I.

Origins of the Revolution

a. 3 bases
i. Liberty - Individual human rights – e.g. rights to religion, speech,
assembly/petition, freedom from arbitrary laws (i.e. pointless laws an absolute
ruler can make on a whim), freedom to prosper)\
ii. Sovereignty – (control) with the People (public) = voting (but not for women until
1944). Would not extend to French colonies.
iii. Equality (before the law) – offended by “birth rights”, but not economically, only
politically/opportunistically. Also, no racial/gender equality at this point.
b. These ideas were “extremist” at the time
c. Classical Liberalism – Smith’s economic policies + Liberty – (Reactionary)
d. Origins:
i. Magna Carta /other British government
ii. American Revolution (though French one was much less revolutionary)
iii. Enlightenment – Locke, Montesquieu
iv. Renaissance, Ancient Rome/Greece and their ideals
e. Attraction to Revolutionary Ideals:
i. Nobles/Middle Class – liked Parliament idea, limited constitutional monarchy,
didn’t like the idea of “mob rule”
ii. Ordinary people – not attracted to it at all, didn’t care about classical liberalism
and found capitalism offensive because it took away their “common rights” (just
price, etc.)
iii. Many French generals served in the American Revolution (e.g. Lafayette) and thus
learned about/were inspired by those ideals
1. French Rev. was more complex than the American one
II. The Old Regime
a. Society organized into three estates:
i. First Estate: Clergy (about 0.35% of France’s population)
1. Worked for catholic church
2. High societal position and wealthy (esp. upper clergy)
3. Owned about 10% of land
4. Did not have to pay tithes (10% income tax collected by church); gave
“donne gratuit” which was a “gift” every 5 years
5. Had own court system
6. Top clergy members (archbishops, etc.) from nobility
ii. Second Estate (1.4% of population)
1. Most doing very well economically/socially at this time
2. Born into nobility – must have a title, which then by primogeniture is given
on to kids
a. This gives them opportunities e.g. access to better schooling and
jobs (precedence)
b. Usually wealthy, owned 25% of land (also helped get better
opportunities and passed this down too)
3. Only paid tithes (no other taxes)
4. Taxed/charged fees to peasants who lived on their land
 a. Fees to use equipment, e.g. village oven
b. Owned courts, charged fees to peasants using them
c. Own private hunting land, etc.
d. Taxes as remnants of feudalism
5. Nobility of the Robe/Sword (had this stuff to symbolize nobility)
iii. Third Estate
1. Bourgeoisie (8% of population): have wealth
a. Professionals; college educated, business people
b. Some better educated than nobility but could not get certain jobs
due to precedence.
c. Liked Smith’s economic policies
2. Artisans (15% of pop.): had some wealth
a. Made things
b. Many lived in cities, etc.
3. Peasants (about 75% of population)
a. Owned, collectively, 30% of all land
b. Paid a lot of taxes, overall, because there were so many of them
c. Did not have much money or food
b. Conflicts:
i. “Old History”: bourgeoisie and nobles clashed, led to revolution
ii. “Revisionist (New) History”: bourgeoisie and Nobility of the Robe actually had
similar goals (more power, constitutional monarchy, get rid of mercantilism)
III. Finances in France
a. Louis XVI wants to be liked
i. He brings back the Parlement (Court)
ii. Becomes king at 20 years old
b. He hires a bunch of Finance Ministers:
i. Anne Robert Jacques Turgot: 1774-1776
1. Wants to get rid of Mercantilism
2. Says Versailles uses too much money (6% of budget)
3. He says, to improve economy, all landowners must pay a tax
4. Parlement voids this (they were made up of nobles who didn’t want to
pay)
5. Other ideas
a. repudiate debt (declare bankruptcy) – Louis is not popular enough
with creditors
b. printing money – they don’t have the paper for that
c. Borrowing money – again, creditors don’t like him
ii. Jacques Necker (Swiss) 1776-1783
1. Shows, inadvertently, that without the pension and money to Americas,
there would actually be a surplus
2. Nobody likes this so he resigns
iii. Charles Alexandre de Calonne 1783-1787
1. Suggests a tax on all land, and that to get approval for it, Louis should
create an assembly of “notables” (famous people)
 a. The assembly thinks that he should bring back the Estates General
(France’s Parliament) which hasn’t even met for 173 years and
done anything constructive for even longer
b. They don’t cooperate with Louis’s ideas since he doesn’t do so
2. Louis still needs money
iv. Etienne Charles Lorenne de Brenne 1787
1. Agrees with everyone else
2. Suggests also that the first estate should be taxed (clergy is angry and
stops giving donne gratuit)
3. Louis decrees a new tax and sends Parlement away…until he has to bring
them back because of creditors
v. Jacques Necker (THE RETURN!) 1787-1789
1. Finally agrees to bring back the Estates General
c. Estates General!
i. 600 third estate members, 300 second, 300 first
ii. They can decide how to elect their own representatives
1. first estate: mostly parish priests since they want to change things (unlike
upper clergy)
2. 2nd estate: about a third is liberals (e.g. Lafayette) who want a more
English government. Two thirds is nobility who want more power in
government
3. Third estate: ALL bourgeoisie (who want more power/rights), mostly
lawyers
a. First round of voting: all over 25yr males can vote
b. 2nd round: only large property owners, which leaves most of the
third estate out of voting
iii. Agreements:
1. Government should be more like British
2. Bill of Rights and Constitution necessary
3. Capitalist finances
4. Cahiers de Doleances (Notebook/list of grievances)
5. HOW TO VOTE
iv. They all met in Versailles, but in separate areas
v. ONE vote per section (3 votes total) so first/second always outnumbered third
despite amount of people.
vi. Abbé Emmanuel Sieyes wrote “What is the third estate?” a pamphlet about how
the third estate needs more power.
vii. Deadlock on how to vote
viii. Third estate declares themselves the National Assembly
1. They say anyone from the other estates may join
2. A few nobles/clergy members do so
3. Then they are locked out of their courtyard
4. Thus, they meet on a Tennis Court
5. TENNIS COURT OATH: they will keep meeting until they write a
constitution
 a. Some people don’t like this: Louis XVI is not sure, but “the
plotters” urge him to do something about it
b. He sends 18 000 soldiers to disband the National Assembly
ix. “The Plotters”
1. Wife, Marie Antionette
a. Tells him to assert his “divine right”
b. Not let “minions override it
2. Two “Count” brothers of his who say he should disband National Asembly
3. They convince Louis to dismiss his finance minister and other ministers to
assert his divine right (July 11, 1789)
a. This angers poor since France is already in a huge depression and
there are poor harvests
b. Also, artisans and laborers are losing their jobs since people don’t
have money to buy what they make. 25% of people are
unemployed.
IV. Riots and Unrest
a. Bread Riots (July 13) - Poor peasants thought people were hoarding bread/not selling for
“just price”
b. Storming of Bastille (July 14)
i. Killed 98 people overall
ii. There were Swiss mercenaries and retired soldiers guarding the Bastille, a prison
iii. Most of the high-security sort of prisoners had already been moved
iv. Rioters paraded the mayor’s head on a stick
c. Paris is saved from complete anarchy by Lafayette (who is now a General)
i. He is in charge of National Guard
ii. Necker comes back as Finance Minister
iii. Flag change (fleur-de-lis to new, red/white/blue stripes)
d. The Great Fear
i. Peasants see confusion as opportunity to escape serfdom leftovers (set papers on
fire)
ii. Attacked nobles, tax collectors, bourgeoisie, and even wealthy peasants
V. National Assembly
a. August 4th
b. Eliminate feudal fees, etc.
c. Decree of Civic Equality
i. Everyone equal in eyes of law
ii. Nobles not given any compensation
d. Declaration of the Rights of Man
i. Like Bill of Rights
ii. Includes individual rights, guarantees trial by jury, representation in government
iii. Women are NOT included
iv. People start using the term “citizen” instead of “subject”
e. France is still in a depression and things are getting even WORSE for artisans/laborers after
revolution begins
i. People aren’t buying their goods
 ii. They go to Versailles on October 5th, demand that king/nobles do something to
ease the financial burden
1. Women go to talk to Marie Antoinette
a. She says, “let them eat ‘cake’” i.e. the stuff at the bottom of the
oven after baking bread
b. They have sharp objects and want to kill her, but she is saved in
confusion (of Versailles)
2. Many people are killed
3. Lafayette shows up with National Guard, surrounds Royal Family and they
go to Tuileries (they have a palace there)
f. National Assembly goes to Paris
i. Abolished French nobility (monarchy?)
ii. Some new rights for women:
1. right to divorce, own property, get child support
2. still excluded from politics
iii. Other reforms:
1. Divided France into 83 départements of equal size, then into districts,
cantons, communes (encouraged local government)
2. Chepelier Law
a. Banned all guilds, etc.
b. Blocked government intervention with trade
3. Abolished torture and degrading punishments, created new court system
with elected justices, etc.
4. Discussed adopting metric system (not done until 1793)
5. Assignats
a. Paper currency
b. Financed through church
i. Seized and broke down land plots owned by clergy and
sold them
ii. Abolished certain monasteries
iv. Clergy were angered by that, thus the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
1. Fire all but one bishop per département
2. burden of paying clergy will be relieved since government will pay them
3. Clergy even more unhappy about this (do they answer to government?
Not supposed to elect clergy)
4. Pope rejects this and most clergy members refuse to take the necessary
loyalty oath (Church condemns revolution)
v. 1791 Constitution
1. Creates new government…
VI. Legislative Assembly
a. National Assembly members not allowed in
b. Problem: too many rules about voting, etc.
c. Seating (important): right/center/left
i. Liberals: wanted republic
ii. Conservatives: happy with way things were exactly
 d. Opponents: Burke, Wollstonecroft, de Gouges
e. William Pitt
f. Finally, get rid of king/queen (they flee to Variennes and are caught there)
g. Nobles flee to other countries, asking them (e.g. Fredrick Wilhelm II, Leopold II) to stop
Revolution
i. Declaration of Pillnitz: very ambiguous by previously mentioned kings (Austria,
Prussia)
ii. Still causes Legislative Assembly to declare war
h. First Coalition forms: Austria, Prussia, Britain, Netherlands, Turkey, Spain
i. The Marseillaise comes about as the national song (France)
j. Commune: Paris government led by sans-culottes; led by ex-priest, demanded economic
betterment
VII. The Second Revolution
a. National Convention (temporary government to create constitution)
i. Wanted Republic
ii. Eliminated saints days, renamed calendar months, metric system (more
secular/less religious)
iii. Everyone in it is “left”, some are more so than others
iv. Eliminated vous (formal you)
v. “setup”
1. Mountain – most left
2. Plain – moderate/middle
3. Girondists – most conservative
4. (All were Jacobins)
b. September Massacres
c. Battle at Valmy (Victory by French against Prussia in Sept.)
d. Universal manhood suffrage
e. Liberation Declaration (France wants to liberate other countries) = France getting re-
invaded
i. Still fighting First Coalition, France takes Savoy, Nice, Rhineland
ii. Battle of Jemappes (General Dumouriez)
iii. Spreading Revolution/Plundering
f. King convicted of treason (by one vote), beheaded
g. Counterrevolution: people are frustrated by the revolution
i. Dumouriez defected over to First Coalition since he didn’t want to keep “spreading
republic”
h. Mountain takes over (Girondists imprisoned)
i. Robspierre, Danton, Marat (stabbed in bath) lead this
ii. Work with sans-culottes
iii. Launch Committee of Public Savety
1. Subgovernment, essentially a dictatorship within republic
2. Trying to stop counterrevolution
iv. Levée en Masse
1. Planned (socialist) economy
2. Outlaw write breed, etc.; requisition food, supplies, etc. for army
 v. Draft/conscription for military
1. 14 separate armies
2. Good time for young officers to rise
VIII. Reign of Terror
a. Sept. 1793-July 1794
b. Revolutionary Tribunals:
i. Anyone involved in counter-revolution (or suspected) tried and killed
ii. 25-40 thousand killed
iii. 300 thousand imprisoned in horrible conditions
iv. Lots of 3rd estate people killed, also Lavoisier the scientist
v. Once military is doing better, they get rid of socialist ideas (and sans-culottes
become angry again) – Enragés: Jacques Roux, leader of sans-culottes, criticizes
Robspierre
vi. “some women”
vii. Danton: “Let’s stop this!” = he is guillotined
c. Priorial – July 10th
i. Even without substantial evidence, you can get people tried
d. July 17th, Robspierre is guillotined
IX. Thermidorian (new summer month) Reaction
a. White Terror
b. Bourgeoisie rule
c. Commune outlawed (sans-culottes lose out)
d. Urban poor repressed
e. In villages/small towns, women try to reassert Roman Catholic Church
X. National Convention
a. 1795 Constitution
i. Directory
ii. Republic: 2 houses
1. Council of Elders (40 years old and older, widowed)
2. Council of 500 (30 years old and older)
3. 5 executives (directors)
a. Voted for by assembly
b. Universal manhood suffrage indirectly-indirectly votes
b. “Solutions”
i. Continue to fight war/expand
ii. Directors are very weak, often argue
iii. Many conservatives decide they want a king again
iv. Second Coalition forms: Austria, Russia, Britain, Portugal, Ottoman Empire
c. Directory is taken over by Napoleon!
XI. Napoleon
a. Corsican (originally an Italian island right before his birth)
b. Born Aug. 15, 1769
c. Parents had 13 kids, 8 lived to adulthood
d. Poor, but had a title (nobility)
e. Sent to military school at age 10
f. Went to prestigious Ecole Militaire at age 15
g. Best at artillery
h. Fought Corsica for a bit
i. Brigadier General at age 24 (unusually quick)
j. Commander a few years later
k. Married Josephine de Beauharnais
i. She was a widow
ii. They cheated on each other but she couldn’t have any kids for biological reasons
l. Destroyed First Coalition while in army
i. Treaty of Campo Formio (Austria) destroyed it
m. Britain actually defeated Napoleon near Egypt but he is hailed as a hero since the citizens
of France are not aware of it
n. Abbé Sieyes writes another pamphlet, now about Napoleon’s brilliance
o. Napoléon stages a Coup d’État!
i. Creates “Consulate” (New government, from Rome)
1. Gives himself title of “First Consul”
2. Plebiscite: wrote constitution in only one month, gave people the power
to accept/reject
3. Says he stands for revolutionary ideas
4. Actually demands loyalty/is a dictator
ii. Destroys Austrian army at Battle of Marengo
iii. Treaty of Luneville: All Rhine areas and some others to France, Austria drops out of
2nd coalition
iv. Treaty of Amiens (with Britain): France gets much territory
v. Police State: led by Joseph Fouchet under Napoleon’s rule, takes away habeus
corpus right as well as others
vi. Napoleonic Code:
1. Finishes Bill of Rights sort of thing; excludes women totally (pater familias)
2. Reduces number of newspapers to 4 (government run)
3. Imprisons people for political beliefs
4. Bank of France – privately owned, loans money to all
5. Finishes National Convention’s national education system
vii. Centralization: prefects, sub-prefects, mayors
viii. Nobles who had left come back since they like him
ix. He creates “new class” of nobles due to nepotism
x. Concordat of 1801 (to pacify church): France had freedom of religion and chose
bishops but acknowledged Catholic church as being a dominant force. Pius II
p. Third Coalition: Britain, Austria, Prussia, Naples, Sweden
q. St. Domingue (Haiti) uprising
i. L’ouverture (ex-slave) declares himself governor for life
ii. Meeting with Brunet results in his arrest/death
iii. Dessalines (another ex-slave) takes over
iv. Much fighting against Napoleon
r. Napoleon begins taking/changing Germany
s. Defeats Third Coalition of Land
 t. Battle of Trafalgar
i. William Pitt the younger, Horatio Nelson (with one arm)
ii. 33 French ships vs. 27 British ships (British win)
XII. Emperor Napoleon
a. 1804-asks Pius II to crown him emperor, but ends up crowning himself because he thinks
he has the right. His wife is crowned empress
b. This annoys 3rd coalition
c. Battle of Austerlitz
i. Winter: December 2nd, 1805
ii. Napoleon still wins: he lures Coalition forces onto a frozen lake which cracks
iii. 27 000 Coalition troops died, 8 000 French troops died
iv. French captured 180 of Coalition’s almost 300 cannons
v. Collapse of 3rd coalition
d. Treaty of Pressburg
i. Makes Napoleon king of Italy
ii. He abolishes Holy Roman Empire
iii. Austria/Sweden become “nominal allies”
e. Fourth Coalition: Britain, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden
i. a result of Napoleon’s reorganization of the center of Europe to the
“Confederation of the Rhine” (went against French “separate Germany” ideals)
ii. Conf. of the Rhine: made up by 15 German states
iii. Prussia incensed, Oct. 14, 1806: Battles of Jena, Averstadt (Napoleon wins both)
1. Friedland: Russians help but still lose
f. Berlin Decrees (Nov.)
i. Continental system (blockade to keep countries from trading with Britain to hurt
economy since Napoleon couldn’t beat them)
1. Cotton industry plummets, so does other trade
2. 3 day workweek for British
3. Bad grain harvests also, exports fall, economic crisis
ii. France is hurt too, since customs fall, British colonial stuff (cotton, tobacco, coffee
sugar) doesn’t get to them (Napoleon “looked the other way”; he liked scotch)
g. Milan Decrees (Nov?)
i. Confiscating British ships in France
h. Treaties of Tilsit (town, border between Prussia and Russia, river)
i. Napoleon and Tsar Alexander….and not Frederick Wilhelm II
ii. Grand Duchy of Warsaw (another fake country): Prussia loses ½ population (re-
making Poland temporarily)
iii. Russia “accepts” continental system (but they rely on Britain for food)
i. Napoleon uses nepotism to get rulers for random countries: family and friends
i. Example, Joseph (brother) King of Spain
ii. One archbishop friend becomes Prince Primate of Rhine
iii. Randomly elevating people to kings, dukes
iv. Fostered marriages between his (blood) relatives to royal European families
v. Abolished serfdom
1. Indemnity
 2. Taxing
vi. Napoleon then goes to Spain/Portugal (Iberian Peninsula=Peninsular Campaign)
1. “not following cont. system”; Spain hated Joseph
vii. Fifth Coalition – Britain, Austria (To help S/P)
viii. Battle of Wagrem, July 1809,
1. 155 000 Austrians fail to seize bridgehead, they lose
2. 80 000 total died
3. Austria abandoned 5th coalition
ix. Peace of Schonbrun: Austrians lose more land/money to France. They give
Napoleon a new wife (So he can have a legitimate heir). They have one child.
x. Britain uses guerilla warfare in Spain; throws Napoleon off
xi. Campaign lasts until 1814
xii. Napoleon gives Sweden to (newly renamed) Charles IV, annexes Holland(?)
xiii. Napoleon decides to attack Russia for violating continental system
xiv. June 1812, invades Russia
1. Grand Army of France – mostly young, untrained men, only 1/3 are French
2. Made up of 600 000 men; Russian army with only 160 000
3. GA of F goes to Moscow but it is burning down (“Scorched Earth” policy:
Russians burn crops/villages so French have nothing to pillage)
4. Took Moscow after Battle of Borodino but since it was burnt they had to
leave, only 30 000 of all soldiers made it back to France since the
conditions were bad and there were no supplies
xv. Napoleon is offered peace if he will only rule France but he refuses
xvi. Sixth Coalition – Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Austria
xvii. Battle of Nations (Leipzig)
1. 400 000 sixth coalition troops against 200 000 French troops
2. Treaty of Chaumont (1814 signed by Sixth coalition, agreed to DEFEAT
NAPOLEON no matter what)
xviii. Napoleon exiled to Elba
xix. Congress of Vienna = France has new king until Napoleon comes back
xx. Back for 100 days until exiled to St. Helene, dies there at 52yrs old