hapter 17

C
NUTRITION,
METABOLISM & BODY
TEMPERATURE
REGULATION
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, 9TH EDITION.

Created by: Johmel De Ocampo


NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
NUTRITION
NUTRITION is the process by
which food is taken into and
used by the body; it includes
digestion, absorption,
transport, and metabolism.
Nutrition is also the study of
food and drink requirements
for normal body function.
NUTRITIENTS
NUTRIENTS are the chemicals
taken into the body that
provide energy and building
blocks for new molecules.
Some substances in food are
not nutrients but provide bulk
(fiber) in the diet. Nutrients
can be divided into six major
classes: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, vitamins, minerals,
and water.
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
ESSENTIAL
NUTRITIENTS
Essential nutrients are
nutrients that must be
ingested because the body
cannot manufacture them—or
it cannot manufacture them in
adequate amounts. The
essential nutrients include
certain amino acids, certain
fatty acids, most vitamins,
minerals, water, and some
carbohydrates. The term
essential does not mean that
the body requires only the
essential nutrients. Other
nutrients are necessary, but if
they are not ingested, they can
be synthesized from the
essential nutrients.
KILOCALORIES
The energy the body uses is
stored within the chemical
bonds of certain nutrients. A
calorie (cal) is the amount of
energy (heat) necessary to
raise the temperature of 1
gram (g) of water 1°C. A
kilocalorie (kcal) is 1000 cal
and is used to express the
larger amounts of energy
supplied by foods and released
through metabolism
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION


NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates include
monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and
polysaccharides. Although
most of the carbohydrates we
ingest are derived from plants,
lactose is derived from
animals. The most common
monosaccharides in the diet
are glucose and fructose.
Plants capture energy from
sunlight and use that energy
to produce glucose, which can
be found in vegetables, fruits,
molasses, honey, and syrup.
Fructose is most often derived
from fruits and berries.
The disaccharide sucrose
(table sugar) is what most
people think of when they use
the term sugar. Sucrose
consists of one glucose and one
fructose molecule joined
together, and its principal
sources are sugarcane and
sugar beets. Maltose (malt
sugar), derived from
germinating cereals, is a
combination of two glucose
molecules, and lactose (milk
sugar) consists of one glucose
molecule and one galactose
molecule.
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
COMPLEX
CARBOHYDRATES
Complex carbohydrates are
large polysaccharides, which
are composed of long chains of
glucose. Examples are starch,
glycogen, and cellulose, which
differ from one another in the
arrangement of the glucose
molecules and the structure of
the chemical bonds holding
them together.
Starch is an energy-storage
molecule in plants and is found
primarily in vegetables, fruits,
and grains. Glycogen is an
energystorage molecule in
animals and is located
primarily in muscle and in the
liver. Cellulose forms plant cell
walls.
FUNCTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
Providing energy and
regulation of blood glucose.
Sparing the use of proteins
for energy.
Breakdown of fatty acids and
preventing ketosis.
Biological recognition
processes.
Flavor and Sweeteners.
Dietary fiber.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

LIPIDS FUNCTION OF
Lipids include triglycerides,
steroids, phospholipids, and
LIPIDS
Triglycerides are an important
fat-soluble vitamins.
source of energy that can be
Triglycerides, also called
used to produce ATP. A gram
triacylglycerols, are the most
of triglyceride delivers over
common type of lipid in the
twice as many calories as does
diet, accounting for about 95%
a gram of carbohydrate or
of the total lipid intake.
protein.
Triglyceride molecules consist
Some cells, such as skeletal
of three fatty acids bound to
muscle cells, derive most of
one glycerol molecule.
their energy from
Triglycerides are often
triglycerides.
referred to as fats. If the fat is
Ingested triglyceride
a liquid at room temperature,
molecules not immediately
it is referred to as an oil. Fats
used are stored in adipose
are saturated if their fatty
tissue or in the liver.
acids have only single
When energy is required, the
covalent bonds between
stored triglycerides are broken
carbon atoms and unsaturated
down, and the fatty acids are
if they have one or more
released into the blood.
double bonds.
The fatty acids can be taken
Monounsaturated fats have
up and used by various tissues.
one double bond, and
In addition to storing energy,
polyunsaturated fats have two
adipose tissue surrounds, pads,
or more double bonds.
and protects organs.
Saturated fats are found in
Adipose tissue located under
meat, dairy products, eggs,
the skin is an insulator, which
nuts, coconut oil, and palm oil.
helps reduce heat loss.
Monounsaturated fats include
olive and peanut oils;
polyunsaturated fats are found
in fish, safflower, sunflower,
and corn oils.

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
PROTEINS
The building blocks of Protein is
Amino Acid.
Protein is composed of amino
acid, which are organic
compounds made of carbon,
hydrogen,oxygen and nitrogen.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
SHAPES
a. Fibrous protein (insoluble)-
elongated shape; structural
protein
b. Globular protein (soluble)-
spherical/ globular shape;
transport proteins
STRUCTURE
a. Primary Structure-
sequence of amino acids
b. Secondary Structure
i. Alpha helix- bond between
every fourth amino acid
ii. Beta pleated sheet-bond
side by side chain
c. Tertiary Structure-
combination of secondary
structure
Disulfidebond
Electrostatic Interaction
Hydrogen bond
Hydrophobic Interaction
d. Quaternary Structure-bind
together but still separated
COMPOSITION
a. Simple Proteins- aka.
Homoproteins; made up of only
amino acid
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
b. Conjugated Proteins- aka
Heteroproteins; contain a non-
protein in their structure
Glycoproteins
Chromoproteins
Phosphoproteins
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO
ACIDS
1. POLARITY- polaror non-polar
2. ESSENTIALITY
a. Essential- can only get from
food
b. Conditionally Essential-
healthy bodies can make them
c. Non-essential- can make by
ourselves
3. NEUTRALITY- neutral, acid, base
FUNCTION OF
LIPIDS
a. Structural Protein- shape &
structure
b. Enzymatic Protein- speeds
up chemical reaction
c. Transport Protein- transport
substances
d. Defense Protein- found in
immune system
e. Regulatory Protein-
regulatebody mechanism
f. Contractile Protein-
regulates contraction
g. Storage- store/reserve of
metal ion and aminoacid
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

VITAMINS
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

MINERALS

DAILY VALUES
Daily Values appear on food labels to help consumers plan a healthful diet
and to minimize confusion. However, not all possible Daily Values are
required to be listed on food labels. Daily Values are based on two other sets of
reference values—Reference Daily Intakes and Daily Reference Values:
Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) are based on the 1968 RDAs for certain
vitamins and minerals. RDIs have been set for four categories of people:
infants, toddlers, people over 4 years of age, and pregnant or lactating
women.
Daily Reference Values (DRVs) are set for total fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol, total carbohydrate, dietary fiber, sodium, potassium, and
protein.

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
REGULATION OF
METABOLISM
The products of digestion, such
as glucose, fatty acids, and
amino acids, are molecules
containing energy within their
chemical bonds.
A series of chemical reactions,
called a biochemical pathway,
controls the energy release
from these molecules.
There are several different
biochemical pathways inside
cells. In turn, enzymes are
regulated in several ways:
Enzyme synthesis
Receptor-mediated enzyme
activity
Product control of enzyme
activity
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
METABOLISM
Metabolism is the total of all
the chemical reactions that
occur in the body.
It consists of catabolism, the
energy-releasing process by
which large molecules are
broken down into smaller ones,
and anabolism, the energy-
requiring process by which
small molecules are joined to
form larger ones.
Catabolism begins during the
process of digestion and is
concluded within individual
cells.
Anabolism occurs in all cells of
the body as they divide to form
new cells, maintain their own
intracellular structure, and
produce molecules such as
hormones, neurotransmitters,
or extracellular matrix
molecules for export.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is a series of
chemical reactions that occurs
in the fluid part of cytoplasm
surrounding the organelles.
It results in the breakdown of
glucose to two pyruvic acid
molecules. When glucose is
converted to pyruvic acid, two
ATP molecules are used and
four ATP molecules are
produced, for a net gain of two
ATP molecules.
ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION
Lactic acid fermentation, a form
of anaerobic respiration, is the
breakdown of glucose in the
absence of O2 to produce two
molecules of lactic acid and two
molecules of ATP. The ATP thus
produced is a source of energy
during activities, such as
intense exercise, when
insufficient O2 is delivered to
tissues.

Lactic acid fermentation can be divided into two phases:

1. Glycolysis. Glucose undergoes several reactions to produce two pyruvic
acid molecules, two ATP, and two NADH.
2. Lactic acid formation. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, a
reaction that requires the input of energy from the NADH produced in
phase 1 of lactic acid fermentation.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

AEROBIC
RESPIRATION
Aerobic (̄r-̄′bik) respiration is the
breakdown of glucose in the
presence of O2 to produce CO2,
water, and 38 molecules of ATP.
Aerobic respiration can be
divided into four phases:
Glycolysis
Acetyl-CoA fromation
Citric acid cycle
Electron transport chain
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION


NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
LIPID METABOLISM
The metabolism of fatty acids
takes place in the mitochondria.
It occurs by a series of reactions
wherein two carbon atoms are
removed from the end of a fatty
acid chain to form acetyl-CoA.
As the process continues,
carbon atoms are removed two
at a time until the entire fatty
acid chain is converted into
acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA can
enter the citric acid cycle and be
used to generate ATP.
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
In the liver, two acetyl-CoA
molecules can also combine to
form ketones. The ketones are
released into the blood and travel
to other tissues, especially skeletal
muscle. In these tissues, the
ketones are converted back to
acetyl-CoA, which can enter the
citric acid cycle to produce ATP.
The presence of small amounts of
ketones in the blood is normal and
beneficial, but excessive
production of ketones is called
ketosis
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

PROTEIN METABOLISM
Amino acids are the products of protein digestion. Once amino acids are
absorbed into the body, they are quickly taken up by cells, especially in the
liver. Amino acids are used primarily to synthesize needed proteins and only
secondarily as a source of energy. If serving as a source of energy, amino
acids can be used in two ways:
(1) The amino acids can be converted into the molecules of carbohydrate
metabolism, such as pyruvic acid and acetyl-CoA. These molecules can be
metabolized to yield ATP.
(2) The amine group (−NH2) can be removed from the amino acid, leaving
ammonia and an α-keto acid.
This process produces NADH, which can enter the electron-transport
chain to produce ATP. Ammonia is toxic to cells, so the liver converts it to
urea, which the blood carries to the kidneys, where it is eliminated.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

METABOLIC STATE
The body experiences two major metabolic states.
The first is the absorptive state, the period immediately after a meal, when
nutrients are being absorbed through the intestinal wall into the
circulatory and lymphatic systems.
The second state, the postabsorptive state, occurs late in the morning, late
in the afternoon, or during the night after each absorptive state is
concluded.

METABOLIC RATE
Metabolic rate is the total amount of energy produced and used by the body
per unit of time. Metabolic rate is usually estimated by measuring the
amount of oxygen used per minute.
Metabolic energy can be used in three ways: for basal metabolism, for muscle
contraction, and for the assimilation of food, which involves processes such
as the production of digestive enzymes and the active transport of digested
molecules.
The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy needed to keep the resting body
functional. It is the metabolic rate calculated in expended kilocalories per
square meter of body surface area per hour. BMR is measured when a person
is awake but restful and has not eaten for 12 hours. A typical BMR for a 70-kg
(154-lb) male is 38 kcal/m2/hour.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

NUTRITION, METABOLISM & BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION