Migration and Development

ISSN: 2163-2324 (Print) 2163-2332 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rmad20

Exploring the impact of rural–urban migration on

urban land use and land cover: a case of Dhaka
city, Bangladesh

Mohammad Mahbubur Rahman, Md. Shareful Hassan, Khalid Md.

Bahauddin, Adib Khondoker Ratul & Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan

To cite this article: Mohammad Mahbubur Rahman, Md. Shareful Hassan, Khalid Md. Bahauddin,
Adib Khondoker Ratul & Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan (2017): Exploring the impact of
rural–urban migration on urban land use and land cover: a case of Dhaka city, Bangladesh,
Migration and Development

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Migration and Development, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2017.1301298

Exploring the impact of rural–urban migration on urban land use

and land cover: a case of Dhaka city, Bangladesh
Mohammad Mahbubur Rahmana, Md. Shareful Hassanb, Khalid Md. Bahauddinc*,
Adib Khondoker Ratuld and Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyand
a
Bangladesh Society of Environmental Scientists, Dhaka, Bangladesh; bCenter for Environmental
Change Studies and Management, Dhaka, Bangladesh; cInternational Society for Development
and Sustainability, Dhaka, Bangladesh; dDepartments of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar
University, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh
(Received 16 October 2016; final version received 28 February 2017)

Dhaka city is experiencing rapid urbanization with high economic growth and
industrial development. Instead of taking a variety of poverty mitigation and social
safety programs, the overall number of people living in the informal urban
settlements is increasing at a faster rate than the urban population due to the growing
figure of internally displaced people by environmental and socio-economic impacts.
This study explores the spatiotemporal growth of city’s irregular and informal settle-
ments occupied by rural–urban migrants, utilizing geographical information systems
(GIS) and remote sensing and looks into its impact on the changing land use and
land cover pattern and urban built environment. Informal settlements had mapped
through the visual interpretation of Google high-resolution image focusing temporal
patterns of 2006, 2010 and 2016. The land use analysis shows that cultivated land
and water bodies all decreased in the area while built-up areas, bare soil, and
informal settlements increased over the same period with the encroachment of
low-lying lands for settlements.
Keywords: rural and urban; migration; informal settlement; land use and cover;
Dhaka

Introduction
Urbanization is nowadays an almost inescapable process which has accelerated the pro-
cess of globalization (Zagorski, 2012). The rapid growth of urbanization throughout the
globe has done the first ever prevalence of the number of people being in urban settle-
ments than in rural ones (United Nations, 2010). It has assessed that 44% of the global
population currently exist in urban spaces, and by 2050, it will reach 66% approxi-
mately (United Nations, 2014). Within recent decades, high rates of urbanization, partic-
ularly in low and middle-income countries, led to the growth of megacities with more
than 10 million populations (Kraas, 2007; United Nations, 2012). However, megacity
development is often combined with a loss of governability because of feeble political
and administrative structures (Kraas, 2007). Also, health and social infrastructures are
inadequate or non-existent, and the housing sector is incapable of meeting the demand
for the high numbers of rural migrants flushing into the cities daily (Cohen, Stren,
Montgomery, & Reed, 2003). It can also lead to both, the growth of informal as well as

*Corresponding author. Email: khalid.bahauddin@gmail.com

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

2 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

formal urban settlements, of low-, medium- and potentially upper-class housing (Kit,
Lüdeke, & Reckien, 2012).
In recent decades, Bangladesh is experiencing rapid urbanization similar to other
developing countries of the world. Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, has recognized as
one of the megacities of the world. The rapid increase in the population of Dhaka has
been induced by the high rate of in-migration, territorial expansion and natural growth
(Bahauddin, Rahman, & Ahmed, 2014). Nevertheless, an excessive migration flows to
the main cities have been observed throughout Bangladesh (McNamara, Olson, &
Rahman, 2015). Internal migration, particularly from rural to urban is predominant in
the country, though seasonal migration in lean period is also prevailing from more
underprivileged rural areas to more developed rural areas. Most of the urban migrants
initially concentrate in slums or informal settlements, because of poverty and limited
alternative options (Mahapatro, 2015). Though some slum classifications available in the
literature, yet there is no standard characterization of slums or informal settlements (Kit
et al., 2012). Further, informal settlement features are not steady across countries or
even across cities. UN-HABITAT (United Nations, 2006) outlines slums or informal set-
tlements as one or a set of people living in the same house in an urban area and lacking
one or more of the five components. The elements consist of firstly, the durability of
housing (permanent and adequate structure in non-hazardous location). Secondly, suffi-
cient living area (not more than two people sharing the same room). Thirdly, access to
improved water (access to sufficient amount of water for household use, at a reasonable
price, available to family members without being subject to extreme effort). Fourthly,
access to improved sanitation (access to an excreta disposal system, either in the form
of a private toilet or a public toilet shared with a reasonable number of people). And,
finally security of tenure (evidence of documentation to prove secure tenure status or de
facto or perceived protection from evictions) (United Nations, 2006).
Due to geographic position and as a zone of multiple vulnerabilities, Dhaka city has
already been experiencing increasing climate induced challenges such as erratic rainfall,
an increase of heat waves, water logging, reduced fresh water, and growth in vector and
waterborne diseases resulting miserable urban life (Alam & Rabbani, 2007). Apart from
taking a variety of poverty alleviation and social safety programs, the overall number of
people living in the informal urban settlements are increasing at a faster rate than the
urban population due to the growing figure of internally displaced people by climate-
related impacts. Each year about 0.5 million (Cities Alliance, 2015) people migrates to
Dhaka, like extreme weather, floods, and drought influence them to flee their houses.
Most of these displaced people prefer the capital for their second home as this fastest
growing megacity provides them with a better employment opportunity and other essen-
tial services. Such high rates of rural–urban migration are influencing the land cover,
land use pattern and urban infrastructure to a great extent (Véron, 2012).
A reliable identification of slums and stalking of their growth has always been a
challenging task for the urban public administrators in the developing countries. Under-
standing the spatial growth and pattern of slums or informal settlements arises from the
obligation of a government to provide essential human services for its citizens. Such
human needs can be guided downward to the identification of the groups in need,
improvement of housing, employment and service provision policies other than risk
reduction procedures (Kit et al., 2012).
Nevertheless, some separate studies have previously conducted in Dhaka City to
identify the land usage and land cover change; but, only a few studies have attempted
to represent the development of informal urban settlements. Hence, latest data of
 Migration and Development 3

informal settlements situation and distribution are very rare in Dhaka. Furthermore, link-
ing of informal urban settlements growth and migration was also absent in prior studies.
To this end, the primary explicit objectives of this study are to identify and quantify
the spatial growth of informal urban settlements occupied by displaced people. The
study also explored the key impacts of growing urban informal settlements along the
changing land use practice and the urban built environment.

Methodology of the study

Study area
The study areas (Figure 1) located in six separate wards (electoral subdivision) of Dhaka
City Corporation (DCC) under the Dhaka district of Bangladesh. Geographically, it lies
between 23.55○ and 24.18○ N latitudes and 90.18○ and 90.57 °E longitudes (Dewan
& Corner, 2013). Dhaka is one of the rapidly growing cities in the world with an
approximate population of over 15 million. It is the center of all economic, commercial

Figure 1. Study area, Dhaka city.

4 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

and administrative activities. Topographically, the area is flat with a surface elevation
ranging from 1 to 14 m. Most cities found at elevations ranging from 6 to 8 m (Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 1992). The city enclosed by four rivers the
Buriganga, Turag, Tongi and the Balu, which flow to the south, west, north and east,
respectively. The average rainfall is high. It holds a humid sub-tropical monsoon climate
and receives about 2000 mm of rainfall annually, more than 80% of which falls during
the monsoon season from June to September. The occurrence of heavy monsoon rain
combined with the low elevation flood water runoff from the rivers surrounding the city
means that Dhaka is very prone to monsoon flooding (Pramanik & Stathakis, 2015).

Selection of the study sites

Detailed study areas selected through expert consultation by personal communication
and online interviews. However, the study implemented a case study approach. To this
end, six representative informal settlement clusters, (Figure 1) such as Bashbari Slum,
Beltola Slum, Bhasantek Slum, Bhola Slum, Kawran Bazar railway Slum, Sattola Slum
were selected within Dhaka city by considering the following pre-defined specifications:

• The informal settlement groups should place on the illegally occupied public or
private lands.
• The informal settlement clusters should hold by significant numbers of migrants.
• There should have some initiatives by the public or private sector for development
of those groups.
• It must be noteworthy regarding population size, location and total area within all
other competitive clusters.

Remote sensing data and materials

High-resolution satellite data were used to detect informal urban settlements and its
spatial pattern with growth. For analyzing, processing and understanding of spatial data
to reach the objectives of the study digital image processing software ENVI (v. 4.7) and
vector data manipulation software ArcGIS (v. 9.3.1) were used. Mainly high-resolution
SPOT imageries of 2006, 2010 and 2016 were employed in this study, which was
extracted directly from the Google Image. A vector polygon shape file of the megacity
was collected from the city corporation office to demarcate the spatial distribution of
wards and location of slums.

Remote sensing methodology for slum mapping

For single feature extraction from the study area, digitization method with robust ground
information was used in this study. The overall methodological steps employed in this
paper are in below:

• A collection of GPS point locations of all slums using field reconnaissance survey
and hand-held GPS receiver.
• Conversion all of these GPS locations into point shape files.
• On-screen digitization for extracting slum features using Google high-resolution
image. Features of each year slum saved into polygon KML file.
 Migration and Development 5

• Conversion of each year polygon KML files into ArcGIS shape file. During the
data conversion process, the original reference file WGS 84 was kept for further
analysis.
• After conversion all of the KML files, spatial overlay analysis was done to calcu-
late the spatial growth of each slum based on different years. For example, 2006
was intersected by 2010 and 2010 crossed by 2016. Likewise, 2006 was divided
by 2016. This single spatial analysis was helped to calculate how much area was
enhanced or reduced over the past ten years in each location.
• Calculate area information from each year of slum based on change detection
results.
• Finally, a combined map of each slum focusing temporal patterns of 2006, 2010
and 2016 was produced.

Finding and discussion of the study

Urbanization and changes in land use pattern
The spatial pattern of land use and land cover changes for 1990, 2000 and 2011 over
Dhaka city is showed in Figure 2 (Corner, Dewan, & Chakma, 2014). It has observed
that from 1990 to 2000, low-lying areas (jointly called floodplain), cultivated land and
water bodies all decreased in the area; while built-up areas, bare soil (as landfill) and
rural settlements increased over the same period. Between 2000 and 2011, cultivated
land and floodplain continued to shrink although slight increases in both water bodies
and vegetation have observed. Since the 2011 data is an early summer image, the
growth in plant category may simply be due to seasonal variations (Corner et al., 2014).
Over the same period, remarkable growth in the open soil category was observed
together with an increase in built-up areas. The pattern of land use and land cover
(LULC) changes to 2011 showed that Dhaka is expanding in all directions mainly by
converting cultivated land and floodplain to an urban area (Corner et al., 2014). It is
noticeable that the rate of the encroachment of towns on other land uses considerably
increased following the preparation of a new master plan in 1995 and the construction
of some new infrastructure projects (Corner et al., 2014; Siddiqui, Ahmed, Awal, &
Ahmed, 2000).
The assessments of LULC changes show that the built-up and bare soil categories
have both increased significantly (Table 1) (Corner et al., 2014). In 1990, built-up areas
covered 11,696 ha (hectares) which extended to 14,641 ha by 2000, indicating a 24%
increase in the 10 years interval. Table 1 also shows that between 1990 and 2011, built-
up areas increased around by 7860 ha and bare soil by 7023 ha. Over the same period,
agricultural land decreased by 7234 ha, and vegetation declined by 1206 ha and
floodplain decreased by about 7206 ha (Corner et al., 2014). This result confirms earlier
findings made by other researchers based on ground observation.
However, land developments in Dhaka are carried out by three sectors, namely, pub-
lic, private and individual households. Previous property developments were mostly the
result of ad hoc planning by the public sector mainly on agricultural lands, typically free
from inundation (Choudhury, 2008). Baridhara, Gulshan Model Town, Uttara,
Dhanmondi, etc. are the examples of such expansions and developments (Chowdhury,
2003). Presently, substantial growth of private real-estate organizations is visible in
Dhaka. These organizations are illegally developing both wetlands and agricultural lands
6 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

Figure 2. Observed and simulated LULC between 1990 and 2011.

(Source: Corner et al., 2014).

without considering the environmental cost or concerning the master plan. Develop-
ments in the fringe zone are reported to be mostly being carried out by individual
households. This field observation found that informal urban settlements have estab-
Table 1. Land use and land cover (LULC) classification for 1990, 2000 and 2011 images presenting area of each category, category percentages and area
changed.
1990 2000 2011
Land use and land Area Percentage Area Percentage 1990–2000 Area Area Percentage 2000–2011 Area 1990–2011 Area
cover (LULC) types (hectare) (%) (hectare) (%) changed (hectare) (hectare) (%) changed (hectare) changed (hectare)
Water bodies 3561.60 4 3495.50 4 −66.1 3597.50 4.1 102 35.9
Floodplain 28,568.80 32.4 25,630.20 29.1 −2938.60 21,362.00 24.3 −4268.20 −7206.80
Cultivated land 27,519.40 31.3 26,215.90 29.8 −1303.50 20,284.50 23 −5931.40 −7234.90
Vegetation 11,241.30 12.8 9416.20 10.7 −1825.10 10,035.30 11.4 619.1 −1206.00
Built-up 11,696.00 13.3 14,641.30 16.6 2945.30 19,556.90 22.2 4915.60 7860.90
Bare soil 2216.90 2.5 4571.80 5.2 2354.90 9239.90 10.5 4668.00 7023.00
Rural settlements 3245.40 3.7 4078.40 4.6 833 3973.40 4.5 −105 728
Source: Corner et al. (2014).
Migration and Development
7
8 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

lished in low-lying areas including marshes and wetlands, which were mostly
encroached by individuals and land developers illegally.

Urbanization and changes in informal settlement development

The spatial pattern of informal settlement growth changes for 2006, 2010 and 2016 in
the study area is presented in Figures 3–8. It has observed that from 2006 to 2010 spa-
tial expansion has occurred in all of the study sites namely Bashbari slum (Figure 3),
Beltola slum (Figure 4), Bhashantek slum (Figure 5), Bhola slum (Figure 6), Sattola
slum (Figure 7) and Kawran Bazar (Figure 8) slum respectively during the same period.
Further, Beltola slum, Bhasantek slum, Sattola slum and Kawran Bazar slum have

Figure 3. Observed spatial growth of informal settlements in Bashbari slum for the year 2006,
2010 and 2016 respectively.
(Source: Author, 2016).
 Migration and Development 9

Figure 4. Observed spatial growth of informal settlements in Beltola slum for the year 2006,
2010 and 2016 respectively.
(Source: Author, 2016).

observed an increase in spatial growth of informal settlements, but at the same time,
Bashbari slum and Bhola slum has gone through a slight decrease in growth of settle-
ment over the period of 2010–2016. Finally, for the period of 2006–2016 Beltola slum,
Bhasantek slum, Sattola slum and Kawran Bazar slum have experienced a significant
increase in slum settlement extension, while Bashbari slum and Bhola slum have
experienced a little reduction in the spatial growth of settlements (Figures 3–6).
Temporal changes of informal settlement area have shown in Figure 9. The figure
demonstrates that irregular but significant changes have undergone in the studied slum
clusters during 2006–2016. Firstly, Bhashantek which is one of the largest slum clusters
among the study areas has experienced rapid growth over the last decades. In 2006, it
was accounted 220 acres which expand to 270 and 310 acres in 2010 and 2016
10 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

Figure 5. Observed spatial growth of informal settlements in Bhasantek slum for the year 2006,
2010 and 2016 respectively.
(Source: Author, 2016).

respectively (Figure 5). The increasing rate of this slum is 40.9% in the last ten years
(Table 2). Between 2010 and 2016, about 40 acres areas have increased in this slum
(Table 2). With some variation, Bhashantek slum also represents the most migrant
people from other districts.
Bhola accounts for a declined rate of slum growing area whereas Bhashantek has
the most slums prone area among the study regions (Figure 5). Bhola and Bashbari
areas show a decreasing number of slums over the last ten years. In 2006, Bhola had 83
acres that increased slightly in 2010 and then decreased to 72 in 2016. The Same sce-
nario has shown in Bashbari where the area was 87 acres in 2006 that slightly rose to
89 acres in 2010 and then decreased to 75 acres in 2016 (Figure 3 and Table 2). Beltola
and Kawranbazar have a gradually increasing trend of the slum area. In both areas, the
 Migration and Development 11

Figure 6. Observed spatial growth of informal settlements in Bhasantek slum for the year 2006,
2010 and 2016 respectively.
(Source: Author, 2016).

number of slums were increased steadily from 2006 to 2010 and then to 2016. In the
last ten years, the rate of slum growing area whereas Bhashantek has the most slums
prone area among the study sites (Figure 3 and Table 2).
From 2006 to 2010 Bashbari, Beltola, Bhashantek, Bhola, Sattola and Kawran Bazar
slums have experienced a growth of informal settlements by 2.2, 10.9, 22.7, 13.2, 4.4
and 23.6% respectively. However, in the last ten years, Kawran Bazar’s slum increasing
rate is 66.6% whereas Beltola has 64.6% increasing rate. Bhola represents a declined
rate (13.2%) of slum growing area whereas Sattola slum has experienced the highest
rate of increase (85.1%)among study areas (Table 2).
12 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

Figure 7. Observed spatial growth of informal settlements in Kawran Bazar slum for the year
2006, 2010 and 2016 respectively.
(Source: Author, 2016).

Problems associated with informal settlement growth

The rapid expansion of inadequately and informally managed settlement has resulted in
many environmental and health associated problems. Uncontrolled and unplanned settle-
ment development is prompting physical disorder, uneconomical utilization of land,
excessive encroachment vast agricultural land, and also promoting environmental degra-
dation and pollution risks on a larger scale. Further, it has become tough for the govern-
ment to express social and economic services to these areas due to the lack of resources
and accessibility. Based on key informant interview (18) and focus group discussion
(12), this study found the most cited impacts of the expanding informal settlements are
shown in following Table 3.
 Migration and Development 13

Figure 8. Observed spatial growth of informal settlements in Sattola slum for the year 2006,
2010 and 2016 respectively.
(Source: Author, 2016).

Figure 9. Temporal change in slum area for the year 2006, 2010 and 2016.
(Source: Author, 2016).
 14

Table 2. Temporal growth and change of informal settlements in the study areas for the year of 2006, 2010 and 2016 regarding area and percentage of area
changed.
Name of the 2006 2010 2006–2010 2006–2010 Area 2016 2010–2016 2010–2016 Area 2006–2016 2006–2016 Area
slum Area Area Area changed changed Area Area changed changed Area changed changed
settlement (Acre) (Acre) (Acre) (Percentage) (Acre) (Acre) (Percentage) (Acre) (Percentage)
M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

Bashbari 87 89 Increased by 2 Increased by 2.2% 75 Decreased by Decreased by Decreased by Decreased by

acres 14 acres 15.7% 12 acres 13.7%
Beltola 82 91 Increased by 9 Increased by 135 Increased by 44 Increased by Increased by 53 Increased by
acres 10.9% acres 48.3% acres 64.6%
Bhashantek 220 270 Increased by 50 Increased by 310 Increased by 40 Increased by Increased by 90 Increased by
acres 22.7% acres 14.8% acres 40.9%
Bhola 83 94 Increased by 11 Increased by 72 Decreased by Decreased by Decreased by Decreased by
acres 13.2% 22 acres 23.4% 11 acres 13.2%
Sattola 135 141 Increased by 6 Increased by 4.4% 250 Increased by Increased by Increased by Increased by
acres 109 acres 77.3% 115 acres 85.1%
Kawran Bazar 72 89 Increased by 17 Increased by 120 Increased by 31 Increased by Increased by 48 Increased by
acres 23.6% acres 34.8% acres 66.6%
Source: Author (2016).
 Migration and Development 15

Table 3. Major problems associated with informal settlement growth in Dhaka city.
Key problems Consequences
Contamination of water Expansion of the informal human settlements has been the primary
sources reason for pollution of ground water resources, most of which are
located on the periphery of the Dhaka city. Loss of vegetation
around water sources reduces water flow while inadequate disposal
of liquid and solid wastes causes water pollution. Moreover, there
have also been frequent outbreaks of water-borne diseases like
cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery over the recent decades, particularly
during flood and monsoon seasons, due to contamination of the
drinking water sources.
Deforestation The expanding human settlements are invading natural forests and
catchment areas around Dhaka city. The continuous decrease of the
urban green spaces has been accelerated due to the expansion of
settlements. This practice has reduced the amount of groundwater
infiltration and ultimately resulted in environmental degradation.
Pollution from solid and Dhaka city faces problem in managing a sustainable system for
liquid wastes waste management. The problem is even more critical in the
informal settlement domains. For having only a few collection
points, domestic solid wastes and garbage’s are scattered in and
around residential areas which lead to environmental and health
problems. Though several residents opt to bury or burn their wastes
close to their residences, there is still a chance of contamination of
soil and air. As there is no centralized sewerage system, liquid waste
which comprises water from washing, kitchen, bath and other
household practices is randomly discharged on site. Such disposal
method contaminates the groundwater and surface water sources and
also causes water borne diseases.
Flooding Random and unplanned development of informal residences has
blocked many natural waterways and has resulted in frequent floods
during the rainy seasons particularly from May to July each year.
Flooding which causes in the overflow of pit latrines and septic
tanks is also one of the leading causes of pollution of water sources.
Moreover due to a poor drainage system storm water forms large
pools that become breeding sites for mosquitoes which are the cause
of malaria and dengue fever.
Encroachment of The economy of Bangladesh is principally reliant on agriculture.
agricultural land About 84% of the total population reside in rural areas and are
directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture activities for earning
livelihoods. The uncontrolled and unplanned growth of human
settlements has led to the change of the agricultural land into the
settlement areas.
Encroachment of water Field investigation has found that informal urban settlements have
bodies built in low-lying areas comprising marshes and small wetlands,
which were mostly encroached by individuals and land developers
illegally to start a settlement or residential project.
Lack of access to basic A huge proportion of the urban population lives in the informal
services settlement areas. This large population does not have access to basic
infrastructure services. The services encompass housing, water and
sanitation, drainage, roads, gas, and electricity supply. Insufficient
and unhealthy accommodation in the cities, particularly in Dhaka, is
the major infrastructural problem in Bangladesh. Other social
services including education, health, and sanitation, etc. are also
insufficient compared to the demand.
Social insecurity Uncontrolled expansion of slum settlements also causes social
security problems. Poverty and unemployment often force the slum
dwellers to engage in crimes, hijacking, the violence involved with
drugs and weapons, unsocial activities, etc.
16 M. Mahbubur Rahman et al.

Conclusion
Internal migration is a common phenomenon in Bangladesh which usually takes place
due to the socioeconomic, demographic, cultural, climatic and environmental factors
related to the displaced people. It brings positive impacts on livelihood and wellbeing
of the people. Most of these displaced people prefer the capital Dhaka city, for their sec-
ond home as this fastest growing megacity provides them with a better employment
opportunity and other essential services. However, such high rates of rural–urban migra-
tion are influencing the land cover, land use pattern and urban infrastructure to a great
extent resulting in rapid growth and distribution of informal urban settlements occupied
with a dense population. Continuing growth in urban informal settler’s results in
inequalities in the dispersal of public resources and national and city governments strug-
gle to adapt and provide essential services to the growing population in these areas.
Available data and the study indicate that informal settlements in Dhaka city will con-
tinue to grow into the foreseeable future, which may worsen the situation. Hence, this
fact needs to be recognized, and the housing policy framework adapted accordingly.
The question then becomes one of how to achieve a realistic planning and housing pol-
icy and, if so, whether this can accomplish within the integrated development planning
framework that is the basis of Bangladesh’s urban growth strategy. Moreover, resettle-
ment policy and approach for urban slum areas, which are indispensable for ensuring
sustainable urban development and, more importantly, achieving urban resilience. This
study can be a replicable model for other similar cities based on its findings and recom-
mendations.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributor
Mohammad Mahbubur Rahman is now working as a research associate in Refugee and Migra-
tory Movements Research Unit (RMMRU), University of Dhaka. After Bachelor in Environmental
Sciences from Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, he has completed master’s degree
from the same department. He was selected as a fellow of GOBESHONA Young Researchers Pro-
gram-2017 arranged by the International Centre for Climate Change & Development (ICCCAD).
He is also the member of Bangladesh Society of Environmental Scientists (BSES). He has pre-
sented his research works in national and international conferences. He is motivated to work in
the research field of climate change and sustainable development.
Md. Shareful Hassan received BSc and MSc degrees in Geography and Environmental Studies
from the University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh in 2002 and 2003, respectively. He also holds an
MSc in Geodesy and Geoinformatics from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden. He
has 13 year’s work experience in project design, monitoring and evaluation in context of develop-
ment sector of Bangladesh.
Khalid Md. Bahauddin is an environment researcher and professional by academic knowledge,
relevant training and professional experience, he has been involved in environmental research
since 2010. His research expertises have been on climate change, environmental health, disaster
risk management and social-environmental issues. He has also developed expertise in multidisci-
plinary research on sustainable development, natural resources management, environmental gover-
nance and management. He has significant number of scholarly publications in form of books (5),
research papers (32) and media articles (29). In addition, he has more than six years of profes-
sional experience in social-environmental field worked with MIT, KU Leuven, UNEP, EU, UNDP,
CIDA, GOB, CARE, BRAC, Hope for Humanity and GWA etc. Noted that he has been awarded
 Migration and Development 17

and recognised for outstanding contributions to environmental researches from different Interna-
tional bodies such as The Bibliotheca Alexandrina (BA), The Academy of Sciences for the Devel-
oping World (TWAS), International Social Science Council, ICIMOD, APN, UNESCO and
SAYCAN etc.
Adib Khondoker Ratul has recently been graduated from Department of Environment Sciences,
Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh. He is interested in remote sensing and GIS. Except this he
is very much passionate about green nanotechnology and its implication in wastewater treatment.
His vision is to do research for a cost-effective wastewater treatment process with environment
friendly chemicals and natural materials. He has done his thesis on green synthesis of iron
nanoparticle from algae and its uses in degradation of textile dye.
Dr. Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan is the professor and head of Department of Environmental
Sciences at Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is also a researcher of Department of
Earth System Sciences, Okayama University, Japan. He has received PhD in Environmental Earth
Sciences from the Okayama University, Japan in 2007–2010. He has completed PGD in Water
Resources Development from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology BUET. He has
completed his MSc in Geological Sciences from Jahangirnagar University. Dhaka, 1996. He received
the outstanding Young Geomorphologists Award 2009 by International Association of
Geomorphologists IAG; Spirit of William Greenwood Scholarship by the Association of Geoscien-
tists for International Development AGID and academic merit award from Okayama University,
Japan. He is serving as an editorial board member of BJER journal and reviewer of several
International journals. He has 26 publications in international referred journals.

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