three functions of lipids
 1. Energy storage – in the form of fat n humans and oil in plants
 2. Thermal insulation – a layer of fat (lipids) under the skin reduces heat loss
 3. Buoyancy – lipids are less dense than water to help animals to float

3.2.7 Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage

 Both lipids and carbohydrates can be used for energy storage in living organisms
 Both types of storage compound have advantages
 Carbohydrates are usually used for energy storage over short periods, and lipids for
long term storage

Advantages of Lipids Advantages of Carbohydrates

Stores of lipids contain twice as much
energy as stores of carbohydrates
Lipids are insoluble in water, so they
do not cause problems with osmosis in cells
Play a role in the structure of the
membrane
Good for thermal insulation
Carbohydrates are more easily
digested than lipids so the energy stores by
them can be released more rapidly
Carbohydrates are soluble in water
so are easier to transport to and from the
store
 3.3 DNA Structure

3.3.1 Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and
phosphate

Each nucleotide of DNA is composed

of a phosphate group, a sugar called
deoxyribose and a molecule called a
nitrogenous base

3.3.2 State the names of the four bases in DNA

 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Guanine (G)
 Cytosine (C)

3.3.3 Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single
strand
Two DNA nucleotides can be linked together by a covalent bond between the sugar of one
nucleotide, and the phosphate group of the other. The process can be repeated to build a
polynucleotide chain with a sugar-phosphate backbone and the nitrogenous bases
projecting outwards.

3.3.4 Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and
hydrogen bonds
 The combination of hydrogen bonds between A-T and G-C holds the two strands
of DNA together, forming a double helix
 Adenine and Thymine are held together by 2 hydrogen bonds
 Cytosine and guanine are held together by 3 hydrogen bonds
 Because A and G are twice the size of T and C, complementary base pairing is the
only arrangement that gives a consistent distance from one strand to the other
strand and also leads to bonding between the bases
3.3.5 Draw and label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA

3.4.1 Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding the double helix and separation of the
strands by helicase, followed by formation of the new complementary strands by DNA
polymerase

STEP 1
The DNA double helix is unwound and separated into strands by breaking the hydrogen
bonds. Helicase is the main enzyme that does this
STEP 2
The single strands act as templates for new strands. Free nucleotides are present in large
numbers around the replication fork. The bases of these nucleotides form Hydrogen bonds
with the bases on the parent strand. The nucleotides are linked up to form the new strand.
DNA polymerase is the main enzyme involved
STEP 3
The daughter DNA molecules each rewind into a double helix

3.4.2 Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the
base sequence of DNA

3.4.3 State that DNA replication is semi-conservative

DNA replication is semi-conservative
(Semi-conservative means that each molecule formed by replication consists of one
new strand and one old strand conserved from the parent DNA molecule)

3.5.1 Compare the structure of RNA and DNA

3.5.2 Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand
complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase

3.5.3 Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets and bases

3.5.4 Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation

3.5.5 Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide

3.6.1

3.6.2

3.6.3

3.6.4

3.6.5

3.7.1

3.7.2

3.7.3

3.7.4